1.

INTRODUCTION TO IO PSYCHOLOGY
I/O Psychology
 the application of psychological principles and theories to the workplace. I/O
psychologists are often both generators of knowledge (scientists) and the consumers
of such knowledge (practitioners), thus training must be focused on both theory and
application
 Purpose: to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the
organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human
behavior
 Goal: to increase the productivity and well-being of employees; achieved through the
industrial approach or organizational approach

A. Industrial Approach
 focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the
organization with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those
competencies through training
B. Organizational Approach
 creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to
perform well, give them the necessary information to do their jobs, and provide
working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life
environment.

2. JOB ANALYSIS AND JOB DESIGN

Job Analysis
 Gathering and analyzing information about the work an employee performs, the
conditions under which the work is performed, and the worker characteristics needed
to perform the work under the identified conditions
 A systematic process for collecting and analyzing information about a job
 Purposes:

Job description the written result of the job analysis

Employee understanding of the tasks to be performed and the competencies needed to

Selection perform the tasks allows an HR to select tests or develop questions that will
determine whether a particular applicant possesses the necessary
knowledge, skills, and abilities to carry out the requirements of the job.

Training Job analyses yield lists of job activities that can be systematically used to
create training programs
Person power Job analysis helps to determine worker mobility within an organization. It
planning helps identify potential career progression paths for individuals hired in
specific roles, guiding them towards opportunities for promotion and
success in alternative positions within the company. Many organizations
have a policy of promoting the person who performs the best in the job
immediately from the lower position. However, this can lead to Peter
principle – promoting employees until they reach their highest level of
incompetence

Performance Performance appraisals are assessments of an employee's job performance,

appraisal typically conducted by their supervisor or manager. Job analysis helps
ensure that the evaluation criteria used in performance appraisals are
directly related to the requirements and expectations of the employee's job
role.

Job Job analysis enables a human resource professional to classify jobs into
Classification groups based on similarities in requirements and duties. Job classification is
useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions

Job evaluation Job analysis information can also be used to determine the worth of a job

Job design Job analysis involves analyzing the tasks, responsibilities, and requirements
of a job role, which can then be used to determine the most efficient and
safe ways to perform those tasks

 Job enlargement (horizontal) - A system in which employees

are given more (simplified) tasks/responsibilities to perform at
the same time
 Job enrichment (vertical), also known as job enhancement -
A system in which employees are given more responsibility and
freedom over the tasks and decisions related to their job
 Job rotation - A system in which employees are given the
opportunity to perform several different jobs in an organization.
(reduces boredom)

Compliance Any employment decision must be based on job-related information. One

with Legal legally acceptable way to directly determine job relatedness is by job
Guidelines analysis

Organizational During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of certain
analysis problems within an organization

 Methods: observation, interview, questionnaire

o Observation
 o Interview - A method of selecting employees in which an interviewer asks
questions of an applicant and then makes an employment decision based on
the answers to the questions as well as the way in which the questions were
answered. (can be f2f, written, or on the phone/telephone)
 Structured Interview Questions:

Clarifier allow the interviewer to clarify information in the résumé, cover

letter, and application, fill in gaps, and obtain other necessary
information
Disqualifier are questions that must be answered a particular way or the applicant
is disqualified
Skill-level tap an interviewee’s level of expertise
determiner
Past-focused questions focus on behavior in previous jobs
question (behavioral)
Future-focused a type of structured interview question in which applicants are given
question (situational) a situation and asked how they would handle
Organizational-fit a type of structured-interview question that taps how well an
questions applicant’s personality and values will fit with the organizational
culture

 Unstructured
 Susceptible to primary effect, contrast effect, negative
information bias, etc.
 Interview styles: The style of an interview is determined by the
number of interviewees and number of interviewers

One-on-one one interviewee interviewing one applicant

Serial interview involves a series of single interviews
Return interview similar to serial interviews with the difference of being a passing of time
between first and subsequent interview
Panel interview have multiple interviewers asking questions and evaluating answers of the
same applicant
Group interview have multiple applicants answering questions during the same interview

o Questionnaires
 Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
 A structured job analysis method developed by McCormick
that focuses on general work behaviors
 Contains 194 items organized into six main dimensions:
information input, mental processes, work output, relationships
with other persons, job context, and other job-related variables
such as schedule, pay, and responsibility
 Advantages: inexpensive and time-efficient
 Job Structure Profile
 A structured job analysis technique developed by Cornelius and
Hakel that is similar to the Position Analysis Questionnaire
(PAQ) but easier to read.
 Functional Job Analysis
 A job analysis method developed by Fine that rates the extent
to which a job incumbent is involved with functions in the
categories of data, people, and things.
JOB ANALYSIS -> JOB DESCRIPTION AND JOB SPECIFICATION
A job analysis leads directly to the development of several other important personnel
“products”: a job description, a job specification, a job evaluation, and performance criteria. A
job description is a detailed accounting of the tasks, procedures, and responsibilities required of
the worker; the machines, tools, and equipment used to perform the job; and the job output (end
product or service). Workers are most familiar with job descriptions. Often new workers are
provided with descriptions of their jobs during initial orientation and training. Human resources
departments may also make job descriptions for various jobs accessible to employees. For
instance, you can sometimes see job descriptions posted on bulletin boards or on e-mail listservs
as part of announcements for company job openings. A job analysis also leads to a job
specification, which provides information about the human characteristics required to perform
the job, such as physical and personal traits, work experience, and education. Usually, job
specifications give the minimum acceptable qualifications that an employee needs to perform a
given job.
 3. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION
Recruitment: The process of attracting employees attracting people with the right qualifications
(as determined in the job analysis) to apply for the job.
 External Recruitment: recruiting new employees to the organization
 Internal Recruitment: transferring or promoting someone from within the
organization
Promotion: Can be competitive or noncompetitive
 Noncompetitive promotions: usually involve “career progression” positions in
which employees move from a position such as Engineer I to Engineer II to Engineer
III and so on as they gain experience and knowledge
 Competitive promotions: several internal applicants compete with one another (and
sometimes with external applicants) for a limited number of higher positions.
Realistic job previews (RJPs) - An important element of the recruitment process is presenting
applicants with an accurate picture of the job, which help increase satisfaction and decrease
turnover of new employees.
Employee screening is the process of reviewing information about job applicants to select
individuals for jobs
 Selection tools: interviews, psychological tests, assessment centers
Predicting performance using applicant knowledge
 Job knowledge test: A test that measures the amount of job-related knowledge an
applicant possesses
 Achievement Tests - past/previous learning
 Intelligence Tests - overall intellectual capability/psychological evaluation
 Aptitude Tests - measure your capability to learn something in the future
Predicting performance using applicant ability
 Ability tests - tap the extent to which an applicant can learn or perform a job-related
skill. Ability tests are used primarily for occupations in which applicants are not
expected to know how to perform the job at the time of hire. What we want to know
is which applicant has the competencies to learn what they need to learn and would
be the easiest to train

Cognitive Ability Tests designed to measure the level of intelligence or the amount of
knowledge possessed by an applicant. Abilities involving the
knowledge and use of information; includes such dimensions as oral
and written comprehension, oral and written expression, numerical
facility, originality, memorization, reasoning (mathematical,
deductive, inductive), and general learning.

Perceptual Ability Measure of facility with such processes as spatial relations and form
perception; consists of vision (near, far, night, peripheral), color
discrimination, depth perception, glare sensitivity, speech (clarity,
recognition), and hearing (sensitivity, auditory attention, sound
localization)

Manual Dexterity or Measure of facility with such processes as finger dexterity and motor
Psychomotor Ability coordination

Physical Ability used for jobs that require physical strength and stamina; is measured
in one of two ways: job simulations and physical agility tests

Predicting Performance Uising Applicant Skill

 some selection techniques measure the extent to which an applicant already has a job-
related skill.
1. Work Samples: A method of selecting employees in which an applicant is asked to
perform samples of actual job-related tasks
 2. Assessment Center: a selection technique characterized by the use of multiple
assessment methods that allow multiple assessors to actually observe applicants perform
simulated job tasks
 In-basket technique: An assessment center exercise designed to simulate the
types of information that daily come across a manager’s or employee’s desk in
order to observe the applicant’s responses to such information
 Simulations: An exercise designed to place an applicant in a situation that is
similar to the one that will be encountered on the job
 Leaderless group discussion: applicants meet in small groups and are given a
job-related problem to solve or a job-related issue to discuss
 Business game: An exercise, usually found in assessment centers, that is designed
to simulate the business and marketing activities that take place in an
organization.
Predicting Performance Using Prior Experience: applicant experience is typically measured
in one of four ways:
 Resume information
 Biodata: A method of selection involving application blanks that contain
questions that research has shown will predict job performance
 Reference checks
 Interviews
Predicting Performance Using Personality, Interest, and Character
1. Personality inventories - Personality inventories are becoming increasingly popular as an
employee selection method because they predict performance better than was once thought and
because they result in less adverse impact than do ability tests
 Personality inventories can add incremental validity to the use of other selection tests
 Conscientiousness is the best predictor in most occupations and for most criteria;
 Tests of normal personality: measure the traits exhibited by normal individuals in
everyday life. Examples of such traits are extraversion, shyness, assertiveness, and
friendliness.
2. Integrity tests - Also called an honesty test, a psychological test designed to predict an
applicant’s tendency to steal
3. Drug testing
4. Psychological exams
5. Medical exams

Rejecting applicants
  Once a decision has been made regarding which applicants will be hired, those who
will not be hired must be notified. Rejected applicants should be treated well because
they are potential customers and potential applicants for other positions

4. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Training and Development - involves improving the effectiveness of organizations and the
individuals and teams within them.
 Training may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via
organized instruction
 Development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee
goals.
Types:
 On The Job Training (OJT) - a method of teaching employee’s new skills,
knowledge, and competencies while they are actually performing their job duties.
This type of training is often facilitated by a more experienced employee or
supervisor who guides and instructs the trainee through the learning process.
 Off The Job Training - a type of learning that takes place outside of a person's
regular work hours / takes you out of the workplace to learn about your job or
industry. Employees receive professional development and skills training outside their
regular work
Needs assessment - frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it
should be trained, and how extensively (like with a seminar)
Training evaluation - the systematic process of analyzing training programs to ensure that it is
delivered effectively and efficiently / identifies training gaps and even discovers opportunities
for improving training programs.

5. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Performance Appraisal - the regular review of an employee's job performance and overall
contribution to a company. Functions: (1) to provide adequate feedback to each person on his or
her performance; (2) to serve as a basis for modifying or changing behavior toward more
effective working habits; and (3) to provide data to managers with which they may judge future
job assignments and compensation.
Appraisal methods:
  Graphic rating scale - performance appraisal methods using a prede termined scale
to rate the worker on important job dimensions. help quantify the recommendation for
comparison with other applicants.
 BARS - performance appraisal technique using rat ing scales with labels reflecting
examples of poor, average, and good behavioral incidents
 360-degree feedback - a method of gathering performance appraisals from a
worker’s super visors, subordinates, peers, customers, and other relevant parties
Common errors in performance appraisal
 Subjective and impressionistic
 Arbitrary due to inadequate information
 Incomparable ratings between managers
 Can demotivate employees if denied wage increases
 Layoff decisions are usually made with inadequate data
 Delays in feedback can lead to frustration from employees

6. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - explains why even successful, high-level executives continue to
exhibit considerable motivation. They are no longer motivated by money to provide for
subsistence needs, but by a need for esteem, recognition, or self-growth.
ERG theory: categorizes 5 needs into 3
 existence needs, equivalent to basic physiological and safety needs
 relatedness needs, which stem from social interaction and are analogous to the social
needs
 growth needs, which are the highest-order needs, dealing with needs to develop fully
and realize one’s potential. As each level of need becomes satisfied, the next higher
level becomes a strong motivator.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory – argues that if jobs are well designed, containing all the
elements that workers require from their jobs to satisfy physical and psychological needs,
employees will be motivated.
 motivators - elements related to job content that, when present, lead to job
satisfaction
 hygienes - elements related to job context that, when absent, cause job dissatisfaction
McClelland’s Theory of Needs - the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation interact with
how a worker views the job and the work environment. there is an interaction between needs
from within the individual and what the work environment, external to the person, has to offer.
 High need for achievement – concerned how the job can meet their goals
 High need for power – seeks out ways to direct other activities
 High need for affiliation – seeks connectedness, security, and safety
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y - Theory X managers believe their employees lack
creativity and only work for a paycheck. Theory Y is a participative management style where
managers believe employees want to work and make decisions with less supervision. Theory Y
managers believe employees enjoy work and want to see the organization succeed.
Equity theory - states that workers are motivated to keep their work inputs in proportion to their
outcomes. According to equity theory, workers are motivated to reduce perceived inequities. This
perception of equity/ inequity is determined by comparing the worker’s input– outcome ratio to
similar comparison others.
Expectancy (VIE) theory - (with its three core components of valence, instrumentality, and
expectancy) is a complex model, which states that motivation is dependent on expectations
concerning effort–performance–outcome relationships.
 7. LEADERSHIP
Leadership - the ability to direct a group toward the attainment of goals; motivation towards
success
Management – the role of controlling a group or group of individuals in order to achieve a
specified objective
Leadership styles:
 Autocratic - when the group leader makes decisions alone, using only the
information that the leader possesses.
 Democratic - all group members are allowed to discuss the decision and then vote on
a particular course of action
  Laissez-faire - “letting people do as they choose”; allow their followers to have the
autonomy to make their own decisions and manage their own desks
Leadership theories:
 Trait - attempts to discover the traits shared by all effective leaders
o Openness, conscientious, extraversion, agreeableness, management skills,
decision-making skills, oral-communication skills, high self-monitor
 Behavioral - theories that focus on the behaviors common to effective leaders
o Task oriented behaviors - leader behaviors focused on the work task
o Relationship oriented behaviors – focused on maintaining interpersonal
relationships on the job
o Be Both Task-Oriented and Relationship-Oriented
 Contingency (Fiedler, Hersey-Blanchard)
o effective leadership depends on a match between the leader’s style and the
degree to which the work situation gives control and influence to the leader.
the key to effective leadership is the leader’s control and influence in a
specific situation.

8. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE

OD - the process of assisting organizations in preparing for and managing change
 Strategic change – changes to the business’s policies, structure, or processes to
achieve goals, boost competitive advantage, or respond to market opportunities or
threats. Upper management and the Chief Executive Officer are often responsible for
strategic change.

 Structural change – changes made to the organization’s structure that might stem
from internal or external factors and typically affect how the company is run. This
includes major shifts in the management hierarchy, team organization, the
responsibilities attributed to different departments, the chain of command, job
structure, and administrative procedures. Also includes mergers and acquisitions, job
duplication, changes in the market, and process or policy changes

 Process-oriented change – focuses on new technologies, new skills and operating

processes

 People-centered change – include instituting new parental leave policies or hiring

new hires (or even layoffs). Requires transparency, communication, effective
leadership, and an empathetic approach.
Lewin’s Change Model (unfreeze-change-refreeze)
 Unfreeze: Preparing for a desired change.
 Change: Implementing the desired change.
 Refreeze: Solidifying and adopting the desired change.

9. WORK ENVIRONMENT AND ERGONOMICS

Human Factors/Ergonomics
 A field of study concentrating on the interaction between humans and machines.
Psychologists in the area of human factors concentrate on workplace design, human-
machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress

10. EMPLOYEE HEALTH AND SAFETY

a. Importance of occupational health
b. Safety measures and programs
c. Managing work-related stress