Submarines, Military Characteristics, Tactical Use, and Methods of

Defense Against Them, O.N.I. Publication No. 4, 1917, describes the state
of the art near the end of WW I.

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CONFIDENTIAL

SUBMARINES

Military Characteristics, Tactical Use, and

Methods of Defense Against Them

COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES AT THE

U. S. NAVAL WAR COLLEGE
MARCH 31, 1917:: NEWPORT, R. I.

NAVY DEPARTMENT
OFFICE OF NAVAL INTELLIGENCE

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917

SUBMARINES.

MILITARY CHARACTERISTICS-TACTICAL USE-

METHODS OF DEFENSE AGAINST THEM.

DEFINITIONS.

The term "submarine" as herein employed is defined as a vessel of war

designed to operate either on the surface or completely submerged and
having as its principal weapon of offense the automobile torpedo.

Originally vessels of this type were divided into two classes, "submarines"
and "submersibles." These terms arose with the building of the first
Labeuf submarine, the Narval. She was called a "submersible," as
distinguished from the French submarines of that period. The
distinguishing features of a submersible were (1) two methods of
propulsion, (2) a great reserve of buoyancy in the light condition, while
"submarines" had only a single method of propulsion (electric) and 3 to 5
per cent reserve buoyancy. The two types to-day have merged into one.
We do, however, have single-hull submarines and double-hull submarines
that are sometimes distinguished in the service by the terms
"submarines" and "submersibles." In addition it may be stated that the so-
called "submersible" has a ship-shaped form of hull somewhat like that of
a torpedo boat, while the "submarine" is generally of the spindle form, the
cross section being a circle, with a non-watertight deck built on top of the
spindle.

A submarine is in light condition when all of its water-ballast tanks are

empty and its cruising bridge rigged.

A submarine is in the awash condition when it is sealed up and has only

those water-ballast tanks empty which are habitually kept full when
running submerged, or, in other words, when only the forward, main, and
after ballast tanks are empty. The fore and after trimming tanks and the
auxiliary and adjusting tanks are filled to an exact amount of water, so
that when the ballast tanks are filled the submarine will be trimmed for
diving without further adjustment. The quantity of water in the trimming,
auxiliary, and adjusting tanks is so small in comparison with the capacity
of the ballast

tanks that from all appearances the submarine is in the light condition; its
draft is somewhat increased, but the speed is not materially reduced.
German submarines, however, in the awash condition show only the
conning-tower. In the awash condition engines are kept running with the
air intake of the engine room open, or the conning-tower hatch open, to
supply air to the crew and engines.

A submarine is in the submerged condition when its ballast and trimming

tanks, together with the adjusting and auxiliary tanks are filled with such
quantity of water that the boat is properly trimmed for running
submerged with a reserve of buoyancy from zero to 800 pounds.
MILITARY CHARACTERISTICS.

Military characteristics will for convenience be considered under the

following heads:

(1) Mobility.
(2) Offensive power.
(3) Defensive power.

(1) MOBILITY.

Mobility broadly considered includes the following: (a) Motive power, (b)
radius of action, (c) reliability, (d) habitability, (e) communication.

(a) MOTIVE POWER.

Submarines in general have two methods of propulsion. On the surface

steam or internal-combustion engines are used and when submerged
electric motors operated by storage-batteries. In our Navy the older types
have gasoline engines, these were abandoned in the E class for four-cycle
fuel-oil Diesel engines, and in the K, L, and M classes, our latest
development, for the Nuremberg two-cycle heavy-oil engine.

The latest (1917) British boats of the fleet type are designed to operate
on the surface with steam turbines, Yarrow boilers are installed capable of
raising steam in five minutes. It is known that some if not all steam types
carry in addition a Diesel engine for recharging the batteries.

As far as known all submarines now in any service operate submerged

with electric motors. Experiments are being conducted in our own and
foreign navies to develop greater submerged speed. These experiments
aim at the use of the same system submerged as that employed on the
surface and involves the need of an air supply for the engines. Highly
compressed oxygen is a possible solution of the difficulty, or a telescopic
air tube of sufficient length to reach the surface, while at the same time
insuring safe immersing.

Under present systems high speed in both conditions seems impossible

due to the necessity for two separate sets of propelling machinery. On
limited displacement high surface speed is obtained only by sacrificing
space and weight for motors and storage-batteries. Disregarding the
feasibility of operating with but one system of propulsion it has been
estimated that to obtain a submerged speed of 20 knots it would be
necessary to have power for a surface speed of 25 knots, which
combination would require a vessel of 4,400 tons surface displacement
and a horsepower of 10,000. The construction of such a vessel is by no
means impossible. A British submarine has been recently launched that is
designed for a surface speed of 25 knots on 3,000 tons displacement. The
submerged speed is not stated, but the present tendency of European
navies is toward high surface speed at the expense of submerged speed.
British boats (1916) were reported as having 24.5 knots surface and 8.5
knots submerged speed. Electric storage batteries in our service are of
the lead-acid type, either Gould or Exide batteries. Edison (alkaline)
batteries have been used so far only experimentally. For military reasons
batteries should be of a rugged type that will stand charging in a
minimum of time. The engine and the motor power are usually designed
so that the batteries can be charged in six hours after a two-hour
discharge, with one engine, or in half this time using two engines.
Increase in battery power at the expense of engine power would increase
this time which would be highly undesirable. Boats with two engines have
the advantage of mobility while charging their batteries.

(b) RADIUS OF ACTION.

The following table indicates the radius of action of all submarines now in
our service, under construction or projected. Displacement, speed,
armament, and fuel capacity are also given.

United States ships, Oct. 1, 1916-Submarines (Class Sm.).

Speed Radius Armament

Capacity
Displace Surfac Sub- Fuel(e): Guns Torpedo
fuel
- e. merge . tubes.
Surface Sub- tanks
ment (g) d. Tor-
Name . merge gallon
pedoes
d. (i).
Surface. Full 1 hour Full 1 hour. Normal.
Sub- Cruisin 3 Cruisin 3 Maximu
merged. g hours. g. hours. m

A 2-7 80 7 5.0 250 5 -- 1 750 gas.

(a) 123 5 4.0 440 12 -- 3 750

1,800
B 1-3 145 8 7 600 7 -- 2
gas.
(a) 170 7 4 1,000 12 -- 3
1,800
6

United States ships, Oct. 1, 1916-Submarines (Class Sm.)-Continued.

Speed Radius Armament

Capacity
Displace Surfac Sub- Fuel(e): Guns. Torped
fuel
- e. merge o
Surface. Sub- tanks
ment (g) d. tubes.
Name merge gallon
Tor-
d. pedoes
Surface. Full 1 hour Full 1 hour. (i). Normal.
Sub- Cruisin 3 Cruising. 3 Maximu
merged. g hours. hours. m

3,900
240 10 9 600 9 -- 2
C 1-5 gas.
273 8 8 800 24 -- 4
5,100

6,000
288 12 9.5 900 9.5 -- 4
D 1-3 gas.
337 9.5 8 1,150 24 -- 4
7,850

5,200
287 (b)12.5 11 1,900 11 -- 4
E 1-2 oil.
342 (b)1C 9 2,090 27 -- 4
?

330 (c)12.2 11 1,344 11 -- 4 5,020 oil

F 1-3
400 (c)? 9 2500 27 -- 4 ?

(d) 12,300
400 10 ? 10 -- 2
G-1 12.5 gas.
516 8 3,500 24 -- 4
(d)? 16,000

10,700
375 14 10.5 ? 10.5 -- 4
G-2 gas.
481 ? 8.5 3,500 25.5 -- 4
14,100

13,500
430 14 9.5 9.5 -- 2
G-3 ? oil.
500 ? 8.5 25.5 -- 4
?
 8,700
370 14 9.5 980 9.5 -- 4
G-4 gas.
452 ? 8.0 3,200 24 -- 4
19,400

7,500
358 14 10.5 1,680 10.5 -- 4
H 1-3 oil.
434 10 8.5 3,150 25.5 -- 8
13,375

8,600
392 14 10.5 1,6803,1 10.5 -- 4
K 1-8 oil.
520 12 8.5 50 25.5 -- 8
21,980

L 1-
One
4(f) 450 14 10.5 1,680 10.5 4 9,300 oil
3-inch
L 9- 548 12 8.5 3,150 25.5 8 23,000
--
11(f)

One 13,800
L 5- 451 14 10.5 1,680 10.5 4
3-inch oil.
8(h) 676 12 8.5 3,150 25.5 8
-- ?

One 10,000
488 13.5 10.5 1,680 10.5 4
M-1 3-inch oil.
676 11.5 8.5 3,150 25.5 8
-- 28,400

One 5,800
347 13 10.5 1,500? 10.5 4
N 1-3 3-inch oil.
414 ? 8.5 2,500? 25.5 4
-- ?

One 6,000
331 13 10.5 1,500? 10.5 4
N 4-7 3-inch oil.
385 ? 8.5 2,500? 25.5 4
-- ?

One 10,000
520 14 10.5 2,499? 10.5 4
O 1-10 3-inch oil.
629 ? 8.5 3,000 25.5 8
-- ?

One 10,000
O 11- 485 14 10.5 2,499? 10.5 4
3-inch oil.
16 566 ? 8.5 3,000 25.5 --
-- ?

Schley
Two 21,900
60 1,106 20 11.5 1,440 11.5 4
3-inch oil.
Schley 1,487 ? 9.0 3,000 27 18
-- ?
61
NOTES.

(a) These vessels are obsolete and of little military value except possibly
the moral effect to be derived from their presence in bays to which they
are more or less confined.

(b) The E-1 has recently been reengined with 360 total H.P., while
originally she had 500 total H.P. She has not standardized with her new
engines, so actual full power speed is not known. The value 12.5 K. may
he considered as approximately correct until speed curves have been
determined. This speed has been attained on recent runs.

These remarks apply to E-2 except that her new engines have not been
installed. She is now out of commission and it is impracticable to even
approximate a date of completion for this vessel.

(c) The F class are not in active service. They are to be reengined with
480 total H.P. instead of the original total of 800 H.P. Their speed with new
engines will approximate 12 knots.

(d) The two forward engines of the G-1 have been removed, thus reducing
power from 1,200 to 600 total H.P. New speed will approximate 12.5
knots. This vessel is not in active service, pending delivery of new crank
shafts. Date of completion indefinite. This vessel has but two effective
torpedo tubes.

(e) This radius is calculated upon fuel capacity and consumption.

However, the actual radius of all our submarines is dependent upon other
factors which have yet to be coordinated. The radius of action as given on
fuel is very apt to be misleading, since the storage of lubricating oil is not
balanced with fuel oil, nor has supply of battery water been considered.
When more accurate information is obtained it will be possible to make a
table showing radius for fuel, lubricating oil, battery water, etc. The radius
will necessarily be limited to that secured from the least of the factors (by
same reasoning that speed of a fleet is equal to speed of slowest vessel).

(f) Information relative to these and subsequent vessels based on design

data, since reliable actual data is not at hand.

(g) In speaking of displacement the Submarine Force and the Bureau of C.

& R. invariably refer to surface displacement. The submerged
displacement means nothing unless the surface displacement is known,
then submerged displacement minus surface displacement divided by
submerged displacement multiplied by 100 gives % of buoyancy.

(h) The L-1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 11 have been recently delivered. The M-1 is
shortly to be delivered. Delivery dates of remainder of this list are
indefinite. However, none of them are expected before the first of 1917.

(i) Torpedo tubes and torpedoes-Number of torpedo tubes on boat, and

number or torpedoes carried by boat.

It will be noted that the maximum radius of any submarine is not much in
excess of 3,000 miles. By using fuel for ballast the radius of the "K" class
could be increased to about 5,000 miles. The submerged radius at 8.5
knots is about 25 miles. In the "K" class this would be 60 miles at 3 knots
and in the "E" class about 75 miles at 5 knots. The recommendation of the
General Board for fleet submarines (1915 appropriation) called for:
displacement, 1,000; speed surface, 18-20; submerged maximum for
batteries, giving radius of 120 miles at 5 knots; surface radius, 3,000
miles at 14 knots.

The length of cruising radius desirable depends on the type under

consideration. Fleet submarines should have the radius of the fleet. Coast-
defense and harbor-defense submarines are limited in fuel capacity by
their size, but it is desirable that all submarines should have a fuel
capacity commensurate with their provision supply and habitability.

There are many types of the German U-boat. The type most common has
the following reported characteristics:

Displacement, 850 tons; speed, surface 16 knots, submerged 10 knots;

radius, surface 6,000 miles, submerged at 10 knots 70 miles; battery, one
4-inch and one 3-inch; torpedo tubes, four 20-inch. The German admiralty
reports a submarine recently (February, 1917) as having made a voyage
of 55 days without touching a port or receiving supplies. U-boat cruisers,
five in number, are reported as of 2,400 tons, three 6-inch guns, and
cruising radius of 12,000 miles.

Great Britain has (January 1, 1917) two submarines of 4,000 tons

displacement built for the purpose of extending the cruising radius. The
British "E" class, like the German 4 "U" class, has many types, the

most common being of 800 tons and with practically the same
characteristics as the corresponding German "U" boat. A British boat
escorted a troop ship from Australia to Liverpool and return, a distance of
38,000 miles, without a breakdown.

The requirements of commerce destroying may be expected to lead to an

unheard of cruising radius for German submarines.

(c) RELIABILITY.

Under this heading may be considered (1) safety, (2) seaworthiness, (3)
mechanical efficiency.

(1) Safety.-Submarines of the spindle or single-hull type are built to stand

immersion to a depth of 200 feet; larger boats with double hull, 150 feet.
Our regulations permit in practice only 100 feet. Until the maximum depth
is exceeded there is no difficulty or danger to be anticipated. Beyond that
depth the boat is liable to be crushed in, admitting water at the seams
that would cause her to fill and sink. The maximum depth may be
exceeded through carelessness of the steersman, improper trim that can
not be overcome by the horizontal rudders, too quick diving especially in
long boats where the bow may reach too great a depth before the boat is
straightened up, or lastly due to negative buoyancy caused by injury.
Boats operating in the presence of an enemy would probably carry very
little positive buoyancy, as in case of accident or stoppage of the motors
it might be dangerous to come to the surface.

In shoal water there is always danger of striking bottom. The

consequences of such an accident is minimized in a submarine by her
great strength of hull.

Another danger is that of collision. The periscopes at best give imperfect

vision for navigation, which defect is greatly increased in thick weather.
Boats totally submerged always run a risk more or less serious in the
proximity of other vessels when they rise to the surface. The risk is either
that of being rammed or rising under a moving vessel.

Storage batteries are a constant source of danger. When charging they

give off hydrogen gas, which needs only admixture with the air to make
an explosion compound that may be set off by a spark from any source.
Any sea water coming in contact with the acid of the batteries generates
chlorine gas that would necessitate the promptest action in coming to the
surface to save the crew from asphyxiation.

The air contained in the hull is the normal supply for the crew for short
periods of submergence. When this air becomes foul it causes exhaustion
and dulls the faculties of the crew. As the
9

greatest vigilance and alertness are needed at all times this effect can be
regarded as one militating against safety. The air can be renewed by
releasing it from air flasks at one end of the boat and utilizing the air
compressors to pump it overboard at the other end.

If necessary at any time to increase buoyancy water ballast can be

reduced by forcing it out under direct air pressure from the flasks, by
direct use of the pumps, or by reducing weight by letting go anchors and
cables or special weights devised in certain types for this special object.
As the greater the depth the greater the pressure against which water
must be forced out, any means of reducing water ballast may fail and
endanger the boat. A special compartment that may be released from the
rest of the boat has been fitted to some types. This has sufficient
buoyancy to rise to the surface and offers a means of salvaging the crew.
Few boats, however, have any such arrangement. Cruising awash in rough
weather with ventilator hatch open may endanger the boat if a heavy sea
comes on board.

There comes a time when any crew becomes exhausted after continuous
submerged work and it is necessary for the boat to come to the surface,
seek port, or lie on the bottom. It has been found impracticable to rest at
the bottom in bad weather at depths of less than 20 fathoms due to the
sounding of the boat. Boats on the surface in rough seas find it difficult to
submerge.

Submarines operating on the surface in shoal waters usually carry a

quantity of water ballast to insure refloating in case of accidental
grounding. In operating near the mouth of rivers submarines are liable to
sink suddenly due to loss of buoyancy in fresh water. These conditions are
referred to as "holes" in the water. The safety of a submarine in the
presence of an enemy lies principally in its ability to quickly submerge,
low normal visibility, and in some cases armor for hull protection. The
German boats are reported as completely submerging from awash in less
than one minute.

It may be said, in general, that all dangers to submarines are more

apparent than real and that modern large boats with experienced crews
are essentially safe.

(2) Seaworthiness.-The seaworthiness of a submarine is in general

satisfactory. Coast and harbor defense types, while not as seaworthy as
the larger types, are yet much superior in this respect to surface craft of
the same displacement. Experience has shown that even when well below
the surface submarines are affected by rough sea and swell, causing the
boat to roll and affecting the control in a vertical plane. With only 6 feet of
water over the top of the conning-tower the boat is so much affected that
the control is most uncertain. Boats of the diving type under such
conditions find great difficulty in submerging. The conclusion is that in a
heavy sea or swell the

92714-17-2

10

boat must be kept at least 10 feet below the surface, making its use in
water of less than 30 feet depth impracticable. When 10 feet below the
surface conning or aiming a torpedo is only possible by the use of a
periscope of sufficient height to project from 2 to 4 feet above the
surface.

Since a submarine is built to submerge to over a hundred feet, it is

obvious that in water of sufficient depth she can escape the dangers of
surface navigation. They have also the advantage over surface craft in
being dry in all weathers.

(3) Mechanical efficiency.-The machinery of submarines is not in itself

mysterious or complex. Engines, batteries, motors, compressors, and
pumps are common in other ships and in industrial plants on shore. The
restricted space militates against proper attention and overhaul, and lack
of experience in the personnel detracts from its efficiency. The failure at a
critical time of any part of the machinery may be so serious that all effort
is now toward designing the most rugged types.

(d) HABITABILITY.

Submarines are now designed with a view to maintaining the crew without
undue physical stress to the limit of both surface and submerged
endurance.

The severest test on personnel appears to be that of being towed. Nine

days appears from tests to be near the limit of endurance under average
conditions, though there are records for exceeding this. On the other
hand, boats operating under their own power have less difficulty in this
respect, though there is reason to believe that our boats of older types
under these conditions can not maintain efficient crews to the limit of
their fuel endurance.

The question of recuperation after a sea trip depends in a great degree

upon the weather encountered and the training of the personnel.
Habitability is such an essential military characteristic that it must be
taken into account in determining displacement even if the increased
tonnage is not required for other reasons.

German submarines stay away from their bases from 10 to 20 days. Two
weeks is the average time. After a trip of this character it usually takes
about the same period to overhaul and prepare for another cruise.
Overhauling is done by relief crews, which gives the regular crews time to
rest and recuperate.

(e) COMMUNICATION.

Submarines depend for communication at the surface on visual hand

signals, blinker lights, Very's night signals, and radio. In submerged
condition the submarine bells and Fessenden oscillator are available. Two
periscopes are installed to permit necessary

11

vision when submerged; one of these is for use in steering and the other
for obtaining a view around the horizon. These periscopes are designed to
magnify about one power. The periscope tubes are, in the latest designs,
of the housing telescopic type and electrically operated and controlled.
They are usually installed one forward and one abaft the conning-tower
and thus afford an enemy a means of judging of the direction in which the
boat is heading. This objection is obviated in other types by placing them
close together.

Undoubtedly the best periscope is the "Goerz." It is of German invention

and make, and since the breaking out of the European war good
periscopes are difficult to obtain. This difficulty has been severely felt in
the British Navy.

The problem of recognition signals is one most difficult of solution. A

submarine coming suddenly to the surface is as apt to be a friend as a
foe. The British letter and number their boats. The Germans, Italians, and
Austrians rely on being able to recognize their own and have given up
marking as a measure of secrecy.

The submarine bell transmits signals in the Morse code. Under favorable
conditions with the boat submerged and perfectly quiet, signals have
been sent and received a distance of 8 miles. With engines operating this
distance is reduced to about 1 1/2 miles.

The Fessenden oscillator is efficient for Morse code to a distance of 9

miles and may be used as a telephone to a distance of 400 yards. The
objection to all signaling in submarines is that it can be seen or heard by
an enemy as well as by a friend. Effort is now being made to project
sound waves in only the desired direction.

No range finders are installed, but there are graduations in the field of the
periscope that give the range approximately. Gyrocompasses with
repeaters are now being installed in our boats and in those of most of the
belligerent nations. Magnetic compasses are practically useless when the
boat is submerged.

Radio signals can be sent to a distance of 50 to 100 miles. The

disadvantage in radio is that in some types the engines must be stopped
to receive a message. This is on account of the noise and vibration of
internal-combustion engines. The radio antennae must be rigged after
coming to the surface and unrigged prior to submergence. The difficulty
of communicating with submarines is a heavy handicap in their tactical
use, but one that is receiving much attention from inventors and will likely
be soon overcome.

(2) OFFENSIVE POWER.

Considered as a military weapon the offensive power of the submarine

rests on its ability first to gain close contact with the enemy by making
use of its mobility and invisibility; and secondly, on ability

12

to inflict damage, which will depend on the efficiency of its torpedo

armament.

The armament of submarine boats, which originally was one torpedo tube
placed in the bow, has now reached the point where the latest boats
designed abroad carry 4 bow torpedo tubes and 4 broadside tubes, 8 in
all, with 16 torpedoes. This equipment is combined with a further
armament consisting of two 6-inch guns and two 3-inch anti-aircraft guns.
Twelve mines with special launching tubes are carried in addition. The
bow torpedo tubes in some types are of the revolving-chamber type,
which permits quicker loading. Boats fitted with only bow tubes are
compelled to bring the boat's course to the bearing of the target which
may at times be inconvenient and dangerous. This is not true of broadside
tubes which greatly increase the area over which torpedo fire can be
delivered. It can be readily seen that a boat holding a course direct for an
enemy from a position on the bow is in a most unfavorable position to
escape in case the enemy attempts to ram, whereas if the torpedoes
could be fired from broadside the submarine would gain additional time to
turn still farther away or dive.

Considering an attack on an enemy of inferior armament, such as

merchant craft with possibly but one gun mounted aft, or no guns at all,
the submarine's battery may be considered as a truly offensive weapon. It
would likewise serve a purpose in attacking small patrol or torpedo boats.
As there is always the danger of an unlucky hit puncturing the hull of the
submarine and thereby making it impossible to submerge, the modern
practice of submarines is to submerge whenever there is danger of gun
attack.

Against vessels of superior armament the offensive power is the torpedo.

Since most armed vessels have sufficient speed to escape a submerged
boat if the periscope is sighted outside of torpedo range the attack must
usually be made by stealth.

A high surface speed enables the submarine to take advantage of her low
hull and absence of smoke to gain a position ahead of the approaching
enemy and then submerge to await favorable moment for attack. The
modern 21-inch torpedo with which the latest foreign boats are equipped
carries probably 800 pounds of trinitrotoluol. The destruction resulting
from the explosion of such a charge against any ship's side would
undoubtedly sink her. Our submarines are equipped with 18-inch
torpedoes with explosion charge of T.N.T. of about 200 pounds.

Experiments are being made with a view of designing a short-range

torpedo of high speed with very heavy charge of explosive. These are
probably now in use abroad. It is said to be possible to design a short-
range torpedo of a speed of 45 knots, to carry 1,000 pounds of explosive.

13
Considering the great strength of hull of the submarine it is possible that
protected by its invisibility it may in the future be used as a ram. With a
suitable bow it might in this way prove a dangerous weapon even when
its torpedo supply is exhausted. It is recalled that the Castine was sunk
when accidentally rammed by a submarine going at a low speed and that
the boat itself escaped with very slight damage. When equipped as a
blockade mine-layer as are now many foreign boats, the submarine will
add to its equipment this truly offensive weapon which may have a
decisive effect in fleet actions that take place on soundings.

(3) DEFENSIVE POWER.

The defensive power of the submarine is dependent upon submergence

which effectually protects it from gun fire and makes it invisible to the
enemy. Compelled to stay on the surface destruction in the presence of a
surface boat of superior armament would appear inevitable.

The latest submarines in use abroad are reported as having on upper hull
plating of 2 inches and an armored conning-tower of 3 inches. It is
considered that such vessels are invulnerable to gun attack of calibers of
3-inches or less.

The submarines of our Navy carry no armor.

The defensive power of invisibility in the submarine is also manifested at

night in the awash condition. The low hull and absence of smoke has
enabled them in tactical exercises to pass through the picket lines without
detection.

Submarines when threatened with attack can submerge in from 30

seconds to 3 minutes and escape either by their submerged speed or by
resting on the bottom till nightfall.

In our Navy the average time of submergence from light conditions is 3

minutes and in awash condition about 20 seconds less.

Three-inch guns mounted on submarines may be considered as a

defensive weapon against patrol boats, and the 6-inch guns mounted now
on the largest, against destroyers or even light cruisers.

It is not believed that such guns would ever be used effectively against an
armed vessel if it were possible to escape by submergence.

TACTICAL USE.

The tactical employment of submarines in time of war might be broadly

considered under the general headings of offensive and defensive use,
but as the best defense is in all cases the tactical offensive, and as the
term " defense " is confusing when considered in connection with
strategic employment in harbor and coast defense, it

14

is considered best to treat the subject of tactical use under three different
heads which refer to a more or less arbitrary classification by types.

These three types of submarines are: (a) harbor defense, (b) coast
defense, and (c) fleet submarines.

HARBOR DEFENSE SUBMARINES.

This term is applied to older boats of low speed and small armament that
are considered of little value away from the vicinity of their bases. In our
service it is applied to the "A," "B," and "C" classes. The use of these
boats is regarded as somewhat equivalent to that of a controlled mobile
mine field. It is a matter of interest that the Italian Government is at the
present time building submarines of 30 to 40 tons carrying two 18-inch
torpedoes. The motive power is electricity and the radius of action about
100 miles. No other foreign navy is known to have adopted such a type
for any purpose, and their utility is very doubtful.

The limited submerged radius and speed of harbor-defense submarines do

not permit them to operate far from the harbor which they are defending.
Boats of this type will depend more than any other on stealth for success
in making the approach. For this reason they should operate in
accordance with a plan which would allot to each boat a certain zone to
be covered, and once dispatched on her mission and submerged, she can
be considered as outside of communication. Any attempt at coordination
between submarines in this position by use of a submarine bell would
serve as a warning to the enemy.

These zones should be selected to cover all courses of approach to the

harbor and the boats should be so disposed that each can cover its own
zone while well outside of gun range of the harbor fortifications.

A harbor-defense group having received warning from scouts or shore

stations of the movements of the enemy off the coast would proceed to
the entrance, where each boat would take up its station in the center of
its zone, anchor in awash condition with radio up, and keep a lookout for
the enemy.

By subdividing the total area outside each harbor into numerous small
squares and using short code words to designate squares and directions,
scouts in touch with an enemy can keep the submarines informed as to
his movements.

The waiting submarines having ascertained that the approach of the

enemy to the harbor would weigh anchor, and upon appearance of smoke
disconnect radio and submerge, keeping periscopes exposed.

15

A submarine, through her periscope, should be able to see the masts of a

large vessel in clear weather a distance of 7 or 8 miles. Such observations
have been made with 4 feet of periscope exposed. All boats should
remain in position until the movements of the enemy are definitely
ascertained. By the arrangement of zones, the enemy must pass close to
one submarine. The other boats should move toward a point that will
intersect the enemy's course, keeping him under observation, with just
enough periscope to escape detection.

When approaching torpedo range, when periscope may be sighted, boats

should submerge entirely and porpoise at intervals for a few seconds to
obtain bearings. Once inside torpedo range periscopes should be kept
exposed and all speed used to close the distance to the minimum before
firing. If there is but a single enemy great care should be taken to avoid
discovery until the last minute, as the probability of a hit will be small
unless the range is very short. It should be possible for a submarine to get
within 200 yards before firing. If the enemy is in formation his ability to
escape is much less and the chance of a hit is much greater. As the
danger of periscopes being destroyed by the concentrated fire of the
enemy is also great, boats would be justified in firing torpedoes at a
greater range, but they should close as rapidly as possible and continue
to fire until torpedoes were exhausted.

It will be difficult for a group of submerged boats to coordinate an attack

as there will be risk of collision. Such risk must be taken, and boats by
keeping a sharp lookout for other periscopes and ringing the submarine
bell continuously may reduce the danger to a minimum.

Having fired their torpedoes, boats should submerge totally, and reload
their tubes if they have spare torpedoes. During the period of reloading
they should run at such depths as would enable them to pass under the
enemy's vessels; or if the depth of water permits, they can rest on the
bottom till the reload is finished. It is important that selected zones should
afford sufficient depth of water to permit submarines to lie on the bottom
without danger of collision with deep-draft surface vessels.

When reloaded, boats should return to the surface and resume the attack.
All means of offense being exhausted, the group should return to the
harbor submerged or under cover of darkness. The tender should be
ready to replenish torpedoes and recharge batteries.

The tactics employed at night are the same as that for surface boats. If
bright moonlight, submerged work is possible and highly effective. Under
such conditions the tactics would be the same as those described, except
that periscopes would be kept up continuously.

16

COAST-DEFENSE SUBMARINES.

The distinction between a coast-defense and a harbor-defense submarine

lies in the former's greater submerged and surface endurance, greater
speed, and superior habitability. All submarines in our service not classed
as harbor-defense boats may be regarded as coast-defense submarines.
Taking our "D" boats as the most inferior of this class, we find that they
have a demonstrated radius of about 1,000 miles and are self-sustaining
for a period of about 10 days. Their submerged radius is 35 miles at 8
knots and about 75 miles at 5 knots. Their torpedo armament consists of
four 18-inch tubes in the bow capable of taking any 18-inch torpedo now
in service.

In considering the tactics of coast-defense submarines it is assumed that

they would be concentrated in groups at certain bases on the coast. On
information from shore stations or scouts that the enemy has appeared
approaching our coast, the group or groups nearest would proceed to
intercept, using highest reliable surface speed (10 knots for "D" class and
about 11 knots for "E" class).

Cruising formation should be column, distance 1,000 yards. Boats should

be in awash condition with radio up to intercept any information that may
be sent broadcast or directly to them.

On sighting the smoke, boats should submerge and take further

observations only through the periscope. The problem that confronts the
group commander is to bring his group into contact with the enemy and
within torpedo range at the same time. To insure this, individual boats
must conform to the general movement, and as signals will be
impracticable when near the enemy column "follow-the-leader" tactics
appears the only practicable method of insuring coordination. Once within
maximum torpedo range the group should be on the bow of the enemy
formation. If the distance is 1,000 yards, each boat can attack without risk
of collision with neighboring boats, when it judges that the moment has
arrived.

The proper bearings on which to fire torpedoes with the maximum chance
of hits against an enemy in any formation is the same as for surface boats
and has been considered by the Naval War College under the section
devoted to destroyers.

As in the case of harbor-defense submarines, boats that have exhausted

their means of offense should proceed with the same precautions to the
designated base.

Should the attacking group discover the enemy at anchor, landing troops,
or establishing a base, and with submarine defense yet unprepared, the
attack might be much simplified. The enemy's patrol and pickets could
probably be passed at night, and the most serious obstacles to success
would be nets and mines with which the enemy would

17

probably protect himself. Sharp net-cutting false prows are now being
fitted to submarines designed to cut any wire used for nets. Propellers are
protected by guards that prevent fouling, so that mines would appear to
be the greatest danger. In spite of this risk, which would have to be taken,
it is believed that a determined attack by submarines would stand a good
chance of success.

FLEET SUBMARINES.

Fleet submarines may be defined as submarines having the formation,

speed, and radius of the fleet and capable of accompanying it, ready for
duty under all conditions of weather. Such submarines might obtain
supplies from the fleet, but they should be as habitable and mobile as any
of the fleet units.

In attack the tactics of such a group would be the same as that already
described for coast defense submarines, but as a unit of the fleet the
problem for the commander in chief is how best to coordinate this attack
with that of his other forces.

Assuming that submerged speeds will not be in excess of 12 knots,

submarines can gain contact with the enemy only by stealth or
stratagem. The task of the Commander-in-chief is so to maneuver that the
enemy will be drawn into submarine water. The problem is somewhat
similar to that of drawing an enemy over a mined field with the difference
that the submarines being mobile can assist in the necessary maneuvers.
If we consider a fleet speed of 16 knots and submerged submarine speed
of 12 knots we have a combined speed of 28 knots available on opposite
courses for changing the bearing of the group from its own battle line.

In the surface condition if the boats have a speed of 16 knots there is a

total speed of 32 knots available for this purpose.

A submarine may be sighted in the awash condition at a distance of 12

miles. By keeping on the offside abreast of their own ships they could
keep concealed much longer but would be equally delayed in getting into
action. It would seem wise then when two fleets are seeking action and
are in scout contact that the submarines should be advanced to battle
ranges about 15,000 yards in the direction of the enemy. The
Commander-in-chief with the assistance of the group commander should
maneuver his forces in such a way that the bearing of the enemy from the
flagship would always pass through the group; with 32 knots speed
available for this purpose and boats still awash such maneuvers would be
simple.

A group of destroyers, one for every three boats, should accompany them
to act as observers and communicating vessels. When the enemy vessels
are made out by the destroyers the submarines

92714-17-3

18

should submerge, periscopes up, and follow the motions of the destroyers
which should still maneuver to keep them on the enemy bearing from the
commander in chief's flagship. If the enemy desires to attack, it will be
necessary for him eventually to approach the submarine area. No signals
should be permitted except that destroyers might hoist a number
indicating the range of the enemy and his direction. These might be read
through periscopes. The utmost care should be observed to insure that
the enemy does not sight a periscope until the moment for attack arrives.
This signal could be made with the oscillator when the enemy is within
torpedo range, when all boats advance at full speed, periscopes up.
Outside of 6,000 yards there is no chance of seeing a periscope. Within
that range an occasional porpoise of a few seconds would give small
chance for discovery.

With boats paralleling the enemy's formation, each ahead and on the bow
of its target, and the range at time of driving home the attack, 2,000
yards or less, the chance of success would seem very great.

The above tactics, while apparently defensive in character, are really

offensive, since they involve only maneuvers necessary to bring about the
submarine attack.

In any tactical situation there is usually a position of advantage to be

gained by maneuvers: which, if necessary, should be fought for. This
advantage may have reference to sun, spray, smoke, or silhouette. A fleet
with submarines, knowing the probable intentions of the enemy in this
regard, may be able to anticipate his movement toward a certain area
and utilize the time during approach to place a group of submarines in
position to meet him.

Fleets meeting for battle are sure to be forced into column, once gun-fire
ranges are reached. It should not be impossible for a faster force to
maneuver in such a way as to bring the enemy into column at a
predetermined position. If groups of destroyers are placed across the path
of this column in such a manner that they will confront the enemy
steaming on courses parallel to our line and in either direction, the enemy
may be forced to maneuver under fire or suffer torpedo attack.

In some cases one or two submarines, detached for the purpose, might
permit their periscopes to be seen, and thereby induce the enemy to turn
away toward other groups lying in wait.

Fleet submarines should carry 10,000-yard torpedoes. The chance of

hitting a single target at such a range is very small, but the chances of
hitting some vessel of a formation are good. Submarines should always
endeavor to close the range to the possible minimum, but if discovered
and the enemy shows evidence of turning away, torpedoes in range
should be discharged at once.

19
Enemy vessels discovering a submarine close aboard and ahead will likely
attempt to ram. Under such circumstances the boat's best maneuver is to
keep the periscope up and endeavor to steer a safe course past the vessel
without turning away. An attempt to dive to a sufficient depth to pass
under the keel would be hazardous.

It may shortly be possible to design a fleet submarine capable of

maintaining a submerged speed of 20 knots. Assuming that such a boat
would have ventilators extending to a height of 25 feet above the hull,
she might in battle submerge to a depth of 20 feet and still be able to
draw air for combustion from the surface. If we assume a fleet in action
accompanied by 30 such vessels, they might assume a position of
comparative safety on the disengaged side of the battleships and at the
decisive moment pass through the intervals and steer for the enemy's
column. It is difficult to see how such an attack could be met except by
immediate retreat. The possibilities of a real fleet submarine have been
but dimly realized, and it is possible that another great fleet action may
contain a surprise. It is reported that both the British and German
commanders regret the absence of their large submarines in the Jutland
battle.

METHODS OF DEFENSE AGAINST SUBMARINES.

We will consider methods of defense under the heads of (1) Ports and
anchorages; (2) Single vessels, armed and unarmed; (3) Vessels in
formation; (4) General.

(1) Ports and anchorages.-In order to afford a refuge for vessels to repair
and refit, safe ports and anchorages must be provided. Without safety in
port, naval operations would be difficult and commerce impossible. Many
devices have been brought forward in the present war to accomplish this
end, some of which are known and others still kept secret. Each harbor or
anchorage requires a special treatment to satisfy its peculiar needs, but
the defense usually consists of booms, nets, mines, and active patrol
vessels. In addition, batteries mounted on shore and seaplanes are
frequently employed.

Booms are effective in denying surface craft entrance to a harbor at night.

This applies to submarines in light condition. Nets for this purpose are of
heavy wire cable 1/2-inch to 1-1/2 inches in diameter, with about a 12-
foot mesh. They are made in suitable lengths from 600 to 1,500 feet and
of a depth such a submarine can not pass under them. In deep water it is
sometimes necessary to place two nets, one beneath the other. The ends
are supported by buoys and the weight of the net taken by barrels
secured at points in sufficient numbers to support the weight. Heavy
moorings, 2,000 pounds or over, hold the ends of the net in position.
Experience of the Allies indicates that a slack net is most effective. The
Germans stretch the net taut.

20

A gate, usually tended by a tug to haul aside one end of the net, permits
passage for friendly vessels.

Mines moored at different depths to cover any possible depth of

submergence of the submarine are very effective. Unless controlled, they
are dangerous to friendly vessels that may be out of their course, and are
liable to go adrift in bad weather.

German submarines are fitted to lay mines and carry from 12 to 24. These
are frequently laid in the approaches to harbors or off the mouths of
navigable rivers. The latest type have a clock device for regulating the
time that the mine watches. The mine field is arranged in groups with
several time settings, usually two hours apart. It is very difficult for mine
sweepers to be sure that they have them all. A constant service of
effective mine sweepers appears to be the only protection against this
menace.

Whatever defense is used the service of patrol vessels day and night is
necessary to preserve the integrity of the defenses against an enemy who
will be active in attempts to remove or destroy them. Submarines caught
in a net may escape if not promptly dealt with by the patrol boats. The
type of net described, however, is designed more to prevent submarines
entering a harbor than as a means of catching them.

Batteries mounted on shore with searchlights are a good safeguard

against night surface operations. A submarine in shoal water can be
readily detected and followed by an aeroplane.

(2) Single vessels (armed).-A single vessel sighting a submarine should

open fire at once and maneuver to avoid torpedoes. If the submarine
bears more than six points on the bow and within 1,000 yards the ship
should turn away. If the torpedo can be seen it will probably be best
avoided by backing, since it was probably fired on the estimated speed of
the ship.

If the submarine is within six points of the bow, greatest safety will likely
be found in heading directly toward it and endeavoring to ram. To insure
his own safety he will likely keep his periscope out of water so as to see to
maneuver. In any case the smallest target will be presented to him and if
the torpedo has been fired a skillful use of the helm may enable the ship
to avoid it.

The position of the submarine relative to the ship should be plotted and
the vessel maneuvered to pass outside of any position circle that the boat
may reach in any elapsed time.

Merchant vessels approaching any area where submarines may be

expected should have lookouts especially qualified by keen vision,
experience, and reliability, stationed in the tops and in the eyes of the
ship. A high position is favorable for sighting distant boats before they
become awash or submerge and low positions for obtaining a

21

sky background for detecting boats that are in the intermediate zone 6 to
9 miles away and particularly hard to detect against a sea background
when seen from a high position. No chances should be taken. It should be
assumed that a German torpedo has a range of 10,000 yards and the ship
maneuvered to keep outside that range from any position the submarine
could reach.

At all times in possible submarine areas the ship should proceed at

maximum speed changing course at least 15° every 10 minutes. At night,
if dark or in thick weather, a straight course may be steered at best
speed. No lights of any kind should be shown and no whistles sounded.
Radio operators should listen in constantly for possible messages or
warnings, but no radio signals should be sent. If the ship is sighted by a
submarine, an alarm should be sent by radio at once giving latitude and
longitude. Possibly a patrol boat is in the vicinity and may assist evasion.
As a submarine can submerge from light condition in about 90 seconds
and from awash in about 30 seconds the chance of making a hit with
gunfire is small. For this reason it is all the more necessary that guns
should be kept loaded with gun crews at hand ready to fire at once. The
puncturing of the exterior hull or conning-tower of a U boat will have little
effect. It is necessary to pierce the spindle-shaped interior hull to disable
her. The destruction of the two periscopes would deprive her vision while
submerged but would not otherwise endanger her. Machine guns at close
range might be effective against periscopes by breaking their lenses.
Nothing lighter than a 3-inch gun is considered effective against a U boat
except at close range. It must be remembered that they have two
periscopes, one about 8 feet and the other about 20 feet in height above
the hull. These are telescopic and self-housing and are elevated and
depressed by an electric motor within the hull.

It must not be assumed that because the radio masts are up that they will
have to be unrigged before diving. These masts fold down along the
starboard side of the deck and are operated from within the boat.

It is not considered advisable for an armed vessel of even moderate draft

to attempt to pursue a submarine with a view to its destruction. Such
work should be left to torpedo boats and special light-draft patrol boats.

Patrol boats.-The particular enemy of the submarine, is the patrol boat or

submarine chaser. They are divided into three classes according to the
service they are disposed to render. The inshore patrol consists usually of
50-footers of at least 20 knots speed and preferably 30 to 35 knots,
armed with a light gun and several machine guns. They are intended for
use near harbors and channels where

22

submarines may be expected to serve the purpose of locating and

tracking them. They are too weak to attack a large submarine single
handed and must rely on numbers or the support of larger boats.

The intermediate patrol serves the same purpose in extending the area
under protection. Boats assigned to this role have a speed greater than
submarines and a larger displacement, radius, and armament than
inshore patrol boats.

The offshore patrol consists of correspondingly heavier and more powerful

boats, such as destroyers.

When a submarine is discovered near shore, or where a number of patrol

boats are available, the nearest boat proceeds at top speed to the point
where it was seen to disappear, notifying the other boats by radio. When
over the spot it hoists a flag; the other patrols assemble on this boat and
each runs a retiring search curve on the assumed submerged speed to
cover all possible courses that the submarine could take on the limit of its
submerged endurance or in the time remaining before darkness. Each
boat is on the alert to open fire the instant the periscope is sighted. It may
be possible that the submarine has remained near the spot where first
sighted and is resting on the bottom awaiting darkness. It is most
probable that it will proceed slowly while deeply submerged to a distance
of but a few miles and then await darkness to escape. If the microphone is
installed it may be used by either the submarine or the patrol. The sound
of propellers can be heard through the water a great distance by the use
of this instrument. The receiver or a number of them is immersed in some
position outside of the boat. Specially trained men can detect the peculiar
noise of a submarine propeller and also the hum of the electric motors.
The Allies at present are reported as using a number of blind men for this
purpose-their sense of hearing being usually highly developed. It is
possible to tell not only the proximity of a submarine but its approximate
direction.

It is reported that a number of German submarines have been sunk by

destroyers because of the noise the Diesel engines make when they come
to the surface at night to charge batteries. On a calm night or to leeward
this noise can be heard for miles. A destroyer drifting along at slow speed
hears the noise, makes for it, and when near turns on the searchlight and
opens fire. It must be remembered, however, that submarines having two
engines can charge batteries while under way on the surface in the
daytime. Submarines in any case will always endeavor to maintain their
batteries fully charged and will usually have ample opportunity to charge
them while lying to or patrolling in daylight. Only after a prolonged
submerged run, as after being chased, will it be necessary to charge at
night. Steam turbines are not open to the objection of noise and this has
been used as an argument for their substitution for Diesel engines in

23

several navies. The English, French, and Japanese all have some boats
operated by steam.

The class of submarines usually found in shoal waters and in the vicinity
of harbors are of a, small type, reported to be 80 or 90 feet in length.
These boats are better adapted to work around nets and mines and have
been successful in reaching inner harbors such as Boulogne and
Cherbourg and did much damage. Small patrol boats would be most
effective against this type. Any submarine that could cross the Atlantic
would likely be compelled on account of its size to operate only in the
steamer lanes well offshore.
SINGLE VESSELS-UNARMED.

For unarmed vessels, defense against submarines will consist in high

speed, frequent changes of course, selection of unusual routes, invisibility
at a distance, use of a smoke screen, timely sighting of submarine by
vigilant lookouts, and in the last resort of ramming.

It is possible that a submarine might be deceived by quaker guns

mounted on the bow and stern. If the submarine can be made to remain
submerged, the greatest danger-that from gunfire-will be eliminated.

Invisibility at a distance is important and freight carriers of moderate

tonnage could be designed with low freeboard, folding masts, oil engines
with no smoke pipes and exhaust carried under water. Vessels of the
whaleback type would seem most suited. Speeds should be in excess of
15 knots and preferably higher, though this would likely not be advisable
on account of reducing cargo space. It is believed such a vessel would
stand an excellent chance of passing through a submarine blockade
undetected.

Some British merchant vessels have been fitted with a smoke-producing

apparatus that can be made to envelop the ship in a black cloud in which
she may maneuver to escape attack.

No details are available, but it would seem that special tubes might be
arranged to discharge smoke down toward the water on all sides of a ship
and that she might under favorable conditions remain in the screen by
steaming with it to leeward. It is difficult to see how she could conceal
herself from a submarine to windward by steaming in any other direction.

If the vessel has a speed superior to the surface speed of the submarine
she may of course escape if the boat is discovered in time. Submarines in
light condition have been seen at a distance of 12 miles and periscopes or
rather the wake made by them have in rare cases been made out at
distances of 8 miles. These are very exceptional cases but indicate the
necessity and great advantage of vigilant, efficient lookouts.

24

A submarine suddenly coming to the surface ahead or on the bow might

be rammed. Such an attempt should at least compel the boat to
maneuver to avoid collision and spoil the aim of his torpedo. It would
reduce the torpedo's target to a minimum.

A shotgun loaded with buckshot, or even rifles and revolvers, might be

able to break the lens of a periscope that was close aboard.

Dummy periscopes are sometimes attached to mines for the purpose of

destroying vessels that attempt to ram. A German U-boat destroyed a
British destroyer by such means, the mine in this case being towed about
100 yards astern of the totally submerged submarine.

The use of dummy periscopes even when unattached to mines would

have a very disorganizing effect on an enemy and suggests a possible use
of this device in battle.

VESSELS IN FORMATION.

In the British grand fleet great stress is laid on the avoidance of

submarines and mines, and orders on the subject are kept on the bridge.
There are three different conditions:

(a) When in cruising formation.

(b) When in approach formation.
(c) On or during deployment.

For each of the above there is a different procedure for distant

submarines and for one discovered close-to.

During (a) captains are authorized to turn out of line if in column. It is

usually best to turn toward the submarine. The leading ship turns toward
the submarine not more than 4 points if the submarine appears up to 6
points from ahead. She can turn more later, but only 4 points at a time.
The ship next astern will also turn and following ships will either follow No.
2 or turn toward submarine, according to judgment of captains, as far as
the next flagship, which ship will handle its subdivision by signal. The
danger zone is from right ahead to 5 points on the bow, and if the �
submarine is within 3,000 yards your own or some other ship is in danger.
A periscope as a rule can be seen only 2,500 to 3,000 yards. A submarine
has been seen at a distance of 12 miles, so a distant watch must be kept
as well as one close-to. If a submarine is seen at distance, ships will be
maneuvered by signal to avoid it. No risks are to be taken. It must be
assumed that the enemy has 10,000-yard torpedoes.

The orders are that there shall be an officer and a signalman aloft and an
officer and six men on each side of the bridge or submarine lookout. They
are to be on watch for one hour only so as not to be
25

tired. In battle, lookouts are kept by crews and officers of intermediate

batteries.

The submarine lookouts also keep a lookout for mines. If one is sighted
the ship will act in the same way as if a submarine was sighted close
aboard. If the situation permits, orders will be given to fire a Very star into
the water--green to starboard, red to port-close to the ship. Ships will try
to sink mines by small-arm fire. It is not thought that ships of the Grand
Fleet ought to be bothered with mines if cruisers and destroyers are
protecting the fleet.

If in line of division columns and both columns turn toward a submarine

the one to port must keep clear of the starboard column. It is thought that
a 4-point turn will make a submarine dive.

If in battle formation, it is important not to break the column, and ships

must not turn out to avoid a general submarine attack, but if a torpedo is
seen, captains may alter courses to avoid it, getting back in position as
soon as possible.

Eternal vigilance is the price of safety and no chances must be taken. If a

distant submarine is sighted it should be plotted and the ships maneuver
so as to keep out of the danger zone.

GENERAL.

The most effective defense against submarines is undoubtedly an

energetic offensive against them by every possible means that will
compass their destruction.

A German U-boat commander is quoted as stating that the greatest

danger to which they were exposed in the English Channel was that of
being rammed. They never knew when they first rose to the surface that
there was not some vessel at hand ready to ram before they could see her
and submerge. He also spoke of the transportation of British troops across
the Channel. He said they were so absolutely enveloped by destroyers
that a submarine could not show herself without being sunk.

The French submarine Foucault was sunk by an aeroplane. The Austrian

aviator at a height of about 2,400 feet sighted the submarine under water
and was able to follow it. When it came to the surface he started a very
steep descent and opened fire with a machine gun. The submarine replied
with an anti-aircraft gun but was unable to make a hit. The hydroplane
continued the descent until it was able to drop a bomb from an altitude of
about 100 feet. It was thought that the submarine either lacked the
necessary time for submersion or was under the impression that the plane
on account of its steep descent was not under control. Small dirigibles are
now in use along the English coast to search for submarines.

92714-17-4

26

Trawlers and small steamers are sometimes used as decoys. These

vessels conceal submarines that remain awash under their quarter. When
an enemy submarine comes to the surface to attack the decoy, the
hidden submarine submerges and attacks the enemy at short range with
torpedoes. Auxiliary sailing ships with concealed batteries are also used to
delude the enemy.

The new Admiralty design for patrol boats calls for a boat of 120 feet
length, 17 feet beam, 6 feet draft, and displacement of 90 tons,
constructed of steel. The speed is about 20 knots, cruising radius large,
and so designed as to have excellent sea-keeping qualities. She will carry
a crew of about 30 men and will mount two 5-inch guns. The cost per boat
will be about $80,000. A smaller boat is deemed of little value.

Microphones are used in the British and French Navies as a means of

detecting the presence of submarines. The French have found that it is
better to have the microphones in series and trawled over the stern like a
patent log. In a ship not under way the presence of a submarine can be
detected within a distance of 5 miles. Training schools have been
established for the purpose of using blind men in the use of this
apparatus. A cruiser is employed, fitted for the purpose. Submarines circle
about it, and by sound waves emitted from the propellers the operators
are finally trained so that if a submarine is within a distance of 6 miles
they can locate its bearing within two points.

The immunity of German submarines from attack by regular naval units is

attributed to the use of hydrophones which give warning of their
presence. It is quite possible to differentiate between the sound of their
propellers and those of slow cargo boats.

Since the sinking of so many men-of-war by submarines both the

Germans and the British have stopped placing vessels of military value
other than torpedo boats on patrol duty.

Two British destroyers rammed enemy submarines at speed less than 10

knots. The submarines were not sunk, and the bows of the destroyers
were damaged.

To meet the latest German methods of submarine warfare, the British

have adopted three schemes, as follows:

(a) To arm all merchantmen. They had not a sufficient number of guns for
this, but intended taking land anti-aircraft guns, which they now consider
more or less useless.

(b) To have convoys with constantly changing rendezvous.

(c) To sow mines around German ports, forming a pocket, the outside of
the pocket to be constantly patrolled by British ships.

As the method of destroying submarines that are under water, either on

the bottom, entangled in nets, or pursued by patrol boats, is by the use of
water bombs dropped on them or in their vicinity, it

27

is of interest to know the quantity of T.N.T. and the distance of the

explosion from the boat to ensure its destruction. It is believed that a
pressure of 500 lbs. applied suddenly and locally would be sufficient for
the purpose.

The following formula is of value in determining the pressure, distance,

and weight:

P = 3.17W.68 / D1.39

P=pressure in tons.
W=weight in lbs. of explosive.
D=distance in feet.
3.17 is applicable to Cast T.N.T.

For guncotton it would be 2.86. The Clarke bomb will carry 50 pounds of
explosive and should be fatal to a submarine at a distance of 25 to 30
feet, producing at 25 feet a pressure of approximately 1,000 pounds to
the square inch, or a pressure of 500 pounds at 41 feet.

The Bureau of Ordnance is now preparing a 50-pound bomb of this

character to be dropped from the stern of an ordinary vessel.

The following notes by Lieut. Daubin (Dec. 17, 1916) are considered of
sufficient interest at this, time to be produced in their entirety:

NAVY DEPARTMENT,
BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING,
Washington, D. C., December 17, 1916.

Subject: Showing by diagrams the relative offensive value of submarine

boats having different submerged characteristics and indicating how the
offensive power and value of our submarines to be built may be directly
increased by increasing the tonnage.

1. The following is quoted from a letter July 21, 1916, of the commander
submarine force to the president of the Naval War College:

"A submarine is visible when on the horizon, and for about 3 miles beyond
and 3 miles inside of this point, appearing as a buoy. When a submarine
approaches near enough to have a sea background she becomes invisible
and remains so until within about 3 miles of the observer. In general, a
submarine is visible distant from 12 to 6 miles. To avoid detection it would
be necessary to totally submerge before coming within the visible zone,
and navigate totally submerged, or only show her periscope for a few
seconds at long intervals."

2. Under favorable conditions for the enemy a submarine must submerge

when the enemy is 12 miles distant. This distance, 12 miles, must be run
submerged. It is true there is an invisible zone for the submarine from 6 to
9 miles from the enemy, but once submerged time would not be taken to
blow tanks, etc., and come to the surface, knowing that within a few
minuted another dive would be required, and knowing also that the
exhaust or noise of the engines of the submarine would be detected by
the enemy. The 12 miles is run at varying speeds, depending upon the
course and speed of the enemy, the average speed will be

28

about 8.5 knots per hour. When within 3 miles of the enemy the
submarine makes numerous porpoises to get the exact bearing of the
enemy, in all events the enemy will detect either the wake or the
periscope before the torpedo can be fired; detection will probably occur in
the average case at 2 miles. The enemy immediately puts her helm over
to escape.

3. A submarine's offensive power depends upon three features:

(a) Surface speed and radius combined with sea-keeping qualities.

(b) Submerged speed and radius.
(c) Torpedoes carried and ability to fire them submerged.

A submarine's defensive power depends upon one feature--(a) submerged

speed and radius.

4. A submarine's surface speed and radius combined with sea-keeping

qualities enable her only to get within 12 miles of the enemy. The 12 miles
must be navigated submerged. The final test of the submarine's offensive
power to deliver an attack rests entirely upon her submerged
characteristics, and her ability to fire torpedoes submerged when within
range of the enemy.

5. After the attack submerged, whether successful or not, a submarine

must have power in her battery to enable her to immediately make attack
submerged on another ship of the enemy near by, or power in her battery
to enable her to run submerged and escape, as she cannot escape by
surface navigation.

6. To illustrate the value of submerged speed and radius, assume two

types of submarines with characteristics as:

Type P-1: Tonnage about 400 to 500, submerged speed and radius similar
to our present coast-defense type, viz., 1 hour at 10.5 knots, or 3 hours at
8.5 knots.,

Type P-2: Tonnage about 800 to 900, submerged speed and radius, 1 hour
at 12.5 knots, or 6 hours at 8.5 knots.

Assume also-

(a) That each type carries a 30-knot torpedo, range 2,000 yards.

(b) That submarine has submerged 12 miles distant from enemy and
makes the approach at varying speeds, averaging about 8.5 knots per
hour, until at a point 2 miles from the enemy, on any bearing, when
enemy sights her and attempts to escape.

c) Speed of enemy, 15 knots.

7. Fig. I, First case, Type P-1. After submarine has run submerged for 10
miles at 8.5 knots she has used 31 per cent of her battery power and can
now make 6.4 miles at a speed of 10.5 knots per hour. She carries a
torpedo which she can fire, which is good for 1 mile at 30 knots. Fig. I
shows that the enemy, speed 15 knots, having sighted the submarine and
started to escape, can be approached within 1 mile and a torpedo fired;
that the maximum danger zone for the enemy or the maximum attacking
zone for the submarine is equal to 63° either to the left or right, according
to which direction the enemy tries to escape, making a total danger zone,
O, equal to 126°, and the enemy's zone of safety equal to B, or 360°-
126°=234°. See Fig. II.

Fig. I, second case, type P-2: After submarine has run submerged for 10
miles at 8.5 knots she has used 19 per cent of her battery power and can
now make 10 miles at a speed of 12.5 knots per hour. Torpedo carried for
same range and speed as used for type P-1. The enemy's danger zone, O,
is increased to twice 80° or 160°, the enemy's safety zone, B, is reduced
to 360°-160°=200°. See Fig. II.

Note that in either case the enemy can be intercepted if she takes a
course within her danger zone, but can not be intercepted if she takes a
course within her safety zone.

29

8. By the same method as used in Fig. I the danger zone and safety zones
for enemy's ships of 12, 15, 18, and 20 knots were calculated when
attacked by submarines of types P-1 and P-2. See Figs. II, III, IV, and V.
Following are the facts shown by these figures:

When attacked by
When attacked by
subma-
subma-
rine having 10.5 knots
rine having 1 hour at
for
Speed 1 hour or 3 hours at 12.5
of knots or 6 hours at 8.5
8.5
enemy. knots. knots.

O, danger B, safety O, danger B, safety

zone for zone for zone for zone for
enemy. enemy. enemy. enemy.

Knots. Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. Degrees.

Fig. 12 162 198 246 114

2
Fig. 15 126 234 160 200
3

Fig. 18 102 258 140 220

4

Fig. 20 76 284 95 265

5

9. Thus the military value for offense of the submerged characteristics of

the two types of submarines is illustrated when operating against
enemies of different speeds.

10. But the submarine must have power in her battery after the first
attack either to deliver another attack submerged or to escape. In Fig. I,
first case, the attack was delivered at the end of 12 minutes after initial
submergence, submarine P-1 has used 59 per cent of her battery power,
and she now has left a radius of 10.4 miles at a speed of 8.5 knots per
hour for another attack or to escape. In Fig. I, second case, the attack was
delivered at the end of 16 minutes, submarine P-2 has used 45 per cent of
her battery power, and she now has left a radius of 28 miles at a speed of
8.5 knots per hour for another attack or escape. Or, after the attack,
submarine P-1, having originally 3 hours at 8.5 knots, or 25.5 miles, has
10.4/25, her original value is equal to 31 per cent, while submarine P-2,
having originally 6 hours at 8.5 knots, or 51 miles, has left 28 miles at 8.5
knots, or is equal to 28/25.5 equal 109 per cent, or more than
the original value of submarine P-1 for another attack.

11. The following table shows the value of battery power remaining after
the original attack:

Battery power remaining after initial attack is

made.

Submarine P- Submarine P- Submarine Submarine

Speed 1, 2, P-1, per P-2, per
of having 1 hour having 1 cent cent
enemy. at hour of original of original
10.5 knots or 12.5 knots or value. value of P-
3 6 1.
hours at 8.5 hours at 8.5
knots. knots

Fig. 15 10.4 miles 28 miles 31 109

3
Fig. 18 12.7 miles 31 miles 50 121
4

Fig. 20 14 miles 37 miles 55 145

5

12. The foregoing figures and tables illustrate the greater value of
submarine type P-2 (800 to 900 ton submarines, submerged speed and
radius 1 hour at 12.5 knots, or 6 hours at 8.5 knots) over that of type P-
1 (500-ton submarines, submerged speed and radius 1 hour at 10.5 knots,
or 3 hours at 8.5 knots) for an initial attack upon enemy's ships, and the
value of the submarines for another attack or escape after the initial
attack.

13. If submarines with greater submerged characteristics are desired,

greater battery power is necessary, hence larger submarines.

30

14. The surface and submerged speeds and radii of a submarine should
determine the displacement of the vessel. For every B. H.P. required to
drive the boat at its rated surface speed so many pounds of engines and
auxiliaries are required, if the installation is to be reliable. Similarly for
every E.H.P. required to drive the boat at its rated submerged speeds, so
many pounds of battery and motor are required. If it is attempted to
obtain more E.H.P. per pound of motor and battery than good engineering
practice sanctions, an unreliable motor and battery will result. The
characteristics of the proposed submarines having been decided, the
weights of the engine, auxiliaries, motors, and batteries to produce the
speeds, and function reliably, can be determined. Having determined
these weights, the tonnage of the vessel can be ascertained.

15. Other considerations affecting the motive power installation are:

(a) The propeller design.

(b) The engine power for charging the battery.

It is desirable, from an engine viewpoint, to design a propeller that will

require as few R.P.M. as possible to drive the boat at its maximum surface
speed, in order that the required maximum speed of the engine may lie
low. It is common knowledge that slow-speed machinery is less liable to
break down than high-speed installations. This same propeller must drive
the boat submerged. The propeller will cavitate quicker submerged, i.e.,
at a lower speed, than on the surface. However, the weight and efficiency
of the motor will vary with the R.P.M. of the propeller, since the motor
must drive the boat submerged. It is desirable, then, to have as high
revolutions of the propeller as possible for submerged work, since the
motor will weigh less and be more efficient. But since the engine will be
more efficient for surface work the lower the speed of the propeller, the
propeller design must be a compromise.

16. Consider (b). The engine must not only furnish power for driving the
boat on the surface, but it must also furnish the power for driving the
generators to charge the batteries. For military reasons the engines must
have power to charge the batteries in a minimum of time. The engine and
motor power should be such that the batteries can be charged in six
hours after a 10-hour discharge-with one engine-or half this time using
two engines. If the battery capacity is increased, that is, weight added to
the battery, at the expense of the engine installation, thus reducing the
engine power, it takes a time longer than six hours to charge the
batteries, and the characteristics of the submarine become unbalanced;
she becomes an inefficient weapon for offense or defense.

17. It is obvious then that if greater submerged speed and radius are
demanded, the capacity, and hence the weight of the battery must be
increased, and to balance this increase in submerged motive power, that
is, to insure its availability, the engine power, hence the weight of the
engines must be increased.

Summing up the above from an engineering standpoint, the following is

logical:

(a) Determine the surface and submerged characteristics.

(b) For reliability the motive machinery (engines, auxiliaries, motors, and
batteries), will weigh a certain number of pounds per horsepower.

(c) The military characteristics, i. e., speeds in conjunction with other

desired characteristics as hull strength, fuel oil carried, torpedo
installation, will then determine the displacement of the vessel.

(d) The propeller design must be a compromise between that design most
suited for surface speeds and that most suited for submerged speeds.

31
(e) The surface and submerged characteristics must be balanced if the
submarine is to be effective.

18. Following are the speeds that may be obtained, with reliable motive
machinery in submarines of various displacements:

Sub- Sub-
merge Sub- merge
Maxi- Maximu d merged d
Radiu
mum m speed speed speed Displace
Normal radius s
surfac Sub- 10 8.5 5 ment
surface in
e merged knots knots knots surface.
time.
speed. speed. radius radius radius
in in time. in
time. time.

Knots. Knots. Hours. Hours. Hours. Hours.

15.5 4,000 at 12 12.5 1 3 6 22 800-900

knots

16.5 4,000 at 12 12.5 1 3.3 6.5 24 1,000-

knots 1,100

17.0 4,800 at 12 12.5-13. 1 3.6 7.2 30.5 1,200-

knots 0 1,400

17.8 5,300 at 12 12.5-13. 1 4.5 8.5 36 1,600-

knots 0 1,700

19. Conclusions as follows are drawn:

(a) The surface speed of a submarine enables it to approach the enemy to

the zone of visibility, distant 12 miles from the enemy.

(b) The zone of visibility must be navigated submerged.

(c) The power in the battery must be sufficient for the submarine to run
about 10 miles of this distance at an average speed of 8.5 knots, and the
last 2 or 3 miles at its maximum speed in order to get within torpedo
range of the enemy.

(d) After the attack there must be power remaining in the battery to
attack another ship, or for the submarine to escape submerged.

(e) Depending upon the submerged speed and radius of the submarine,
and the surface speed of the enemy, there is a danger zone for the enemy
of a definite number of degrees.

(f) This danger zone for the enemy is increased the greater the
submerged speed and radius of the submarine.

(g) The submarine having the greater submerged speed and radius has
also the greater power left in her battery for another attack submerged or
to escape.

(h) To increase the submerged speed and radius the battery cubical
contents and weight must be increased.

(i) If the battery power is increased the power of the engines must be
increased in order to charge the battery in a minimum length of time,
consequently the surface speed is also increased.

(j) To obtain greater battery and engine power the displacement of the
submarine must be increased.

(k) For reliability of the engines, the revolutions per minute must be kept
low, which means that the revolutions per minute of the propeller
submerged must be lower than full speed on the surface.

(l) The weight of the motor for submerged work decreases as the
revolutions per minute of the propeller, submerged, increase.

(m) Therefore the design of the propeller for surface work and the design
of the propeller for submerged work must be a compromise, and

(n) Therefore higher maximum speeds submerged in 1,500-1,600 boats

than 12 to 13 knots are, at present, considered impracticable.

(o) The greater the submerged speed and radius of the submarine-i. e.,
the greater the displacement of a boat, designed with balanced
characteristics-the greater is the enemy's danger zone. Hence the larger
the boat, with ,proper characteristics, the greater the military value.

82

20. Following is a table showing the submarines built, building, and

recently authorized by Congress.

21. When the boats recently authorized by Congress have been

commissioned, in 1919, the navy will have:

Submarines under 570 tons displacement 99

 Submerged characteristics: 1 hour at 10.5 knots; 3 hours at 8.5
knots.

Fleet submarines, 1,106 tons displacement 3

Submerged characteristics: 1 hour at 11.5 knots; 20 hours at 5 knots.

Submarines, 800-854 tons 3

Submerged characteristics:
One Lake: 1 hour at 11 knots; 4 hours at 8.5 knots.
One E. B. Co.: 1 hour at 11 knots; 5 hours at 8 knots.
One Government: 2 hours at 11 knots; 6 hours at 8.25 knots.

22. Following are notes on submarines made from the files of O.N.I.:
Russia is building:

350-ton boats 6

900-ton boats 8

800-900-ton boats 5

1,000-ton boats 28

Germany is building in large numbers at present, submarines between

750 and 800 tons.

Her 1917 program calls for 100 submarines.

Her 1918 program calls for 50 submarines.

In the summer of 1916, Germany had:

U boats under 300 tons 10

U boats about 400 tons 3

U boats about 800-1,000 tons 19

U boats about 1,350 tons 7

Before the end of 1916, 42 more submarines were due for commissioning.

Great Britain has 172 submarines in commission, of which 65 are under

600 tons, and the 107 remaining are from 725 to 1,300 tons. She is
building 17 fleet submarines 1,700-2,000 tons.

33
 Surface. Submerged
Dis-
Class. place- Maximum Cruising Maximum Cruising
ment. speed and speed and speed and speed and
radius. radius. radius. radius.

Knots Miles Knots Miles Hours Knots Hours

Knots.
. . . . . . .

A 2 to 7 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

B 1 to 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

C 1 to 5 240 11.0 725 8. 1 776 9.0 1 8.0 3

1,17
D 1 to 3 288 13.0 910 9.6 9.5 1 8.0 3
9

1,90 2,09
E 1 to 2 287 13.0 10.1 11.0 1 9.0 3
0 0

1,34 2,50
F 1 to 3 330 14.0 11.0 11.0 1 8.5 3
4 0

375- 3,50 9.5-

G 1 to 4 14.0 -- 11.5 1 8-8.5 3
430 0 10.5

2,50
H 1 to 3 358 14.0 -- 11.5 10.5 1 8.5 3
0

1,68 3,15
K 1 to 8 392 14.0 11.0 10.5 1 8.5 3
0 0

1,68 3,15
L 1 to 4 450 14.0 11.0 10.5 (1) 8.5 (2)
0 0

1,68 3,15
L 5 to 7 451 14.0 11.0 10.5 1 8.5 3
0 0

1,68 3,15
L 9 to 11 451 14.0 11.0 10.5 1 8.5 3
0 0

1,68 3,15
L8 451 14.0 11.0 10.5 1 8.5 3
0 0

1,68 3,15
M1 488 14.0 11.0 10.5 1 8.5 3
0 0
 2,50
N 1 to 3 347 13.0 -- -- 10.8 1 5.0 6
0

2,50
N 4 to 7 331 13.0 -- -- 11.0 1 5.0 60
0

2,49 3,00
O 1 to 10 520 14.0 -- 10.5 (1) 8.5 (2)
9 0

3,00
O 11 to 16 485 14.0 -- -- 11.0 1 8.5 3
0

1, 3,00
Schley 1,106 20.0 14.0 11.5 1 5.0 20
440 0

1, 3,00
60-61 1,106 20.0 14.0 11.5 1 5. 0 20
440 0

1917 prog.

1,76 2,00
18 E.B. Co 569 13.5 11.0 10.5 1 8.5 3
0 0

2,00 3,15
9 Lake Co 495 14.0 11.0 11.0 1 8.5 3
0 0

2,00 2,40
1 E. B. Co 854 14.5 11.0 11.0 1 8.0 5
0 0

1,66 3,15
1 Lake Co 800 16.0 11.0 11.0 1 8.5 4
5 0

Government 3
12.5 1
800 16.0 -- 11.0 -- 8.25 6
800-ton 11.0 2
1
54 minutes.
2
2 hours 42 minutes.
3
Propeller design of Government 800-ton submarine has been modified to
give the boat a 1-hour speed, submerged, of 12.5 to 13 knots. In the
absence of trials of actual submarines of this type, the speed should be
considered as only 12.5 knots for 1 hour, although the boat will probably
make 13 knots submerged.

34
35

Enemy at "S" Sights Submarine "P", Distant 2 Miles

Danger Zone For Enemy is Increased When Attacked By Submarine
Having 1 Hour at 12.5, or 6 Hours at 8.5 Knots.

Torpedo

36

REMARKS ON SUBMARINES.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A GERMAN SUBMARINE.

The German submarines are what are known as double-hull vessels; that
is, there is a centrally located hull or spindle of heavy steel plating
surrounded by an envelope of light shell plating

Between the two platings are compartments in which ballast water and
fuel oil are carried. Inside the heavy-steel hull or spindle all the
machinery, battery, electric motors, torpedoes, and personnel to man the
vessel are located. The ballast tanks between the two hulls are very large
and hold sufficient sea water when flooded to bring the submarine to the
awash condition. (1) By flooding the tanks within the heavy hull all
buoyancy can be destroyed, permitting the
submarine to sink to the bottom or just float in the water with practically
no weight (2) at all.

The inside hull is divided into several compartments. Beginning forward,

these compartments are:

1. Torpedo compartment: torpedo tubes and torpedoes.

2. Forward battery compartment: one-half of storage battery; living

quarters for officers and men.

37

3. Central operating compartment: all valves and other arrangements to

control and operate boat on surface or submerged.

4. After battery compartment: one-half of storage battery; living quarters

for crew.

5. Engine room: Diesel engines, pumps, etc.

6. Motor room: main motors and main pumps.

7. Tiller room: in some of the submarine this after compartment contains

also torpedo tubes and torpedoes.

The torpedoes carried by German submarines have a range of from 7,000

to 4,000 yards and run at speeds varying with the range set. Each
submarine carries no less than 12 torpedoes. For a short distance the
torpedo can be made to go at a speed of 40 knots an hour. For the
maximum range the speed of the torpedo is seldom over 30 knots. The
torpedoes to be fired are kept inside the tubes. It is but the work of a few
moments to adjust the torpedo, close the tube, and fire the torpedo out of
the tube with a charge of compressed air.

The torpedo after leaving the tube runs by means of compressed air
stored in a steel flask inside the shell of the torpedo itself. This air is
reduced from 2,250 pounds, the flask pressure, to about 500 pounds, then
is heated by an alcohol flame and mixed with steam raised from a small
boiler inside the combustion or mixing chamber. From here it is led into
nozzles and impinges on the blades of a turbine which revolves at high
speed or is led through the cylinders of an engine driving two propellers
which turn in opposite directions in order to equalize the sidewise push of
the propeller blades.
The torpedo is kept at a set depth by means of horizontal rudders
controlled by appropriate means and regulated by water pressure, and
kept straight on its course by means of a vertical rudder connected to a
gyro. The tendency of the torpedo to turn is corrected by the gyro through
levers acting upon an air-driven piston which works the rudder.

The war heads or explosive charge varies from 250 pounds to over 500
pounds of high explosive. The torpedo needs only to make a glancing
blow against a vessel to detonate the explosive charge.

If a torpedo has missed its mark it will usually sink. If a German torpedo is
found floating, great care should be exercised in maneuvering near it. A
gunner's mate, by swimming, might manage to unscrew the exploder, but
this is a dangerous proceeding. Sinking by gun fire from a distance of not
less than 150 yards is the safest method. Under no circumstances leave
the torpedo before it is destroyed or sunk.

In order to hit a vessel that is under way with a torpedo the submarine
must know or estimate within limits the speed and course of the target.
The faster the ship is steaming the more difficult

38

becomes the submarine's task. Frequent changes of the course also tend
to upset the calculations of the torpedoist in the submarine.

The gun used by the submarine is about 3 to 4 inches, and is short;

hence, of low velocity and short range. It is mounted on the
superstructure deck, one abaft and one forward of the conning tower. It
houses inside the non-water-tight superstructure. Submarines will
frequently submerge with the guns mounted and will not take the time to
house the gun; and, further, this procedure insures quickly manning the
guns after emerging. From 200 to 300 rounds are carried.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE A GERMAN SUBMARINE.

The German submarine is of about 1,000 tons surface displacement. On

the surface it can travel at the rate of from 16 to 18 knots an hour. While
on the surface or in the light condition, its superstructure deck is exposed
to a height of about 5 feet for a distance of 200 to 225 feet. The conning
tower is about amidships and appears in two steps. From the deck to the
top of the conning tower is about 12 feet. Two guns are mounted on the
superstructure deck, one forward and one aft. These guns are short and of
about 3 to 4 inches in caliber. From the bow to the stern, leading over the
top of the conning tower, are two stout wires used both as short range
radio wires and as protection against drags and nets. Radio masts for
long-distance work, about 35 feet high, are stepped on the starboard side
of the overhang and can be raised and lowered from within the boat. They
are folded down before submerging.

These submarines have two periscopes of the housing type, one sticks out
from the hull on the starboard side just forward of the conning-tower,
while the other sticks up from a point forward on the top of the conning-
tower. The upper periscope when up shows a length of from 15 to 20 feet
and the lower a length of from 8 to 10 feet.

CAPABILITIES OF A GERMAN SUBMARINE.

The surface radius of these vessels is about 5,000 miles at 10 knots'

speed. The submarines of this type have main ballast tanks holding about
210 tons of water. When these tanks are filled the submarine sinks so that
the top of the superstructure deck is only a foot out of water. The auxiliary
ballast tank holds about 30 tons. When this is flooded the submarine can
be submerged in order to show any desired amount of the conning tower
or can be completely submerged. The condition described above with the
conning-tower exposed is called "awash condition"; when conning-tower is
beneath the surface the submarine is considered submerged.

39

The submarine in the light condition can become awash in one minute
and can completely disappear in 90 seconds.

The submarine on the surface is driven by two Diesel engines, developing

about 1,400 H.P. each. The air for engine is drawn in through the conning
tower fair water being conveyed to the inner hull at the top of the engine-
room by a pipe leading under the
superstructure deck. This pipe is closed by a valve before submerging.
The engine exhaust is above and aft on the superstructure.

The exhaust, except when the engine is first started, is colorless and
almost invisible.

Submerged the submarine is driven by two electric motors of about 500

H.P. each. The source of electrical energy is a storage battery of about
280 cells.

The submerged speeds are:

Full speed about 10 knots. They can maintain this high speed for
not over three hours.

Moderate speed about 8 knots. They can maintain this speed for
about 12 hours.

Low speed about 4 knots. They can maintain this speed for about
36 hours.

Steerage way about 1 1/2 knots. They can maintain this speed for
about 72 hours.

By means of the air purification and air renewal apparatus a submarine of

this type can remain submerged for four or five days without coming to
the surface.

The submarine will be painted a light green color and will be almost
invisible against the sea background. When seen against the sky, their
silhouette is most distinctive. Lookouts, therefore, should be stationed
both as high and as near the water as possible; the former to discover
submarines at a distance and the latter those near by.

Submarines will endeavor always to keep their storage batteries fully

charged. A high submerged speed, even for a short time, takes

40

a great amount of energy out of the battery which can not be restored
except by expenditure of several hours engine charging with the
submarine on the surface. Therefore, submarines will run submerged at
low speeds except in emergencies. While submerging, if chased by a
patrol boat, submarines will run motors at high speed until safely under
water, then will slow in order just to maintain steerage way at a safe
depth. Submarines may endeavor to charge batteries at night, but unless
it has been found impossible in the daytime to do this it is more likely that
at night they will lie on the bottom, provided the depth should be from 12
to 25 fathoms, where all hands can go to sleep with a feeling of perfect
security.

Charging batteries will be accomplished in the daytime in clear weather,

where a good view of the horizon can always be had; if not possible in the
daytime on account of large number of patrols, submarines will be forced
to charge batteries at night or else run out of the danger area and
recharge.

From a height of 12 feet a submarine in the awash condition can see on a

clear day:

Smoke of a 15 to 20 miles
steamer away.

A large vessel 10 to 12 miles

away.

A patrol boat 4 to 5 miles

 away.

A submarine in the awash condition-that is, with main ballast tanks

flooded-can be completely under the surface in 30 seconds. In 30 seconds
a vessel with a speed of 40 knots can make only two-thirds of a mile a
minute, and in 30 seconds could hardly turn and head for the submarine
before it would be seen to disappear.

VULNERABILITY OF SUBMARINE FROM GUNFIRE.

The only vulnerable part of a submarine in the awash condition is the

conning tower. This tower is only a small part of the space or fair water
around it. A direct hit in the conning tower will not completely disable or
sink the submarine, for the conning tower is completely shut off from the
inner hull by means of a water-tight scuttle. It will, however, put the
commanding officer out of action. The boat can yet be controlled from
below, and sight is possible

41

through the forward periscope. To use this latter periscope the boat must
be brought within 6 or 8 feet of the surface of the water.

In the light condition the vulnerable part of the boat is at the water line.
The superstructure is non-water-tight and can be shot through without
damage to the submarine's water-tight hull. The best point of aim is at the
water line in wake of the conning tower, just where the after periscope
sticks out from it.

A submarine traveling submerged or having laid on the bottom will not

approach the surface with any part of its vulnerable self until it can raise
the long after periscope from the conning tower and take a look about the
horizon. It will therefore be in no danger of being rammed by any vessel
drawing less water than 12 to 15 feet. If the periscope shows nothing
within several miles, the submarine can then slowly emerge. In order not
to make a commotion in the water, it will probably stop the motors and
blow, with air, sufficient water from the auxiliary tank to enable it to raise
the conning tower
half or two-thirds out of water. Then the conning-tower periscope will be
at a height of twenty-odd feet and a better look about can be gotten.
Further, an officer or man can open the conning-tower hatch, provided the
sea is smooth, and from on top of the conning tower can make sure no
enemy vessel of war is in sight. Then the engines will be started for
charging batteries. Upon starting up a cold engine considerable black oil
smoke may be emitted. Vessels must look for this, for by this means a
submarine may be discovered; a moment only and the exhaust becomes
clear and invisible.

The submarine has two systems of radio. One system is always rigged
and is good for a distance of from 15 to 20 miles. The other system
requires time to rig and has a range of several hundred miles. Submarines
operating against commerce leaving United States ports will probably
endeavor to keep in short radio communication with each other.

A submarine sighted by a patrol boat will probably submerge at once and

will be well under before the patrol boat can arrive within gun range.

42

Submarines may operate by divisions and in pairs. A submarine tender of

the Deutschland type may accompany them and lie outside of the
patrolled areas.

Offshore patrols of the larger type should endeavor to locate the tender.
The best time to discover tender will be at night when submarines are
alongside refueling.

METHOD OF SUBMARINE ATTACK.

A submarine carries a limited number of torpedoes. The largest of the

German submarines is said to carry only 12. It will be appreciated that a
submarine operating at a considerable distance from its base will not use
a torpedo unless a hit is assured. The submarine will prefer a station near
where steamship lanes converge, where the depth is between 30 and 175
feet and about 100 miles from shore. During the daytime the submarine
will remain awash with periscope up; observer at periscope and one on
top of the conning tower. Upon sighting the smoke of a vessel the
submarine will take its bearings and note whether steamer will come
within a distance which would make an attack profitable. If the steamer is
seen to be passing at some distance away, requiring considerable running
on the surface at high speed to arrive at a position for attack, unless the
steamer is known by the submarine to be an important one the submarine
will not make the attempt, for to do so will expose it to discovery and
besides uses up considerable fuel oil which it must endeavor to conserve.

After observing the vessel discovered for sufficient time to make certain
that its course will lead it within easy torpedo distance the submarine will
edge over awash, under engines at first and afterwards under batteries
and motors, finally completely submerge and endeavor to get as near the
path of the vessel as possible before it will have to fire its torpedo. In
certain cases the submarine might note that the vessel was unarmed and
that no patrol boats were in sight, then it might suddenly come to the
awash condition with its deck above water, man a gun, and open fire at or
near the vessel to stop it, directing it at the same time to abandon ship
and stop the radio. If the vessel endeavors to send an S O S message the
submarine might open fire upon the vessel to prevent a message being
sent giving its position.

If the submarine refused to take the risk of coming to the surface and
stopping the vessel, it would run completely submerged to a range of
about 1,000 yards and fire a carefully aimed torpedo at the oncoming
vessel from a position on its bow. If the vessel sees the submarine in time,
it might, by quick maneuvering with helm or engine avoid it; but such a
chance is small at such close range.

43

This description shows the necessity for:

(a) Arming merchantmen and manning guns with trained crews.

(b) Convoying merchantmen with several fast vessels.

(c) A very quick method of sending radio emergency calls giving location
of submarine.

(d) Necessity of always having radio operators on watch on every vessel,

merchantman or patrol vessel.

(e) Necessity for having lifeboats and other means of rescuing always
ready.

(f) Necessity for efficient and wakeful lookouts both aloft, on the bridge,
and in low positions.

(g) Value of high speed of merchant vessels and frequent changes of

course to confuse submarines and cause their torpedoes to miss.

SUBMARINE HUNTING.

The exact point where the submarine last disappeared is important and
the patrol boat should drop a buoy at the spot and also, if land marks are
in sight, fix the position on the chart. Then radio to base and nearest
patrol vessels, giving accurately the location.

The submarine can not travel far from this locality without expenditure of
battery capacity. It may

(a) Go to bottom and lie there, provided water is between 10 and 25

fathoms deep;

(b) Run in any direction at a speed of about 8 knots, gradually slowing to

4 or even 1 1/2 knots, at a depth of about 60 to 70 feet.

It is unlikely that a submarine will continue the same course after

completely submerging, but probably will turn through a fairly large angle
and endeavor to elude the discovering patrol boat and those coming to its
assistance. After submerging to avoid the patrol, it is decided to still
continue intercepting merchant vessels, the submarine will not travel far
before it will come up near the surface and observe with its long
periscope. Patrol boats must be on the keen lookout for this broach. The
periscope as it emerges above the surface of the water will make a white
wake which can be seen a mile away in ordinary weather. From an
aeroplane this wake can be seen several miles away.

The radio message sent by the patrol should call to the vicinity a number
of patrol vessels who must be on the lookout and be ready to open fire
upon the periscope in case it comes within range of them.

The method to be used to destroy the submarine will be decided by the

circumstances. One of the following methods might be employed:

(a) Sweeping for submarine on the bottom or dropping bombs on bottom

within a certain area of spot where submarine submerged;

44

(b) Dragging nets or laying nets across most probable paths;

(c) Dropping water bombs set to explode at a fixed depth or when striking
the bottom;

(d) Use aeroplane to locate and patrol boats to drop bombs or have
trawlers and tugs lay nets.

These methods are described in another part of the manual.

The senior officer on the spot will assume charge and will decide the
method to be used. In view of the necessity of the submarine to save its
storage battery, for upon this its usefulness greatly depends, we may
assume that the submarine will remain within a circle whose center is the
buoy dropped by the patrol with a radius equal to the assumed
submerged speed of the submarine, times the elapsed hours since
discovery. This will narrow the circle to a probable radius of not over 12 to
15 miles within the next six hours. To find the submarine, therefore, a
concentration of many patrol boats will be most effective with systematic
search. Furthermore, the submarine will not go much beyond this circle
unless it can do so on the surface, using its engine power, unless it feels
that its safety warrants a large expenditure of its battery current. After
discovery quick action must be taken for a submarine located in daylight
and hunted by the patrol will be likely to come to the surface at nightfall
and use its engines to run out of the dangerous area at high speed.
Should the weather be sufficiently smooth it will run awash with only
conning-tower exposed. For patrol vessels to discover the submarine in
this condition at night will require extreme vigilance. The submarine will
be ready to submerge at the flash of a searchlight or the discharge of a
gun, and after submerging will run a few miles and then come to the sur-
face and proceed again on its way under its engines.

While thus running awash the submarine may be able to keep a gun ready
for use against a single patrol boat suddenly encountered.

The patrol boat in the daytime upon discovering a submarine will send out
its radio message promptly and head off the submarine at full speed,
firing its available guns at the vessel as rapidly as accuracy permits. If
near the submarine, machine-gun fire directed against the conning-tower
periscope and against any of the crew on deck will be most effective.
Ramming tactics will not be resorted to unless the patrol boat is especially
constructed for that purpose.

At night gunfire should be used. A patrol boat may be able to get very
close to submarines at night before being seen. An attempt therefore to
approach as close as possible will be made before turning a searchlight on
or firing guns. The submarine should be stalked at night and surprised;
wait until the patrol boat is nearly on top of the submarine before
announcing the boat's presence by searchlight and gun. Care must be
exercised in using radios for this may tell the submarine that patrol boats
are in its vicinity.

45

A submarine knowing that it has been located, and therefore a certain

measure of the possibility of surprise being taken away from it, may
endeavor to reach a point as far away as possible by the next sunrise in
order to use again the weapon of " surprise." The submarine may consider
that as it has been seen and definitely located, all vessels likely to be
attacked will be at once warned to keep clear of that vicinity. If sighted off
New York for instance, it may decide to-

(a) Enter the Ambrose Channel and torpedo merchant vessels that have
been arrested, unless it is known that nets bar the channel;

(b) Leave the vicinity and appear the next day off Philadelphia or Norfolk
or day following that off Boston;

(c) Move farther out to sea on the steamship lane;

(d) Remain in the vicinity but go close inshore and lie on the bottom in
shallow water, counting upon the daring of the act to mislead the patrol
boats; or

(e) Move to the southward a definite distance and return at nightfall

awash on the engines, to be again off the port at sunrise.

It has been claimed that the best and safest method of submarine hunting
is to cover the locality with patrol vessels as quickly as possible. Do not
give the submarine time to travel far from the locality in which
discovered.
The following method of procedure is suggested:

1. Patrol boat making discovery radios locality and time of sighting

submarine; drops a buoy at the spot and remains near it with distinctive
flags flying. If close enough, use water bombs at once.

2. Remainder of patrol boats of the division assemble at once upon patrol

making discovery.

3. Several aeroplanes and Blimpfs to be sent up from base to fly over

vicinity in order to endeavor to locate submarine submerged, provided the
distance offshore is within the radius of operation of these types.

4. Several pairs of destroyers with drags or sweeps arrive at the locality

and drag for submarine, beginning at buoy dropped by discovering patrol.

5. Several pairs of trawlers arrive at vicinity and lay nets across probable
paths of submarine.

6. Several pairs of tugs with towing nets sweep toward buoy from the
circumference of a circle whose radius equals the probable distance the
submarine has traveled in the elapsed time.

The patrol boats after assembling use retiring search method, assuming
speed of submarine is 4 knots, and arriving in five hours on a circle whose
radius from the buoy is 20 miles, distance apart not over 5 miles, remain
on this circle until dark. Stop engines and use microphones to endeavor to
hear submarine's engines.

46

The retiring search methods depend upon number of patrol boats

available. It is based upon an assumption of submarine speed and limited
to its most probable courses.

Starting at the buoy, patrol vessels will steer diverging courses and
speeds to arrive on the circumference of a circle of radius 20 miles from
the buoy and between two extreme courses. For instance, if discovered off
New York, extreme courses will be buoy to Montauk Point and buoy to
Delaware entrance.

If aeroplanes discover and drop calcium torches to make its progress,

then-

(a) Patrol boats steer along line of torches, dropping water bombs ahead
of submarine. Keep guns ready to open fire if periscope should appear.

(b) Trawlers get a position ahead and lay their nets across the submarine.

(c) Tugs take position just inside of trawlers; lay net and drag slowly
toward approaching submarine.

(d) Destroyers drag sweeps inside of nets and be ready with guns in case
submarine is brought to the surface.

If aeroplanes can not locate submarine-

(a) Patrol boats continue retiring search method.

(b) Destroyers start and sweep on most probable course toward buoy,
distance away depending upon the hour dragging begins.

(c) Trawlers lay nets in a loop between most probable courses.

(d) Tugs sweep with net in between nets layed by trawlers. Search should
continue until dark and even after if there is reason to suppose that
submarine has remained in vicinity.

Submarine in daytime in clear weather will invariably remain submerged

with only periscope exposed in the vicinity of patrol vessels. If nothing is
in sight, the submarine will then expose its conning tower.

A submarine on the surface will never attack with gunfire a surface vessel
of equal or greater gunfire.

Lookouts must be numerous and at all times vigilant. Guns must be kept
constantly manned and loaded. The lookouts must become familiar with
the appearance of enemy submarines with various amounts of hull or
periscope exposed. Commanding officers must realize that the usual
methods of lookout and watch are insufficient against the submarine, and
only the concentration of the vigilance of the entire watch on deck can
prevent a patrol boat from falling a victim to a torpedo, provided the
vessel is considered sufficiently important to be sunk.

It should be borne in mind that the advantage in visibility rests with the
observer the highest up from the water. Therefore to delay detection of
your presence by the submarine, unrig all top-hamper

47

possible and place the lookouts as high up as possible. The advantage

derived from this precaution will increase with the roughness of the sea.

The first consideration in training for search operations is the training of

efficient lookouts. Practice in this particular will train the eye to pick up
objects a landsman would never notice. This can be done by tests in
picking up buoys, beacons, various landmarks on shore, etc. Note should
be taken of the atmospheric conditions at the time so that better
judgment can be made of the visibility conditions on the various days in
which you may be stationed on patrol.

ARMING OF MERCHANT SHIPS.

The best protection against a submarine on the surface is gunfire. All

merchant vessels should be armed with guns of 4 to 6 inch caliber, so
mounted as to cover as much of an arc of fire as the character of the ship
permits. These guns must be manned by a trained crew. Both common
shell and shrapnel will be found useful.

MANEUVERING OF MERCHANT VESSELS IN PRESENCE OF

SUBMARINES.

Merchant ships when steaming through dangerous areas should steam at

top speed with guns manned and change course at least 15° every 10
minutes. Keep lookouts aloft with good binoculars, also lookouts as low
down as possible. When periscopes or submarine are sighted, open fire at
once.

Should submarine be sighted outside of torpedo range on starboard side,

for instance, bring to bear on port side at once, turning toward submarine,
and open fire-this for reason that if submarine has a mate it will probably
be on the port side, and for the steamer to turn away from the submarine
would place the vessel in danger from a submarine whose location is
uncertain. Possibly submarine sighted showed itself on the starboard bow
in order to drive the merchant ship away and into dangerous area of its
mate.

After turning make a wide detour, plot submarine on a piece of drawing

paper, with position also of merchant ship, draw circles from the
submarine and from ship, using relative full speeds, then set course so
that submarine can not arrive within torpedo range.

If submarine is sighted so close that the above procedure is impossible,

open fire, turn rapidly away from submarine, bring astern if feasible, and
continue fire with stern gun. Make wide detour around position of
submarine.

On discovering submarine, radio at once the location to patrol flotilla.

If at night, submarine will attack awash and will be very close before
discovery. Probably upon discovery its torpedo already will

48

have been fired; however, turn on searchlight and open fire. If submarine
is forward of four points on bow, head directly for it. If abaft the bow,
throw engines full speed astern in hopes torpedo will miss by going
ahead. Keep up fire until submarine has disappeared, then proceed on
course, else make a detour.

CONVOY OF MERCHANT SHIPS.

The most suitable vessels for convoy are:

(a) Destroyers.

(b) Torpedo boats.

(c) Fast light-draft patrol boats of about 500 to 800 tons displacement.

(d) Fast steam or oil engine yachts of from 500 to 1,000 tons
displacement.

The escort must have several knots more speed than the vessel to be
convoyed and should form ahead and on each bow of the merchant ship
and maintain that position. Distance in daytime about 1,500 yards. The
numbers of patrol furnished must depend upon patrol boats available.

Escort should follow course to be made good, merchant steamer to vary

course, making irregular changes of at least 15° on either side of course
to be made good.

Upon sighting submarine or periscope, patrol nearest will open fire and if
so fitted endeavor to ram or drop water bombs. Radio steamer, and in
daytime hoist warning signal. If at night fire red Very star. Searchlight will
be turned on submarine by patrol nearest submarine only.

Steamer will maneuver as seems best to avoid submarine sighted and will
open fire if submarine is visible and within range and clear of patrol
vessel. If not, will remain dark and will steer wide course. The patrols will
carry a stern light screened for merchant vessels to steer by. Merchant
vessels will not depart too widely from its escort under any
circumstances. After disposing of or losing sight of submarine, patrol will
accompany convoy.

If submarine appears very close, endeavor to ram if forward of 4 points on

the bow; if abaft that bearing, throw engines full speed astern and open
fire at once.

Patrol vessels returning will form a wedge formation, middle patrol at

night to carry a white masthead light, distance between patrols about 800
yards. A submarine may take leading patrol with light for merchant vessel
and endeavor to get within torpedo range, in which case other patrols,
keeping dark, may be able to sink with gunfire or ram.

49

DEFENSE MEASURES TO BE USED AGAINST SUBMARINES.

The following methods have met with more or less success:

(a) The use of a large number of high-speed surface craft, capable of

using the ram and more or less invulnerable from torpedo attack on
account of small size and draft; armed with rapid-fire and machine guns
and carrying a number of water bombs, designed to explode when striking
bottom or at a set depth below the surface.

(b) The employment of drifting nets of light steel wire construction,

designed to entangle the submarine and betray its position to patrol
boats.

(c) The employment of stationary or anchored nets of heavy wire rope

construction, designed to hold the submarine once entangled until it can
be destroyed by means of mines or bombs.

(d) The employment of heavy towing nets of steel wire construction.,

Towed between two powerful tugs.

The net defense has not been used with much success upon the high
seas, but only in restricted areas; for instance:

1. An anchorage can be completely inclosed by nets.

2. The entrance to a harbor can be completely closed by heavy steel nets

together with booms. The net is opened to permit ingress or egress of
friendly vessels.

3. The towing net and drifting net has a more extended use; they can. be
used in narrow straits or channels, or after the discovery of a submarine
to inclose it and force it to run into the net or else come to the surface.

In the method of employing a large number of fast surface vessels of

small displacement, some stratagems have been used which have proved
profitable:

(a) Patrol boats have rigged improvised sails, causing them to appear like
slow sailing vessels, and by this means have been able to get very close
to a submarine on the surface and dispatch it by gunfire.

(b) Patrol boats have taken a position close under a large merchant
vessel. In this way when a merchant vessel is overhauled by a submarine
the patrol boat rushes out from her side at high speed and either rams or
shells the submarine.

(c) Tramp steamers have been fitted with screened gun batteries. The
tramp herself is actually a patrol vessel, and having decoyed a submarine
on the surface within range dispatches it by gunfire.

Many more such "ruse de guerre" will suggest themselves to the officers
on patrol duty and should be developed with energy and determination.

Patrol commanding officers must exercise great caution when desiring to

ram a submarine periscope. Dummy periscopes have been

50

carried by German submarines, consisting of small mines attached to a

pole resembling a periscope, even to the green and white blotched
painting to resemble the crest of a wave. Also both floating and anchored
mines have been fitted with dummy periscopes to decoy surface vessels
to employ ramming tactics.

AIRCRAFT.

The use of aircraft against a submarine has a particular value ii- locating
either a submarine submerged or traveling with periscope only exposed.
However, the aeroplane, by reason of its high speed, even if by chance it
sights a submerged submarine, will have great difficulty in following it.
Slow traveling lighter-than-air machines will be found of greater use and
their employment should be conscientiously developed for both inshore
and offshore work. Weather conditions are an important factor in the
employment of aircraft.

Aircraft should be provided with calcium phosphide torches fastened to

floats. The aeroplane or airship then can drop these torches to indicate
position of submarine at intervals. The torches upon reaching the water
will give off flame and smoke, and this will guide the patrol boats,
trawlers, and tugs in their search.

A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DEFENSIVE MEASURES.

Drift nets.-Reports from France describe steel nets of about 1/8-inch wire,
in sections of 300 feet by 8 to 11 fathoms deep, strung along a hawser
attached to a sailing fishing vessel. Each vessel has about 6,000 feet of
net. The vessels work in flotillas of five or six, attended by two armed
fishing tugs. These groups make a floating obstruction, which drifts or
proceeds slowly in channels or other waters likely to be attempted by
submarines. These nets serve as detectors. When a submarine gets into
one the fact is disclosed by the behavior of the net's floats.

Towed nets.-Reports from England are to the effect that steam fishermen
in pairs have caught submarines in net towed between them. The net is of
12 by 12 feet mesh, 1/8-inch wire. The towing speed must be very slow,
else the net will rise and curl up. The most promising use of these nets
seems to be to regard them as detectors to be cast loose as soon as a
submarine is foul of one, then the submarine must come up to free
herself; meantime, the net buoys show her location.

Moored nets are reported as successful barriers in several places by both

sides. One reported size is of 5/8-inch diameter wire, 12 by 12-feet mesh,
75 feet deep, in lengths of 1,500 yards. For depths greater than 15
fathoms, a second net is added. Both slack and taut moorings are
reported. Slack net is stated by the allies to be superior.

51

Sweeping with wire. -An ordinary mine sweep, of 9/16 to 13/16 inch
diameter wire, with kites to run it at a specified depth could be used
effectively against submarines. Several pairs of vessels, with sweeps
running at different depths, could cover a width of 500 yards with one
wire running at 6 to 8 fathoms depth, one about 10 fathoms, and one
about 15 fathoms. What would be the effect on a submarine of a taut
heavy wire towed along at 5 to 7 knots is not known. The fact of striking
would be disclosed to the sweepers, however, warning would be given
and sweeping continued. An invention lately suggested is to attach to the
sweep electrical submarine detectors. These detectors are on the
principle of the electric balance (see sketch). In the primary circuit is a
battery and in the secondary circuit a telephone receiver. The detectors
are balanced in order that no sound is heard in the telephone. When a
steel mass comes near one of the coils, the induced current is greater in
the coil nearer the steel mass and a buzzing sound is heard in the
telephone receiver.

Mines.-Contact mines can be suspended at various depths from tethered

buoys or trailed from steam or sailing fishing boats. Vessels and boats on
mine-field patrol and elsewhere on the lookout for submarines and drifting
mines should have rapid-fire guns and small arms always ready to open
fire instantly. Probably also shotguns, firing buckshot, would be used,
aimed at periscope; disabling the lens of a periscope would seriously
cripple the submarine.

EXPLOSIVE SWEEP FOR DEFENSE AGAINST ENEMY SUBMARINES.

This method to be used in the event of submarine taking refuge on

bottom or if believed to be submerged in locality.

Trawlers or other suitable tugs to be equipped for sweeping. To work in

pairs, the sweep wire between them. The sweep wire to be fitted with
bombs and water kites. The bombs to be of a type similar to the drifting
mine in use in our mine division. Pairs of such boats with sweeps between
them to steam in echelon as shown in sketch 1; the water kites to be so
regulated that the sweep will be about 20 feet clear of bottom.

By this method 10 pairs of vessels so fitted can quickly cover a distance

of 1,000 yards. In case the sweep comes in contact with the submarine
one or more of the bombs can be exploded.

Material for each pair of boats:

(a) Wire sweep inch, 1,000 feet.

(b) Two water kites of about 3 feet or two weights such as cannon balls of
about 200 pounds.

(c) Two cylindrical-shaped bombs with about 100 pounds of T.N.T.,

constructed to have about 5 pounds negative buoyancy and

52

in case of getting adrift would sink and enough to prevent end of sweep
from rising. Firing gear, either contact or controlled.

Trawling with light steel nets.-The French Navy employs with success a
new system of defense against submarines. The idea is a development
from the method of herring fishing as practiced on the French coast. The
vessels employed are large Boulogne trawlers, with sails, of from 80 to
120 feet long and from 20 to 30 feet beam. These trawlers carry not less
than 300 nets; each net is about 80 feet long by 50 feet wide. Each ship
that has laid its nets bars a

FORMATION FOR SWEEPING.

passage of about 3 1/2 miles. The nets are stretched vertically in the
water. They are fitted with floats on their upper parts and weights on their
lower parts. They are attached one beside the other and are held by a
manila cable of about 5 or 6 inches in circumference, which is also 3 1/2
miles long, this cable itself supported by a wooden barrel at every 75 to
80 feet.

For submarine fishing the cotton net has simply been replaced by one of
steel. According to the depth at which it is required to operate, the steel
net is given a width corresponding to the depth of water at low tide, and a
trap is thus laid for the submarine.

53
54

Such nets are made of steel wire, 300 feet long and between 50 and 70
feet wide, depending upon the depth of water in which they are to be
used. The size of mesh is about 5 feet. In this work the French use a net
made of 3-inch wire formed of three strands of three wires each. The
upper and lower borders are of 1/4-inch wire of three strands of six wires
each. The net is supported by glass floats of about 6 inches diameter; the
floats are attached to the upper border of the net in groups of four at 16
feet intervals. (Figs. 1 and 3.) The floats are inclosed in pockets of network
the mesh of which is 13 inches square made of manila thread. Weights
are attached to the lower border in order to keep the nets stretched.

Nets are fastened together by the agency of a 5-inch manila cable. This
cable should be long enough to cover the total length of the joined nets.
The lines fastening the nets to the hawser and the hawser to the floating
barrels are of 2 1/2-inch manila and are tanned. The hawser is both
tanned and coal tarred to preserve it from deterioration.

The barrels to float the hawser are made of beech wood, with four iron
hoops. One of the staves presents a protuberance in which a hole is bored
to take the 2 1/2-inch rope used to connect them to the hawser. One end
of the rope has a wall knot made into it which secures it to the barrel. The
barrels are dipped in boiling coal tar, which renders them very water-tight
and preserves them from deterioration. The barrels are attached to the
hawser at every 75 feet of its length. (Figs. 1 and 4.)

Laying the nets.-The nets are dropped over either the port or starboard
side of the trawlers, according to the route to be followed and the
direction of the wind. The trawler goes at slow speed, or under reduced
canvas. The net is connected to the hawser and the barrels to the hawser
while paying out. To facilitate lowering a series of rollers are fixed on the
gunwhale of the vessel over which the nets roll without catching. (Fig. 5.)

The hawser is taken around a capstan and tended, checking it as often as

necessary to make fast the nets and barrel floats. (Fig. 6.)

One end of the hawser is buoyed (fig. 3) and the trawler makes fast to the
other end.

The trawler is fitted with two masts with fore and aft sails; both masts
should be capable of being raised and lowered. A capstan is provided for
the purpose.

After laying the nets the trawler hangs on to the lee end of the hawser
with only its mizzen mast stepped and the sail set. Thus but little strain is
put on the hawser. (Fig. 7.)

The trawler having laid its supply of nets thus bars a passage whose width
is 300 feet times number of nets carried.

Taking in the nets.-The trawler unsteps its mast. The trawler begins from
leeward. If the wind changes during the operation, the

55

trawler lets go and buoys its end of the hawser and goes and picks up the
other buoyed end. (Fig. 7.) The nets are taken in from forward, port, or
starboard side, depending upon the wind. The hawser is hauled in by a
capstan; it passes through a hawsepipe in the side and is checked
whenever necessary to remove floats and release the nets, which then fall
into the water alongside the ship and are hauled in by hand. The nets are
stored on deck. The French trawlers each carry about 6,500 feet of wire
net.
The vessels used should be of about the following dimensions: 120 feet
long, 30 feet beam. They should have some auxiliary power and carry
sails. Sails alone would make it difficult for them to change their locality
readily. In barring a passage sailing vessels would answer the purpose.

The trawlers would work in flotillas and may be armed, but in any event
should be accompanied by armed tugs to assist them. The tugs must
have radio for quick communication.

DESCRIPTION OF ANCHORED SUBMARINE NET USED BY THE

ALLIES IN MEDITERRANEAN.

I have been over to a side-wheeler-the Prince of Wales formerly, and now

changed in name to the Prince Edward, which, with her sister ship, is a
net layer, to coin a word. What I saw was of great

interest to me, though it may be an old story to you. This ship used to be
on the Isle of Man run, and is a 20-knot boat. Altogether they have laid 12
miles of net for submarines, principally at Suvla Bay and Saloniki. You may
recall that the allies have never lost a ship at either of these places, and it
is by reason of these nets that they have had this success. At Suvla I think
they have one line; at Saloniki there are several. The sketch above will
give you a general idea of the thing.

56

There are two sizes of nets used, but the data given above is for the 75-
foot deep or larger one. There is another 60 feet deep, when the
supporting casks are some figure smaller than 175 gallons. She had 34
casks on deck and I think they were all for the one net I saw. But as they
have to take the weight of the net, this could easily be worked out. They
have also 1,000-pound sinker anchors-plain iron cylinders to keep net in
place. The net is anchored at each end. All wire is held together by a
clutch or clamp which proves much more effective than the splice. For
instance, a thimble set at the end of rope was put in without splicing,
thus:

These clamps are used at all intersections of the wire and are made of
appropriate shape:

I do not know whether they arrange the chain on sinkers for the depth,
but am inclined to believe they allow a good deal of slack. In fact, was told
that their net was much superior to the German

net on account of the slackness they permit, whereas the German's are
very taut. The English net is supposed to envelop the submarine. The
Dardanelles have these nets, but in some way English submarines have
worked through. Before laying the net they sound out the places. Then,
too, I saw a confidential map or chart of the bottom of Salonika of cross-
section style with depths carefully put down; so that doubtless the bottom
is carefully gauged before starting to lay.

This sketch will give you an idea of the kind of chart they sent from
England.

After the 1,500-yard length is laid, it is necessary to drop the anchor of

the next length carefully, so as not to leave a gap.

It requires nice handling of the ship at this point. When she starts to lay
the net the handling must be right, for it is not only
57

difficult to change the course but there is great danger of tangling or

fouling. They drop the net at about 3-knot speed. The

has the advantage of not fouling the screw, but in turn is harder to
handle.

After the anchor is let go the sinkers are dragged off as the net takes
them. There is lively work to keep things clear, but once
started you can not stop. After a net is laid no attempt has been made to
pick it up.

58

In deep water it is necessary to lay two nets with a horizontal gap, the
upper and lower sections covering the whole depth. I judge that the depth
of net below the surface is governed by the length of buoy or cask lines.
In whatever place, there should be a break in the nets laid, so as to permit
their friendly shipping to come and go. This is called a gate. Thus:

She has 34 casks on deck, and I presume this is or may be the number for
a net, and I should say about 25 sinkers.
They have caught one submarine with their work; had the oil coming up
for a week. I think this was at Suvla.

I was told this in confidence, so guard the source.

Water bombs.-Water bombs are made to explode at any depth of water

desired. Their explosive effect will be sufficient to seriously damage the
submarine even, if a direct hit is not made. These bombs are dropped in
such a manner as to anticipate the position of the submarine when the
bomb arrives at the depth set to explode it. Bombs are dropped one after
another at close intervals along the estimated course the submarine has
been seen to take.

A scouting aeroplane provided with some efficient method of showing the

course and position of a submarine submerged (such as calcium
phosphide torches made fast to wooden floats). might readily lead a scout
or patrol to a position most advantageous for attack with water bombs.
The aeroplane should also be able to estimate depth of the submarine.

CLASSES OF VESSELS USEFUL FOR SUBMARINE HUNTING.

A submarine as at present constructed being very vulnerable to shell fire,

the most effective way to overcome it is to cover the surface of the sea
with guns.

Inasmuch as a submarine hides under the surface of the sea and without
discovering its position can launch a torpedo at an enemy ship, the size of
the vessel to carry these guns should be the smallest minimum
compatible with sea-keeping qualities. To hit a small vessel with a torpedo
a submarine must approach it to a very short distance, increasing the
chance of discovery, as the submarine while firing its torpedo must
expose its periscope for a few moments. Speed is an essential
characteristic for the vessel that is to carry the guns, yet high speed
increases the length of the vessels, thus giving the submarine a
larger .target for attack. The vessel to carry guns

59

to destroy the submarine must be a compromise type. The nations at war

are utilizing many different vessels for this purpose.

Numbers are provided by utilizing a patrol boat of the following

characteristics; these are called submarine chasers:
Displacement tons 30

Length feet 80

Beam feet 12

Draft feet 4

Engines H.P. 500

Speed knot 10
s

Cruising radius at maximum mile 700

speed s

Slow cruising speed knot 14

s

Cruising radius at slow speed mile 1,50

s 0

Time possible to remain away days 10

from base

Armament, one 3-inch R.F. gun.

These vessels can be built in enormous numbers. They are most valuable
for locating the submarine. Fast patrol boats of this type are most useful
within 50 to 100 miles of a shipping port, to cover the sea along the
shipping lane leading from that port. Due to their small size, they are not
good gun platforms except in smooth water. They are, however, fast and
handy, and can not be torpedoed. They are equipped with radio, and,
besides the 3-inch gun and ammunition, are provided with water bombs
to drop upon the submarine when possible to observe its hull beneath the
surface or to estimate with fair accuracy its most probable location.

Patrol boats smaller than this type, but faster, with speeds of from 25 to
30 knots, are useful as inshore patrols to be used in a manner similar to
the larger type. The smaller vessels being of very high speed might reach
a submarine before it completely disappears beneath the surface.

A type of submarine destroyer of about 800 tons displacement would be

of great value if developed in sufficient numbers. Its speed should be at
least equal to the surface speed of enemy submarines-18 to 20 knots. It
should offer the minimum target to a torpedo; therefore, its length should
be moderate and of shallow draft. Its cruising radius should be large. It
should have sufficient beam in proportion to length to make it a steady
gun platform. Its battery should contain several 5-inch guns. The radio
should be powerful and rigged between two lofty masts. Observation kites
should be provided, also an arrangement for dropping water bombs over
the stern. The best system of submarine detectors and submarine
signaling should be installed.

This type of patrol could be used to guard battleship fleets, convoy

merchant vessels through submarine areas, and form the outside patrol
force to hunt down submarines and their supply vessels.

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The private yachts, having been taken over by the United States
Government, have been classified in accordance with tonnage and
speeds:

Class A: Over 1,000 tons. To be used as mother ships for small patrol
vessels. Furnish quarters for officers and men. To lie at anchor in base.

Class B: 500 to 1,000 tons. To be used as flagship of outside patrol forces.

Only the fastest selected. Appropriately armed.

Class C: 300 to 500 tons. To be used as outside patrol boats. Appropriately

armed.

Class D: 200 to 300 tons. To be used as outside patrol boats. Appropriately

armed.

Class E: 100 to 200 tons. To be used as intermediate patrol boats.

Appropriately armed.

Class F: Under 100 tons. To be used as inshore patrol boats up to 50 miles

of port.

FITTING UP PATROL BOATS FOR SUBMARINE HUNTING.

An intelligent lookout, as high up on the mast as possible, with good

binoculars, should be in telephone or voice-pipe connection directly with
the quartermaster or the man at the wheel in order to quickly "conn" the
patrol vessel on to the course for ramming a submarine or approaching it
for purpose of gunfire or "bombing," and further, to direct the steering in
order to avoid a torpedo whose wake has been discovered from aloft.

A launching platform for dropping water bombs having been provided, the
operator would be always in direct telephone or voice-pipe
communication with lookout aloft in order to be able to drop the bombs
accurately upon the submerged enemy.

Powerful tugboats of from 500 tons up are employed to tow submarine

nets and for sweeping. All tugs are armed. A submarine submerged has
but little longitudinal stability; that is, but small force is required to cant
the submarine dangerously. If the sweep should catch in a projection on
either the bow or stern of the submarine under way, the force might be
sufficient to up-end it and thus destroy it. German submarines have all
projections "guarded." A stout pair of, steel wires run from bow to stern
over top of the conning tower. This acts to prevent sweep from fouling
conning tower or periscope.

Less powerful tugs of smaller tonnage are employed to lay drift nets.
Torpedo boats and old destroyers are employed in sweeping with light
sweeps and for convoy and patrol duty.

61

TACTICS OF PATROL BOATS.

Small patrol boats should anchor on station; their anchors should be

buoyed and the boat made fast to a line for quick slipping.

In searching, patrol boats after concentrating at the point where

submarine is sighted should employ the method of the retiring search
curve. An accurate patrol formation can be much better maintained if
compasses are accurate or their errors known. Frequent checks should
therefore be taken. When operating in groups and the courses to be
steered are known in advance, each group should, if time permits, and
before proceeding to station, obtain the compass error on these courses,
if such errors are not accurately known.

Should any apparent error exist in the compensation of a compass,

provided such compensation is installed, never tamper with or change
any of the adjustments without first reporting the fact to the division
commander or other superior authority and obtaining permission to do so.
The compensation of all compasses should, if possible, be done by an
expert.

It is equally desirable that some means be at hand for determining the

speed of your boat. This can be done by the use of an automobile
speedometer, geared to the propeller shaft, and calibrated to determine
the speed in knots corresponding to the readings of the speedometer. If
opportunity permits, it should be practicable to construct and install new
dial graduations to read knots speed direct; but if this is not done, the
speedometer will still be of considerable assistance in maintaining
constant speed of revolutions of the propeller.

When steaming in company a line of bearing formation will be employed.

At night the guide will carry a white light visible all around the horizon.

Searchlights will be used only after submarine has been discovered. It is

easier to sight a submarine at night without the searchlight, but the light
is required to illuminate the target after discovery to employ gunfire.
Searchlights shall be turned off immediately the submarine has
disappeared beneath the surface. Searchlights used indiscriminately are
only confusing to friends and blinding to the man at the wheel.

Signals.-Radio signals are always efficient. Operators should be carefully

trained to send and receive accurately and quickly. At night
communication by "blinker" light with patrols in close proximity will be
used. Unnecessary signals, radio or light, will not be made. As few signals
as possible should be sent. Efficiency is shown more often through duty
performed with but few signals. Filling the air with radio messages is both
confusing and lubberly initiative. Commanding officers should read
carefully their instructions and

62

always act according to the spirit of the instructions. If instructions are

lacking to cover an emergency, commanding officers must act upon their
own initiative to further the general object and take the responsibility for
their act being a wise one. Frequent requests for instructions from
commanding officers of patrol vessels upon trivial subjects show a lack of
initiative and a repulsive timidity to accept responsibility.

Efficient patrolling involves a reliable method of communication. Every

boat should be prepared to communicate by the following systems:

Wigwag-day and night.

Flag semaphore-day.
Blinker-night.
Shapes-day, to a limited extent; and if equipped for same,
Searchlight flash, and
Radio.
The above systems require a knowledge of the dot-and-dash code, the
semaphore code, and the special code for submarine destroyers using
shapes.

For distant signaling both day and night a flashlight set can be easily
rigged, using a storage battery, an automobile head light, and a sending
key to control the current.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MANEUVERING.

The direct method should generally be used in assuming any new

formation ordered. That is, each boat will proceed to her new position by
the shortest route. For accomplishing the best results, relative bearings
will be found most useful.

In general, compasses are not essential to good station keeping except

upon the guide or flag boat directing the formation. Other boats should
steer by the guide, using a dummy compass or steering pointers. To
further explain the system, consider the proposition of keeping station in
column. To keep the proper course, boats astern can steer by keeping the
bow or jack staff on the stern of the boat next ahead, and the proper
distance can be maintained by speeding up or slowing down on the
engines. Assume now that the jack staff is moved to one bow so that the
steersman when looking at it is looking along a bearing of 30° on the bow.
If he keeps this jack staff on the boat next ahead, he will be steering a
course parallel to that of the boat next ahead in a position 30° on her
quarter, and if, at the same time, the engines are speeded up or slowed,
the boat will reduce or gain distance from the one next ahead and the
same as in column except that the operation will be a little slower.

63

If to the right or left of the proper line of bearing, proper position can be
taken the same as would be the case in column by heading in toward it by
bringing the jack staff above described as being on the bow, a little
forward or abaft of the boat next ahead, as the case may be.

Of course the moving of the jack staff, as above, was done for illustration
only. The same result can be obtained in a practical manner by the use of
a horizontal batten rigged to swing in a horizontal plane around its rear
end with range pointers placed upright in each end so that the steersman
can sight over them and by the use of the rudder bring them in line with
the boat next in formation.

Any line of bearing up to 45° on either bow can easily be kept by this
method by following the rules enumerated below:

(a) The guide will establish the line of bearing by coaching the second
boat in formation to the proper position, these two boats then forming a
range for the guidance of the others.

(b) If ahead or astern of the line of bearing,'head in toward the line a

small amount by bringing the steering pointers a boat's length forward or
abaft the boat next ahead.

(c) If distance to next boat is too great, speed up, and if too small, slow
down.

(d) When both distance and bearing are incorrect, use both methods of
correction at once.

Boats should habitually use line of bearing formations except when

proceeding in channels or restricted waters where column formation is
necessary.

For keeping station in line abreast, or line 90 degrees, similar methods

can be employed, as follows, except that the rudder and engines are now
used in the reverse order, since speed in line controls the position in line
and the rudder controls the distance:

(a) Steersman keep pointers on boat next toward the guide, pointers
being set to point abeam.

(b) If behind the line, speed up.

(c) If ahead of the line, slow down.

(d) If distance is too great, head in by bringing pointers abaft the boat
next toward guide.

(e) If distance is too small, head out by bringing pointers forward of the
boat next toward guide.

(f) If both distance and bearing are out, use both methods of correction
simultaneously.

In maintaining patrol over a certain prescribed area, the vicinity of aids to

navigation should be covered thoroughly, as the approaching submarine
must sooner or later establish its position by observation of such aids to
navigation. The area to be covered in the
64

vicinity of such aids to navigation will depend upon daylight, darkness,

and the state of the weather, and the importance of these areas depends
upon their position. For lighthouses and lightships the area to be searched
will usually be greater at night than at early daylight, and for this reason
submarines would naturally endeavor to fix their position by observation
of such lights before sunrise. They would also endeavor to obtain such a
fix from lights the furthest away from port, which are out to sea or on
some outlying headland.

The search should therefore be in the nature of a stationary patrol in such

outer areas during the night, followed upon the approach of daylight by a
retiring search in the direction of the harbor, bearing in mind the
probability of the submarine proceeding on the surface during the night
and submerged during the day.

As local conditions such as the contour of the land, currents shoals, etc.,
will govern the time it is safe for a submarine to proceed submerged with
no periscope in sight, search should be most effective at points near the
limits of the radii representing such submerged distance laid off from the
center of the area the submarine must have passed through to obtain an
observation and fix her position before daylight.

In case the submarine, to reach her destination, has to proceed through

an area where the question of navigation becomes difficult, she would
doubtless obtain her fix early enough in the night to enable her to
proceed during darkness and submerge with periscope out to the nearest
safe point and arrive there at early daylight, abandoning the stationary
night patrol further out in time to reach the areas in question at that time
unless sufficient craft are available to cover both areas at the same time.