Topic 28: Energy – Energy stores and energy transfer
28.1 know joules (J) and kilojoules (kJ) as units of energy
28.2 understand that energy is stored in different ways: ● thermal energy ● chemical energy ● kinetic energy ●
gravitational potential energy ● elastic potential energy (strain energy) ● nuclear energy.
28.3 understand that energy can be transferred between energy stores but no energy is created or lost(introduce law
of conservation of energy)
28.4 know ways in which energy is transferred such as by: ● light waves ● heating ● sound waves ● electricity ●
forces.
(introduce the idea that energy can be wasted and a simple discussion of efficiency)
28.5 know examples of energy stored as gravitational potential energy being transferred to other energy stores
28.6 know examples of energy stored as elastic potential energy (strain energy) being transferred to other energy
stores
What is energy?
Energy is the ability to do work. The International System of Units of measurement of energy
is joule and given the symbol J. Joule is a derived unit equal to the energy expended in applying a
force of one newton through a distance of one meter.
There are many different forms or types of energy. These include:
• kinetic energy
• heat energy
• light energy
• chemical energy
• elastic potential energy or strain energy
• gravitational potential energy
• electrical energy
• magnetic energy
• nuclear energy
Types of energy
• Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving object
All moving things have kinetic energy, even very large things like planets, and very small ones like atoms. The
amount of kinetic energy an object has depends on:
• the mass of the object
• the speed of the object
An object at rest (not moving) has zero kinetic energy
Image caption,All moving things have kinetic energy
Heat energy
• Heat energy flows from hot objects to cold objects.
A cup of tea “feels warm” because it is giving off heat energy. It is the hot object, you are the cold object.
Sometimes heat energy is called thermal energy.
Image caption,A hot cup of tea feels warm
Elastic potential energy
• Elastic potential energy is stored in stretched or squashed materials.
Some objects can change shape when they are pushed or pulled. Rubber balls, springs and elastic bands are like
this. When an object is stretched or squashed, it stores elastic potential energy. The energy is released when it
returns to its original shape and size.
Image caption,Elastic potential energy is stored in this catapult when its bands are stretched
Gravitational potential energy
• Gravitational potential energy is the type of energy an object stores due to its height above the
ground.
When an object is lifted above the ground, or moved higher up, it gains gravitational potential energy. The
amount of gravitational potential energy an object stores depends on:
• the mass of the object
• the height above the Earth’s surface
• the gravitational field strength
Image caption,These rocks store gravitational potential energy because of their height above the ground
Chemical energy
• Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds that connect atoms and molecules together.
Chemical energy is the most widely used type of energy on Earth and is vital for our existence.
Chemical energy is stored in the food we eat. As the bonds between the atoms in food break, a chemical
reaction takes place and energy is released. We use this energy to keep us warm, to move, to climb stairs, to
grow, when we sleep and many other things.
Chemical energy is also stored in fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, wood and peat.
Image caption,Food stores chemical energy
Sound energy
• Sound energy is the energy stored in a sound wave.
Sound waves travel through solids, liquids and gases and are produced when an object vibrates like a plucked
guitar string.
Image caption,A plucked guitar string will produce a sound wave
Light energy
• Light energy is a form of energy which our eyes can detect.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and can travel through a vacuum as well as through solids, liquids
and gases. Light energy travels to us through space from the Sun. Green plants need light energy for
photosynthesis to occur.
Image caption,Light energy travels to Earth from the sun
Electrical energy
• Electrical energy is a form of energy resulting from moving electric charges.
Some objects carry electrical charges. These charged objects can exert forces on each other. Electrical energy
can be seen in nature in a bolt of lightning which is a flow of charge through the air.
Image caption,Electrical energy can be seen in a bolt of lightning
Nuclear energy
• Nuclear energy is stored in the nuclei of an atom
Nuclear energy can be released by splitting heavy atoms or by fusing together two light atoms. Nuclear energy
can be used to create electricity, but it must first be released from the atom. All the sun’s energy begins as
nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy
• Nuclear energy is stored in the nuclei of an atom
Nuclear energy can be released by splitting heavy atoms or by fusing together two light atoms. Nuclear energy
can be used to create electricity, but it must first be released from the atom. All the sun’s energy begins as
nuclear energy.
Energy stores
There are several stores of energy.
Kinetic energy store
The runner has more energy in their kinetic energy store when they are running faster.
The amount of energy in the kinetic energy store depends on the speed of the object.
Gravitational potential energy store
The box has more energy in its gravitational potential energy store when it is placed on a higher shelf.
The amount of energy in the gravitational potential energy store depends on the height of the object.
Thermal energy
An object has more energy in its thermal energy store when it is hot than when it is cold.
The amount of energy in the thermal energy store depends on the temperature of the object.
Chemical energy
Batteries, foods and fuels store energy in their chemical energy stores. The candle wax in the picture
is a type of fuel.
Transfer of energy from the chemical energy store occurs due to chemical reactions.
Elastic potential energy
A stretched or squashed object has more energy in its elastic energy store.
The amount of energy in the elastic energy store depends on the amount of extension or
compression.
Conservation of energy
A very important law in physics is the Law of Conservation of Energy
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that:
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but only changed from one form to another
You cannot make energy. You cannot get totally rid of energy. All you can do is change it. The same amount of
energy is present at the end of anything that happens as was there at the start.
Many devices that we use are energy changers. They transfer or convert energy in one form to a more useful
form.
For example:
• an electric lamp transfers or converts electrical energy into light energy.
Energy changes can be shown in an energy flow diagram
Figure caption,An energy flow diagram for an electric lamp
• a car engine converts chemical energy in petrol into the kinetic energy of the moving car.
Figure caption,An energy flow diagram for an car engine
Note that energy transfer diagrams only show the useful, or main energy changes.
However, car engines are also noisy and hot and so some of the chemical energy in petrol is converted to heat
energy and sound energy. The electric lamps also give out a lot of heat energy. This is usually called waste
energy or non-useful energy.
When energy is changed it changes from one form into useful energy and wasted energy.
The wasted energy is usually heat energy. When things move, the force of friction slows them down. Kinetic
energy is changed to wasted heat energy and the moving object slows down. The heat energy spreads out into
the surroundings. Waste sound energy is also often produced too.
Remember: energy can be wasted but it is never lost!
Some other energy changers
• A fairground ride converts kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy and then back to kinetic energy again
as it swings up and down.
• When the catapult is released, the elastic potential energy stored in the stretched bands is converted to the
kinetic energy of the moving pellet.
• A boat engine converts chemical energy in fuel into the kinetic energy of the moving boat.
• A wind turbine converts the kinetic energy of moving air (wind) into electrical energy.
Image caption,Wind turbines are energy changers
Topic 29: Energy – Conservation of energy
29.1 understand the law of conservation of energy
29.2 Understand the use of Sankey diagrams to show energy transfers
Sankey diagrams
Sankey diagrams summarise all the energy transfers taking place in a process. Sankey diagrams are
drawn to scale - the thicker the line or arrow, the greater the amount of energy involved. You may be
required to draw a Sankey diagram to scale in an exam.
This Sankey diagram for a filament lamp shows that most of the electrical energy is transferred as
heat rather than light.
Figure caption,Sankey diagram for a filament lamp
Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated. It cannot be created or destroyed. This is
called conservation of energy.
In this Sankey diagram, note that 100 J of electrical energy is supplied to the lamp. Of this, 10 J is
transferred to the surroundings as light energy. The remainder, 90 J (100 J – 10 J) is transferred to
the surroundings as heat energy.
The energy transfer to light energy is the useful transfer. The rest is wasted. It is eventually
transferred to the surroundings, making them warmer. This wasted energy eventually becomes so
spread out that it becomes very difficult to do anything useful with it.
Modern energy-saving lamps and LEDs (light-emitting diodes) work in a different way. They transfer a
greater proportion of electrical energy as light energy.
This is the Sankey diagram for a typical energy-saving lamp.
From the diagram, you can see that much less electrical energy is transferred, or wasted, as heat
energy from the energy-saving lamp. It’s more efficient than the filament lamp.
Efficiency
Key fact
The efficiency of a device is the proportion of the energy supplied that is transferred in useful ways.
The efficiency can be calculated as a percentage.
Topic 36: Waves – Introduction to sound waves
36.1 understand what causes sound in terms of vibrations of objects(sound travels as a type of wave – details of them
being longitudinal is NOT required describe how moving vibrations form a wave – use of a loudspeaker to illustrate
this idea)
36.2 understand the terms volume, pitch, frequency (measured in hertz (Hz)) and amplitude and the links between
them(sound can be represented by wave trace diagrams interpret volume, pitch, frequency and amplitude in relation
to wave trace diagrams for example, the greater the amplitude the greater the volume; the higher the frequency the
higher the pitch)
36.3 know how sound travels through a medium(compare speed of sound in air/water/solids)
How are sounds made?
When something shakes, scientists call it a vibration. All sounds are made by something that is
shaking or vibrating.
Sometimes you can see the source of the sound vibrating, like a guitar string, drum or a loudspeaker,
but other times it’s not so obvious, like the floor vibrating when you drop something on to it.
What is a sound wave ?
You don’t hear a sound as soon as it is made. It takes time for it to reach you.
How sound travels
When there is no sound the air particles are still.
When you pluck the rubber band it pushes on the air particles next to it and sends them forwards.
The first set of air particles hit the next set of particles and bounce back.
Each set of air particles bounce back and forth passing on the vibrations to the next set of particles.
When the particles next to your ear start vibrating you hear the sound.
When there is a sound wave, the air particles don’t travel directly from the object making the sound to
your ear. Sound waves are vibrations being passed on between particles. In the example above, the
vibrating rubber band pushes on the air particles next to it.
The air particles start vibrating and push on the air particles next to them, so the vibrations arepassed
on. Look at one particle (for example, the dark blue one), although the particle moves back and forth,
it doesn't actually go anywhere, it just passes the movement on.
The particle moves one way and then moves back in the opposite direction, so ends up back where it
started.The particles vibrate in the same direction as the wave travels. Sound is an example of
a longitudinal wave.
Loudness
If you pluck a stretched rubber band hard, it makes a loud sound. If you pluck it gently, it makes a quiet sound.
The loudness of a sound depends on how big the vibration of the air is.
• If air particles move back and forth a lot we hear a loud sound.
• If the source of a sound makes the particles vibrate more gently, we hear a quieter sound.
If an elastic band is plucked it causes air molecules to vibrate and make a sound
Pitch and frequency
The more stretched a rubber band is, the quicker it vibrates and the higher the pitch of the sound.
The pitch of a sound depends on how quickly the air vibrates.
• When air particles move back and forth quickly we hear a high pitch sound.
• When the air vibrates less quickly we hear a low pitch sound.
The number of vibrations each second is called the frequency and is measured in a unit called hertz (Hz). The
lowest pitch sound that most humans can hear is 20 Hz. The highest pitch sound the average human can hear is
20,000 Hz. The pitch you can hear varies with your age.
Wave traces
To record or analyse a sound, scientists and musicians use a microphone to turn the sound into an
electrical signal. The electrical signal can then be displayed on a device called an oscilloscope and it
produces a graph called a wave trace.
Wave traces
Figure caption,Wave traces are different depending on the sound that is being picked up
Wave traces appear on an oscilloscope graph as a transverse wave, but it is important to remember
that because they are a sound, they are actually a longitudinal wave.
Wave traces are graphs that show how big the vibration of the air particles is on the vertical
axis against the time on the horizontal axis.
A loud sound makes the air move back and forth a lot and so the peaks on the graph are big. A quiet
sound makes the air vibrate back and forth less, so the peaks are smaller.
A high pitch sound has a high frequency and makes the air vibrate quickly , so the wave peaks are
closer together.
A low pitch sound makes the air particles vibrate more slowly and so the peaks are further apart.
On a wave trace:
• If there is no sound, the wave trace is a flat line.
• How high the peak of the graph is compared to the flat line is called the amplitude.
• The higher the pitch the more peaks there are (the frequency of waves).
Speed of sound
• If you put your ear on the desk and tap the edge of the desk, you are hearing the sound through a solid.
• If you are underwater in a swimming pool you are hearing sound through a liquid.
• Sound can travel through anything made of particles.
• How quickly sound travels depends on how close together the particles are.
• The particles in gases are further apart than liquids, and so sound travels slower in a gas than a liquid.
The particles in a solid are closer still and so sound travels fastest in solids.
• If there are no particles, like in the vacuum of space, sound can’t travel at all.
Material Speed of sound
Air (a gas) 340 m/s
Water (a liquid) 1500 m/s
Wood (a solid) 3900 m/s
Space (a vacuum) Sound cannot travel
Topic 37: Waves – Sound detection
37.1 know how animals use ears to detect sound(know that the outer ear collects and directs sound waves
on to the ear drum causing the ear drum to vibrate; the inner ear converts vibrations into electrical
signals (details of the inner ear NOT required); the brain interprets the electrical signals as sound know
that some animals have muscles that enable them to point their outer ear in different directions (better
predator detection))
37.2 know that sound waves transfer energy(know ways in which sound is used, for example
communication, ultrasound, and sonar)
How we hear
We detect sounds because inside our ears we have parts that work together to turn sound waves into
a signal that is sent to our brain.
The components of the ear that make this possible are:
• The eardrum: A thin flap of skin that is stretched tight like a drum.
• The ear bones: Three small bones called the hammer, anvil and stirrup.
• The cochlea: A spiral shaped part of the ear that looks a bit like a snail shell.
• The auditory nerve: The nerve that carries signals from the cochlea to the brain.
• The Pinna: The visible portion of the outer ear.
Figure caption,A diagram of the human ear
When a sound reaches us, the air particles inside our ear canal vibrate and hit the eardrum.
The eardrum then starts vibrating and these vibrations are passed to three small ear bones – called
the hammer, anvil and stirrup.
The stirrup bone hits the cochlea, which turns the vibrations into an electrical signal that is sent to our
brain via the auditory nerve.
When the signal reaches our brain, our brain translates the signal into the sound we hear.
Ultrasound
The highest pitch sound humans can hear has a frequency of 20, 000 Hz(20 kHz). If the vibrations of
a sound wave have a frequency that is higher than 20 kHz our ears can’t detect them and it is
called ultrasound.
• If the vibrations of the air particles are slower, we hear a lower pitch sound.
• If the vibrations of the air particles are faster we hear a higher pitch sound.
Image caption,A dog owner using training whistle
Many animals have ears that are able to detect ultrasound. Dogs are able to hear sounds with
frequencies up to 60 kHz, while some species of bats can detect frequencies of 200 kHz.
A dog training whistle makes sound waves that have a frequency of 40,000 Hz. Dogs ears can detect
the sound, humans can’t because the frequency is above 20 kHz.
Uses of ultrasound
Even though we can't hear ultrasound, it has many other uses for humans.
Breaking kidney stones
Ultrasound waves can move physical objects by resonating with their natural frequency and are used
by doctors for breaking up kidney stones .
Cleaning delicate objects
Ultrasound can be used to clean delicate objects like jewellery or a pair of glasses. The machines that
make use of this ability are called ultrasonic cleaners.
When the ultrasonic cleaner is switched on, ultrasound waves travel through the water, disturbing it
and creating tiny bubbles that vigorously shake the dirt from the object.
Image caption,A pair of glasses being cleaned by a ultrasonic cleaner
Looking inside the body
Ultrasound scans are used to view the inside of our bodies. A small device called an ultrasound probe
is used, which gives off high-frequency sound waves.
We can't hear these sound waves, but when they reflect off different parts of the body, they create
echoes that are picked up by the probe and turned into an image called an ultrasound scan.
Low power ultrasound is used so that doctors can see images of inside the body without causing
damage. Ultrasound waves are used to take pictures of unborn babies, to monitor vital organs such
as the heart, or to assist in diagnosis of gall or kidney stones.
Checking for faults inside objects
Ultrasound waves are used to check if railway tracks and oil pipes have hidden faults, like a crack
inside that is not visible to the naked eye. The waves are aimed at the surface and their reflections
are received by a probe. If there is a crack or fault, the ultrasound wave reflects differently from how it
does when there isn't a fault, and the probe produces a different noise to indicate that a fault has
been found.
Image caption,Using ultrasound to scan for faults in a pipe
Echo sounding
High frequency sound waves can be used to detect objects in deep water and to measure water
depth.
The time between a pulse of sound being transmitted and detected and the speed of sound in water
can be used to calculate the distance of the reflecting surface or object.
The process is very similar to ultrasound imaging.
For deep water, 50 kHz is the preferred frequency of the ultrasound.
This is because water absorbs sound waves at a slower rate than for lower frequencies and so the
signal can travel farther before becoming too weak to use.
This technique is applied in sonar systems used to measure the depth of the seabed and to find
shipwrecks, submarines and shoals of fish.
SONAR stands for SOund Navigation And Ranging.
Bats and dolphins use a similar method, called echolocation, to detect their surroundings and to find
food.
Example
A sonar system on a boat sends an ultrasound pulse towards the seabed.
The pulse is reflected, and it is detected 0.1 s later by the system.
Calculate the depth of water if the speed of sound in water is 1,480 m/s.
Answer
Distance = speed × time
Speed = 1,480 m/s
Time for ultrasound to travel to seabed and back again = 0.1 s
Time for ultrasound to travel to seabed = 0.1 s ÷ 2 = 0.05 s
Distance to seabed = 1,480 × 0.05 = 74 m
The depth of water is 74 m.
Topic 38: Waves – Reflection and refraction of light
38.1 understand the use of ray diagrams and the terms incident ray, reflected ray, normal, angle of incidence and
angle of reflection(use the term reflection correctly know the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection;
including applications, for example a simple periscope and the use of a mirror to see around a corner)
38.2 know how an image is formed in a plane mirror(use of ray diagrams to show how an image is formed in a plane
mirror)
38.3 know that refraction is the change of direction of light that happens when light passes from one transparent
material to another(limited to air to glass and air to water (and vice versa); considering simple examples such as
looking at objects at the bottom of a pool of water/cup of water)
What are light waves?
Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the eye. It travels as a transverse
wave. Unlike a sound waves, light waves do not need a medium to pass through, they can travel
through a vacuum.
Light from the Sun reaches Earth through the vacuum of space.
Investigating reflection of light
A mirror reflects light. It is made by putting a thin reflecting layer behind a piece of glass. The
reflecting layer is often silver nitrate, held in place by a coat of paint. Most every day mirrors are flat
and are called plane mirrors.
In a ray diagram, the mirror is often drawn as a straight line with thick hatchings. The side with the
hatchings indicates the non-reflective side.
The diagram shows a ray of light reflected from a plane mirror.
Some important new terms:
• The hatched vertical line on the left represents the plane mirror.
• The incident ray is the ray of light going towards the mirror.
• The reflected ray is the ray of light coming away from the mirror.
• The normal is a reference line drawn at right angles to the reflecting surface of the mirror.
• The angle of incidence, i, is the angle between the normal and incident ray.
• The angle of reflection, r, is the angle between the normal and reflected ray.
When measuring the angle of incidence, i, or angle of reflection, r, it is important to place the zero
line of the protractor along the normal. This will ensure that you measure the angle between the
normal and the ray and not the angle between the mirror and the ray.
Image caption,The angle of incidence, i = 60 degrees
when light is reflected from a plane mirror:
the angle of incidence, i = the angle of reflection, r
This is known as the law of reflection.
For example:
The angle of reflection is 30° if the angle of incidence is 30°.
The angle of reflection is 75° if the angle of incidence is 75°.
The angle of reflection is 0° if the angle of incidence is 0°.
Properties of the image in a plane mirror
When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror an image is formed.
The image in a plane mirror is:
• upright – but left and right are reversed. We say that the image is laterally inverted
• the same height as the object
• as far behind the mirror as the object is in front
• virtual
A virtual image is an image from which rays of light appear to diverge, and do not actually pass
through. A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
Figure caption,A ray diagram showing how an image forms in a plane mirror
Notice that the ‘real’ rays, the ones leaving the object and the mirror, are shown as solid lines. The
‘virtual’ rays, the ones that appear to come from the image behind the mirror, are shown as dashed
lines. Remember that each incident ray will obey the law of reflection.
The periscope
A periscope uses two mirrors to allow someone to look over an obstacle.
• Submarines use periscopes to see ships on the surface of the sea.
• Someone at the back of the crowd at a golf tournament or royal event might use one to see over the
heads of those in front.
• The two mirrors are arranged at 45° as shown in the diagram.
• The angle of incidence at the first mirror is 45° and so the angle of reflection is 45°. The rays of light
turn through a right angle.
• The same thing happens when the light hits the 2nd mirror, and the rays of light are again turned
through 90°.
• The rays emerge parallel to the way they entered the periscope, and the image is upright.
Refraction of light
When light travels from air into glass it slows down because glass is more dense than air.
This change in speed can cause the light to bend at the boundary between the air and glass.
The change in direction of a beam of light as it travels from one material to another is called
refraction.
The diagram shows refraction of light passing into, and then out of, a glass block. The same would
happen for a Perspex block or for water.
Direction of refraction
Glass is denser than air, so when light passes from air into glass it slows down.
• The ray is bent towards the normal.
Light speeds up as it passes from glass into air because air is less dense than glass.
• The ray is bent away from the normal.
The greater the change of speed of light at a boundary, the greater the refraction. Light is bent more
by glass than by water because glass is denser than water and so slows it down more.
One way of remembering the direction of refraction is to use the word FAST.
• If light gets Faster it bends Away from the normal.
• If light gets Slower it bends Towards the normal.
Letter Meaning When this happens Example
F Faster Dense to less dense Glass to air or Water to air
Letter Meaning When this happens Example
A Away
S Slower Less dense to dense Air to glass or air to water
T Towards
If light is incident along the normal when it passes from air into glass it still slows down but its
direction does not change – it passes straight through.
Likewise, if light is incident along the normal when it passes from glass into air it still speeds up but its
direction does not change – it passes straight through.
Figure caption,
A ray of light incident along the normal passes straight through without being refracted.
Refraction explains why an object appears to bend when it goes through water.
Image caption,Refraction at the boundary between air and water
