 .

Hillslope

 2. Whatdoyoumeanby‘hillslope’?  Slope can be defined as angular inclinations of

terrain between hill tops and valley bottoms. It’s a product of a combination of many
causative factors like geological structure, climate, vegetation cover, drainage texture
and frequency, dissection index, relative reliefs and of course denudational processes,
including weathering, mass wasting and mass movements of rock wastes, erosion and
transportation of eroded materials downslope etc.  They are significant geomorphic
attributes in the study of landforms of fluvially originated drainage basin.

 3. Definition  Slope is, thus, upward or downward inclination of surface between hills
and valleys and form most significant aspect of landscape assemblages. Except plains
and terraces slopes are always perceptible and are more in significant mountainous
regions.

 4. Significanceofstudyofhillslope  The morphological characteristics of a region are

determined by slopes of that region because physical landscapes are the result of
combinations of slopes. Not only this, slopes introduce variations and complexity in the
landscape of a region. Therefore, the study of different aspects of slopes has always
been a focal theme in geomorphology. The study of slope in geomorphology is given
more importance because, ‘not only slopes do comprise the greater part of the
landscape, but as an integral part of the drainage system they provide water and
sediment to streams. Therefore, hillslopes are an important component of the complex
landscape that forms a drainage basin. The study of slope involves classification,
development and evolution of hillslopes.

 5. ClassificationofSlopes  There is marked variation in opinions regarding the

classification of hillslopes because of confusions regarding the elements (segments) and
form of slopes.  Convex, free face, rectilinear and concave segments are in fact
elements of hillslope profile, but a few geomorphologists have recognized them as types
of hillslopes. It may be pointed out that no hillslope may be only either rectilinear
(straight), or convex or concave rather it comprises more than one element (segment),
though one element may be most extensive and dominant. Generally, some
geomorphologists classify slopes for simplification into cliff slope (free face or scarp
slope), rectilinear or straight slope, convex slope and concave slope, and if more than
one forms are present, they call them composite slope. But this classification is not
justiciable because these are not types (slope forms) rather these are slope elements
(slope segments). Let us examine the characteristics of slope elements.

 6. SlopeElements  If the longitudinal profile of a hill slope or coastal slope is

considered, it becomes apparent that there is no uniformity in the slope profile in
 relation to slope angles from hill tops to valley floors or from cliff crest to sea shore.
The entire hill slope is punctuated by the presence of convexity, concavity, rectilinearity
and free face. These distinctive segments of slope profile are called slope elements or
slope segments. It is not always necessary that all the slope profiles will comprise all
the four elements, but an ideal hillslope profile is that which consists of summital
convexity, free-face, rectilinearity and basal concavity. The existence of free face (cliff)
elements depends on the presence of resistant strata (in the case of hillslope) or
undercutting (cliffing) at the slope base (in the case of coastal slope).

 8. SlopeElements Summital Convexity –  the convex segment is found at the hill crest
(hill top) and this element is called summital convexity (or simply convex element).
Convex slope, if convex element dominates the hillslope profile, is also called as waxing
slope because it grows in height upward and in dimension downward, but it must be
remembered not all convex slopes necessarily grow in height and dimensions (size).
Most of the summital convexity develops because of denudational processes e.g.
rainwash or soil creep, this is why convex slope is also called upper wash.

 9. Free Face –  free face element of hillslope represents wall-like precipitous slope of
bare rocks and is devoid of any debris. The slope is so steep and precipitous that no
weathered materials can rest on it. The element or segment is called slope of
derivation because there is instantaneous downslope transport of materials. The free
face element is subjected to back wasting which facilitates parallel retreat of this
element.

 10. Rectilinear Element –  the straight or linear segment of hillslope profile between
upper free face and lower concave element is called linear element.  It is also termed as
constant or uniform or regular slope because of uniform nature of slope angle. 
Because of the presence of rock debris this segment is called debris slope.

 11. Convex Element –  the basal segment of an ideal hillslope profile is always
characterized by concave element. The slope angle decreases as the segment of basal
concavity increases (in length). That is why this segment segment is called waning slope.
This element is also called valley floor basement slope or lower wash slope. Basal
concavity is generally originated because of active denudation mainly by rain wash, rill
and gully erosion. This segment may be covered with debris or may be of bare rocks.

 12. Classification basedon slope elements  It may be pointed out that theoretically it is
conceived that an ideal hillslope profile consists of all the four elements viz. summital
convexity, free face, rectilinear and basal concavity but in practice it is not always
possible. Any slope profile consists of at least two elements and instead of mono-
element slope there is composite or compound slope which may be of different types
 depending on varying combinations of slope elements. Convexo-concave slope
Convexo-rectilinear-concave slope Free face-rectilinear-concave slope Convex-
rectilinear-free face-rectilinear concave slope Convex-rectilinear-free face slope and so
on.

 13. Genetic Classification  Genetic classification of hillslopes involves the mode of their
origin and development. Thus, based on mode of genesis, hillslopes may be classified
into three types- Tectonic Slope Erosional Slope Slope of Accumulation

 14. Quantitative Classification Quantitative classification involves classification of

slopes into certain types based on slope angles which are derived from topographical
maps and aerial photographs or based on measurement of slope angles with suitable
instruments in the field. A. Young classified slopes on the basis of slope angles of slope
profiles into seven major categories as follows-  Level to gentle slope Level slope (0° -
0.5°) Almost level slope (0.5° - 1.0°) Very gentle slope (1.0° - 2.0°) Gentle slope (2.0°
- 5.0°)

 15. Quantitative Classification  Gentle slope (2.0° - 5.0°)  Moderate slope (5.0° -
10.0°)  Moderately steep slope (10.0° - 18.0°)  Steep slope (18.0° - 30.0°)  Very steep
slope (30.0° - 45.0°)  Precipitous to vertical slope (45.0° - 90.0°)  Precipitous slope
(45.0° - 70.0°)  Wall-like slope (70.0° - 90.0°)

 16. Young (1972) mentioned that all the theories of slope development may be grouped
in 3 broad categories viz. (i) Slope decline theory (ii) Slope replacement theory, and (iii)
parallel retreat theory. Slope decline theory – the steepest part of the slope
progressively decreases in angle, accompanied by the development of a convexity and
concavity. Slope replacement theory – the maximum angle decreases through
replacement from below by gentler slopes, causing the greater part of the profile to
become occupied by the concavity. The concavity may be either smoothly curved or
segmented. Parallel retreat theory – the maximum angle remains constant, the absolute
lengths of all parts of the slope except the concavity remain constant, and the concavity
increases in length; the angle at any point on the concavity decreases.

 17. Slopedecline theoryofW.M. Davis  Davis’ theory of slope decline has its roots in his
earlier works viz. “the grading of mountain slopes” (1898), “the geographical cycle”
(1899) etc.  Like the cyclic development of landscapes Davis’ hillslope and valley side
slope also undergo the process of cyclic development wherein there is progressive
decline in slope angle and sequential change in slope from youth (convex form) through
mature (rectilinear or uniform slope form) to old (concave form) stages.  Steep convex
slopes evolve during youth stage of cycle of erosion because of active downcutting
 resulting into valley deepening and weathering processes. There is very limited slope
retreat and practically there is no decline in slope angle rather it is increased.

 18. Lateral erosion dominates over vertical erosion and divide summits are eroded
(down wasting of water divides) during mature stage. Thus, down wasting of water
divides results in decrease in slope angle (and hence slope decline) and slope profile of
smooth curve formed. Slope becomes graded because at each point on the slope profile
the gradient is such that weathered debris may be transported (removed) downslope.
Because of continued lateral erosion and down wasting of water divides (and hence
marked lowering of relief) there is marked slope decline in old stage so that the general
slope form becomes concave and nowhere slope angle becomes more than 5 degree.

 19. Davisian model of slope evolution includes three aspects via. •rounded convexity of
hill tops and interfluves, •graded waste sheets on slope profiles and •graded valley
sides, which Davis tried to explain in terms of their significance and origin. According to
Davis summital rounded convexity results from the action of soil creep in humid climate.
He described qualitatively the mechanism of movement in creep, by alternate dilation
and contraction of the soil under the influence of gravity. Soil creep is motivated because
of rainwash, the intensity of which increases downslope. Creep (soil creep) produces
‘rounded contours’ and is responsible for convex profile of divides.

 20. The weathered materials existing on slope profiles (both hillslope and valley side
slopes) has been termed as waste sheet which constantly moves downslope by the
agents of transportation under the influence of gravity force. When transporting
capacity of the transporting agents (actual available energy of transporting agents)
equals the required force to transport the materials i.e. when the available energy for
transportation of debris and the work to be done (debris to be transported downslope)
are equally balanced, the layer of the waste of debris on slope profile is called graded
waste sheet.

 22. Criticism - Like cycle of erosion Davis’ model of slope evolution also depends on
crustal stability stability for longer duration after the initiation of cycle and which is a
rare thing a far as the dynamics of the earth’s crust is concerned which makes it
susceptible to criticism. And also because of its consonant with its relation to the cycle
of erosion, the theory has been criticized on its implications that slope form is time-
dependent.