STRUCTURE OF ATOM

• Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of the matter.

Atom is made of electron, proton and neutrons.

PARTICLE Discovery Nature of charge Amount of charge Mass

ELECTRON J. J. Thomson Negative -1.6 x 10-19Coloumb 9.11 x 10-31kg

PROTON Goldstein Positive +1.6 x 10-19Coloumb 1.672 x 10-27 kg

NEUTRON Chadwick Neutral 0 1.674x10 -27kg

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON:
The Electron was discovered by J.J Thomson by conducting a Cathode ray tube experiment.

Cathode ray discharge tube experiment : A cathode ray discharge tube made of glass is taken
with two electrodes. At very low pressure and high voltage, current starts flowing through a
stream of particles moving in the tube from cathode to anode. These rays were called cathode
rays. When a perforated anode was taken, the cathode rays struck the other end of the glass
tube at the fluorescent coating and a bright spot on the coating was developed
Properties of cathode rays:

i. They travel linearly.

ii. They have a negative electric charge.
iii. They have particle property.
iv. Magnets can deflect them.
v. Charge/mass ratio of the rays is constant.
vi. They travel from the cathode to the anode.
vii. Their properties are independent from the electrodes and gas present in the cathode
ray tube.

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 Properties of canal rays
i) They are the streams of positive ions of the gas enclosed in the discharge tube. The mass of each
ion is nearly equal to the mass of the atom.
ii) They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
iii) They travel in straight lines.
iv) The velocity of canal rays is much smaller than the velocity of cathode rays.
v) They affect photographic plates.
vi) These rays can produce fluorescence.
vii) They ionize the gas through which they pass.

Isotopes: These are the atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but
different mass number.e g 1H1,1H2,1H3
Isobars: Isobars are the atoms of different elements having the same mass number but
different atomic number.e g 18Ar40 , 20Ca40
Isoelectronic species: These are those species which have the same number of electrons.

J.J THOMSON PLUM PUDDING MODEL

According to Thomson :Atom is positively charged sphere in which few negative charges are
scattered at certain places like plums in pudding

Limitation of this model:

 It wasn’t possible that few negative charges remain scattered in the positive sphere,
these negative charges would be neutralized.

RUTHERFORD SCATTERING EXPERIMENT:

In order to explain the structure of atom, Rutherford performed the scattering experiment.

For this, he took Gold foil and passed Alpha rays through it.

Following observations were made: -

1. Some rays passed straight.
2. Some rays were deflected through small & large angles.
3. Some rays rebound back.

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 Conclusion drawn:
o Most of the space in atom is empty.
o There is something in center of an atom called Nucleus.
o Nucleus is +vely charged.
He said,

o Atom is electrically neutral.

o Nucleus is in center.
o In which protons & neutrons are present.
o Outside nucleus electrons revolve like planets revolve around sun.
Limitation : he failed to explain the stability of an atom”.
According To Electromagnetic theory, a charged particle revolving in circular path
continuously emits energy and shorten its path.As a result, they should finally fall into nucleus.
But this doesn’t happen.

DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT: DEVELOPMENT LEADING TO BOHR’S MODEL

Neil Bohr (1913) presented a model of atom which has removed the defects of Rutherford
Model. This model was developed for hydrogen atom which has only proton in the nucleus and
one electron is revolving around it.
Wave theory of radiation
When an electrically charged particle moves under acceleration, alternating electrical and
magnetic fields are produced and transmitted. These fields are transmitted in the form of
waves. These waves are called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiations.
Properties of electromagnetic radiations:
 Oscillating electric and magnetic field are produced by oscillating charged particles. These
fields are perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
 They do not need a medium to travel. That means they can even travel in vacuum.

In vacuum all types of electromagnetic radiations travel with the same velocity. Its value is 3
X108 m s-1

Characteristics of a Wave
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Wavelength (λ.): It may be defined as the distance between two neighboring crests or troughs
of wave
Frequency (ν): It may be defined as the number of waves which pass through a particular
point in one second.
Velocity (v): It is defined as the distance travelled by a wave in one second.
Wave number: Wave number is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length.

Electromagnetic Spectrum : The arrangement of all the electromagnetic radiations in the

increasing order of their wavelength or decreasing order of frequency is called
electromagnetic spectrum
The different radiations of electromagnetic radiation

name Frequency Wavelength Uses

Limitations of Wave theory of radiation: Wave theory of radiation could successfully

explain interference(combination of two waves of same or different frequencies) and
diffraction( bending of waves) but could not explain black body radiation and photoelectric
effect

Black body: An ideal body, which emits and absorbs all frequencies, is called a black body. The
radiation emitted by such a body is called black body radiation.

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When a body is heated it changes from red to yellow to white to purple ie on increasing the
temperature wavelength first increases ,then decreases. This could not be explained by wave
theory ,if this theory was correct the wavelength of the radiations should have been the same
Photoelectric effect: The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of metal
when light of suitable frequency strikes it is called photoelectric effect. The ejected electrons
are called photoelectrons.
When beam of light falls on a metal surface electrons are ejected immediately.
Kinetic energy of electrons ejected is proportional to frequency of light.This could not be
explained by wave theory ,if this theory was correct the energy of the radiations should depend
on the intensity not on the frequency
Threshold frequency (vo):The characteristic minimum frequency above which photoelectric
effect is observed is called threshold frequency.
If frequency of light is less than the threshold frequency there is no ejection of electrons no
matter how long it falls on surface or how high is its intensity.
Photoelectric work function (Wo): The minimum energy required to eject electrons is called
photoelectric work function.Wo= hⱱ o
Energy of the ejected electrons : KE + Wo

The phenomenon of photoelectric effect led Max Planck to propose a new theory
Planck's Quantum Theory:
1. The radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously in the
form of small discrete packets of energy called quantum‘. In case of light , the quantum
of energy is called a photon‘
2. The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation,
i.e. E α υ or E= hυ where h= Planck‘s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s
3. Energy is always emitted or absorbed as integral multiple of this quantum.
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 4. E=nhυ Where n=1,2,3,4,.....
Dual behavior of electromagnetic radiation- The light possesses both particle and wave like
properties, i.e., light has dual behavior .
Whenever radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle like properties.(Black body
radiation and photoelectric effect) Wave like properties are exhibited when it
propagates(interference an diffraction)
E= hυ, E= mc2hυ= mc2
m =hυ/c2
m = h
c∩
Quantized electronic states
When a white light is passed through a prism, it splits into a series of coloured bands known as
spectrum. Spectrum is of two types: continuous and line spectrum
 . The spectrum which consists of all the wavelengths is called continuous spectrum.
Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum
 . A spectrum in which only specific wavelengths are present is known as a line
spectrum.
Spectrum is also classified as emission and absorption spectrum.
Emission spectrum:When an element is excited by heating ,the elements emit radiations
these radiations when passed through prism produces a series of white light separated by dark
line, this is called emission .( The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has
absorbed energy is called an emission spectrum).
Absorption spectrum is the spectrum obtained when radiation is passed through a sample of
material. The sample absorbs radiation of certain wavelengths. The light of remaining
wavelength is passed through prism it produces a series of dark lines on white backward. [The
wavelengths which are absorbed are missing and come as dark lines].
Spectral Lines for atomic hydrogen: when electric discharge is passed through hydrogen
gas its molecules dissociate into atoms .the excited H atoms produce radiations of discrete
frequencies

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 SPECTRAL LINES n n

Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom:

1. An electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed
radius and energy. These paths are called orbits or energy levels. These orbits are
arranged concentrically around the nucleus.
2. As long as an electron remains in a particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy and its
energy remains constant.
3. When transition occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy, the
frequency of the radiation absorbed or emitted can be calculated
4. An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is an integral
multiple of h/2π
5. The radius of the nth orbit is given by r =52.9 pm x n 2/Z
6. Energy of electron in nth orbit

Limitations of Bohr’s model of atom:

 Bohr‘s model failed to account for the finer details of the hydrogen spectrum.
 Bohr‘s model was also unable to explain spectrum of atoms containing more than one
electron.
 It ignores the dual behavior of matter.
 It contradicts Heisenberg‘s uncertainty principle
Dual behavior of matter: de Broglie proposed that matter exhibits dual behavior i.e. matter
shows both particle and wave nature. deBroglie‘s relation is

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: It states that it is impossible to determine
simultaneously, the exact position and exact momentum (or velocity) of an electron.
The product of their uncertainties is always equal to or greater than h/4π. Heisenberg‘s
uncertainty principle rules out the existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and
other similar particles

Significance of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle rules out the concept of definite path of electron as
proposed by Bohr
 It is significant only for movement of microscopic object not for macroscopic objects

Quantum mechanical model of atom: it takes into account the dual nature of matter
1. The energy of the electrons in atom are quantized that is electrons can have only
certain specific values of energy in atom
2. The exact position and velocity of the electron cannot be determined.
3. The wave function ( )of an electron represents the atomic orbital.
4. The probability of finding the electron at a point within an atom is proportional to the
square of wave function ( ) at that point. It is known as probability density and is
always positive. From the value of φ2 at different points within atom, it is possible to
predict the region around the nucleus where electron most probably will be found.
Orbit :path followed by the electron around the nucleus.

Orbital: The region of space around the nucleus where the probability offinding an electron is
maximum is called an orbital.

Quantum numbers: There are a set of four quantum numbers which specify the energy, size,
shape and orientation of an orbital.

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 To specify an orbital only three quantum numbers are required while to specify an electron all
four quantum numbers are required.
 Principal quantum number (n):It identifies shell, determines sizes and energy of orbitals
 Azimuthal quantum number (l): Azimuthal quantum number. ‗l‘ is also known as orbital
angular momentum or subsidiary quantum number. l. It identifies subshell, determines the
shape of orbitals, energy of orbitals in multi-electron atoms along with principal quantum
number and orbital angular momentum, i.e., The number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1.
For a given value of n, it can have n values ranging from 0 to n-1. Total number of subshells
in a particular shell is equal to the value of n. Subshell s p d f g notation Value of l =‘ 0 1 2 3 4
 Magnetic quantum number or Magnetic orbital quantum number (ml): Itgives
information about the spatial orientation of the orbital with respect to standard set of co-
ordinate axis .For any sub-shell 2l+1 values of ml are possible. For each value of l, ml –l to+l
 Electron spin quantum number (ms): It refers to orientation of the spin of the electron.
It can have two values +1/2 and -1/2. +1/2 identifies the clockwise spin and -1/2 identifies
the anti- clockwise spin.

The region where the probability density function reduces to zero is called nodal surfaces or
simply nodes.
Radial nodes: Radial nodes occur when the probability density of wave function for the
electron is zero on a spherical surface of a particular radius.

Degenerate orbitals: Orbitals having the same energy are called degenerate orbitals.
3 for p and 5 for d-orbitals
Shielding effect or screening effect: Due to the presence of electrons in the inner shells, the
electron in the outer shell will not experience the full positive charge on the nucleus. So, due to
the screening effect, the net positive charge experienced by the electron from the nucleus is
lowered and is known as effective nuclear charge. Effective nuclear charge experienced by the
orbital decreases with increase of azimuthal quantum number (l).

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Aufbau Principle: In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies
n+l rule-Orbitals with lower value of (n+l) have lower energy. If two orbitals have the same
value of (n+l) then orbital with lower value of n will have lower energy. The order in which the
orbitals are filled is as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s...
Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.[ Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital and these electrons must have
opposite spin.]
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the
same subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got
one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied.
Electronic configuration of atoms:Arrangement of electrons in different orbitals of an atom..

Orbital diagram:, each orbital of the subshell is represented by a box and the electron is
represented by an arrow (↑) a positive spin or an arrow (↓) a negative spin.
Stability of completely filled and half filled subshells:
Symmetrical distribution of electrons- the completely filled or half filled sub-shells have
symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and are more stable

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