CHAPTER TWO

2.Classification & Properties

of Materials
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2.1 Classification of
Materials
Materials that are used for
construction purpose can be
broadly classified based on
their:

Metallic Property
Physical nature
Mode of production

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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON METALLIC
PROPERTY

1.METALLIC : IN GENERAL METALS CAN BE

CLASSIFIED IN TO :FERROUS AND NON-
FERROUS.
A. FERROUS: IS THE METAL IN WHICH THE
PRINCIPAL ELEMENT IS IRON.
EXAMPLES:STEEL,WROUGHT IRON & CAST IRON
B. NON-FERROUS : IS THE METAL IN WHICH THE
PRINCIPAL ELEMENT IS NOT IRON
EXAMPLES: COPPER,ALUMINIUM,LEAD,ZINC,ETC

2.NON METALLIC:
EXAMPLES;CONCRETE,TIMBER,STONE,LIME ETC.

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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHYSICAL
NATURE OF MATERIALS

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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
MODE OF PRODUCTION
a) Naturally Occurring
Materials
.stone
.timber
b) Industrially produced
materials
.Cement
.glass
C) Materials produced at
construction site
.Concrete 5

.mortar
2.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Properties Which relate to materials
are:
1. Physical properties
 Density & specific
gravity
 Thermal property
 Acoustic /sound
permeability
 Porosity

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2, Chemical properties
 Corrosion Resistance
 Combustibility

 Toxicity

 Decay Resistance

3.Mechanical Properties
The resistance of material to:
 The action of external static forces
(compressive,tensile,bending,shear
,torsional strength)

 The action of dynamic external

forces(impact and vibratory loads)

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Behavior of materials under load

Application of external force on solid

body in equilibrium results in:

….Internal resisting forces are

developed in the body which balances
the externally applied force.

….The body is deformed to varying

degree

….The intensity of internal force is

stress and the deformation per unit
length is strain 8
Depending on the arrangement &
direction of the external forces, the
stress produced in the body may be :
 Tensile

 Compressive

 Shear

 Bending

 Torsional

 Various combinations of the above.

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2.3 Testing of Materials for
Mechanical Properties
..Mechanical properties are conducted to
examine the performance of
construction materials under the
action of external forces.
..Mechanical tests are classified :
A. With reference to the
arrangement & direction of the
external forces;
 Tension Test
 Specimen under tension test is subjected to
an axial tensile force
 Tensile stress is developed on cross-
sectional area perpendicular to the line of
action of the force.
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 The specimen increase in length.
 Compression Test
 Specimen is subjected to an axial compressive force
 Compressive stress is produced.
 The specimen decrease in length.
 Shear test
In this test, shearing stress is determined on the
x-sectional area parallel to the line of action of the
external forces.
 Bending Test.
 Specimen is subjected to forces that give rise to
bending moments
 The resulting stresses are compressive on one side
of the neutral axis & tensile on the other side.
 Shear stress exist throughout the beam.
 Torsion Test
 This test is conducted to determine the shearing
strength of a material
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 The specimens for torsion test are generally
cylindrical in shape.
B. WITH REFERENCE TO THE RATE &
DURATION OF THE LOAD
APPLICATION.
 Static Tests
 Made with gradually increasing load.
eg. ordinary tests in tension & compression
etc.
 Dynamic Tests
 Made with suddenly applied loads.
 Wear Tests
 Made to determine the resistance to
abrasion & impact.
 Long time Tests
 These are made with the loads applied to the
object for long period of time.
 Fatigue Tests
 These tests are made with fluctuating
stresses repeated a large number of times 12
C. With Reference to the effect on the specimen.

 Destructive Test
 The specimens are either crushed or
ruptured and made useless at the end of the
tests.
 Tests conducted on the following materials
are best examples
..Ultimate strength of steel
..Compressive strength of concrete

 Non-destructive Tests
 Are used to test the strength of members of
existing structures without affecting their
performance.
 Example: hammer test
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2.4 Stress-Strain Properties in Simple
Tension Test
 In standard conventional tension test, specimen is
subjected to a gradually increasing axial tensile force
‘P’ by means of testing machine.

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 At various increments of load ,the change in length ∆L
of the specimen is measured.
∆L=L-Lo where L=new length
Lo =original length
 It is assumed that the stress is uniformly distributed
for all points on each x-section. This stress is
computed as follow;
σt =p/Ao where σt =tensile stress
Ao=X-sectional area
P= applied load

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 Theuniform stress will
produce a uniform elongation
∆L.The elongation per unit
length is strain & expressed
as: ε= ∆L / Lo Where ε =strain
∆L=elongation
Lo=original length of the specimen

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 Properties in the elastic range
 The parameters which are used to
describe the mechanical properties of a
material in the elastic range are:
 proportional limit,
 elastic limit,
 modulus of elasticity, stiffness etc

1.Proportional Limit: is the greatest stress which a

material is capable of withstanding without deviation
from the law of proportionality of stress to strain.

2.Elastic Limit: is the greatest stress which a material

is capable of withstanding without a permanent
deformation remaining up on the release of stress.

3.Yield Point :is the stress at which there occurs a

considerable increase in strain without an increase in
stress. Only ductile materials have both lower & upper 18
yield points.
 4.MODULUS OF ELASTICITY(YOUNG’S
MODULUS)

 is the slope of the initial linear

part of stress-strain diagram.
 The greater the modulus of
elasticity, the smaller the elastic
strain resulting from the
application of a given values.

Methods of determining
modulus of elasticity, E.
i. For ductile materials, with
linear stress – strain portion,
E= ∆ σt ∕ ∆ ε 19
 II.FOR MATERIALS WITH NON-LINEAR
STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
 The slope of the stress- strain curve
varies and the modulus of elasticity
cannot be readily determined.
 The following three methods are
employed to define E:
a. Initial-Tangent modulus: The slope of
the stress –strain curve at the origin
which has a value of E 1 =tanф1

Stress
(σt )

ф1
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Strain(ε )
b. Secant modulus : the slope of the line joining the
origin and the selected point on the stress-strain
curve with the value of E 2 =tanф2
Stress
(σt )

Strain(ε )
ф2

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c. Tangent modulus: The slope of the
tangent to the stress –strain curve at
the selected point with the value of E 3
=tanф3

ф
Stre
ss 3
(σt )

Strain(ε )

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5.Stiffness
 is the measure of the ability of material to resist
deformation.
 The higher the modulus of elasticity, the stiffer the
material.
 A material has a higher stiffness value when its
deformation in the elastic range is relatively small.
 Comparing steel alloys with E=210Gpa and aluminium
alloys with E=70Gpa,the steel alloys are about three
times as stiff as the aluminium alloys i.e steel alloys
will deform about one-third as much as aluminium
alloys for the same stress.

6.Poisson’s Ratio
 Is the ratio of the unit deformations or strains in
transverse direction to the longitudinal direction
within proportional limit.
µ= ε’∕ ε where ε’ = transverse strain, ε =longitudinal
strain
 Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the stiffness of the
material in the direction at right angle to applied load.

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 PROPERTIES FOR THE
PLASTIC RANGE
 The characteristic at the plastic range is that
there is a permanent deformation in the
stressed body after complete removal of the
load.
 The parameters which are used to describe
the mechanical properties for the plastic
range are; ultimate strength, ductility and
toughness.

 1.Ultimate Strength:-is the maximum

strength a material can possibly resist before
failure.
 Depending on the stress strain relationship
of a particular material, the plastic strength
will correspond to the ultimate strength or to
the fracture(rupture)strength.
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Stres
s Stres Ultimate or
Fracture Ultimate s
(σt ) fracture
strength strength (σt ) strength

Strain(ε )
Strain(ε )

Ductile material Brittle material

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2.Ductility:-
 represents its ability to deform in the
plastic range.
 Ductile materials show relatively higher
plastic deformation, i.e they are capable of
being drawn-out ,before rupture occurs.
 Ductility is measured by the percentage
elongation or percentage reduction in area.
De=Lf –Lo *100 Da =Ao-Af *100
Lo Ao

3.Toughness
 Is the ability of material to absorb energy
in the plastic range.
 A material with high toughness can absorb
high values of strain energy in the plastic
range. 26
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