THEORY AND DESIGN OF IC ENGINES -Module 5

Module 5

THEORY AND DESIGN OF IC ENGINES

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 THEORY AND DESIGN OF IC ENGINES -Module 5

Table of Contents

1. Stratified charge engines .....................................................................3

1.1. Methods of Charge Stratification .....................................................3

1.2. Advantages: ....................................................................................7

1.3. Disadvntages ..................................................................................8

2. Sterling engine .....................................................................................8

2.1. Types of Stirling Engines............................................................... 10

3. Wankel engine .................................................................................... 12

4. Methanol ............................................................................................ 15

4.1. Comparison of properties of methanol with petrol ........................ 16

5. Ethanol .............................................................................................. 18

6. Vegetable oils ..................................................................................... 21

6.1. Comparison of properties of Vegetable oils with diesel ................... 22

7. Biogas ................................................................................................ 24

7.1. Comparison of properties of Biogas with diesel .............................. 25

8. Biofuels .............................................................................................. 25

9. Hydrogen ............................................................................................ 25

9.1. Hydrogen engines and fuel cells: ................................................... 25

9.2. The disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel include: ................. 27

9.1. Comparison of properties of Hydrogen with petrol ......................... 27

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Module-5

Unconventional Engines &Alternative Fuels for IC Engine:

Working principle of stratified charge engines sterling engine, Wankel engine Methanol,
Ethanol, vegetable oils, biogas, biofuels, hydrogen, and comparison of their properties with
Diesel and petrol.

1. Stratified charge engines

The stratified charge engine is usually defined as a spark ignition internal combustion engine in
which the mixture in the zone of spark plug is very much richer than that in the rest of the
combustion chamber, i.e. one which burns leaner overall fuel-air mixtures.

Charge stratification means providing different fuel-air mixture strengths at various places in
the combustion chamber

Charge stratification means providing different fuel-air mixture strengths at various places in
the combustion chamber – a relatively rich mixture at and in the vicinity of the spark plug and
a leaner mixture in the rest of the combustion chamber. That is, the whole fuel-air mixture is
distributed in layers or strata of different mixture strengths across the combustion chamber
while the overall mixture is rather lean.

The stratified charge engine combines the advantages of both petrol engines (very good full
load power characteristics e.g. high degree of air utilisation, high speed and flexibility) and
diesel engines (good part-load characteristics) and at the same time avoids as far as possible
their disadvantages.

1.1. Methods of Charge Stratification

The stratified charge engines can be classified into two main categories, according to the
method of formation of the heterogeneous mixture in the combustion chamber.

(i) using fuel injection and positive ignition (including swirl stratified charge engines).

(ii) using carburetion alone.

1.1.1. Stratification by Fuel Injection and Positive Ignition

Fuel Injection Stratification:
• Stratified Charge Combustion: This involves creating a mixture of fuel and air where
different regions inside the combustion chamber have varying fuel-to-air ratios.
Specifically, near the spark plug, the mixture is richer (more fuel), while the rest of the
chamber has a leaner mixture (less fuel). This results in efficient combustion even under
low-load conditions.

• Direct Injection (DI): In modern stratified charge engines, fuel is injected directly into
the combustion chamber, rather than being pre-mixed with air in the intake manifold

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(like in older systems). This allows for better control over the fuel distribution, enabling
the engine to operate in a stratified mode when needed.

Positive Ignition (Spark Ignition):

• Positive Ignition refers to engines that ignite the fuel-air mixture using a spark from a
spark plug. This contrasts with compression ignition (like in diesel engines), where the
fuel ignites due to high pressure and temperature.

• In stratified charge engines using positive ignition, the spark plug ignites the richer
mixture near the plug first. This ignition spreads to the leaner areas of the combustion
chamber. This process allows the engine to burn the fuel more efficiently, especially
under light load conditions, and improves fuel efficiency while reducing emissions.

Advantages of Stratified Charge and Positive Ignition:

• Fuel Efficiency: By using less fuel in most of the combustion chamber (lean mixture)
and only a richer mixture near the spark plug, the engine can reduce fuel consumption,
especially during partial load operations (like cruising).

• Lower Emissions: Stratified combustion helps reduce certain types of emissions,

particularly nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), due to more efficient fuel
usage.

• Improved Power Output: With better combustion control, the engine can deliver more
power while using less fuel, leading to improved performance.

Example Applications:
• Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) Engines: Many modern vehicles use GDI technology
to achieve stratified charge combustion with positive ignition, maximizing fuel
efficiency and reducing emissions.

• Turbocharged Stratified Injection (TSI): This technology used by automakers like

Volkswagen combines turbocharging with direct fuel injection and stratified charge
combustion for enhanced performance and efficiency.

1. Ricardo system

2. Pre-chamber stratified charge engine

3. Volkswagon PCI stratified charge engine

4. Broderson method of stratification.

1.1.2. Charge Stratification by Swirl

Charge stratification by swirl is a technique used in internal combustion engines to enhance
the mixture formation of fuel and air, improving combustion efficiency, fuel economy, and
emissions control. The concept involves inducing a swirling motion to the air or fuel-air mixture
inside the combustion chamber, which plays a key role in creating a stratified charge.

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Swirl in the Combustion Chamber:

Swirl refers to a rotational motion of the air (or air-fuel mixture) within the combustion
chamber. This swirling effect is achieved by shaping the intake ports or combustion chamber
in such a way that the incoming air moves in a controlled, circular motion.

• Generation of Swirl: The design of the intake manifold and valves is optimized to
create a circular, swirling motion of air as it enters the cylinder. This can be enhanced
by using helical intake ports or tangential ports that direct the airflow in a specific
pattern, causing it to rotate as it fills the chamber.

Stratified Charge through Swirl:

In a stratified charge engine, the goal is to have different regions in the combustion chamber
with varying air-fuel ratios. By inducing swirl, you can create a layered or stratified
distribution of the fuel and air mixture. Here’s how swirl helps in achieving stratification:

• Central Fuel Concentration: Typically, in stratified charge engines, the fuel is injected
directly near the center of the combustion chamber (often around the spark plug). With
the swirling motion of air, the fuel remains concentrated around the center of the
chamber, creating a richer mixture near the spark plug.

• Lean Outer Layers: As the swirl continues to rotate the air, it carries less fuel toward
the outer regions of the combustion chamber, creating leaner mixtures in those areas.
This allows the combustion to start with the rich mixture near the spark plug and
gradually spread to the leaner regions.

Benefits of Swirl-Induced Charge Stratification:

• Improved Combustion Control: By using swirl to create a stratified charge, the engine
can ignite a rich mixture near the spark plug and still efficiently burn the leaner mixtures
in the outer chamber, leading to smoother and more complete combustion.

• Better Air-Fuel Mixing: Swirl helps improve the mixing of air and fuel, which is
especially important in direct injection engines. Better mixing leads to more uniform
combustion, reducing the likelihood of misfires and increasing efficiency.

• Enhanced Fuel Efficiency: By controlling the combustion process more effectively

through stratification and swirl, engines can burn less fuel under certain conditions,
improving fuel efficiency, especially at low-load or partial-load operations (like when
the vehicle is cruising).

• Lower Emissions: Charge stratification with swirl can help reduce harmful emissions,
such as hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The improved combustion
reduces unburnt fuel and allows lean-burn operation, which lowers NOx emissions.

Swirl in Different Engine Types:

• Gasoline Engines: In direct-injection gasoline engines, swirl is crucial to maintaining
a stratified charge near the spark plug for stable combustion.

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• Diesel Engines: Diesel engines naturally benefit from swirl due to their compression-
ignition operation. The high-pressure air is often swirled during intake to improve the
mixing of fuel injected into the chamber, ensuring better combustion and reduced soot
formation.

Swirl and Tumble Flow:

In some engine designs, tumble flow—a vertical circular motion of the air—is used in
conjunction with swirl. While swirl creates horizontal rotation around the cylinder axis, tumble
flow enhances mixing by moving air in a vertical loop. Both contribute to improved air-fuel
mixing and efficient combustion, particularly in high-performance engines.

1. Witzby swirl stratification process

2. Texaco combustion process (TCP)

3. Ford combustion process (FCP)

4. Ford PROCO

5. Deutz combustion process (AD-process).

1.1.3. Stratification by carburetion alone

Stratification by carburetion alone refers to the process of achieving a stratified air-fuel
mixture within the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine using only a
carburetor. While this method is less precise than modern fuel injection systems, stratification
by carburetion can still create some degree of fuel and air layering.

Challenges in Stratification with Carburetion:

Achieving stratified charge using carburetion alone is difficult due to the lack of precise
control over the fuel-air mixture compared to modern direct injection systems. Carburetors mix
fuel and air homogeneously, meaning the fuel is dispersed uniformly throughout the air before
entering the combustion chamber. This makes it hard to intentionally create rich and lean zones
within the chamber, which is the hallmark of stratified charge combustion.

However, certain techniques can induce a degree of stratification, even with carburetion:

Techniques to Achieve Stratification with Carburetors:

• Variable Intake Design: Some older engines used variable intake manifolds or dual-
barrel carburetors that provided different amounts of air and fuel under different
engine loads. This allowed for a relatively richer mixture near the spark plug under
certain conditions, while still allowing leaner mixtures elsewhere. For example:

o Progressive carburetors have one primary barrel for low-speed operation and
a secondary barrel that opens under high-load conditions, potentially providing
some stratification.

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• Swirl and Tumble Effects: In carbureted engines, the design of the intake manifold and
combustion chamber could be optimized to induce swirl or tumble of the air-fuel
mixture. This swirling motion might concentrate the fuel mixture in certain areas,
creating a richer zone near the spark plug and leaner zones farther away. However, this
is less controlled compared to stratification achieved in direct fuel injection systems.

• Intake Valve Timing: Adjusting the intake valve timing in carbureted engines can also
contribute to charge stratification. By controlling when and how much of the fuel-air
mixture enters the combustion chamber, it’s possible to create a region of the chamber
that has a richer mixture closer to the spark plug. Early valve closure can reduce the
amount of air in the chamber, creating a richer mixture in a localized area.

• Throttle Position: Under light throttle conditions, a carburetor naturally provides a

leaner mixture because less fuel is drawn into the air stream. However, the fuel may still
concentrate more near the intake valve and the spark plug, leading to partial
stratification.

Limitations of Stratification by Carburetion:

• Lack of Precision: Unlike modern direct injection engines where fuel is injected
directly into the combustion chamber at precise times and locations, carburetors lack the
ability to precisely control fuel delivery in this way. The mixture prepared by the
carburetor tends to be homogeneous, meaning stratification is limited.

• Inefficiency: Stratification by carburetion is less efficient compared to modern systems,

especially in terms of fuel economy and emissions. Modern Gasoline Direct Injection
(GDI) systems allow for fine control of fuel delivery, enabling much better stratified
charge combustion than carburetors can achieve.

1. Russian stratified charge concept.

2. Institute Francias Du Petrols (IFP) process.

3. Honda CVCC (Compound Vertex Controlled Combustion) engine.

1.2. Advantages:
1. Compact, lightweight design and good fuel economy.

2. Good part-load efficiency.

3. Exhibit multi-fuel capability.

4. The rich mixture near the spark plug and lean mixture near the piston surface provides
cushioning to the explosive combustion.

5. Resist the knocking and provide smooth combustion resulting in smooth and quiet engine
operation over the entire speed and load range.

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6. Low level of exhaust emissions ; NOx is reduced considerably.

7. Usually no starting problem.

8. Can tolerate wide quality of fuels.

9. Can be manufactured by the existing technology.

1.3. Disadvntages
1. For a given engine size, charge stratification results in reduced power.

2. These engines create high noise level at low load conditions.

3. More complex design to supply rich and lean mixture, and quantity is varied with load on the
engine.

4. Higher weight than that of a conventional engine.

5. Unthrottled stratified charge engines emit high percentage of HC (due to either incomplete
combustion of lean charge or occasional misfire of the charge at part load conditions.

6. Reliability is yet to be well established.

7. Higher manufacturing cost.

2. Sterling engine

The engine is designed in such a way that the working gas is generally compressed in the colder
portion of the engine and expanded in the hotter portion, resulting in a net conversion of heat
into work. An internal Regenerative heat exchanger increases the Stirling engine’s thermal
efficiency compared to simpler hot air engines which are lacking this feature.

The key principle of a Stirling engine is that there is always a fixed amount of a gas sealed
inside the engine. The Stirling cycle involves a series of events that change the pressure of the
gas inside the engine, causing it to do work.

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Figure 20.13 shows a simplified sketch of the Stirling engine. One cylinder is heated by an
external heat source (such as flame), and the other is cooled by an external cooling source (such
as ice). The gas chambers of the two cylinders are connected as shown in Fig.20.13. The pistons
are connected to each other mechanically by a linkage (not shown in figure) that determines
how they will move in relation to one another.

There are four processes in the Stirling cycle. The two pistons in the Fig.20.13 accomplish all
of the following processes of the cycle:

(i) Heat is added to the fixed mass of gas inside the heated cylinder (left), causing pressure to
build as per principle (a). This forces the piston to move down. During this stage of the cycle
the work is done.

(ii) The left piston will be made to move up while the right piston moves down by means of a
suitable link mechanism (not shown in the figure). This pushes the hot gas into the cooled
cylinder, which quickly cools the gas to the temperature of the cooling source, lowering its
pressure. This makes it easier to compress the gas in the next stage of the cycle.

(iii) The piston in the cooled cylinder (right) starts to compress the gas. Heat generated by this
compression is removed by the cooling source.

(iv) The right piston moves up while the left piston moves down. This forces the gas into the
heated cylinder, where it quickly heats up, building pressure, at which point the cycle repeats.

It may be noted that the Stirling engine develops power only during the first process (stage 1)
of the cycle.

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2.1. Types of Stirling Engines

(i) The two piston alpha type: In this design, pistons are in two independent cylinders,
and gas is driven between the hot and cold spaces.
(ii) The displacement type: This design is known as beta and gamma types. This type
uses an insulated mechanical displacer to push the working gas between the hot and
cold sides of the cylinder. The displacer is large enough to insulate the hot and cold
sides of the cylinder thermally and to displace a large quantity of gas. There must be
enough gap between the displacer and the cylinder wall to allow gas to flow around
the displacer easily.

2.1.1. Alpha Stirling Engine

Figures 20.14 shows the working of an alpha Stirling engine. But they do not show internal heat
exchangers in the compression and expansion spaces, which are needed to produce power. A
regenerator would be placed in the pipe connecting the two cylinders. The crankshaft has also
been omitted. There are four steps involved

(i) Refer Fig.20.14(a). Most of the working gas is in contact with the hot cylinder walls. During
the first part of the cycle, the gas is heated and pressure builds up. This forces the piston to
move to the left doing work. The gas in the hot cylinder is at its maximum volume. The cooled
piston stays approximately stationary because it is at the point of revolution where it changes
direction.

(ii) In the second stage [refer Fig.20.14(b)] both the pistons move. The heated piston moves to
the right and the cooled piston moves up. This makes most of the hot gas to move into the
cooled piston cylinder through the connecting passage with regenerator.

The regenerator is a device that can temporarily store heat. It may be a heated mesh of wire
through which the hot gas pass through. The large surface area of the wire must quickly absorb
most of the heat. This leaves less heat to be removed by the cooling fins. Because of cooling
the pressure drops.

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(iii) In this stage all the gas is in the cooled cylinder and cooling continues [refer Fig.20.14(c)].
The cooled piston, powered by flywheel momentum starts to compress the gas. The heat
generated by the compression is removed by the cooling fins. The gas in the cooled cylinder
reaches the maximum volume.

(iv) In the last phase of the cycle, both pistons move – the cooled piston moves down while the
heated piston moves to the left. This forces the gas across the regenerator (where it picks up the
heat that was stored there during the previous cycle) and into the heated cylinder. At this point,
the cycle begins again.

2.1.2. Beta Stirling Engine

The following Fig.20.15(a–d) gives the details of beta Stirling engine, but do not show the
internal heat exchangers or a regenerator, which will be placed in the gas path around the
displacer. The working principle is as follows:

(i) To start with, power piston compresses the cooled gas in the cold heat exchanger space
passing it through the displacer piston towards the hot heat exchanger [Fig.20.15(a)].

(ii) Because of the heat addition from the hot exchanger, pressure of the gas increases and
pushes the power piston to the farthest limit of the power stroke [Fig.20.15(b)].

(iii) The displacer piston now moves down, shunting the gas to the cold end of the cylinder
[Fig.20.15(c)] where it gets cooled quickly.

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(iv) The cooled gas is now compressed by the power piston due to the flywheel momentum.
This takes less energy, since when gas is cooled its pressure drops [Fig.20.15(d)] and the cycle
repeats

3. Wankel engine

A typical design of the Wankel engine is shown in the Fig.20.34. There are three apexes as seen
in the figure. The (8) marked in the figure is one of the three apexes of the rotor. The (4) marked
is the eccentric shaft and (7) is the lobe of the eccentric shaft. The shaft turns three times for

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each rotation of the rotor around the housing. It rotates once for each orbital revolution around
the eccentric shaft.

In the Wankel engine, the four strokes (Fig.20.35) of a typical Otto cycle occur in the space
between a three-sided symmetric rotor and the inside of a housing. The expansion phase of the
Wankel cycle is much longer than that of the Otto cycle. In the basic single-rotor Wankel
engine, the oval-like epitrochoid-shaped housing (2) surrounds a rotor. The configuration of
rotor is triangular with bow-shaped flanks. It has three-pointed curve of constant width
(Fig.20.34) having the bulge in the middle of each side. The shape of the rotor between the
fixed corners is so designed to achieve minimum volume of the geometric combustion chamber
and to maximize the compression ratio.

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The central drive shaft, called the eccentric shaft or e-shaft, passes through the center of the
rotor. It is supported by fixed bearings. The rotors ride on eccentrics (analogous to cranks)
integral to the eccentric shaft (analogous to a crankshaft). The rotors rotate around the eccentrics
and at the same time make orbital revolutions around the eccentric shaft. Seals at the corners of
the rotor seal against the periphery of the housing, dividing it into three moving combustion
chambers. The rotation of each rotor on its own axis is caused and controlled by a pair of
synchronizing gears. A fixed gear mounted on one side of the rotor housing engages a ring gear
attached to the rotor and ensures the rotor moves exactly 1/3 turn for each turn of the eccentric
shaft. The power output of the engine is not transmitted through the synchronizing gears. The
force of gas pressure on the rotor (to a first approximation) goes directly to the center of the
eccentric, part of the output shaft.

The Wankel engine is actually a variable-volume progressing-cavity system. Thus there are 3
cavities per housing, all repeating the same cycle. Note as well that points A and B on the rotor
and e-shaft turn at different speed, point B moves 3 times faster than point A, so that one full
orbit of the rotor equates to 3 turns of the e-shaft.

3.1.1. Advantages:
(i) Wankel engines are considerably lighter, simpler, and contain far fewer moving part

(ii) There are no valves or complex valve trains

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(iii) There are no connecting rods and there is no crankshaft.

(iv) The elimination of reciprocating mass and the elimination of the most highly stressed and
failure prone parts of piston engines gives the Wankel engine high reliability, a smoother flow
of power, and a high power-toweight ratio.

(v) It has higher volumetric efficiency and a lower pumping loss

(vi) It is very quick to react to throttle changes and is able to quickly deliver a surge of power
when the demand arises, especially at higher rpm.

(vii) A further advantage of the Wankel engine for use in remotely piloted aircrafts is the fact
that a Wankel engine generally has a smaller frontal area than a piston engine of equivalent
power, allowing a more aerodynamic nose to be designed around it.

(viii) The simplicity of design and smaller size of the Wankel engine also allows for savings in
construction costs, compared to piston engines of comparable power output.

(ix) Due to a 50% longer stroke duration compared to a four-cycle engine, there is more time to
complete the combustion. This leads to greater suitability for direct injection.

(x) A Wankel rotary engine has stronger flow of air-fuel mixture and a longer operating cycle
than a reciprocating engine

3.1.2. Disadvantages:
(i) In two dimensions the sealing system of a Wankel looks to be simpler than that of a
corresponding multi-cylinder piston engine. However, in three dimensions the opposite is true.
The rotor must also seal against the chamber ends which is comparatively difficult.

(ii) The less effective sealing of the Wankel is one factor reducing its efficiency, limiting its use
mainly to applications such as racing engines and sports vehicles where neither efficiency nor
long engine life are major considerations.

(iii) The time available for fuel to be port-injected into a Wankel engine is significantly shorter,
compared to four-stroke piston engines, due to the way the three chambers rotate.

(iv) The fuel-air mixture cannot be pre-stored as there is no intake valve.

4. Methanol

Of all the fuels being considered as an alternate to gasoline, methanol is one of the most
promising and has experienced major research and development. Pure methanol and mixtures
of methanol and gasoline in various percentages have been extensively tested in engines and
vehicles for a number of years. The most common mixtures are M85 (85% methanol and 15%
gasoline) and M10 (10% methanol and 90% gasoline). The data of these tests which include
performance and emission levels are compared with pure gasoline (M0) and pure methanol
(M100). Some smart flexible fuel (or variable fuel) engines are capable of using any random
mixture combination of methanol and gasoline ranging from pure methanol to pure gasoline.

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Two fuel tanks are used and various flow rates of the two fuels can be pumped to the engine,
passing through a mixing chamber. Using information from sensors in the intake and exhaust,
the electronic monitoring system (EMS) adjusts to the proper airfuel ratio, ignition timing,
injection timing, and valve timing (where possible) for the fuel mixture being used.

Methanol can be obtained from many sources, both fossil and renewable. These include coal,
petroleum, natural gas, biomass, wood, landfills, and even the ocean. However, any source that
requires extensive manufacturing or processing raises the price of the fuel.

Emissions from an engine using M10 fuel are about the same as those using gasoline. The
advantage (and disadvantage) of using this fuel is mainly the 10% decrease in gasoline use.
With M85 fuel there is a measurable decrease in HC and CO exhaust emissions. However, there
is an increase in NOx and a large (≈ 500%) increase in formaldehyde emissions.

Methanol is used in some dual-fuel CI engines. Methanol by itself is not a good CI engine fuel
because of its high octane number, but if a small amount of diesel oil is used for ignition, it can
be used with good results. This is very attractive for developing countries, because methanol
can often be obtained from much cheaper source than diesel oil.

4.1. Comparison of properties of methanol with petrol

1. Chemical Composition

• Methanol: CH₃OH (simple alcohol, one carbon atom).

• Petrol (Gasoline): A complex mixture of hydrocarbons (mainly alkanes, cycloalkanes,

and aromatics) typically containing 4 to 12 carbon atoms.

2. Energy Density

• Methanol: 19.7 MJ/kg (Megajoules per kilogram) or 15.6 MJ/L (Megajoules per liter).

• Petrol: 44.4 MJ/kg or 34.2 MJ/L.

• Conclusion: Petrol has a much higher energy density than methanol, meaning it stores
more energy per unit of mass or volume.

3. Octane Rating

• Methanol: High octane rating of around 108.

• Petrol: Typically around 87 to 100, depending on the grade.

• Conclusion: Methanol has a higher octane rating, which reduces knocking in engines
and allows for higher compression ratios, improving engine efficiency.

4. Flammability and Safety

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• Methanol: Lower flash point (~11°C), highly flammable, burns with a nearly invisible
flame.

• Petrol: Flash point between -43°C to -20°C, burns with a visible flame.

• Conclusion: Both are flammable, but methanol has a slightly lower flash point, meaning
it can ignite at a slightly lower temperature. However, methanol flames are harder to
see, making it more dangerous during a fire.

5. Combustion and Emissions

• Methanol: Burns more cleanly, producing fewer particulates and less CO₂ (when
considering tailpipe emissions) and negligible sulfur emissions. However, it can emit
formaldehyde and other aldehydes.

• Petrol: Produces CO₂, CO, unburned hydrocarbons, NOₓ, particulates, and sulfur
compounds, contributing to air pollution.

• Conclusion: Methanol produces fewer overall emissions but can emit harmful
aldehydes.

6. Environmental Impact

• Methanol: Can be produced from renewable resources such as biomass or through CO₂
capture, potentially reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions.

• Petrol: Derived from fossil fuels, contributing to significant CO₂ emissions and
environmental degradation through extraction and refining processes.

• Conclusion: Methanol can be more environmentally friendly when produced

renewably, while petrol's use contributes more to global warming and pollution.

7. Corrosiveness

• Methanol: Highly corrosive to aluminum, rubber, and certain other materials used in
traditional internal combustion engines. Special engine components are needed for
methanol use.

• Petrol: Less corrosive than methanol, making it easier to store and transport in
conventional vehicles and infrastructure.

• Conclusion: Methanol requires specialized materials in engines and fuel systems due to
its corrosive nature.

8. Cost and Availability

• Methanol: Generally cheaper to produce but less widely available as a fuel.

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• Petrol: Widely available due to established infrastructure but subject to price

fluctuations based on crude oil prices.

• Conclusion: Petrol is more widely available, while methanol production costs are lower
but infrastructure for widespread use is lacking.

9. Fuel Efficiency

• Methanol: Lower fuel efficiency due to its lower energy content; vehicles running on
methanol would need more frequent refueling or larger fuel tanks.

• Petrol: Higher fuel efficiency per liter, requiring less fuel for the same amount of work.

• Conclusion: Petrol provides better fuel efficiency, but methanol’s higher octane rating
can allow for more efficient engine designs.

10. Toxicity

• Methanol: Highly toxic if ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. It can cause
blindness or death.

• Petrol: Toxic as well but less so compared to methanol. Inhalation of fumes can cause
health problems.

• Conclusion: Both are toxic, but methanol is more dangerous in terms of human
exposure.

5. Ethanol

Ethanol has been used as automobile fuel for many years in various countries of the world.
Brazil is probably the leading user, where in the early 1990s. About 5 million vehicles operated

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on fuels that were 93% ethanol. For a number of years gasohol (gasoline + alcohol) has been
available at service stations in the United States. Gasohol is a mixture of 90% gasoline and 10%
ethanol. As with methanol, the development of systems using mixtures of gasoline and ethanol
continues. Two mixture combinations that are important are E85 (85% ethanol) and E10
(gasohol). E85 is basically an alcohol fuel with 15% gasoline added to eliminate some of the
problems of pure alcohol (i.e., cold starting, tank flammability, etc.). E10 reduces the use of
gasoline with no modification needed to the automobile engine. Flexible-fuel engines are being
tested which can operate on any ratio of ethanol-gasoline. Ethanol can be made from ethylene
or from fermentation of grains and sugar. Much of it is made from corn, sugar beets, sugar cane,
and even cellulose (wood and paper). The present cost of ethanol is high due to the
manufacturing and processing required. This would be reduced if larger amounts of this fuel
were used. However, very high production would create a food-fuel competition, with resulting
higher costs for both. Some studies show that at present in the United States, crops grown for
the production of ethanol consume more energy in ploughing, planting, harvesting, fermenting,
and delivery than what is in the final product. This defeats one major reason for using an
alternate fuel. Ethanol has less HC emissions than gasoline but more than methanol.

5.1. Comparison of properties of ethanol with petrol

1. Chemical Composition

• Ethanol: C₂H₅OH (an alcohol compound).

• Petrol: A mixture of hydrocarbons, primarily alkanes (C₇H₁₆ to C₁₁H₂₄) with some

aromatics and additives.

2. Energy Content (Calorific Value)

• Ethanol: ~26.7 MJ/kg or 21.1 MJ/L (megajoules per liter).

• Petrol: ~46.4 MJ/kg or 34.2 MJ/L.

• Implication: Petrol has a higher energy content, so more ethanol is required to produce
the same amount of energy.

3. Octane Rating

• Ethanol: 108–113 (very high).

• Petrol: 87–98, depending on the grade.

• Implication: Ethanol has a higher octane rating, which allows engines to run at higher
compression ratios, improving efficiency and performance without knocking.

4. Air-Fuel Ratio

• Ethanol: The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is 9:1 (9 parts air to 1 part ethanol).

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• Petrol: The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is 14.7:1 (14.7 parts air to 1 part petrol).

• Implication: Ethanol requires less air to burn, so engines need to be adjusted

accordingly when using ethanol as a fuel.

5. Vapor Pressure

• Ethanol: Lower vapor pressure (2.3 psi at 20°C).

• Petrol: Higher vapor pressure (7–15 psi at 20°C).

• Implication: Petrol evaporates more readily at room temperature, making it easier to

start engines in cold weather. Ethanol blends (like E10, which is 10% ethanol and 90%
petrol) are often used to balance starting performance.

6. Combustion Characteristics

• Ethanol: Burns cleaner, producing fewer carbon deposits and lower levels of particulate
matter, carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons (HC).

• Petrol: Produces more CO, HC, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, and results in
greater carbon deposits inside the engine.

• Implication: Ethanol is considered a cleaner-burning fuel.

7. Carbon Emissions

• Ethanol: Renewable fuel, generally reduces greenhouse gas emissions, especially when
produced from sustainable sources like sugarcane or corn.

• Petrol: Derived from fossil fuels, contributing significantly to CO₂ emissions and global
warming.

• Implication: Ethanol has a lower carbon footprint compared to petrol, but its production
process (especially if derived from crops) can affect its overall environmental impact.

8. Miscibility with Water

• Ethanol: Fully miscible with water, meaning it can absorb water easily.

• Petrol: Hydrophobic, does not mix with water.

• Implication: Ethanol can attract water into the fuel system, which may cause corrosion
or fuel phase separation, especially in humid environments.

9. Production Source

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• Ethanol: Primarily produced from biomass (e.g., corn, sugarcane, cellulosic material)
through fermentation.

• Petrol: Produced by refining crude oil.

• Implication: Ethanol is renewable, while petrol is a non-renewable resource.

10. Cost

• Ethanol: Generally less expensive per gallon than petrol but less energy-dense, meaning
more frequent refueling is required.

• Petrol: Typically more expensive per gallon but more energy-dense, meaning fewer
refuels are necessary.

11. Environmental Impact

• Ethanol: Burns cleaner, reducing some harmful emissions. However, its production can
contribute to deforestation, water use, and land use issues.

• Petrol: Causes higher levels of pollution, contributes to oil spills, and has a larger carbon
footprint in its production and use.

12. Engine Compatibility

• Ethanol: Engines need to be modified or designed to run efficiently on higher ethanol

blends (above E10 or E15). Flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) are designed to run on higher
ethanol concentrations.

• Petrol: Conventional engines are optimized for petrol, though most can handle low
ethanol blends (like E10) without modification.

6. Vegetable oils

Vegetable oil is considered as one of the alternative fuels for diesel engines However, the
viscosity of vegetable oil is higher compared to diesel. Therefore, it must be lowered to allow
for proper atomization in engines designed to burn diesel fuel. Otherwise, incomplete
combustion and carbon build up will ultimately damage the engine. Some literatures classify
vegetable oil as Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO) and Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO) or Pure Plant
Oil (PPO) to distinguish it from biodiesel. Free fatty acids in WVO have a detrimental effect
on metals. Copper and its alloys, such as brass, are affected by WVO. Zinc and zinc-plating are
stripped by FFA’s and tin, lead, iron, and steel are affected too. Stainless steel and aluminum
are generally unaffected.

As of 2010, the United States was producing in excess of 12 billion liters of waste vegetable oil
annually, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories

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and fast food restaurants. If all those 12 billion liters could be collected and used to replace the
energy equivalent amount of petroleum almost 1% of US oil consumption could be offset. It is
to be noted that use of waste vegetable oil as a fuel, competes with some other uses of the
commodity. This has effects on its price as a fuel and increases its cost as an input to the other
uses as well.

The main form of SVO/PPO used in various countries is rapeseed oil which has a freezing point
of −10◦C. Use of sunflower oil, which gels at around −12◦C, is currently being investigated as
a means of improving cold weather starting. Unfortunately oils with lower gelling points tend
to be less saturated

6.1. Comparison of properties of Vegetable oils with diesel

1. Chemical Composition

• Vegetable Oils: Composed primarily of triglycerides, which are large, complex

molecules made of fatty acids.

• Diesel: A hydrocarbon mixture derived from crude oil, mainly composed of alkanes,
cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.

2. Viscosity

• Vegetable Oils: Much higher viscosity than diesel, typically around 30-40 cSt
(centistokes) at 40°C.

• Diesel: Lower viscosity, around 2-4 cSt at 40°C.

• Impact: Vegetable oils are more viscous, leading to poor atomization and incomplete
combustion in conventional diesel engines without modification.

3. Density

• Vegetable Oils: Higher density, ranging from 0.87 to 0.94 g/cm³.

• Diesel: Lower density, around 0.82 to 0.85 g/cm³.

• Impact: Higher density of vegetable oils may affect fuel injection systems, as they are
designed for diesel's specific density.

4. Heating Value (Energy Content)

• Vegetable Oils: Lower heating value, approximately 35-40 MJ/kg.

• Diesel: Higher heating value, around 42-45 MJ/kg.

• Impact: Diesel has more energy per unit of mass, leading to better fuel efficiency
compared to vegetable oils.

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5. Cetane Number

• Vegetable Oils: Lower cetane number, generally in the range of 30-40.

• Diesel: Higher cetane number, typically around 40-55.

• Impact: Cetane number measures the combustion quality of fuel. Vegetable oils may
lead to longer ignition delays, affecting engine performance.

6. Flash Point

• Vegetable Oils: Higher flash point, around 220-280°C.

• Diesel: Lower flash point, around 52-96°C.

• Impact: A higher flash point makes vegetable oils safer for storage but less suitable for
use as a direct replacement for diesel.

7. Oxidative Stability

• Vegetable Oils: Poor oxidative stability; they can polymerize and form deposits in the
engine over time.

• Diesel: More stable, as it is less prone to oxidation.

• Impact: Vegetable oils may require additives or conversion into biodiesel to improve
stability.

8. Cold Flow Properties

• Vegetable Oils: Poor cold flow properties, tending to solidify or gel at lower
temperatures.

• Diesel: Better cold flow properties, especially with winter additives.

• Impact: Vegetable oils can clog fuel lines and filters in cold weather.

9. Environmental Impact

• Vegetable Oils: Renewable, biodegradable, and produce less sulfur dioxide and
particulate matter emissions compared to diesel.

• Diesel: Fossil fuel-based, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution.

• Impact: Vegetable oils or their biodiesel derivatives are considered more

environmentally friendly.

10. Engine Compatibility

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• Vegetable Oils: Require engine modifications (e.g., preheating systems) or conversion

to biodiesel for long-term use in diesel engines.

• Diesel: Compatible with standard diesel engines without modifications.

• Impact: Diesel offers better reliability in conventional engines, while vegetable oils
need significant adaptation.

7. Biogas

Biogas is another alternate fuel tried in diesels. Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion
of organic matter. Potential raw materials available on a large scale are cow dung, municipal
wastes, and plants specially grown for this purpose like water hyacinth, algae, certain types of
grasses. The main advantage of bio-gas is that it can be produced in rural areas from readily
available materials. Bio gas consists mainly of methane and carbon dioxide. Its calorific value
is low but its knock resistance (octane number) is high and ignition quality (cetane number) is
low. In dual fuel type diesel engine, the gas is mixed with the incoming air and ignited by pilot
diesel fuel injection. Similar to the behaviour of alcohol diesel oil dual fuel engines, this gas
engine also suffers a fall in efficiency at part loads, compared to the diesel engine, but has good
efficiency at full power output.

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7.1. Comparison of properties of Biogas with diesel

8. Biofuels

9. Hydrogen

9.1. Hydrogen engines and fuel cells:

Both hydrogen internal combustion engines and hydrogen fuel cells can power vehicles using
hydrogen, a zero-carbon fuel.

Hydrogen engines burn hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, in just the same way
gasoline is used in an engine. Hydrogen internal combustion engines (Hydrogen ICE) are nearly
identical to traditional spark-ignition engines. You can read more about how hydrogen engines
work if interested.

Fuel cell hydrogen vehicles (FCEVs) generate electricity from hydrogen in a device known as
a fuel cell, and use that electricity in an electric motor much like an electric vehicle.

9.1.1. Fuel cell

Fuel cells require a continuous input of fuel and an oxidizing agent (generally oxygen) in order to
sustain the reactions that generate the electricity. Therefore, these cells can constantly generate
electricity until the supply of fuel and oxygen is cut off.

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Despite being invented in the year 1838, fuel cells began commercial use only a century later when
they were used by NASA to power space capsules and satellites. Today, these devices are used as
the primary or secondary source of power for many facilities including industries, commercial
buildings, and residential buildings.

A fuel cell is similar to electrochemical cells, which consists of a cathode, an anode, and an
electrolyte. In these cells, the electrolyte enables the movement of the protons.

The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen can be used to generate electricity via a fuel cell.
Such a cell was used in the Apollo space programme and it served two different purposes – It
was used as a fuel source as well as a source of drinking water (the water vapour produced from
the cell, when condensed, was fit for human consumption).

The working of this fuel cell involved the passing of hydrogen and oxygen into a concentrated
solution of sodium hydroxide via carbon electrodes. The cell reaction can be written as follows:

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–

Anode Reaction: 2H2 + 4OH– → 4H2O + 4e–

Net Cell Reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

A number of automobile manufacturers have built with prototype or modified engines which
operate on hydrogen fuel. The advantages of hydrogen as an IC engine fuel include:

• Low emissions. Essentially no CO or HC in the exhaust as there is no carbon in the fuel. Most
exhaust would be H2O and N2 and NOx.

• Fuel availability. There are a number of different ways of making hydrogen, including
electrolysis of water.

• Fuel leakage to environment is not a pollutant.

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• High energy content per volume when stored as a liquid. This would give a large vehicle range
for a given fuel tank capacity.

9.2. The disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel include:

• Requirement of heavy, bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service stations. Hydrogen
can be stored either as a cryogenic liquid or as a compressed gas. If stored as a liquid, it would
have to be kept under pressure at a very low temperature requiring a thermally superinsulated
fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a high pressure vessel with limited capacity.

• Difficult to refuel and the possibility of detonation.

• Poor engine volumetric efficiency. Any time a gaseous fuel is used in an engine, the fuel will
displace some of the inlet air and poorer volumetric efficiency will result.

• Fuel cost would be high at present-day technology and availability.

• High NOx emissions because of high flame temperature.

9.1. Comparison of properties of Hydrogen with petrol

1. Energy Content

• Hydrogen: Hydrogen has a high energy content by weight. The energy content of
hydrogen is approximately 120 MJ/kg (megajoules per kilogram).

• Petrol (Gasoline): Petrol has an energy content of about 44-46 MJ/kg or approximately
32 MJ/L (megajoules per liter).

• Comparison: Hydrogen has almost three times the energy content by weight
compared to petrol. However, by volume, petrol has a much higher energy density due
to the difficulty of compressing hydrogen efficiently.

2. Combustion and Emissions

• Hydrogen: When hydrogen is burned or used in a fuel cell, the only byproduct is water
(H₂O), making it a zero-emissions fuel in terms of greenhouse gases.

• Petrol: Burning petrol releases significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂), a major
greenhouse gas, as well as nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), particulate matter, and other
pollutants.

• Comparison: Hydrogen is environmentally cleaner, with no direct CO₂ emissions.

Petrol contributes heavily to air pollution and climate change.

3. Storage and Transportation

• Hydrogen: Hydrogen is a light gas, which makes it difficult to store and transport. It
needs to be compressed to very high pressures (typically 350–700 bar) or stored as a

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liquid at extremely low temperatures (-253°C). Hydrogen also requires specialized tanks
and pipelines to avoid leakage.

• Petrol: Petrol is a liquid at ambient temperature and pressure, making it relatively easy
to store, transport, and distribute using existing infrastructure.

• Comparison: Petrol is far easier and more economical to store and transport compared
to hydrogen, which requires advanced and expensive infrastructure.

4. Fuel Efficiency

• Hydrogen: When used in fuel cells, hydrogen can achieve an efficiency of 40-60%. In
internal combustion engines (ICEs), hydrogen’s efficiency is lower, around 20-30%.

• Petrol: Internal combustion engines running on petrol typically have an efficiency of

about 25-30%.

• Comparison: Hydrogen fuel cells are much more efficient than petrol combustion
engines. However, hydrogen used in ICEs has comparable or slightly lower efficiency
than petrol.

5. Safety

• Hydrogen: Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive in certain conditions.

However, it is much lighter than air, so leaks tend to dissipate quickly. Proper storage
and handling are crucial for safety.

• Petrol: Petrol is also highly flammable and poses significant fire and explosion risks,
especially in enclosed spaces.

• Comparison: Both fuels are flammable, but hydrogen’s lightness allows it to escape
more easily, which may reduce the risk of explosive incidents in open spaces compared
to petrol.

6. Environmental Impact

• Hydrogen: When derived from renewable sources (like water via electrolysis powered
by solar or wind), hydrogen has a minimal environmental footprint. However, most
hydrogen today is produced from natural gas (methane), which can still result in CO₂
emissions unless carbon capture technologies are used (blue hydrogen).

• Petrol: Petrol is derived from crude oil, a fossil fuel, and its extraction, refining, and
combustion all contribute significantly to environmental degradation and greenhouse
gas emissions.

• Comparison: Hydrogen, especially green hydrogen, is far more environmentally

friendly than petrol, which has a negative impact on the environment throughout its
lifecycle.

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7. Cost

• Hydrogen: Hydrogen is currently more expensive to produce, store, and transport than
petrol. The costs vary depending on the production method. Green hydrogen (produced
via electrolysis using renewable energy) is more expensive than grey hydrogen
(produced from natural gas).

• Petrol: Petrol is widely available and relatively cheap due to established production and
distribution infrastructure. However, prices fluctuate with crude oil supply and demand.

• Comparison: At present, petrol is cheaper than hydrogen, though advancements in

hydrogen technology could reduce costs in the future.

8. Infrastructure

• Hydrogen: Hydrogen infrastructure, including refueling stations and pipelines, is still

in its early stages of development. There are relatively few hydrogen refueling stations,
and expanding the network will require significant investment.

• Petrol: Petrol has a well-established global infrastructure with millions of refueling

stations and an extensive pipeline and distribution network.

• Comparison: Petrol has a mature infrastructure worldwide, while hydrogen

infrastructure is still under development.

9. Sustainability

• Hydrogen: If produced from renewable sources, hydrogen is a sustainable and

renewable energy carrier.

• Petrol: Petrol is a finite resource, as it is derived from crude oil, which is non-renewable.

• Comparison: Hydrogen is potentially more sustainable than petrol, especially when

produced using renewable energy.

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