Assignment-1

Foundations of Cryptography
Name: shiffa khanam
Roll: 22691a3741
Set-c
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1)Explain the network security model and its important parameters with a
neat block diagram.
A) Network Security Model :
The Network Security Model is a conceptual design that outlines how secure communication
can be achieved over potentially unsafe networks such as the internet. It focuses on
protecting the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of data as it travels from one device
to another. Since networks are vulnerable to various cyber threats, this model plays a crucial
role in ensuring that information remains safe from unauthorized access, manipulation, or
theft during transmission. It uses a variety of security techniques to establish a trusted path
between the sender and receiver, making sure the information shared is protected
throughout the process.

Goals of Network Security model:

1. Confidentiality – Preventing unauthorized users from viewing sensitive data.

2. Integrity – Ensuring that the information is not altered or tampered with during
transmission.

3. Authentication – Confirming that both the sender and the receiver are who they
claim to be.

4. Non-repudiation – Making sure that a sender cannot later deny having sent a
message.

5. Access Control – Limiting system access to only those users who are permitted to use
it.

6. Availability – Ensuring that systems and data are accessible to legitimate users when
needed, without interruption or delay.
Parameters of network security model:
To provide effective protection, the network security model consists of several key
components:

 Sender: The individual or system that initiates and sends the message.

 Receiver: The person or system for whom the message is intended.

 Data/Message: The actual content that needs to be transferred securely.

 Transmission Path: The network medium through which the data travels, such as Wi-
Fi, the internet, or a private LAN.

 Security Mechanisms: Tools like firewalls, encryption systems, digital signatures, and
anti-malware software that help protect the data.

 Encryption and Decryption: Encryption changes the message into an unreadable

How the Network Security Model Works

The process begins when the sender generates the message that needs to be transmitted
securely. Before sending it, the message is processed using various security tools to ensure it
is protected from threats. One of the most common techniques used is encryption, which
scrambles the original message into an unreadable format. This ensures that if the message
is intercepted, it cannot be understood without the proper key. In addition to encryption,
methods such as digital signatures and security certificates are used to confirm the identity
of the sender and to ensure the data has not been altered.

After these protective measures are applied, the message is sent across the chosen network
medium. Even though this medium may be open to attacks, the encryption ensures that the
message cannot be read or modified by intruders. Once the message reaches its destination,
the receiver decrypts it using a matching key, converting it back to its original form. At this
point, the system also checks the sender’s credentials and verifies that the message was not
changed along the way. If everything checks out, the message is accepted and delivered
safely to the receiver.

This complete process ensures that all communication over the network remains secure,
trusted, and resistant to unauthorized interference.

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2)Describe DES algorithm with neat diagram and explain the steps.
A) DES (Data Encryption Standard)
Definition:
The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric key algorithm used for encrypting and
decrypting data in digital communication. It was developed by IBM and later adopted by the
U.S. government as a federal standard. DES operates on fixed-size blocks of data—
specifically 64-bit blocks—and uses a 56-bit key to perform the encryption process. Since
DES uses the same key for both encryption and decryption, it falls under the category of
symmetric encryption algorithms.

Key Characteristics of DES:

 Key Length: 64 bits (only 56 bits are used, 8 are for parity checking)

 Encryption Rounds: 16 rounds of repeated processing

 Encryption Type: Symmetric (same key for encryption and decryption)

 Design Structure: Based on the Feistel network model

Overview of DES Architecture (Diagram Description):

1. The 64-bit input message undergoes an Initial Permutation (IP), which is a predefined
rearrangement of bits.

2. This permuted block is divided into two 32-bit halves: the Left Half (L0) and Right Half
(R0).
 3. DES performs 16 rounds of processing, where each round applies an encryption
function to the right half and combines it with the left half using XOR.

4. In each round, a different 48-bit subkey is used, derived from the original 56-bit key.

5. After all rounds, the two halves are combined and passed through the Inverse Initial
Permutation (IP⁻¹) to produce the final 64-bit encrypted output.

Step-by-Step Working of DES:

The encryption process begins with an initial permutation of the 64-bit plaintext block. This
permutation is defined by a fixed table and simply rearranges the bits to increase diffusion.

2. Splitting the Block

After the initial permutation, the 64-bit block is split into two equal halves:

 Left Half (L0)

 Right Half (R0)

3. Key Generation (Subkeys for Rounds)

The main encryption key, which is 64 bits long, is first stripped of 8 parity bits, resulting in a
56-bit working key. From this key, a set of 16 unique subkeys, each 48 bits in length, is
created using a process involving bit shifting and permutation. Each round uses a different
subkey.

4. Sixteen Rounds of Processing

For each of the 16 rounds:

 A function f() is applied to the right half and the round-specific subkey.

 The result of this function is then XORed with the left half.

 The left and right halves are then swapped for the next round.

This is repeated 16 times, following the Feistel structure, which makes encryption and
decryption processes symmetrical.

5. Final Transformation

After completing all 16 rounds, the final swap is either performed or skipped (depending on
implementation), and the two halves are recombined.

6. Inverse Initial Permutation (IP⁻¹)

Decryption in DES:
Decryption in DES follows the same steps as encryption, but the subkeys are applied in
reverse order, from round 16 to round 1. Thanks to the Feistel structure, the encryption and
decryption algorithms are almost identical

Conclusion:
The DES algorithm was widely used for secure communication for many years. However, as
computing power increased, DES became vulnerable to brute-force attacks due to its short
key length. Today, it's mainly studied as a foundational concept in cryptography. It has been
replaced in practice by more secure algorithms like Triple DES (3DES) and AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard). Nonetheless, DES remains important in understanding the principles
of symmetric encryption and block cipher design.