Sexual reproduction Life cycles and the alternation of generations Sexual reproduction in animals Animals have diploid body

y cells and haploid gametes The diploid body cells are made by mitosis The haploid gametes are made by meiosis At fertilization the haploid sperm and egg fuse to produce the diploid zygote. This then divides many times by mitosis to grow into a new individual Sexual reproduction in plants In flowering plants there are two distinctive phases of life cycle: the diploid sporophyte and the haploid gametophyte Sexual reproduction in plants The diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. The spores develop into the haploid gametophyte, which then produces haploid gametes by mitosis Sexual reproduction in plants In plants such as mosses and ferns, the main plant is the diploid sporophyte. It produces (genetically different) haploid spores by meiosis Sexual reproduction in plants The spore grows into the gametophyte, which produces (genetically identical) gametes by mitosis. Sexual reproduction in plants In flowering plants the water dependent gametophyte stage in the life cycle is much reduced. The dominant stage in the life cycle is the sporophyte Essential terms to know Spore A haploid cell that can be dispersed It is the product of meiosis of a diploid cell Essential terms to know Gamete A haploid cell, produced by mitosis of haploid cells. It can fuse with another gamete to produce a diploid zygote Essential terms to know Sporophyte A multicellular plant that is diploid and produces spores. Essential terms to know Gametophyte A multicellular plant that is haploid and produces gametes Essential terms to know

NB These terms have been defined in terms of plant kingdoms. A fungal spore is very different!!!! Essential terms to know Alternation of generations Terrestrial plants that have a life cycle with a multicellular gametophyte and multicellular sporophyte generation which alternates are said to have a life cycle that shows alternation of generations Normal Sexuality By Dr. Helal Uddin Ahmed MD-Part-II Student Department of Psychiatry BSMMU A dirty book is rarely dusty Introduction of Human sexuality It is the process by which people experience and express themselves as sexual beings. Sexuality has been a consistent focus of curiosity, interest, and analysis to humankind. Introduction of Human sexuality Contd. Sexuality is determined by anatomy, physiology, the culture in which a person lives, relationships with others, and developmental experiences throughout the life cycle. It includes the perception of being male or female and private thoughts and fantasies as well as behavior. Normal sexual behavior brings pleasure to oneself and one's partner, involves stimulation of the primary sex organs including coitus Introduction of Human sexuality Contd. Normal sexuality is devoid of inappropriate feelings of guilt or anxiety and is not compulsive. Recreational VS Relational sexMasturbation, Various forms of stimulation sex organs, Getting sexual gratification by several ways etc. Aspects of sexual behavior Primary sex organs- Reproductive organs Secondary sexual characteristics and organs Nervous system, Endocrine system Physiological Perspective

Action of Neurotransmitter Actions of Hormones Sexual drive Cognitive Perspective

How a stimulus or situation is interpreted determines how the individual will respond to the stimulus Perception includes at least three components: detection, labeling, and attribution. Detection is defined by an individual's ability to note the presence of a stimulus or to discriminate it from other stimuli. Labeling is the descriptors that an individual uses to categorize the stimulus event. Attribution is an explanation for the perception Cognitive Perspective Contd. Another cognitive factor is evaluation; when an individual evaluates a sexual stimulus as good or positive, sexual arousal may be enhanced. On the other hand, when a stimulus is evaluated negatively, sexuality will be diminished Learning Perspective

Learning theory postulates the environmental factors that shape sexual behavior When sexual activity is pleasurable - it reinforced If sexual activity is restricted, punishable or full of shame then people may come to associate sexual stimulation with feelings of guilt or anxiety Observational learning of sexual behavior. Boccadoro L., Carulli S. Italian Mentors Human sexuality is not simply imposed by instinct or stereotypical conducts, as it happens in animals, but it is influenced both by superior mental activity and by social, cultural, educational and normative characteristics of those places where the subjects grow up and their personality develops. Consequently, the analysis of sexual sphere must be based on the convergence of several lines of development such as affectivity, emotions and relations . Sigmund Freud

Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality Psychosexual development Oral stage, Anal Stage, Phallic Stage, Genital Stage Oedipus complex Sexual etiology of neuroses, Libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process codified by the concept of sublimation Generalization that all pleasurable impulses and activities are originally sexual . Michel Foucault Sexuality are the activities and sensations determined historically, regionally and culturally.

The construction of sexual meanings, is an instrument by which social institutions (religion, marketing, the educational system, psychiatry, etc.) control and shape human relationship. Sexual ethics and legality

Unlike some other sexual activities, vaginal intercourse has rarely been made Taboo on religious grounds or by law.

Many of the cultures that had prohibited sexual intercourse entirely Shakers, Roman Catholic Church, Mahayana Buddhist Monks. Sexual ethics and legality Contd. Masturbation (Auto-erotic sexuality) Fornication or Live-together Adultery or Extramarital sex Homosexuality- Gay, Lesbian Commercial sex or Prostitution Necrophilia (sex with dead body) Incest Child sexual abuse/Pedophilia Bestiality Sexual intercourse during a woman's menstrual period, as prohibited in Islam and Judaism Sex between members of different tribes / same cast Public decency (exhibitionism and voyeurism) Function of sex Reproduction Benefits of SEX beyond reproduction

Health benefit of sex Relieves stress Health benefit of sex Contd. Boosts the immune system by Ig A Health benefit of sex Contd. Improves CVS ( Lower BP) Health benefit of sex Contd.

 Self esteem Health benefit of sex Contd. Improves intimacy with partner Health benefit of sex Contd. Reduce pain (+) oxytocin Health benefit of sex Contd. Risk of prostate cancer Health benefit of sex Contd. Strengthens pelvic muscles Health benefit of sex Contd. Promotes good sleep Health benefit of sex Contd. Improves the sense of smell Health benefit of sex Contd. Improves urinary bladder control Sexual Identity and Gender Identity Sexual identity is the pattern of a person's biological sexual characteristics: chromosomes, external genitalia, internal genitalia, hormonal composition, gonads, and secondary sex characteristics. Gender identity is a person's sense of maleness or femaleness. Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation describes the object of a person's sexual impulses: -Heterosexual (opposite sex), -Homosexual (same sex), -Bisexual (both sexes). -Transexuality (desire to be a member of the opposite sex) A group of people have defined themselves as asexual and assert this as a positive identity. Some researchers believe this lack of attraction to any object is a manifestation of a desire disorder.

Sexual Behavior : Role of the Central Nervous System Cortex :controlling sexual impulses and processing sexual stimuli that may lead to sexual activity . Orbitofrontal cortex- emotions Left anterior cingulate cortex- hormone control and sexual arousal Right caudate nucleus- sexual activity follows arousal Sexual Behavior : Role of the Central Nervous System Limbic System : Chemical or electrical stimulation of the lower part of the septum and the contiguous preoptic area, the fimbria of the hippocampus, the mammilary bodies, and the anterior thalamic nuclei have all elicited penile erections in male. In case of female those area are related with orgasm. Sexual Behavior : Role of the Central Nervous System Brainstem : Exert inhibitory and excitatory control over spinal sexual reflexes. The nucleus paragigantocellularis projects directly to pelvic efferent neurons in the lumbosacral spinal cord, apparently causing them to secrete serotonin, which is known to inhibit orgasms Sexual Behavior : Role of the Central Nervous System Neurotransmitters : dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, are produced in the brain and affect sexual function. An increase in dopamine is presumed to increase libido. Serotonin, exerts an inhibitory effect on sexual function. Sexual Behavior : Role of the Central Nervous System Spinal Cord: Sexual arousal and climax are ultimately organized at the spinal level. Sensory stimuli related to sexual function are conveyed via afferents from the pudendal, pelvic, and hypogastric nerves Hormones and Sexual Behavior Testosterone increases libido in both men and women Estrogen is a key factor in the lubrication involved in female arousal and may increase sensitivity in the woman to stimulation. Progesterone mildly depresses desire in men and women as do excessive prolactin and cortisol. Oxytocin is involved in pleasurable sensations during sex and is found in higher levels in men and women following orgasm. It reinforces pleasurable activities Physiological Responses Sexual response is a true psychophysiological experience. Arousal is triggered by both psychological and physical stimuli; Levels of tension are experienced both physiologically and emotionally Physiological Responses Contd. Psychosexual development Psychological attitudes toward sexuality Attitudes toward one's sexual partner These 3 are Directly involved with, and Affect, human sexual response.

Physiological Responses Contd. William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed that the physiological process involves increasing levels of vasocongestion and myotonia (tumescence) and the subsequent release of the vascular activity and muscle tone as a result of orgasm (detumescence). Sexual Stimulation: Foreplay Psychological Stimulation -use of smell, taste, hearing, sight or fantasy Physical Stimulation- use of touch pressure or bodily contact 1. Erogenous zones 2. Kissing 3. Breast stimulation 4. Oral-genital stimulation 5. Anal stimulation 6. Manual stimulation of genitals Four-phase cycle of Physiological Responses Phase-1 Four-phase cycle of Physiological Responses Phase 1: Desire The desire (or appetitive) phase, identified solely through physiology, reflects the psychiatric concern with motivations, drives, and personality. The phase is characterized by sexual fantasies and the desire to have sexual activity. Phase 2: Excitement The excitement and arousal phase, brought on by psychological stimulation (fantasy or the presence of a love object) or physiological stimulation ( Foreplays-stroking or kissing) or a combination of the two, consists of a subjective sense of pleasure.

Phase 3: Orgasm Peaking of sexual pleasure, Release of sexual tension Rhythmic contraction of the perineal muscles and the pelvic reproductive organs. A subjective sense of ejaculatory inevitability triggers men's orgasms. The forceful emission of semen. 4 to 5 rhythmic spasms of the prostate, seminal vesicles, vas, and urethra. In women, orgasm is characterized by 3 to 15 involuntary contractions of the lower third of the vagina and by strong sustained contractions of the uterus, flowing from the fundus downward to the cervix. Phase 4: Resolution Resolution consists of the disgorgement of blood from the genitalia (detumescence). Body back to its resting state.

 If orgasm occurs: resolution is rapid, a subjective sense of well-being, general and muscular relaxation. If orgasm does not occur : resolution may take from 2 to 6 hours and may be associated with irritability and discomfort. After orgasm, men have a refractory period (several minutes to many hours) when they cannot be stimulated to further orgasm. Women do not have a refractory period and are capable of multiple and successive orgasms.

Male sexual response An individual man may experience any of these three patterns (A, B, or C) during a particular sexual experience. Female sexual response An individual woman may experience any of these three patterns (A, B, or C) during a particular sexual experience. Sexual Response Cycle Male Sexual Response Cycle Male Sexual Response Cycle Contd Male Sexual Response Cycle Contd Female Sexual Response Cycle Female Sexual Response Cycle Contd Female Sexual Response Cycle Contd SIX Points for SEX Gender Differences in Desire and Erotic Stimuli Sexual impulses and desire exist both in men and women but males generally possess a higher baseline level of desire than do women Men respond sexually to visual stimuli of nude or barely dressed women. Women report responding sexually to romantic stories with a tender, demonstrative hero whose passion for the heroine impels him toward a lifetime commitment to her . Gender Differences in Desire and Erotic Stimuli Contd. Woman's subjective sense of arousal is not always congruent with her physiological state of arousal. Womens sense of excitement may reflect a readiness to be aroused rather than physiological lubrication. Conversely, she may experience the physical signs of arousal without being aware of them. This situation rarely occurs in men. Love and Intimacy Freud postulated that psychological health could be determined by a person's ability to function well in two spheres, work and love. A person able to give and receive love with a minimum of fear and conflict has the capacity to develop genuinely intimate relationships with others. Sex frequently acts as a catalyst in forming and maintaining intimate relationships.

Frequency of sexual activity Zero (sexual abstinence) to 15-20 times/week The average frequency of sexual intercourse for married couples in USA is 2 to 3 times /week It is generally recognized that postmenopausal women experience declines in frequency of sexual intercourse Average frequency of intercourse declines with age in both men and women. Frequency of sexual activity Contd. According to the Kinsey Institute, average frequency of sexual intercourse in USA :

112 times/ year (age 18-29), 86 times /year (age 30-39) 69 times /year (age 40-49) 52 times/ year (age 50-59) 35 times/year (age 60-69) 22 times/year (age 70-79) ?? times/year (age> 80) Conclusion Human sexuality is a very complex and multi-dimensional behavior that is affected by many facets of our lives including anatomy, physiology, cognition, and learning. As well as influenced by culture, ethnicity and even economy and politics. Conclusion Contd. Sex Education is very much needed in every society- specially in the school curriculum- otherwise faulty learning about sex misguided ones personal life and may produce many sexual as well as psycho-social problem. Accepted Sex-education from Scientific authority . Why should we take advice on sex from the pope? If he knows anything about it, he shouldn't! --George Bernard Shaw THANK YO