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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY
Lecture – 56
Urbanisation
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Urbanisation
Urbanisation:
❖ Demographically urbanisation refers to a process whereby populations move from rural to urban areas,
enabling cities and towns to grow.
❖ Sociologically, urbanisation does not merely mean an increase in the population of cities but also a change
in migrants' and residents' attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavioral patterns. It is associated with the
ideology of Urbanism.
➢ Urbanism is a distinctive way of life that is characterised by heterogeneity, the complex division of labour
& interdependence, impersonality, anonymity transient/non-permanent relations, individualism, high
mobility & technology, etc.
➢ This way of life may even stretch beyond the administrative boundaries of cities.
Urban Area:
❖ An Urban area is defined based on an administrative boundary, a certain threshold of population Size &
density, and nature of work of residents (non agricultural).
❖ Statutory Towns: Settlements notified under law by the concerned State/UT government and with local
bodies such as municipal corporations, municipalities, municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their
demographic characteristics.
❖ Census Towns: Settlements that are classified as urban in the census after they have met the following criteria:
➢ Population Size: a minimum population of 5,000
➢ Nature of Work: at least 75% of the male 'main workers' engaged in non-agricultural pursuits,
➢ Population Density: density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
➢ These are governed as villages and do not necessarily have urban local bodies.
❖ Outgrowths: These are viable units, such as a village, clearly identifiable in terms of their boundaries and
locations. Outgrowths possess urban features in terms of infrastructure and amenities, such as pucca roads,
electricity, etc., and are physically contiguous with the core town of the urban agglomeration.
❖ Urban agglomeration = City/Towns along with their outgrowths. They are defined under the Census of
India.
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Urban Governance:
❖ Current Status: India has
seen significant urbanization
over the years, with a
growing number of cities and
a substantial increase in
population density. The
implementation of programs
like Smart Cities Mission
aimed to enhance
infrastructure and quality of
life in urban areas.
❖ Achievements:
Improvements in urban
infrastructure, including
transportation, sanitation,
and public amenities.
Implementation of e-governance initiatives to enhance transparency and efficiency in urban
administration.
❖ Way Forward:
❖ Strengthening local governance institutions to address urban challenges effectively. Focusing on participatory
planning to involve citizens in decision-making processes.
Sustainable Urbanization:
❖ Efforts towards sustainable urbanization have been initiated, with a focus on green infrastructure and eco-
friendly practices.
❖ Achievements: Development of sustainable urban infrastructure, including green buildings and energy-
efficient transportation.
❖ Challenges: Balancing economic development with environmental conservation. Ensuring inclusive
urbanization that benefits all sections of society.
❖ Way Forward: Promoting renewable energy sources and green building [Link] policies for
inclusive and equitable urban development.
Cause of Urbanisation:
Push Factors:
❖ Decline agricultural Productivity: Declining agricultural output compels rural residents to seek urban
opportunities. Example: Farmers facing crop failures move to cities for alternative employment.
❖ Declining Land-Man Ratio: Overpopulation in rural areas reduces available land per person, pushing
individuals towards urban centers. Example: Villages with limited arable land force people to migrate to
cities.
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❖ Less Diversified Employment Opportunity: Limited job options in rural settings drive individuals to urban
areas for a broader range of employment. Example: Rural areas reliant on specific industries may lack diverse
job opportunities.
❖ Droughts, Floods, etc.: Environmental challenges force migration as people seek more stable living
conditions. Example: Communities affected by frequent floods move to urban areas for safety.
❖ Discrimination (Gender/Caste): Social biases and discrimination drive marginalized groups to migrate for
better opportunities and equality. Example: Individuals facing caste-based discrimination seek inclusivity in
urban settings.
❖ Lack of Basic Amenities: Inadequate access to essential services motivates people to move to urban areas for
improved living conditions. Example: Rural areas without proper healthcare facilities may push residents
to urban centers.
Pull Factors:
❖ Industrialization: Urban areas attract individuals with the promise of industrial jobs and economic growth.
Example: Cities with booming manufacturing sectors draw a workforce seeking employment.
❖ Lucrative Employment: Higher-paying jobs in urban settings entice individuals looking to improve their
economic prospects. Example: Professionals moving to cities for well-paying corporate positions.
❖ Health, Education: Access to better healthcare and educational institutions serves as a magnet for urban
migration. Example: Families relocating to cities for superior medical facilities and quality education.
❖ Entertainment: Urban centers offer a diverse range of recreational and cultural activities, appealing to those
seeking a vibrant lifestyle. Example: Young individuals moving to cities for entertainment and nightlife.
❖ Governance: Stable and efficient governance in urban areas attracts people seeking security and proper
administration. Example: Residents moving to well-governed cities with lower crime rates.
❖ Better Roads &
Infrastructure:
Improved
infrastructure in
urban settings,
including roads
and public
services, draws
individuals for a
higher quality of
life. Example:
Migration to
cities with well-
developed
transportation
networks and modern amenities.
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Urbanisation Key Challenges:
❖ Inadequate Housing & Proliferation of Slums: Economic disparities contribute to a housing shortage, with
96% affecting the economically weaker sections, resulting in over 17% of urban households residing in
unhygienic slums.
❖ Old, Dilapidated Buildings: Aging infrastructure poses risks, exemplified by cities like Delhi and Mumbai,
where old, dilapidated buildings are in danger of collapsing.
❖ Unsafe & Insufficient Basic Amenities: Limited access to safe water, interrupted electricity, open drainage
in slums, inadequate sewage systems, and poor solid waste management, including undermotivated
sanitation workers, pose health and sanitation challenges.
❖ Lack of Open & Green Spaces: Urban areas often lack recreational spaces, impacting residents' well-being
due to insufficient areas for outdoor activities.
❖ Inefficient & Inadequate Transport: Traffic congestion, fragmented public transport, a high number of
private vehicles, poorly designed roads, lax traffic management, and limited adoption of technology-based
solutions contribute to transport challenges.
❖ Environmental Pollution (Air, Water, Soil, Noise): Unregulated industrial growth, vehicular pollution,
ineffective waste management, untreated river discharges, civic apathy (littering), and groundwater
depletion make many Indian cities hotbeds of environmental pollution. Example: India has 39 out of 50 cities
on the list of the world's most polluted cities, highlighting the severity of environmental challenges.
Urban Heat Islands:
❖ Urban Construction:
➢ Concretization: Extensive use of concrete and asphalt in urban construction absorbs and retains heat,
contributing to elevated temperatures in cities. Example: The proliferation of concrete structures in
urban areas, like high-rise buildings and pavements, intensifies heat absorption, leading to increased
temperatures.
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➢ Decreased Sunlight: Urbanization can result in increased shading due to tall buildings, reducing direct
sunlight exposure on surfaces and exacerbating the urban heat island effect. Example: Narrow streets
flanked by tall buildings in metropolitan areas can limit sunlight penetration, affecting surface
temperatures.
❖ Urban Emissions:
➢ Vehicular Emissions: The release of pollutants from vehicles, including cars and trucks, contributes to
air pollution and increases local temperatures. Example: High traffic density in urban centers leads to
elevated levels of vehicular emissions, impacting air quality and contributing to the urban heat island
effect.
➢ Industries: Industrial activities in urban areas release pollutants and heat, further intensifying the urban
heat island effect. Example: Concentration of industrial zones within urban environments releases
excess heat, adding to the overall warming of the area.
❖ Urban Activities:
➢ Air Conditioners: Widespread use of air conditioners in urban settings releases heat into the surrounding
environment, contributing to higher temperatures. Example: The simultaneous use of air conditioners in
densely populated urban areas can result in localized heat emissions, exacerbating the urban heat island
effect.
➢ Heat Generators: Various human activities, such as cooking, electronic devices, and other heat-
generating processes, contribute to the overall thermal load in urban areas. Example: Restaurants,
kitchens, and electronic equipment in commercial and residential spaces collectively generate
additional heat, influencing local temperatures in urban environments.
Way Forward:
❖ Community Engagement and Capacity Building:
➢ Encouraging the active involvement of communities in decision-making processes fosters a sense of
ownership and ensures sustainable development. Example: Conducting community workshops for urban
planning, and seeking public feedback on development projects.
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❖ Technology:
➢ Implementing technology solutions, such as automation in municipal offices, streamlines service delivery,
enhances efficiency, and ensures effective urban governance. Example: Online platforms for municipal
services like permit applications, payment processing, and grievance redressal.
❖ Innovation:
➢ Fostering a culture of innovation encourages the development of creative solutions to urban challenges,
promoting sustainable and resilient urban ecosystems. Example: Supporting startup incubators focused
on urban issues, encouraging innovative approaches to waste management or energy conservation.
❖ Infrastructure:
➢ Physical Infrastructure: Developing robust physical infrastructure, including transportation, utilities,
and green spaces, is vital for sustainable urban growth. Example: Building efficient public transportation
systems to reduce reliance on private vehicles.
➢ Social Infrastructure: Investing in social infrastructure, such as schools, healthcare, and community
centers, ensures the well-being and inclusivity of urban residents. Example: Constructing community
centers that serve as hubs for social activities and support services.
➢ Digital Infrastructure: Establishing digital infrastructure, including broadband connectivity and smart
city technologies, enhances communication and efficiency. Example: Implementing smart grids for
efficient energy distribution and management.
❖ Sustainability: Integrating sustainability principles in urban planning and development practices ensures a
balance between economic, social, and environmental considerations. Example: Implementing green building
standards, promoting renewable energy sources, and enforcing waste reduction and recycling programs.
Counter-Urbanisation : Causes
❖ Change in Demography: As demographics shift, with aging populations and changing preferences,
individuals may opt for quieter rural living over urban environments. Example: Retirees choosing rural areas
for a peaceful and less hectic lifestyle.
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❖ Rural Areas Facilities Improved: Improved infrastructure and amenities in rural areas attract people seeking
a better quality of life outside urban centers. Example: Upgraded healthcare, education, and transportation
facilities in rural regions making them more appealing.
❖ Return on Agriculture Increases: Enhanced profitability in agriculture can draw individuals back to rural
life, especially if advancements in farming technology lead to increased income. Example: Adoption of
modern agricultural practices leading to improved yields and income for farmers.
❖ Urban Disillusionment:
➢ Overpopulation and Congested Cities: The challenges of overcrowded and congested urban areas can
prompt individuals to seek a less stressful and crowded lifestyle. Example: Commuters tired of crowded
public transport and traffic congestion choosing to relocate to quieter regions.
➢ Affordable Housing: The pursuit of affordable housing options in rural areas where real estate prices are
lower than in urban centers. Example: Families moving to rural towns for more spacious and cost-
effective housing.
➢ Unemployment - Poverty: Economic challenges in urban settings, such as unemployment and poverty,
may drive individuals to seek opportunities in rural areas. Example: Individuals facing job loss in cities
opting for rural entrepreneurship or employment.
➢ Psychological Impact: Factors like stress and mental health concerns in urban environments may drive
some to choose the tranquility of rural living. Example: Individuals prioritizing mental well-being and
opting for a slower-paced lifestyle.
❖ Impact of Technology:
➢ Work from Home Culture: The rise of remote work options enables individuals to live in non-urban
areas while maintaining professional commitments. Example: Professionals choosing to reside in rural
areas while working remotely for urban-based companies.
➢ Online Banking, Shopping, etc.: Improved connectivity and digital services reduce the need for
physical proximity to urban centers for banking, shopping, and other services. Example: Rural residents
accessing online services instead of traveling to urban areas for banking or shopping.
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Counter-Urbanisation: Impacts
Positive:
❖ Urban:
➢ Decreased Burden on Infrastructure and Services: Reduced urban population can ease the strain on
city infrastructure and public services, leading to more efficient resource utilization. Example: Less
crowded public transportation systems and reduced pressure on healthcare facilities in urban areas.
➢ Improved Urban Mass Transport: With a lower population density, urban mass transport systems may
become more efficient and less congested, benefiting residents. Example: Increased availability and
reliability of public transportation services in response to reduced demand.
❖ Rural:
➢ Cultural Exchange (Rural to Urban): Interaction between rural and urban populations can lead to
cultural exchange, enriching the social fabric and fostering diversity. Example: Cultural festivals from
rural areas gaining popularity in urban centers, promoting cultural understanding.
➢ Increase in Creative Ideas: The convergence of urban and rural residents can spur creativity and
innovation, bringing diverse perspectives together. Example: Collaborative projects between urban and
rural artists, resulting in unique and innovative creations.
➢ Infrastructure Development: The arrival of urban migrants may lead to improved infrastructure in rural
areas, benefiting both residents and newcomers. Example: Investments in rural roads, schools, and
healthcare facilities spurred by an increase in population.
➢ Improved Rural-Urban Linkage: Closer connections between rural and urban areas can lead to mutually
beneficial economic and social [Link]: Joint initiatives between rural and urban businesses
that enhance economic opportunities for both communities.
Negative:
❖ Urban:
➢ Low Labour Supply: A decreased population in urban areas can lead to a shortage of skilled and
unskilled labor, impacting various industries and services. Example: Industries facing challenges in
finding qualified workers due to a declining urban population.
➢ Economic Growth Decline: A reduction in urban population may result in lower economic activity and
growth, as cities play a crucial role in driving economic development. Example: Urban areas
experiencing a decline in business activity and investment due to a shrinking population.
❖ Rural:
➢ Increased Social Conflict Due to Limited Resources: As urban dwellers move to rural areas,
competition for resources like land and water may increase, leading to social tensions. Example: Conflicts
arise between existing rural communities and newcomers over resource usage.
➢ Burdening of Agriculture Sector: A sudden influx of people into rural areas may strain the agriculture
sector, affecting land use patterns and traditional farming practices. Example: Pressure on agricultural
land as more people settle in rural areas, impacting local farming communities.
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Rurbanisation:
❖ "Rurbanisation" combines a process of providing all the civic and infrastructure facilities available in big towns
and cities to rural areas while at the same time preserving the 'soul of the villages'.
❖ The objective is to provide better infrastructure facilities, improved connectivity (road, electricity, and digital),
gainful livelihood options, and quality lifestyles to rural areas.
Benefits of Rurbanisation:
❖ Reduced Rural-Urban divide, arrest migration and ease pressure on civic infrastructure in overcrowded
urban areas. For eg. the Expansion of educational, industrial and other facilities in the hinterland would reduce
pressure on the facilities available in the city.
❖ Better facilities encourage private investments, and the setting up of industries (esp,. food processing) and
lead to economic diversification which ultimately leads to the expansion of GDP.
❖ Alleviate psychological impacts associated with migration, breaking away from families, and moving into
new social/community setup.
❖ Harnessing rural-urban interconnectedness for efficient resource use: For eg. Waste water from the cities,
after treatment, can be distributed to farmers for irrigation water conservation.
❖ Innovative solutions: Solid waste collected from cities & villages can be used to produce fertilizer and organic
crops produced from this could be sold in international market for better returns.
❖ Rising rural incomes, along with expansion of banking services, will- incentivise savings and result in
increased availability of investible resources
Social Perspectives on Urbanisation:
Positive Social Implication
❖ Better social integration & tolerance: People of varying social layers, races, castes and religions live and
work together which facilitates building up of social capital.
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❖ Increase in social status: Urbanization opens up a door of opportunities to people to raise their social
standards irrespective of the social status they were born with and provides scope for intra &
intergenerational social mobility.
❖ Improved lifestyle and access to benefits: Urbanisation provides better and easier life for people and a higher
quality of life due to better education, health, cultural activities, social services etc.
❖ Melting pot of Innovation: due to cultural exchanges of ideas, techniques, skills and modes of behavior
among people through interpersonal contacts or by mass transportation and communication.
❖ Women empowerment: providing them with better educational, skill enhancement, and employment
opportunities
Negative Social Implication:
❖ Change in Family Structure: The rise of nuclear families, the premium placed on individualism, and the
weakening of extended family ties contribute to the breakdown of kinship and traditional marriage structures.
❖ Poverty and increased inequality: Urbanization has widened the income gap between the rich and the poor.
This has resulted in various forms of segregation based on income, residence (such as the prevalence of
gated communities), and occupation.
❖ Stress, anxiety and psychological problems: Urbanisation induced rapid social change resulting in
maladjustment and absence of integration with society, leading to failure, frustration, inferiority complex,
mental illness, isolation, conflicts & riots.
❖ Depersonalization & breakdown of community bonds: Overcrowding leads to indifference & apathy as
each fight for survival. As cities grow, individuals may experience a sense of alienation & disconnect from
their neighbours, which can impact social cohesion and community bonds transient or superficial relations.
❖ Increased crimes & social evils: Relative deprivation, desire for quick money, pressure of sending back
remittances along with urban anonymity weakens the traditional agencies of social control & law and order,
leading to alcoholism, beggary, gambling, prostitution, organised crime, juvenile delinquency, rape etc.
Need For Urban MGNREGA:
❖ Higher unemployment rates: Periodic Labour Force Survey - shows that the unemployment rates are
typically higher in urban areas
❖ Prevalence of low-wage, poor quality, informal work: PLFS data show that despite a rise in the prevalence
of regular-salaned work, just over 50 percent of the urban workforce remains either self-employed or in casual
wage work.
❖ Income support: Urban workers have been adversely hit by Covid-19. An employment guarantee would
provide income support to the urban poor, thus, preventing reverse migration.
❖ Many schemes are Rural based: Most of the government schemes providing relief - be it from the Union
government or state-prioritise rural unemployment and poverty. Example: MGNREGA, Prime Minister Garib
Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan
❖ Creation of assets: It will lead to the creation of assets, physical as well as human capital formation.
❖ Create green jobs: such as construction and repair of common water bodies; rejuvenating urban grasslands
and wetlands: solid waste management; planting vegetation and trees in common lands etc.
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❖ Increase competitiveness: Convergence with other government schemes such as the Skill India mission can
solve the problem of a skilled workforce and can increase the competitiveness of the Indian industry.
❖ Multiplier benefits: This can also help in the implementation of schemes such as Smart City Mission,
Affordable Housing scheme, AMRUT scheme etc.
❖ Capacity building of ULBs: Urban MGNREGA could help build capacity in urban local bodies as well as
improve the quality of urban public goods.
Challenges of Urban MGNREGA:
❖ Limited Scope for Unskilled Manual Work: Urban areas may have fewer opportunities for traditional
unskilled manual labor, limiting the scope of employment under MGNREGA in comparison to rural regions.
Example: Urban settings may require more skilled or specialized labor, reducing the demand for typical
MGNREGA tasks.
❖ Trigger Migration: The availability of MGNREGA jobs in urban areas may attract migration, leading to
increased competition for limited employment opportunities and putting additional strain on urban resources.
Example: Rural workers migrating to urban areas in search of MGNREGA jobs, potentially exacerbating urban
population challenges.
❖ Low Financial Feasibility: Urban MGNREGA projects may face financial challenges due to higher costs
associated with urban living, making it less financially feasible compared to rural implementation. Example:
Higher wages and living expenses in urban areas may strain the budget allocated for MGNREGA projects.
❖ Nature of MGNREGA Works: The types of work typically offered under MGNREGA, such as construction
and infrastructure development, may not align with the urban context where different skills and job profiles
are in demand. Example: Urban MGNREGA projects face difficulty in finding suitable tasks that align with
the skill sets of potential workers.
❖ Problem with Identifying Workers: Identifying eligible workers in urban areas may be challenging due to
factors such as a transient population, informal employment, and a lack of centralized databases. Example:
Difficulty in verifying residency and employment status of potential MGNREGA workers in urban settings.
❖ Setback for Informal Sector: The existence of MGNREGA jobs in urban areas may affect the informal sector
negatively, as workers may prefer guaranteed employment under MGNREGA over informal, often insecure,
jobs. Example: Informal businesses facing a decline in available labor as workers opt for MGNREGA jobs
with assured wages and benefits.
