NIGERIAN HISTORY, CULTURE AND ART UP TO 1800 (MAJORITY AND

MINORITY GROUPS AND CULTURE)

1.0 . Introduction
Nigeria has over 250 different ethnic groups, each with distinctive language and heritage. The 3
major ethnic groups are Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo. However, there are other notable ethnic groups
scattered across the country’s two major geographical divides in the North and South. The notable
ethnic groups in the north includes Hausa, Kanuri, Fulani, Tiv, Nupe, Igala, Idoma, Jukun, Igbira,
and Berom. The co-existence of diverse groups with distinctive historical backgrounds, culture,
religions, arts, festivals, language, songs, dressings, cuisines, ceremonies, vocations, occupations,
lifestyles, social outlooks, desires and self-determination, has been both, a source of strength and
weakness in Nigeria’s multi-plural society. On the positive side, the social, economic and political
potentials of the federating cultural groups can be a source of strength and socio-economic
development: this is often described as “unity in diversity,” in Nigeria. Nigerian Government
established institutions like the National Youth Service Corp (NYSC) 1973, the Federal Character
Commission (FCC) 1996 and the National Orientation Agency (NOA) 2005 in its strive to reduce
sectional feelings, and to promote unity among the country’s diverse peoples. On the negative side,
struggles between the major ethnic groups of Hausa, Yoruba and Ibo, on one hand, and the
suspicion, agitation and fear of domination from the numerous minority groups, has been a
recurring barrier to the country’s unity and progress.

First, the European explorers, second, the European Christian Missionaries and, third, the
European traders played very important roles in the chronological sequence of events that led to
the colonization and creation of the Nigerian state. It was the aggressive economic interest and the
contestation for the avaricious acquisition of the natural wealth of the native peoples that
encouraged the convocation of the inglorious Berlin Conference of 1884-85. Arising from the
Berlin Conference, the European interlopers adopted more carefully articulated control
mechanisms to bring their effectively occupied territories under their control. To achieve this, the
British colonial administrators quickly established a colony and protectorate of Lagos and Niger
territories under the administration of the Royal Niger Company through the instrumentality of a
Charter.

The exigencies of the moment ultimately challenged the British colonial administrators to come
up with more viable ways of optimizing their control over the Nigerian territories at the barest
minimum cost. The Niger Committee of 1898, headed by Lord Selbourne was, therefore,
inaugurated by the British colonial administrators to, among other things, find the means for
achieving greater control over the expansive area at the barest minimum cost. As a way out of the
financial deficit in the administration of the expansive areas – the northern and Southern
Protectorates, the Selbourne Committee recommended the use of available funds from the richer
Southern Protectorate to soften the large-scale financial shortfalls of the Northern Protectorate.
Very significantly, the Selbourne Committee recommended gradual amalgamation process, which
eventually took place in three phases. The first phase of the amalgamation took place in 1900, the
second phase was in 1906 and the last and final phase took place on January 1, 1914. It was the
last phase that brought about major challenges in defining the political future of Nigeria in the light
of cultural diversity and ethnic pluralism.

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From the foregoing, it is clear that Nigeria is an amalgamation of various groups with distinctive
cultural and social backgrounds leading to a complex structure in the formation of its nation.
Indeed, the complexity of the Nigerian nation is reflected in the incessant ethnic and religious
intolerance, socio-cultural conflicts, real or imagined domination and maginalisation of the
minority groups by the major groups.

2.0 . Learning Outcomes (Objectives)

By the end of this module. You should be able to:
I. give a detailed definition of culture;
II. classify culture according to its components;
III. analyse the historical evolution of cultural groups in Nigeria;
IV. list and discuss major cultural groups in Nigeria;
V. identify and explain the history of at least five cultural groups in Nigeria; and
VI. explain aspects of strength and challenges in the cultural diversity in Nigeria.

3.0 . Main Body

Unit 1: Definition of Culture
1.0 . Introduction
Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, “defined by everything from language,
religion, cuisine, technology, vocations, social habits, music and arts.” Ilesanmi (2004:32) notes
that there is no aspect of a people’s life that cannot be encompassed in their culture.
2.0. Learning Outcome
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
i. Define Culture;
ii. Explain the characteristics of culture; and
iii. Discuss the features of cultures in Nigeria.
3.0. Main Content
3.1. Definition of Culture
The word culture has no univocal definition. Culture derives its semantic origin from the Latin
word “Cultura” which means cultivation of the soil, and by extension, to the cultivation of mind
and spirit. Different scholars define culture in various ways. Taylor (1891) defines culture as” the
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a members of society. “Others see culture as people’s
way of life. These shared patterns identify the members of a culture group while also distinguishing
those of another group.

A people’s culture includes their beliefs, rule of behaviour, language, technology, rituals, art, mode
of dressing, producing, cooking, food, religion, political, and economic systems. Culture is
commonly interpreted to mean the way of life of a people and this could be material or non-
material. To that extent, it becomes plausible to argue that a people’s over-all life patterns are
conditioned by the adherence to a specific order, which forms an implicit code of conduct. Eating
habits, choice of foods, relationship with others, behavioural and attitudinal patterns, among other
things, can be said to be components of culture. Thus, culture is simply the entirety of the ways of
live a people expressed in different aspects of their activities. This goes to explain why culture may
be correctly defined as the totality of a people’s way of life that manifests through the channels of
their belief system, justice system, behavioural patterns, feelings, emotions, morality, possessions

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and institutions. This validates the claim that culture is a social inheritance that gives structure to
people’s lives.

It has been correctly argued that human beings are systematically conditioned to conform to
culturally defined and constructed patterns of behaviour, thought and belief. The process of
learning to fit in or adapt to a culture is referred to as cultural socialization, which implies that a
culture can be learned or adapted to. Perhaps, this explains why E. Nwabueze argues that culture
takes the normative, learned and transmitted dimensions. Whereas the normative aspect of culture
entails the goals to be pursued, how to pursue them, the values to be espoused and what constitutes
morality, the learned culture involves acquired values, belief systems and rules of conduct.
Some scholars view culture as the totality of group expression, a historical process and a
dynamic entity. As a platform of cultural expression, cultural identity manifests through certain
styles of clothing, totems, tattoos and other aesthetic markers. Other channels of group cultural
expression are language, graphic arts, sculpture, drama, dance, music, rituals, etc. The strength of
cultural identity resides in group cultural expression. However, fundamentally it transcends
individual human life. As a historical process, culture is viewed as a factor of development and the
establishment of institutions based on specific historical events. This relates to the interdependence
of cultural and institutional factors in social transformation, political development and economic
growth. To that extent, this historical process views culture as a functionally related system that is
codified within a cybernetic model of featuring some basic functional imperatives.

As a dynamic process, culture changes intermittently in line with the changing social, political
and economic realities of a people. Cultural dynamics constitute the inevitable aspect of human
existence and can take the forms of cultural socialization, cultural adaptation, cross-cultural
encounters or cultural imperialism. While cultural socialization, cultural adaptation and cross-
cultural encounters may take a consciously voluntary process, cultural imperialism essentially
comes in the form of the super-imposition of a ‘superior’ culture over an ‘inferior’ culture. In the
Nigerian experience, the forms of cultural synchronization in the global system with its
concomitant Euro Americanization of the country’s indigenous cultures profoundly illustrate
forced cultural dynamism.

Two components of culture, the material and non-material aspects of culture

Material culture refers to the tangible, physical indices through which the styles and values of a
people are expressed. They include buildings, works of art, tools, clothes, pots, swords, cutlasses
and other artifacts, which are created by man out of the bounty of nature and represent the peculiar
ways of every Nigerian society. These material components of culture help us to reconstruct the
history of past societies and their peoples through the study of the remains of past generations. For
instance excavations at Ile-Ife, Iwo-Eleru, near Akure, Benin, Esie, Igbo Ukwu, Daima and Nok,
have given reliable information about past inhabitants of the Nigerian areas.

The non-material components of culture, on the other hand, are abstract things, which a society
cherishes, and are used to express their culture. These include attitudes and values of a society
such as its religion, philosophy, literature, language, songs, dance, and patriotism.
The Igbo Culture
The Igbo are found in the southeast of Nigeria and are the third largest group in the country.
Traditional Igbo culture emphasizes values such as community, family and respect for elders, life,

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and hospitality. Igbo people are said to be the most dispersed ethnic community in Nigeria. The
Ibo have a seemingly less weighty tradition of origin. Nevertheless, evidence and settlement
patterns suggest that in about 1300 to 1400 A.D, the Ibo began to move south and east from the
region of Awka and Orlu. Later, there semms to have been a second wave of migration to the easter
Isu Ama area to Aba, the Arochuku ridge, and other places. Their migration started in the early
days of the slave trade and continues to be felt to this day. Igbo people are mostly traders, farmers,
and artisans, with agriculture being the most dominant activity. presently, they occur in Imo,
Anambra, Enugu, Abia, Ebonyi, states and parts of Rivers and Delta states, although they are
present in all parts of the country and beyond because of their business interest and quest for
wealth. However, looking at the language of the Igbos, which is called Asusu Igbo, their main
religion is Christianity and few others practise traditional religion. The Igbo culture includes the
various customs, practices and traditions that comprise archaic practices as well as new concepts.
These customs and traditions include the Igbo people’s visual arts, use of language musical, dance
forms, attire, and language dialects. A notable cultural practice by the Igbo is the new yam festival,
which is held annually. Igbo as a nation has the family and its name, sacredness of human life,
chastity, respect for elders and parents, marriage and hospitality. What this portrays is that cultural
values are intrinsically positive and potentially constructive.

The structure and kinship ties in a conventional Igbo family differ a little from those found in most
other societies. According to Ejiofor, the typical Igbo family consist of father, mother and children.
The father is the accepted head of the family and the traditional Igbo family normally lives in a
walled compound, consisting of at least two houses; one for the father and the other for the mother.
Adult sons’ share the father’s house, while daughter and juvenile son’s live with their mother.
The family therefore, is indispensable for the continuity of the Igbo. It is from this point of view
that the intimate and personal bond between members of Igbo community could be said to have
an ontological dimension. In other words, the bond gets its ontological dimension from the fact
that there is a natural relationship between the living members of the community and their
ancestors. The Igbo community denotes first and foremost… ontological equality of human
relations. It is ontological in so far as all members of the community are believed to descend from
a common ancestor. Everyman is linked to his parents on the natural level. He receives life from
them, depends on them to grow up. His parents in turn are bound to their grandparents, etc this
link which binds all members of the community or clan who are believed to be descendants of the
same ancestors. Every one considers himself as members of a definite community and as a part of
the whole.

The Ibo thrived on egalitarian society in the precolonial period. Her culture revolved around
communal living in village assembly system, respect for elders, a catalogue of trade networks, and
a strong belief in tradition tied to a deities and oracles believed to guide their society and determine
their affairs. The Ibo have several deities considered as inferior gods. Most of the deities are
restricted to specific territories. In fact, virtually every Igbo village has a peculiar deity for its
people. However, few deities have transcultural significance in Igboland. These include:
i. Anyawu, the Eye of the Light. This has insight and foresight; the ability to see things
as they really are.
ii. Amadioha, the god of thunder and lightning. Amadioha stands for the collective will of
the people. When lightning strikes a person or object, it is believed as the handiwork
of Amadioha.

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 iii. Ahiajoku, the god of agriculture.
iv. Ala, earth goddess – it is seen across Igboland as the guidian of Igbo morality.
v. Ibini Ukpabi, the Long Juju of Arochuku. The deity Ibini Ukpabi is highly respected
for settling conflicts and adjudicating on complex issues.
The Yoruba
The term Yorùbá refers to a people and the language spoken largely by the Yorùbá group of
Southwestern Nigeria. The mobility of the Yorùbá people, due to the trans-Atlantic slave trade,
commerce, and other forms of migrating factors have spread the people and their language to other
West Africa countries, such as Togo, Ghana, Republic of Benin, Gambia and Sierra Leone. The
Yorùbá people are also found across North America, the Caribbean, United Kingdom and South
America, particularly in Cuba and Brazil. The Yoruba are the Second largest group in Nigeria,
after the Hausa of northern Nigeria.

The Yorùbá culture is connected to social order in her society and the larger Nigerian society. The
order of the society rests on the interconnection between the social institutions and the people in
the society. In the Yorùbá society, the individual behavior is guided by the Yorùbá culture, be it
tangible or intangible. However, the intangible aspect brings out of an individual a perfect
gentleman usually referred to as an ọmọlúàbí. In essence, the making of an ọmọlúàbí stabilized
order of the society. The agents of making an ọmọlúàbí are Yorùbá oral traditions, in forms of
songs, proverbs, poetry, folktales, and Yorùbá social, political, economic, and religion institutions.

The Yoruba live in compound, referred to as Agbo-Ile (a flock of buildings) that houses the
extended family and promotes the spirit of solidarity among members. The compound system also
promotes traditional education and discipline among the Yoruba. The children are also trained
collectively in the family compound, in addition to the trainings received directly from the parents.
The Yoruba also use the compound system to inculcate important indices of their culture such as
greetings, respect for elders, dialogue, dressing and decency in the younger members.

The Yoruba accords great respect to traditional beliefs attached to Olodumare, the Supreme Being,
believed to ordain all things. They revere the ancestors and deities, who they believe are
intermediaries between the living and Olodumare. the Yoruba attach great significance to ifa
divinations in their daily activities including trade, vocations, festivals, warfare, migration,
settlement in new area, , selection of a leader, naming of towns, people and events. The Yoruba
have taboos, rules and restrictions that guide their society in the form of conventions. Yoruba
names are symbolic – attached to events, jobs, vocations or circumstance around the birth of the
newborn. They have a unique dress culture dictated by the concept of decency (the omoluabi)
spirit. Part of Yoruba cultural practices is the tradition of tribal incision comprising facial and body
marks, which give different meanings and identities to various Yoruba sub-groups.

Culture of the Yoruba People

The Yoruba people stand out as a deeply religious group with great respect for superiors and
elderly people. The Oni of Ife is regarded as the spiritual ruler of all Yoruba’s. They have a
tradition of living in large towns, the largest of which include Ibadan, Ogbomosho, Oshogbo,
Ilorin, Abeokuta, Ilesha and Ede. They are the most urbanized group in Nigeria. The growth of
these large urban centres derived in part from the need for defenses but also largely because of the
highly centralized political organization of the people. The extended family is the basic social unit

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of the Yoruba. In addition, since they live together, each extended family has a territorial existence
(the large traditional compound) within the town as well as a distinct area of farmland in the rural
areas. They worshipped several deities such as the San’go (god of thunder) and other festivals such
as Osun festivals. The people are reputed for their artisanship, they excel in woodcarving and other
crafts such as bronze working, iron smelting. The famous terracotta and bronze heads of Ife, which
are reputable in Nigerian cultural history were produced by the Yoruba. They have several dances,
rituals and myths, which display their rich culture.

Economy of the Yoruba People

Like the economy of other forest people in Nigeria, the Yoruba are predominantly an agricultural
people. They cultivate crops such as yams, sweet potatoes, cassava and other tuber crops. They
are also hunters and engaged in lumbering as an economic activity because of the presence of trees.
They are wood carvers and sculptors and also specialized in iron working. They exchange these
products both within and outside their locality through long distance trade.

The Hausa Group

Hausa is the largest ethnic group in northern Nigeria and by extension the whole country. The term
Hausa also refers to a language spoken indigenously by Savannah peoples across the far North
from Nigeria’s Western boundary Eastward to Borno State and into much of the territory of central
Nigeria. Hausa influence has spread to most parts of West Africa and beyond. Next to Swahili, the
Hausa language is more widely spoken than any other single indigenous language throughout the
continent of Africa.

There are conflicting legends about the origin of the Hausa States in Nigeria. However, the most
popular account traced their origin to a certain Bayajida who emigrated from Baghdad to Kanem
Bornu and married the daughter of the Kanuri ruler. Bayafida who was forced to flee Kanem Bornu
due to squabbles relocated to Biramta-Gabas, where his wife bore him a son. He left his family for
Daura where he killed a sacred snake “sarki” which had for years deprived the people of water
from a well, except on Fridays. In appreciation of the great feat achieved by Bayajida, the Queen
of Daura married him and later gave birth to a son called Bawo. It was Bawo’s seven (7) children
that became the founders of the original Hausa states known as Hausa Bokwai. The original 7
states are Biram, Daura, Katsina, Zaria, Kano, Rano and Gobir. With the passage of time another
7 states emerged known as the Banza Bokwai. These states are Kebbi, Zamfara, Nupe, Gwari,
Yauri, Ilorin and Kwararafa. The various Hausa States emerged as city states and developed well
structured centralized political system headed by the King, Sarki and other principal officials. An
elaborate judicial department was also put in place, headed by the Alkali and the qadi.

The earliest form of worship in Hausa land was animism i.e pagan idol worship. It was not until
the 14th century that Fulani missionaries from Mali started serious work of conversion of people
from paganism to Islam in Hausa land. However, the people continued to mix paganism with Islam
until the advent of the Islamic Jihad of the early 19th century led by Usman Dan Fodio. This
development transformed Hausa land into a theocratic state governed by Islamic law. With this
development the peoples social life such as marriage and education became highly influenced by
Islamic and Arabic culture. Hence in marriage, the women were put in purdah and were compelled
to wear veil in public. The Hausa architectural style and building design was heavily influenced

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by the Arabic world. The major occupation of the Hausa is farming. The people also engaged in
handicraft such as weaving and dyeing of clothes.
The Fulani Group
The Fulani originated in the upper Senegal and were believed to have descended from the union
between Tuculor women and Berber traders. By the 7th century A.D the Fulani had firmly
established themselves in West Africa. The Fulani were among the first people to embrace Islam
in West Africa. However, for centuries the Fulani were scattered throughout West Africa and
belong to no identifiable kingdom. By 14th century, Fulani scholars of Islam and pastoralists began
to settle in Northern Nigeria. They helped in propagating Islam while discouraging the Hausa from
idol worship. By early 19th century the Fulani in Northern Nigeria led by Usman Dan Fodio, an
Islamic scholar launched a Holy War, Jihad on Hausa states with the purpose of converting the
people to islam and putting an end to paganism. Usman Dan Fodio’s campaigned received wide
spread support from his kinsmen and even Hausa who were fed up with the corrupt leadership
style and high handedness of their leaders. The Jihad dramatically altered the political equation of
Hausa land as Fulani’s who supported Usman Dan Fodio in his campaign took over the seat of
powers across the land. Ever since, the entire Hausa land was brought under the rulership of the
Fulani with Sokoto being the headquarter of the Islamic caliphate.

There are two categories of Fulani, the Fulani Bororo whose main occupation is cattle rearing and
the Fulani Gida i.e. town dwellers who engaged in urban crafts and trade. The Fulani’s over the
years have emerged as critical element in the politics of Northern Nigeria and the country at large.
The Fulani has blended so well with the Hausa that it is today difficult for an outsider to distinguish
between these two sets of people.

The Kanuri Group

They are also known and referred to as Beri Beri by their Hausa neighbours. The Kanuri’s are
predominantly found in Borno and Yobe State. A substantial number of them are also found in
Kano and Nasarawa State. They are predominantly farmers and fishermen and are known for their
long facial marks. The Kanuri’s have their kiths and kins across the borders of Nigeria in Chad,
Cameroun an Niger. Most Kanuri’s are sunni moslems, while a few are animists The Kanuri’s
speaks variety of dialects such as Manga, Tumari and Bilma.

The Kisra legend or tradition of origin traced the founder of the earliest known Kanuri kingdom
to a prince called Kisra who migrated with his followers to the east of Lake Chad from eastern
Africa as a consequence of the destruction of the city of Meroe (in the present day Sudan) by the
people of Axum in about A.D. 350. By the 9th century, Kanuri kingdom had fused with several
petty states and developed into a great empire known as Kanem at the east of Lake Chad. However,
by the 15th century, the seat of government was relocated to Bornu in the west of Lake Chad.

Ali Ghaji and Idris Alooma were two great leaders who contributed so much to the fortune of the
Kanem – Bornu empire. The Kanuri empire lasted for over a thousand years (A.D 774 – 1810),
placing it as one of the longest lasting dynasties in world history. It was the sacking of Mai Ahmad,
the last Kanuri ruler of the Sefawa dynasty in 1808 from the seat of power at Ngazargamu by
Fulani Jihadists and the subsequent death of Mai Ahmad in 1810 that closed the chapter of the
Sefawa dynasty.

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 However, Muhammad Al-Kanemi, a devout Islamic scholar and warrior rally support for Bornu
with his troops from Kanem by dislodging the Fulani jihadist. Al-Kanemi argued that it was wrong
of Usman dan Fodio to launch Jihad against a fellow Islamic state which had all along been
practicing the purest form of the Islamic faith. Following the death of Mai Ahmad in 1810, Al-
Kanemi became the Sheik or Shehu of Bornu and ruled the territory until his own death in 1835.
The new line of leadership he established replaced the Sefawa dynasty and persisted till date. Thus,
the throne of the paramount ruler of Bornu, the Shehu stool is the exclusive preserve of the
descendants of Muhammad Al-Kanemi. The people of Bornu had continued with the practice of
Islam as the dominant faith within their domains. The Kanuri because of the environment of the
Lake Chad basin were basically farmers, traders, salt producers and fishermen. The encroachment
of the Sahara desert and the shrinking of the Lake Chad had negatively impacted on the economy
of Kanuri land coupled with the ongoing Boko Haram insurgency which had displaced most of the
populace and stifle economic activities in the area.

Nupe
The Nupe speaks the language generally classified as Nupoid group which is identified with the
sub-family group of languages of the Benue-Congo. The Nupe ethnic stocks are found in 3 states
of Nigeria, Niger, Kwara and Kogi. Bida, the seat of the Etsu Nupe the paramount ruler of Nupe
people is regarded as the traditional headquarters of Nupeland. The formation of Nupe Kingdom
was largely attributed to Tsoede, also known as Edegi. Tsoede who was born in 1465 was the son
of a Nupe mother and an Igala father who was raised at the Palace of Attah Igala in Idah. Having
being equipped with charm and magical power by his father, he eventually returned to his mother
place to establish the Nupe Kingdom through force of arms and conquest of other neighbouring
areas. Those he conquered include the Yoruba in the south and the Kamberi and Kamuku in the
North. He ruled the entire Nupeland from his administrative headquarters of Nupeko until his death
in 1591 during one of his military expansionist missions north of the Nupe Kingdom. Long before
the 19th century, the Nupe people had historical links with the Hausas of Katsina, Kano and Borno
people, who pioneered the establishment of some of their towns such as Abaji, Eggan, Kutigi and
Enagi. In terms of culture, the Nupe borrowed substantially from their neighbours across the River
Niger such as Yoruba, Igala, Gwari and Borgu.

It is pertinent to state, that the Nupe did not only borrow culture from her neighbours but also
donated some aspect of her culture to them. For instance, while they borrowed the kingship system
of Igala land, they in turn introduced the Egugu masquerade in Yoruba land. It was also from Nupe
land that Islam spread to the neighbouring Yoruba towns like Offa and Ibolo communities. By the
early 19th century the existing political structure in Nupeland was altered due to the outbreak of
the Fulani Jihad. The Nupe indigenous rulers were dislodged from their offices by Fulani Jihadists
who took over their positions. Mallam Dendo, a Fulani Jihadist emerged on the seat of the
paramount ruler of Nupe in Bida in 1804 and declared himself as the leader of the people. Mallam
Dendo who derived his flag of authority from the Emir of Gwandu presided over the affairs of
Nupe people under the supervision of Gwandu emirate. By 1832, Dendo’s son mounted the stool
of his father and was installed as the first Etsu Nupe. Ever since, the Fulani’s has continued to
preside over the Nupe people. The economy of N upeland, though largely agrarian is supplemented
with fishing and cottage industries such as traditional soap making, blacksmithing, brass work,
wood work and tailoring.

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Jukun
The Jukun who speak six dialects, Wukari, Donga, Kona, Gwana and Pindiga, Jibu and Wase Tofa
are located in Taraba, Benue, Nassarawa, Plateau, Adamawa and Gombe States, and some parts
of northwestern Cameroon. The Jukun states presided over chunks of Gongola and Benue river
basins over a long period of time stretching from the 14th to the 18th century A.D. One of their
traditions of origin claims that they are of the same stock with the Kanuri of Borno. It is, thus,
stated that they migrated with the Kanuri to Borno where they left them and then continued their
movement southwards before settling along the Gongola and Benue river basins. Whereas between
the 14th century and the 15th century, Jukun suffered so much in the hands of Kano and Zaria who
occasionally raided her territories and exerted much tributes, as from the 16th century up to the 18th
century Jukun became a formidable military force that posed serious threat to Borno, Kano, Zaria,
the surrounding areas of Jos Plateau and to some parts of the Cross River basin.
As Jukun became very influential, many communities in the central parts of Nigeria area from
the upper Benue to the middle Niger adopted the Jukun institutions in one way or the other. Thus,
the Tiv, Idoma, Igala and Igbira derived so much from the Jukun traditional belief system,
economic activities and act of governance. By the turn of the 18th century, internal wrangling and
intrigues coupled with constant raids from the Chambas had weakened the Jukun Kingdom and
rendered her vulnerable to the Fulani Jihadists who greatly plundered her territories in the 19th
century. However, the robust centralised political system of the Jukun, represented by the Aku of
Wukari survived the Islamic Jihadist onslaught and is still thriving till date.

The Jukuns are divided into two major groups, the Jukun Wanu and Jukun Wapa. The Jukun Wanu
are fishermen residing along the banks of the river Benue and Niger where they run through Taraba
State, Benue State and Nassarawa State. The Jukun Wapa are the homeland Jukun that lives around
Wukari. Even though the traditional stool of Aku of Wukari was able to survive after the Fulani
conquest of Jukun, the initial cohesiveness of the people were disrupted as shown in the case of
the Jukun in Adamawa State who were brought under the rulership of the Fulani emir of Muri.
Prior to the advent of colonialism, Jukuns were predominantly traditional worshipers. The coming
of Christianity has significantly altered the people’s belief system, as most Jukuns, including their
paramount ruler have embraced the Christian faith.

Ebira
The Ebira also known as Igbira are heavily concentrated in the central senatorial district of Kogi
State, not far from the NigerBenue Confluence. People of Ebira ethnic group are also found in
other Nigerian states such as Kwara, Ondo, Oyo, Osun, Nassarawa, Edo, Benue and the Federal
Capital Territory. Ebira Tao is the largest of the several Ebira groups. The other sister groups are
Ebira Koto and Ebira Ozum (Kogi State), Ebira Fulani (Kogi State), Ebira Etuno (Edo State), Ebira
Agatu (Benue State) Ebira Oloko (Ondo, Oyo and Osun States)
The earliest homeland of the Ebira according to oral traditions was around Wukari in the defunct
Kwararafa empire. The Ebira along side with the Igala and Idoma were believed to have migrated
out of Wukari following a chieftaincy dispute in the area at about 1680 A.D. The Ebira in the
course of their migration later split into various groups and settled in different locations as
discussed earlier between 1680 and 1750 A.D. The Ebira are known for their cultural festivals
such as “Echane” an annual masquerade festival dedicated to women, “Eche Ori”, a new yam
festival, and “Eknechi” a night masquerade festival that marks the end of the Ebira calendar year
and the beginning of a new one. The throne of the paramount ruler of Ebiraland known as the

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Ohonoyi of Ebira land is located in Okene, a hilly and rocky terrain which served as a fortress for
the Ebira people against enemies incursion especially in the 19th century. The Ebira are
predominantly moslems and well verse in agriculture and crafts such as pottery, dyeing and
blacksmithing.

Igala
People of Igala ethnic group though largely domiciled in Kogi State are also found in Delta,
Anambra and Edo States. Various traditions link the Igala with the Yoruba, Benin and Jukun.
Similarities as well as differences in the institution of divine kingship, methods of succession,
royal regalia; and languages among the Igala, Yoruba, Benin and Jukun have led, amongst other
things, to a controversy about the origin of Igala kingship and political institutions.
However, it is incontrovertible that the present dynasty ruling in Igala is of Jukun origin. C. A.
Temple in his compilation on the ethnic groups of Northern Nigeria observed that the Igala
descended from the Apa who had lived in the neighbourhood of Ibi for many years but have to flee
from the Jukun in canoe down the Benue in about 1490 A.D under their Chief Idoko. It was Idoko
son, Ayegba Om’ Idoko who joined forces with the head of Akpoto Omeppa to defeat the Jukun
near Idah after sacrificing her daughter Inikpi. Ayegba Om’ Idoko who emerged as the first Attah
of Igala ruled the Igala Kingdom from Idah while his elder brother Atiyele migrated east word to
establish Ankpa Kingdom. However, Idah has since continued to serve as the traditional
headquarters of Igalaland. The traditional Igala society is largely agrarian, although fishing is also
a mainstay of the people’s economy especially the Igalas of the riverine Idah area. Igala practice a
number of different religions, including African traditional religion, Christianity and Islam. The
people through their culture and language are closely related to the following ethnic groups, Idoma,
Igbo, Itsekiri, Bini, Yoruba and Nupe.

Birom
The Birom are largely located in Plateau State but are also found in Bauchi and Kaduna States.
They speak the Birom language which belongs to the large Niger-Congo family of languages. The
Birom ethnic group which currently constitute the largest indigenous group on the Jos Plateau
migrated into their present abode from Central Africa as Bantu migrants who took their journey
from Ethiopia through Sudan to Chad, and then to Niger before settling down at Gobir close to
Sokoto from where they moved before finally settling down at Riyom from where they eventually
spread to Xwang, Forom Zawan, Kuru, Gyel, Haipan, Fan and Gashish. The Birom are
predominantly farmers and hunters who celebrate their occupations through series of cultural
festivals such as Mandyang (rain festival – usually marked between March – April), Nshor
(hunting festival – usually marked between April – May) Nzem Berom (music, dance, arts cultural
day mandatory marked every first week of April). The Birom political system prior to the advent
of colonialism functioned more as a chieftain under the Gwoms (village heads) and Da Gwoms
(village heads) until the establishment of the stool of the paramount ruler for the entire Birom land
known as Gbong Gwom Jos in 1935.

The Idoma
People of Idoma ethnic group are largely found in Benue State and other states such as Cross River,
Nassarawa, Enugu and Kogi State. The Idoma legend of origins and ethnicity is about the most
complex aspect of their pre-colonial history. Different accounts abounds on the peoples origin and
migrations. However, it is evident that the evolution of an Idoma ethnicity begun in the 16th century

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from Apa in Kwararafa empire to various places within the Lower Benue. This migration was in
waves and phases. The first wave of Idoma migrations which involved the Ugboju, Adoka and
Otukpo people occurred between 1535 – 1625. The second wave which involved the core of
western Idoma districts such as Otukpa, Orokam, Owukpa and Ichama took place between 1685 –
1751. While the first wave was instigated by the Tiv migrants who dislodged the Idoma from their
first settlement in Benue valley Apa I, the second wave of migrants to enter Idoma land came in
through Igalaland following intensed chieftaincy tussles in Idah.

By about the last quarter of the 19th century, the process of the consolidation of new territories in
which the Idoma found themselves had been completed. This consolidation was however at the
expense of other numerically smaller ethnic groups like the Igede, Akweya and Ufia on whose
territories the Idoma settled while the Igede were pushed to the eastern fringes of the Idoma
territories, the Ufia and Akweya were encircled by the Idoma and today constitute a bilingual
micro-nationality in the heart of Idomaland. The people operated a decentralised and communal
based system of government throughout the precolonial period. However, the British colonial
government which firmly announced its presence in Idomaland following the suppression of the
Ogbuloko revolt in 1928, introduced chieftaincy institution in Idomaland, first at the district level
before the creation of the seat of the paramount ruler of Idomaland, Och’Idoma in 1946 at Otukpo.
This political innovation was not established essentially to engender unity among the people but
for administrative convenience, especially for the enhancement of the British indirect rule system.
The major occupation of Idoma people over the years is farming, supplemented with fishing and
hunting. The people are also verse in handicraft such as blacksmithing, wood work, basketing and
cloth weaving. Since the advent of colonialism and the spread of Christian activities in the area,
most of the people have embraced Christianity at the expense of African traditional religion.

The Tiv
The Tiv ethnic group, though predominantly domiciled in Benue state are also found in Nassarawa,
Taraba, Plateau and the Federal Capital Territory. The Tiv which form part of the Bantu continuum
lived within the Cameroun – Obudu complex between 1475 and 1505 before moving down the
hills into the Benue Valley through four waves of migration that lasted between 1475 – 1900. The
migration of the proto Tiv into the Lower Benue Valley was not spontaneous but occurred in
phases and periods. The phases lasted as follows, the first phase 1475 – 1535, the second phase
1535 – 1595, the third phase 1595 – 1775 and the fourth phase 1775 – 1900. The reason for
migration from Swem around the Cameroon – Obudu Plateau has been attributed to diverse factors
such as inter and intra ethnic hostilities, population explosion and the gradual decline of the
Kwararafa military efficacy in the Lower Benue Valley. The migrations of the Tiv into the Benue
Valley was accompanied with series of war fare against the Jukun, Chamba, Idoma, the Alago, the
Hausawa/Katsinawa and the Kamberi.
The Tiv in their interaction with their neighbours had imbibed so much in terms of farming
techniques and technology, cultural practice and political system. The Tiv who emerged from
Swem as an egalitarian society by the 19th century instituted a political system, Tor Agbande
(Drum chief) which they copied from the Jukun. The Tor Agbande held sway at the kindred level
where they offered both political and military leadership to their people. With the advent of
colonialism, the British in their attempt to implement the indirect rule system created the offices
of district heads and subsequently that of the paramount ruler of Tivland, Tor Tiv by 1945. The

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seat of the Tor Tiv is in Gboko, which in contemporary time is regarded as the traditional
headquarter of Tivland.
The Tiv are predominantly farmers. A significant portion of the population are also engaged in
trading and merchandise. The advent of Christianity in Tivland has significantly altered the
people’s belief system in favour of the Christian faith. Nongu u Kristu u i ser u sha Tar (Universal
Reformed Christian Church) NKST one of the largest indigenous Christian Mission in Nigeria is
a proof of the tremendous impact of Christianity in Tivland.
Culture Zones in Nigeria
Prior to British amalgamation, the Nigerian area comprised different chiefdoms, kingdoms and
empires with different cultural forms and features as dictated by their peculiar geographical
environments. Notable political entities are the Borno Empire, the Hausa States, and the Sokoto
Caliphate in the North, the Igbo segmentary societies in the East, Benin Kingdom and the Oyo
Empire in the West and several ethnic identities in the Benue Valley. There are major and minor
ethnic groups in each zone in Nigeria. In Northern part of Nigeria which comprises of North-West,
North-East, and North-Central Geo-political zones, the major ethnic groups are the Hausa, Fulani,
Kanuri, Tiv, Jukum, Nupe, Idoma etc. Most minor ethnicities are found in the North-Central
region, also known as the Middle Belt Region. The Southern part of Nigeria on the other hand is
made up of South-West, SouthEast and South-South. The major ethnic groups in this part of the
country are; the Yoruba, Igbo, Ijaw, Urhobo, Itsekiri and Bini etc.

Impact of Environment on Culture Variation

The environment has a significant influence on culture progress and its expression. Toyin Falola
emphasizes the role of geography in the settlement pattern of the peoples of the Nigerian area. He
underscores how environmental conditions influenced the culture of the people including
economic, social and political settings. He states that the distribution of ethnic groups in the
country is geographical in outlook. Areas that could support life were well occupied while people
avoided environments that were hostile. For instance, there was a large concentration of small
groups in Central Nigeria. Several of these groups enjoyed a large measure of political autonomy.
This concentration and political pattern have been attributed to the rugged topography, hostility of
more powerful neighbours and rampant slave raid. Today, central Nigeria is noted as an area of
dense population. Other similar areas are the Northeast, especially around the Chad and to some
extent, the Niger Delta. Whereas, the Southeast and South-West are heavily populated.

The location of the groups also determined their exposure to the outside world and the categories
of people they met, which in turn, influenced the progress of their culture. For instance, groups in
northern Nigeria had a long history of relation with the people of Sudan, North Africa and the
Middle East as indicated by their participation in the Trans Sahara Trade and early acceptance of
Islam and Arab culture, while groups in southern Nigeria related with the Europeans that came
through the Atlantic beginning from the 15th century.

In addition, natural features such as rivers, mountains, valleys and forests also defined the cultural
activities of the people of Nigeria. Indeed, Rivers Niger and Benue enabled inhabitants in the
middle zone to engage in fishing, farming, canoe-building, net making and other water related
occupations. The farming systems and the types of crops planted also depended on the rainfall
patterns, and the climatic conditions, and this created a culture of specialization on specific crops

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in each of the geographical zones. The emergence of economic specialization also led to the
interdependence of groups on one another through long distance trade and commercial exchange.

Nigerian Culture and Globalisation

From another perspective, Nigeria need to strengthen her social systems to forestall the erosion of
aspects of her cultural identities like language, dressing, greeting, education, family ties and other
values, which are being adversely affected by the forces of westernization under the guise of
globalization. While globalisation offers opportunity for closer tie and interaction between people,
Nigeria should be wary of cultural colonialism to forestall losing her peculiar values, which could
turn her people to permanent followers in the global village. Indeed, Nigeria has made reasonable
progress in this direction of social and cultural rebirth particularly in the entertainment industry
where indigenous music and movies. For instance the Nollywood, which is Nigeria’s popular
brand of the home movie, has become a household name with great followership not only in Africa
but also in the diaspora. There has also been appreciable progress in aspect of collaboration among
African actors, particularly in West Africa, where Nigerian and Ghanaian film makers have formed
a synergy in producing movies, which have been showcasing the cultures of the two countries.
Furthermore, African native languages have become strengthened through movies. African
languages like Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Twi, and Kiswahili have gained popularity in the movie
industry, especially with the patronage of satellite Television Stations across Africa. In recent time,
there has been the translation of movies in other foreign languages like English, French and Latin
America, into native languages for better understanding. In the same vein, African musicians, in
recent times, have also been able to break foreign dominance through the use of native languages
for their songs. This has been an effective strategy in combating the domination of the continent
through songs and also in making her more relevant in the global stage.

Indigenous languages have found effective application in musical genre like Hip-hop, Reggae,
Gospel, Rhythm and Blues, Rap, to mention but a few, which has enhanced their acceptability and
popularity unlike when they were composed with only English or French, which had limited
audience among the indigenous population. Nigerian musicians like 9ice, Ruggedman, Mr. Raw,
Davido, Baddo, Teni, Adekunle Gold and Ghanian star, Sakodie, have all distinguished themselves
in using music to bring salient aspects of African culture to the world stage. There has also been
several collaborations between African artiste and foreign musicians in which African values are
show-cased. Furthermore, African languages like Hausa, Kiswahili, and Yoruba have also found
their place in the international broadcast stations like the British Broadcasting Company (BBC),
Voice of America (VOA), AJAZEERA, China Radio International, and German Radio
Dutchervella.
An option open to Africa especially Nigeria, is to turn to her cultural and traditional capabilities
as our evolutionary base for our economic development. In this direction, there are vast array of
traditional skills and technologies, for which Nigeria is well known in history that are still waiting
to be upgraded and modernized. The Benin Bronze Arts, Abuja Pottery arts, Yoruba “Aso-Oke”
production technique and “Agatu Dane Gun” production to mention but a few.

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References
C. S. Orngu, “Cultural Imperialism and the Dilemma of Cultural Diplomacy in Africa,” Paper
presented at the 4 th International Toyin Falola Annual Conference (TOFAC), Durban, South
Africa, 3-5, July, 2014, p.3.
H. I. Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination, New York, International Arts and
Science Press, 1976.
E. E. Ayandele, “External Relations with Europe in the Nineteenth Century: Explorers,
Missionaries and Traders,” in O. Ikime (ed),Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan, Heinemann
Educational Books (N ig) Ltd, 1980; also see C. S. Orngu, Socio-Political Conflicts and Nigeria’s
External Relations, 1953-2005, Lagos, Bahiti and Dalila Publishers, 2014. Armstrong Matiu
Adejo, Reparations: Africa’s New Charge in a Changing World, Makurdi, Peach Global
Publications, 2004. See particularly Chapter Three.
C. S. Orngu, “Ethnicity, Identity Politics: Challenges for Nigerian Federalism,” in V. Egwemi, T.
Wuam and C. S. Orngu (eds), Federalism, Politics and Minorities in Nigeria: Essays in Honour
of Professor G. N. Hembe , Lagos, Bahiti and Dalila, 2014, pp326-27.
H. I. Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination, New York, International Arts and
Science Press, 1976.
See E. Nwabueze, Democratization and the Dialectics of Culture in Contemporary Nigeria ,
Abuja, N ICO, 2011, p.8
C. S. Orngu, “Cultural Imperialism and the Dilemma of Cultural Diplomacy …,” p.4.
E. N wabueze, Democratization and the Dialectics of Culture in Contemporary Nigeria , Abuja,
N ICO, 2011, p.8.
O. O. Okpeh, Jr. and S. I. Ugbegili, Themes on Nigerian History, Peoples and Cultures , Ibadan,
Vast Publishers, 2013, p.4.
F. B. Fiapshev, L. M. Tsikanova and A. A. Fiapshev, “Culture as a Source of Historical Process
and a Factor of Economic Development,” Journal of National Interests, Priorities and Security,
11 (248), March 2014, pp.45-50
N . Nunn, “Culture and Historical Process,” Economic History of Developing Regions, Vol. 27,
2012, pp.108-125.
Tebellini Guido, “Culture and Institutions: Economic Development in the Regions of Europe,”
Journal of the European Economic Association, No. 4, 2008, pp. 677-716
F. K. Buah, West Africa since A.D 1000, Macmillan, 1973 p.103
T. Falola et al, History of Nigeria I, Longman, Lagos 1989, p.46
Igala Traditions of Origin “Post-graduate lecture by C. C. Jacobs, Department of history, Benue
State University 2001.
O. O. Okpeh Jn “Origin, migrations and settlement of the Idoma in Y. A. Ochefu et al, A History
of the peoples of Benue State, Aboki Publisher, Makurdi 2007, p.67
Joe Iyo “The Origin, Early Migrations and Settlement Patterns of the Tiv in the Lower Benue
Valley of Nigeria, C. 1475 – 1900 A.D” in Y. A. Ochefu et al, A History of the peoples of Benue
State, Aboki Publisher, Makurdi 2007, p.37
T. Faolola, et al, Nigeria before 1800, Ibadan, Longman Nigeria limited, pp. 17-19.

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Lecturer: Olalekan Raymond Ajayi. [email protected]
Department of History and International Studies, Faculty of Arts.
Course Title: Nigeria People and Culture
Topic: Nigeria Under Colonial Rule [Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria; Colonial
Administration]
Course Code: GST 112

Course Description;
This course examines the historical development of colonial rule in Nigeria, focusing on its
advent, administrative structures, and the impact on Nigerian societies. It explores key events,
policies, and the socio-economic and political consequences of colonial rule.

Course Objectives
1. Explain the circumstances leading to the advent of colonial rule in Nigeria.
2. Analyze the methods of colonial conquest and consolidation.
3. Examine the structure of colonial administration and governance in Nigeria.
4. Evaluate the impact of colonial policies on the Nigerian economy, politics, and society.
5. Critically assess Nigerian responses to colonial rule, including resistance movements and
nationalist struggles.

Course Outline
MODULE 1: Introduction to Colonial Rule in Nigeria
Definition of Colonialism and Imperialism
The Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
British Expansionist Policies and Justifications for Colonial Rule
Early European Contacts and Trade Relations with Nigeria

MODULE 2: The Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria

British Strategies of Conquest: Diplomacy, Trade, and Force
Phases of British Occupation and Resistance
The Royal Niger Company and Its Role in Colonial Expansion
Military Conquest and Resistance (Benin Expedition 1897, Aro War 1901-1902)
Establishment of British Protectorates: Northern, Southern, and Lagos Colony
The Amalgamation of 1914: Causes, Process, and Implications

MODULE 3: Colonial Administrative Structures and Policies

British Indirect Rule System: Concept, Application, and Challenges
Colonial Political Structure:
Governor-General and the Colonial Bureaucracy
Legislative and Executive Councils
Colonial Policies and Their Implications:
Native Administration System and Its Effects
The Colonial Judicial System and Customary Laws

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MODULE 4: Colonial Economic Policies and Their Impact
Cash Crop Economy and Forced Labour
The Role of the Colonial Economy in the Global Market
Colonial Taxation and Its Consequences
The Development of Infrastructure and Its Link to Economic Exploitation
The Impact of Colonial Economic Policies on Traditional Industries

MODULE 5: Colonial Social and Educational Policies

British Missionary Activities and the Introduction of Western Education
Colonial Health and Sanitation Policies
Social Stratification and the Impact of Colonial Rule on Nigerian Cultures
Emergence of Urbanization and Colonial Town Planning

MODULE 6: Nigerian Responses to Colonial Rule

Early Resistance Movements (Aba Women's Riot 1929, Ekumeku Resistance)
The Growth of Nationalism and Anti-Colonial Movements
Formation of Political Organizations (NNDP, NYM, NCNC, NPC, AG)
Struggles for Independence and the Road to Self-Governance

This course provides a critical and comprehensive study of colonial rule in Nigeria, highlighting
its legacies and historical significance.

Module One: The Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria

Introduction

The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria was not an abrupt event but rather a gradual process
influenced by European economic interests, political ambitions, and strategic considerations. The
British, like other European powers, pursued colonial expansion in Africa under the pretext of
economic trade, missionary activities, and the so-called "civilizing mission." However, the real
driving forces behind colonialism in Nigeria were economic exploitation, territorial control, and
political dominance.

This module examines the key factors that led to colonial rule, the mechanisms through which
Britain established control, and the impact of this period on Nigeria’s historical development.

1.1 The Concept of Colonialism and Imperialism

Definition of Colonialism
Colonialism refers to the practice where a powerful nation establishes control over a weaker
territory, often for economic gain, political expansion, and cultural domination. It involves:
The subjugation of indigenous people.
The establishment of foreign administrative structures.
The exploitation of local resources for the benefit of the colonizer.

Definition of Imperialism

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Imperialism is the broader ideology that drives colonialism. It involves the extension of a
nation’s power and influence through diplomacy, economic pressure, or military conquest.
Colonialism is a direct manifestation of imperialist policies.

1.2 The Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) The colonization of Nigeria
was part of a larger European competition for African territories in the late 19th century. This
period, known as the Scramble for Africa, led to the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, where
European powers formally divided Africa into spheres of influence to prevent inter-European
conflicts.

Key Outcomes of the Berlin Conference

Established guidelines for colonial claims based on the principle of effective occupation (a
European power had to demonstrate actual governance over a territory).

Partitioned Africa without considering indigenous political, ethnic, or cultural boundaries.

Strengthened European economic and political dominance over African societies.

Impact on Nigeria
Britain intensified its activities in Nigeria to consolidate control, leading to treaties with local
rulers and military interventions against resistant groups.
The establishment of British control over trade routes, particularly along the Niger River, was
formalized through chartered companies like the Royal Niger Company (RNC).

1.3 British Expansionist Policies and Justifications for Colonial Rule

Britain’s colonization of Nigeria was driven by multiple factors, including economic interests,
political strategies, and ideological justifications.

1.3.1 Economic Factors

Raw Materials: The demand for resources such as palm oil, rubber, and cotton for European
industries.
New Markets: Britain sought new markets for its manufactured goods as industrial production
increased.
Trade Monopoly: The British wanted to eliminate foreign competition, particularly from
Germany and France, in West Africa.

1.3.2 Strategic and Political Factors

Control of Trade Routes: The Niger River was a crucial economic and transportation corridor.
Prevention of Rival Expansion: Britain acted to prevent Germany, France, and other European
rivals from gaining influence in Nigeria.

1.3.3 The "Civilizing Mission" Justification

The British justified their colonial rule under the ideology of the "civilizing mission", arguing
that they were bringing progress through:

Christianity and Western education.

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Modern governance structures.
Infrastructure development (railways, telegraph lines, and roads).

However, this was largely a pretext for economic exploitation and political control.

1.4 Early European Contacts and Trade Relations with Nigeria

Before the establishment of formal colonial rule, European interactions with Nigeria were
primarily commercial, involving trade in slaves, spices, textiles, and later, agricultural products.

1.4.1 Pre-Colonial Trade Relations

The Portuguese: First European traders in Nigeria (15th century), primarily engaged in slave
trade.
The British, Dutch, and French: Established trading posts along the coast, focusing on slaves and
palm oil.

1.4.2 The Transition from the Slave Trade to Legitimate Trade

The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade in the 19th century led to a shift towards trade in
palm oil, ivory, and textiles.
The British government encouraged legitimate trade as a means to replace the economic void left
by the end of the slave trade.

1.4.3 British Trade Monopoly and Expansion

The Royal Niger Company (RNC), led by Sir George Goldie, played a crucial role in
consolidating British economic dominance in Nigeria.
The RNC imposed high tariffs on African traders, controlled the export of palm oil, and
established treaties with indigenous leaders to formalize British presence.

1.5 British Methods of Colonial Conquest in Nigeria

Britain employed multiple strategies to establish and consolidate colonial rule in Nigeria:

1.5.1 Diplomatic Treaties

British officials signed treaties with local rulers, often through coercion or deception
These treaties were later used as legal justifications for British annexation of Nigerian territories
1.5.2 Military Conquest
The Anglo-Aro War (1901-1902): Britain defeated the Aro Confederacy, a powerful commercial
and religious network in southeastern Nigeria.
The Fall of Benin (1897): British forces sacked the Kingdom of Benin, looted its treasures, and
exiled its ruler.
The Sokoto Caliphate Conquest (1903): The British overthrew the Fulani ruling class and
imposed colonial rule.

1.5.3 Divide and Rule Strategy

The British exploited ethnic and religious differences to weaken indigenous resistance.
They favored certain ethnic groups in administration while marginalizing others.

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The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria was not a single event but a prolonged process driven by
economic, political, and strategic interests. The British used diplomatic, economic, and military
strategies to assert control over Nigerian territories, often justifying their actions under the guise
of civilization and modernization. The consequences of this period, including political
restructuring, economic exploitation, and cultural transformations, continue to shape Nigeria’s
historical trajectory.

Module Two: Colonial Adminisration in Nigeria

The British colonial administration in Nigeria was characterized by a combination of political
restructuring, economic exploitation, and social transformation. The system of governance
introduced by the British was designed to maintain control over the vast and diverse territories of
Nigeria while minimizing administrative costs. This module critically examines the structure,
policies, and impacts of British colonial administration in Nigeria.

2.1 Objectives of British Colonial Administration in Nigeria

The British had several objectives in establishing colonial rule in Nigeria:

1. Economic Exploitation
To extract and control Nigeria’s natural resources, such as palm oil, cocoa, and rubber.
To create a market for British manufactured goods.
To introduce taxation systems that would generate revenue for the colonial government.

2. Political Control
To ensure Nigeria remained under British sovereignty with minimal resistance.
To prevent rival European powers from gaining influence.
To create administrative structures that facilitated British dominance.

3. Social and Cultural Transformation

To introduce Western education and Christianity to reshape Nigerian societies.
To suppress indigenous political institutions and replace them with British-influenced
governance.
To foster a class of educated Nigerians who could assist in administration but remain loyal to
British interests.

2.2 Phases of British Colonial Rule in Nigeria

British rule in Nigeria developed in phases, corresponding to the gradual annexation of different
regions:

1. The Lagos Colony (1861-1914)

Lagos was annexed in 1861 due to its strategic location and commercial significance.
Became a Crown Colony in 1865, directly governed by a British-appointed governor.

2. The Protectorate of Southern Nigeria (1900-1914)

Formed by merging the Niger Coast Protectorate and territories under the Royal Niger Company
in 1900.
Administration involved British officials and appointed local leaders to enforce colonial laws.

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3. The Protectorate of Northern Nigeria (1900-1914)
Created after the defeat of the Sokoto Caliphate and other Northern emirates.
Administered through Indirect Rule, using existing traditional authorities.

4. The Amalgamation of 1914

Lord Frederick Lugard unified Northern and Southern Nigeria into one administrative entity.
The primary reasons for amalgamation:
Economic: The North was not self-sufficient, and Britain needed Southern resources to sustain it.
Administrative convenience: One centralized government was easier to manage.
Political stability: To reduce potential inter-regional conflicts.

2.3 System of British Colonial Administration in Nigeria

The British adopted different administrative systems across Nigeria, primarily Indirect Rule, but
also direct rule in some areas.

2.3.1 Indirect Rule System

This system, introduced by Lord Lugard, allowed the British to govern through existing
traditional rulers.

Features of Indirect Rule:

1. Retention of Traditional Institutions: Chiefs, Emirs, and Obas continued to rule under British
supervision.
2. Taxation and Revenue Collection: Traditional rulers were responsible for tax collection.
3. Judicial System: Customary courts were maintained but had to follow British colonial laws.
4. Minimal British Interference in Daily Affairs: British officials only intervened in major
decisions.

Success of Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria

The hierarchical structure of the Sokoto Caliphate made Indirect Rule easier to implement.
Emirs retained significant influence but were subordinated to British officials.
The existing Islamic judicial system was incorporated into colonial administration.

Failure of Indirect Rule in Southern Nigeria:

In the East, the Igbo society was acephalous (lacking centralized authority), making Indirect
Rule ineffective.
The British created a new class of "Warrant Chiefs," who were often corrupt and unpopular.
The Aba Women’s Riot of 1929 was a direct protest against the abuses of Indirect Rule.

2.4 Colonial Economic Policies

British economic policies were designed to benefit Britain at the expense of Nigeria.

2.4.1 Introduction of Cash Crop Economy

Encouraged large-scale production of cocoa, groundnut, palm oil, and cotton.
Discouraged industrial development to ensure Nigeria remained dependent on British
manufactured goods.

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2.4.2 Taxation and Forced Labour
Introduction of hut tax, direct tax, and poll tax to generate revenue.
Forced labor policies required Nigerians to work on colonial projects, such as railway
construction.

2.4.3 British Trade Monopoly

Britain controlled all major trade routes and export industries.
Nigerian traders were restricted from engaging in direct international trade.

Impact of Colonial Economic Policies

Dependence on agriculture and cash crops led to underdevelopment of Nigeria’s industrial
sector.
Economic disparity widened between regions due to different colonial economic policies.
Nigerian indigenous businesses struggled against British firms.

2.5 Colonial Judicial and Legal System

The British introduced a dual legal system in Nigeria:

1. Customary Courts: Allowed local rulers to adjudicate minor disputes based on indigenous
laws.
2. Colonial Courts: Operated under British law and handled major legal issues.
3. Native Authority Police: Traditional rulers were given power to enforce colonial laws.

Impact of Colonial Legal System

Erosion of indigenous legal traditions.
Introduction of British concepts of justice, such as imprisonment instead of traditional
reconciliation.
Legal disparities between the North and South due to different levels of British intervention..

2.6 Social and Cultural Impact of Colonial Administration

The British administration significantly altered Nigerian society.

2.6.1 Impact on Education

Western-style education was introduced, leading to the emergence of a literate elite.
Education was concentrated in the South, leading to regional disparities.

2.6.2 Impact on Religion

Christianity spread in Southern Nigeria, leading to the decline of traditional religious practices.
Islamic influence remained strong in the North, where Christian missionary activities were
restricted.

2.6.3 Urbanization and Social Change

Cities like Lagos, Ibadan, and Kano grew due to colonial economic activities.
A new class of educated Nigerians began to emerge, demanding political reforms.

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British colonial administration in Nigeria was primarily designed to serve British interests rather
than Nigerian development. The system of Indirect Rule was effective in the North but failed in
the South. Colonial economic policies fostered dependency and underdevelopment, while
judicial and social systems disrupted traditional ways of life. However, colonial rule also
introduced Western education and political consciousness, which later contributed to the struggle
for independence.

Module Three: The Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria

Introduction

The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria marked a major shift in the political, social, and economic
landscape of the region. British interests in West Africa led to the gradual imposition of colonial
dominance, with the eventual consolidation of Nigeria as a British colony. This module critically
examines the early phases of colonial entry, the factors that led to British intervention, and the
establishment of formal colonial rule in Nigeria.

3.1 Factors Leading to the Advent of Colonial Rule

1. Economic Interests
Trade and Resources: By the early 19th century, European nations, particularly Britain, had
established trade routes along the West African coast, with Nigeria being central to the
transatlantic slave trade. After the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, British merchants turned
to legitimate commerce, especially in palm oil, which was used in the production of soap,
candles, and lubricants during the Industrial Revolution.

Strategic Location: Nigeria’s proximity to other parts of West Africa and its access to the
Atlantic Ocean made it an ideal location for British imperial expansion. The British were keen on
establishing control over this region to facilitate trade and prevent French and Portuguese
encroachment.

2. The Abolition of the Slave Trade

Humanitarian Ideals: The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade in 1807 by Britain, followed
by its prohibition in 1833, led to new British economic interests in Nigeria. With the end of
slavery, the British sought alternative resources, particularly in agricultural products like palm
oil.
Moral Superiority: The British promoted their colonial presence as part of a "civilizing mission,"
claiming that their rule would bring progress, education, and Christianity to the indigenous
populations.

3. Rivalry with Other European Powers

Imperial Competition: During the late 19th century, European powers, particularly France,
Portugal, and Spain, were expanding their influence in Africa. Britain sought to secure its
interests in Nigeria to prevent these rivals from gaining control over vital trade routes and
territories in West Africa.

4. Internal Conflicts and the Collapse of Traditional Kingdoms

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Decline of Traditional Political Systems: The internal conflicts among the various Nigerian
states, such as the disintegration of the Oyo Empire in the early 19th century and the weakening
of the Sokoto Caliphate by British military forces, created political vacuums that the British were
able to exploit. British officials and military commanders capitalized on the opportunities for
expansion by using both diplomacy and force to gain control over fragmented regions.

3.2 Early British Encounters in Nigeria

1. The Establishment of the Lagos Colony (1861)

The Annexation of Lagos: Lagos was a vital port city for British interests, serving as a base for
trade and the suppression of the slave trade. The British first established a protectorate over
Lagos in 1861 and formally annexed it in 1865. Lagos was intended to serve as a strategic point
for British dominance in the region.
British Administration in Lagos: After annexation, Lagos became a crown colony, directly
governed by Britain. The British implemented a system of governance based on European
models, which included the appointment of a British governor and the establishment of courts to
enforce colonial rule.

2. The Niger Coast Protectorate (1884-1899)

British Protectorates in the Niger Delta: Before the full establishment of a colony, Britain began
to assert its control over various parts of Nigeria by creating protectorates in the Niger Delta
region. The Royal Niger Company, under the leadership of Sir George Goldie, dominated the
trade of palm oil and other goods in the Niger region.
The Role of the Royal Niger Company: The Royal Niger Company acted as the de facto
government, administering territories along the Niger River. The British government officially
assumed control of the Niger Coast in 1899, formalizing its protection of British commercial
interests.

3. The Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900)

Sokoto Caliphate and British Expansion: The British extended their control to the northern part
of Nigeria by defeating the Sokoto Caliphate and other Islamic emirates. This process was slow
and involved both diplomacy and military force.
Indirect Rule in the North: The British adapted the Indirect Rule system to the North, allowing
traditional rulers (Emirs) to maintain their power while functioning under British supervision.
This system was seen as more suitable for the North due to its pre-existing centralized political
structures.

3.3 Consolidation and Expansion of British Rule

1. The Amalgamation of 1914

Lord Lugard’s Role: The most significant event in the establishment of British rule in Nigeria
was the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914, under the governance
of Lord Frederick Lugard. The amalgamation was primarily driven by economic and
administrative considerations, as the South was wealthier and more developed, while the North
was resource-dependent and required Southern revenue.

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Political Implications of Amalgamation: The amalgamation created one united colony but also
exacerbated regional tensions due to differences in governance, religion, and culture. The
Northern region, with its Muslim majority, was under a different system (Indirect Rule)
compared to the Southern region, which had more exposure to Western education and
Christianity.

2. Expansion of Administrative Structures

Creation of Colonial Institutions: Following the amalgamation, the British established a unified
administrative system for the entire country. This included the establishment of a legislative
council, a system of courts, and a taxation system that allowed the colonial government to raise
revenue from the indigenous population.
Centralization of Power: British colonial officials centralized power in Lagos, with appointed
British governors overseeing the administration of both the Northern and Southern regions.
However, due to the differences between the regions, each region maintained some level of
autonomy in governance.

3.4 Impact of the Advent of Colonial Rule

1. Economic Transformation
Economic Exploitation: British rule in Nigeria introduced cash crop farming, primarily for
export, and integrated Nigeria into the global capitalist economy. The economy became largely
dependent on the production of goods for export, with minimal investment in infrastructure that
would have supported domestic industries.
Infrastructure Development: Despite the focus on exploitation, the British built railways, roads,
and ports primarily to facilitate the extraction of resources. These infrastructure projects,
although beneficial to British economic interests, laid the foundation for future economic
development.

2. Social and Cultural Changes

Introduction of Western Education: The British colonial government established schools that
promoted Western education, which led to the creation of a small but growing educated elite.
Religious Transformation: Christianity spread rapidly in Southern Nigeria, with the British
missionaries playing a significant role. In the North, Islam remained dominant, but British
influence led to greater interaction between Christian and Muslim communities.
Urbanization: The growth of towns and cities, particularly Lagos and Port Harcourt, saw the
emergence of a new urban working class and the development of modern infrastructure.

The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria was driven by economic interests, geopolitical
considerations, and the pursuit of British imperial dominance. Through a combination of military
conquest, diplomacy, and strategic alliances, the British consolidated their control over the
region, leading to the formal establishment of the colony in 1914. The legacies of British
colonial rule in Nigeria, including economic exploitation, political fragmentation, and social
change, continue to influence the nation’s development to this day.

Module Four: Colonial Administration in Nigeria

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The colonial administration in Nigeria was established to enforce British policies, maintain
order, and exploit resources for economic gains. The British introduced various administrative
systems, including indirect rule, to govern different regions. This module explores the structures,
methods, and impacts of colonial administration in Nigeria.

4.1 British Administrative Systems in Nigeria

1. Direct and Indirect Rule
Colonial rule in Nigeria was implemented through direct rule in some areas and indirect rule in
others.

A. Direct Rule (Southern Nigeria and Lagos Colony)

In Lagos and parts of Southern Nigeria, the British established a direct administrative system,
with British officials governing directly.
The British appointed governors and district officers to enforce colonial policies.
Traditional rulers had limited authority and were often bypassed in decision-making.

B. Indirect Rule (Northern Nigeria and Parts of the South)

Introduced by Lord Frederick Lugard, indirect rule relied on traditional rulers to administer their
own people under British supervision.
This system was successfully implemented in the North, where the Sokoto Caliphate had a well-
structured administrative system.
In the South, indirect rule faced resistance, especially among the Igbo, who had decentralized
political structures.
British officials provided oversight while local chiefs collected taxes, maintained law and order,
and enforced colonial policies.

4.2 Features of British Colonial Administration

1. The Governor and Executive Council

The governor was the highest-ranking British official, representing the British Crown.
He was assisted by the Executive Council, which comprised senior British officials and colonial
administrators.

2. The Legislative Council

Created in 1861 for Lagos and later extended to the rest of Nigeria.
Initially composed of British officials, but later included Nigerian elites after constitutional
reforms.

3. Provincial and District Administration

Nigeria was divided into provinces, each headed by a Resident.
Provinces were further divided into districts, headed by District Officers (DOs), who
implemented policies at the local level.

4.3 Colonial Policies and Their Impact

1. Taxation and Forced Labor

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The British introduced taxes to generate revenue for colonial administration.
The 1929 Aba Women’s Riot was a direct response to unfair taxation.
Forced labor was used for infrastructure projects, including roads and railways.

2. Land Policies and Resource Exploitation

The Land and Native Rights Ordinance of 1910 placed land ownership under British control,
dispossessing local communities.
Cash crops like cocoa, palm oil, and rubber were cultivated for export.

3. Social and Cultural Changes

The British promoted Western education, leading to the emergence of an elite class.
Missionary activities introduced Christianity in Southern Nigeria but had little impact in the
North.
Colonial rule disrupted traditional leadership structures, replacing indigenous governance with
British legal and administrative systems.

4.4 Resistance to Colonial Rule

1. Armed Resistance
Several Nigerian communities resisted British conquest, including:
Sokoto Caliphate (1903) – defeated by the British.
Aro Confederacy (1901-1902) – crushed after the Anglo-Aro War.
Ekumeku Movement (1898-1911) – Igbo resistance against British rule.

2. Protests and Nationalism

The Aba Women’s Riot of 1929 protested against taxation and colonial policies.
Early nationalist movements, such as the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) and National
Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), advocated for independence.

The British colonial administration in Nigeria introduced systems of governance that shaped
Nigeria’s political, economic, and social structures. While indirect rule was effective in the
North, it faced opposition in the South. Colonial policies led to resistance and the rise of
nationalist movements, which eventually led to Nigeria’s independence.

Module Five: Nationalist Movements and the Struggle for Independence in Nigeria

Nationalism in Nigeria was a response to British colonial rule. It emerged as an organized effort
to achieve political, economic, and social independence from British domination. Various
nationalist movements played crucial roles in demanding self-governance and ultimately
securing Nigeria’s independence in 1960.
This module critically examines the origins, phases, and impact of nationalist movements in
Nigeria, highlighting key figures, events, and strategies used in the struggle for independence.

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5.1 Origins and Phases of Nigerian Nationalism

1. Early Nationalism (Pre-1920s – 1930s)

Early nationalism was largely elite-driven, led by educated Nigerians influenced by Western
education and ideas of self-determination.
Newspapers and literary works played a significant role in challenging colonial rule.
Herbert Macaulay was a key figure, founding the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
in 1923, the first political party in Nigeria.

Key Features of Early Nationalism:

Criticism of British policies through newspapers like Lagos Daily News.
Formation of cultural and political organizations, such as the Lagos Youth Movement (LYM).
Demands for greater representation in government, rather than outright independence.

2. Radical and Militant Nationalism (1930s – 1945)

A shift from elite-driven nationalism to mass-based activism.
The Great Depression (1929) exposed the economic exploitation of Nigerians under colonial
rule, fueling resentment.
Nigerian soldiers who fought in World War II (1939-1945) returned with new political
awareness, demanding rights and independence.
Formation of radical groups like the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) in 1934.

Notable Developments:
The Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT) and trade unions became politically active.
Political activism was led by figures such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, and Ahmadu
Bello.
Newspapers like West African Pilot (founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe) became major nationalist
platforms.

5.2 Political Movements and the Rise of Nationalist Parties

1. Political Parties and Their Contributions

A. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) – 1923

Founded by Herbert Macaulay.
Advocated for greater Nigerian participation in governance.

B. Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) – 1934

Led by Ernest Ikoli, Samuel Akinsanya, and H.O. Davies.
First political organization with a nationwide agenda.
Fought for improved education and employment opportunities.

C. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) – 1944

Founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe to unite Nigerians in the fight for independence.
Used newspapers and mass mobilization to challenge colonial rule.

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D. Action Group (AG) – 1951
Led by Obafemi Awolowo, primarily representing the Yoruba in Western Nigeria.
Advocated for federalism as the best system for Nigeria.

E. Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) – 1949

Led by Ahmadu Bello and Tafawa Balewa.
Focused on preserving northern interests and gradual political transition.

5.3 Key Events in the Struggle for Independence

1. The 1946 Richards Constitution

Introduced a regional structure (North, East, and West) but kept real power in British hands.
Nationalists rejected it for failing to grant real autonomy.

2. The 1951 Macpherson Constitution

Introduced regional legislatures and ministerial roles for Nigerians.
First real step towards self-governance.

3. The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution

Created a federal system of government.
Gave Nigerians more control over internal affairs.

4. The 1957 and 1958 Constitutional Conferences

Laid the foundation for full independence.
Nigeria was granted self-governance on a regional basis:
The Western and Eastern Regions became self-governing in 1957.
The Northern Region achieved the same in 1959.

5.4 Achieving Independence (1960)

After years of protests, political negotiations, and constitutional developments, Nigeria finally
gained independence on October 1, 1960.
Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa became Nigeria’s first Prime Minister.
Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe became Nigeria’s first Governor-General and later its first President in
1963 when Nigeria became a republic.

Factors That Led to Independence:

Mass Political Mobilization – Trade unions, students, and political parties pushed for freedom.
Media Influence – Newspapers played a key role in shaping nationalist consciousness.
Global Influence – The end of World War II and the independence of India (1947) inspired
African nationalist movements.
British Willingness to Negotiate – Due to economic and political pressures, Britain opted for a
gradual transition to independence.

The Nigerian nationalist movement evolved from elite-driven protests to mass mobilization. The
struggle for independence was marked by constitutional changes, political party formation, and

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protests against colonial policies. Nigeria’s independence in 1960 was the result of decades of
organized resistance, negotiation, and constitutional evolution.

Module Six: Colonial Economy and Its Impact on Nigeria

The colonial economy in Nigeria was structured to serve the interests of Britain rather than foster
indigenous development. It was characterized by exploitation of natural resources, forced labor,
taxation, cash crop production, and limited industrialization. The British established an economic
system that ensured Nigeria remained dependent on the colonial economy, providing raw
materials while relying on Britain for finished goods.
This module critically examines the features, policies, and consequences of the colonial economy
in Nigeria, including its effects on agriculture, trade, labor, and industrial development.

6.1 Features of the Colonial Economy

The British designed the colonial economy to maximize profits for Britain while limiting
Nigeria’s economic development. The main features included:

1. Cash Crop Production and Agricultural Exploitation

The British shifted Nigeria’s agricultural economy from subsistence farming to cash crop
production to meet the needs of British industries.

Major cash crops included:

Groundnuts and cotton (Northern Nigeria).
Cocoa (Western Nigeria).
Palm oil and palm kernels (Eastern Nigeria).

Peasant farmers were forced to abandon food production, leading to periodic food shortages.

2. Exploitation of Natural Resources

Nigeria’s mineral resources were extracted to benefit Britain:
Tin was heavily mined in Jos.
Coal was extracted from Enugu.
Gold and limestone were also exploited.
The British controlled mining industries, preventing Nigerians from benefitting from their
natural wealth.

3. Foreign Trade and Economic Dependence

Nigeria was forced into a mono-economy, relying on raw material exports to Britain.
The country became a dumping ground for British manufactured goods, which destroyed local
industries.
Nigeria’s economy became externally controlled, preventing internal economic growth.

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4. Introduction of Monetized Economy and Taxation
The British introduced currency-based transactions to replace the traditional barter system.
Taxation (e.g., poll tax, income tax) was enforced to increase revenue for colonial
administration.
The imposition of forced labor and cash taxes disrupted traditional economic systems.

5. Development of Infrastructure for British Economic Interests

Railways and roads were built mainly to transport raw materials from the hinterland to coastal
ports for export.
The development of seaports (Lagos, Port Harcourt) was crucial for exporting Nigerian
resources.
Infrastructure was not designed for national development but for British economic interests.

6.2 Colonial Economic Policies and Their Impact

1. The Dual Economic Structure

The colonial economy was divided into two sectors:
The British-controlled modern sector (cash crop production, mining, foreign trade).
The traditional sector (subsistence farming, local trade, handicrafts).
The modern sector was privileged, while the indigenous economy remained underdeveloped.

2. Exploitative Trade Policies

British companies like United Africa Company (UAC) and John Holt dominated trade.
Colonial policies restricted local industries from producing finished goods.
Protective tariffs prevented Nigerian entrepreneurs from competing with British imports.

3. Introduction of Forced Labor

The colonial government introduced forced labor policies, compelling Nigerians to work on
public projects (roads, railways, plantations).
African chiefs were used to enforce compulsory labor laws, causing hardships for many
communities.

4. Limited Industrialization
The British deliberately discouraged industrialization to ensure Nigeria remained a supplier of
raw materials.
Local industries (e.g., blacksmithing, cloth weaving) declined due to British competition.
Nigeria’s economy remained agriculture-based, with no major industrial sectors by the time of
independence.

6.3 Economic Sectors Affected by Colonialism

1. Agriculture
The British shifted emphasis from food production to cash crop farming.
Consequences:
Decline in local food production, leading to food insecurity.
Over-dependence on cash crops caused economic instability.

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2. Trade and Commerce
Traditional trade routes were disrupted and replaced by European-controlled trade networks.
British firms monopolized major trade routes and markets.

3. Labor and Employment

Traditional labor systems were destroyed.
The colonial system created a class of wage laborers who worked for low wages in mines,
railways, and plantations.
Urban migration increased, leading to overcrowding in cities like Lagos and Kano.

4. Banking and Finance

British banks (e.g., Barclays Bank, British Bank of West Africa) controlled finance and trade.
Indigenous Nigerian businesses had limited access to credit, restricting economic growth.

References:

Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.

Fanon, F. (1961). The Wretched of the Earth.
Crowder, M. (1978). The Story of Nigeria.
Boahen, A. (1985). African Perspectives on Colonialism.
Hopkins, A. G. (1973). An Economic History of West Africa.
Afigbo, A. E. (1981). The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria, 1891-1929.
Lovejoy, P. E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa.
Ajayi, J. F. A. (1965). Christian Missions in Nigeria 1841-1891: The Making of a New Elite.
Falola, T. (2009). Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria.
Akinjogbin, I. A. (1998). War and Peace in Yorubaland 1793-1893
Falola, Toyin, and Matthew M. Heaton. A History of Nigeria. Cambridge UP, 2008.
Lugard, F. D. (1922). The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa.
Falola, Toyin. Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria. Indiana UP, 2009.
Ochonu, Moses E. Colonial Meltdown: Northern Nigeria in the Great Depression. Ohio UP,
2009.
Ochonu, Moses E. Colonialism by Proxy: Hausa Imperial Agents and Middle Belt
Consciousness in Nigeria. Indiana UP, 2014.
Aderinto, Saheed. When Sex Threatened the State: Illicit Sexuality, Nationalism, and Politics in
Colonial Nigeria, 1900–1958. U of Illinois P, 2015.
Aderinto, Saheed. Guns and Society in Colonial Nigeria: Firearms, Culture, and Public Order.
Indiana UP, 2018.
Falola, Toyin. Nigeria, Nationalism, and Writing History. U of Rochester P, 2010.
Goldie, G. (1899). The Niger Company: British Trade in West Africa.
Offodile, Chudi. The Politics of Biafra and the Future of Nigeria. Safari Books, 2016.
Adebanwi, Wale. Empire, Daydreams & Memories. Cambridge UP, 2017.
Tukur, Mahmud Modibbo, et al., editors. The Transformation of Central Nigeria: Essays in
Honor of Toyin Falola. Africa World P, 2012.
Falola, Toyin, and Ogechukwu Ezekwem, editors. Writing the Nigeria-Biafra War. James
Currey, 2016.

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Usman, Aribidesi, and Toyin Falola. The Yoruba from Prehistory to the Present. Cambridge UP,
2019.
Kperogi, Farooq A. Nigeria's Digital Diaspora: Citizen Media, Democracy, and Participation.
Boydell & Brewer, 2020.
LeVan, A. Carl, and Patrick Ukata, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics. Oxford
UP, 2018.
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. Half of a Yellow Sun. Knopf, 2006.
Fawole, W. (1990). Colonialism and Nigeria’s Development.

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BASI
CNI
GERI
ANORMSANDVALUE

Nigeri
a,withi
tsdeepcult
uralher
it
age,i
sguidedbystrongnorms( expectedbehaviors)and
values(pr
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.TheseshapethewayNi ger
iansi
nteract,l
i
v e,andupholdthei
r
t
raditi
ons.Bel
owar esomeoft hekeynormsandvaluesdeeplyembeddedi nNigeri
ansociety
:

1.Respectf
orEl
der
s

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ms:

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iansgreetelder
swit
hgestur
esl
i
kekneel
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ng(
Yor
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,pr
ost
rat
ing(
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euser
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y,""
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Mama.
"

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tisconsi
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edr
udef
orachi
l
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lanel
derbyt
hei
rfi
rstname.

Val
ues:

El
der
sar
eseenassour
cesofwi
sdom andgui
dance.

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rwor
dsar
erespect
ed,
andt
hei
radv
icecar
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ghti
nfami
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tymat
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s.

2.Hospi
tal
i
tyandGener
osi
ty

Nor
ms:

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sar
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thf
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inks,
eveni
ftheyar
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veunannounced.

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tispol
i
tet
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efusi
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easoncanbeseenasr
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si
tor
sar
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edaseatandengagedi
nconv
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scussi
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ness.

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ues:

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ger
iansbel
i
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ncommunal
li
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wher
eoneper
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sjoyorst
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rongFami
l
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esandCommunal
Liv
ing

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ms:

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BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Mar
ri
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onnotj
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weent
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weenf
ami
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l
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ir
st,
andcol
l
ect
ivepr
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essi
smor
eimpor
tantt
hani
ndi
vi
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success.

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ionsr
efl
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l
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Nor
ms:

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andhar
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Val
ues:

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andpeopl
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madei
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ali
ty

Nor
ms:

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ayer
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esai
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ngs(
e.g.
,modestdr
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it
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Val
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thi
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ger
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,wi
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eet
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ms:

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BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Val
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Gr
eet
ingsr
efl
ectr
espectandasenseofcommuni
ty.

Theyhel
pbui
l
drel
ati
onshi
psandest
abl
i
shgoodwi
l
l.

7.Respectf
orTr
adi
ti
onal
Aut
hor
it
yandLeader
shi
p

Nor
ms:

Tr
adi
ti
onal
rul
ers(
Obas,
Emi
rs,
andChi
efs)ar
ehonor
edandspokent
owi
thr
ever
ence.

Thei
ropi
nionsar
esoughti
ncommuni
tymat
ter
sandconf
li
ctr
esol
uti
on.

Peopl
ekneel
orbowsl
i
ght
lywhenaddr
essi
ngt
hem.

Val
ues:

Leader
shi
pisr
espect
edasasacr
edr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.

Or
derandhi
erar
chyar
eimpor
tantf
orsoci
etal
stabi
l
ity
.

8.Mar
ri
ageandGenderRol
es

Nor
ms:

Menar et
radi
ti
onal
l
yseenaspr
ovi
der
s,whi
l
ewoment
akecar
eoft
hehome,
thoughmoder
n
changesexi
st.

Br
idepr
ice(
dowr
y)i
spai
dasasi
gnofr
espectbef
oremar
ri
age.

Pol
ygamyi
scommoni
nsomecul
tur
es,
especi
all
yinnor
ther
nNi
ger
ia.

Val
ues:

Mar
ri
agei
sconsi
der
edsacr
edandasi
gni
fi
cantmi
l
est
onei
nli
fe.

Respectbet
weenhusbandandwi
fei
simpor
tant
,andgenderr
olesar
eof
tendef
inedbycul
tur
al
norms.

9.Modest
yandDr
essi
ng

Nor
ms:

Dr
essi
ngmustbeappr
opr
iat
efort
heoccasi
onandcul
tur
alexpect
ati
ons.

I
nthenor
th,
womenar
eex
pect
edt
odr
essconser
vat
ivel
y,cov
eri
ngt
hei
rbodi
es.

Tr
adi
ti
onal
att
ir
eiswor
nwi
thpr
idedur
ingspeci
aloccasi
ons.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Val
ues:

Dr
essi
ngr
efl
ect
sone’
supbr
ingi
ngandl
evel
ofr
espect
.

Cul
tur
ali
dent
it
yisexpr
essedt
hrought
radi
ti
onal
clot
hing.

10.Cel
ebr
ati
onandFest
ivi
ti
es

Nor
ms:

Fest
ival
s,weddi
ngs,
andot
hercer
emoni
esar
egr
andandl
i
vel
y.

Guest
sar
eex
pect
edt
obr
inggi
ft
sormoney(
e.g.
,"spr
ayi
ng"moneyoncel
ebr
ant
satpar
ti
es)
.

Musi
c,dance,
andf
oodar
eessent
ial
toanycel
ebr
ati
on.

Val
ues:

Cel
ebr
ati
onsst
rengt
hencommuni
tybondsandpr
eser
vet
radi
ti
ons.

Joyi
sshar
ed,
andshowi
ngappr
eci
ati
ont
hroughgi
vi
ngi
sencour
aged.

PATTERNOFCI
TIZENSHI
PACQUI
SITI
ONI
NNI
GERI
A

Ci
ti
zenshi
pinNigeri
aisgover
nedbythe1999Const
ituti
onoft heFederal
Republ
icofNigeri
a(as
amended).I
tout
li
neshowaper soncanbecomeaNigeriancit
izenthr
oughdif
fer
entlegal
means.Therear
ethreepr
imarywaystoacqui
reNi
geriancit
izenshi
p:

1.Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyBi
rt
h

2.Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyRegi
str
ati
on

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

3.Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyNat
ural
i
zat
ion

Eachmethodhasspecif
iccr
it
eri
aandlegal
requi
rement
s.Bel
owi
sadet
ail
edexpl
anat
ionof
eachpat
ternofci
ti
zenshi
pacqui
sit
ion:

1.Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyBi
rt
h

Thi
sisthemostautomati
candfundamental
wayofacqui
ri
ngNi ger
ianci
ti
zenshi
p.The1999
Const
it
uti
on(Sect
ion25)stat
esthataper
sonisaNi
geri
ancit
izenbybirt
hif:

A.Bor
ninNi
ger
iat
oNi
ger
ianPar
ent
s

I
fapersonisbor
ninNiger
iaandatleastonepar
entorgrandpar
entbelongst
oani
ndi
genous
Ni
ger
ianethni
cgrouporcommunity
, t
heyareaut
omatical
lyacit
izen.

B.Bor
nOut
sideNi
ger
iat
oNi
ger
ianPar
ent
s

Ifapersoni
sbornout
sideNi
ger
iabuthasatl
eastoneNi
ger
ianpar
ent
,theyar
eaNi
ger
ian
cit
izenbybi
rt
h.

Thi
smeansNi
ger
ianci
ti
zenshi
pcanbei
nher
it
edr
egar
dlessofbi
rt
hpl
ace.

C.Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyDescent

I
faper
son’
sancest
orswer
eNi
ger
ianci
ti
zens,
theyar
eal
sor
ecogni
zedasNi
ger
ianci
ti
zens.

KeyPoi
nts:

Ci
ti
zenshi
pbybi
rt
hcannotber
evoked.

Dual
cit
izenshi
pisal
l
owedf
orNi
ger
iansbybi
rt
h.

2.Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyRegi
str
ati
on

Thi
sappli
esmainl
ytofor
eignerswi
thNiger
ianconnecti
ons,suchasspousesofNi
ger
ian
ci
ti
zensorpeopl
ewit
hNigerianher
it
agebutnotborninNigeri
a.

WhoCanAppl
y?(
Sect
ion26oft
he1999Const
it
uti
on)

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Af
orei
gnper
soncanbecomeaNi
ger
ianci
ti
zenbyr
egi
str
ati
oni
ftheymeett
hesecondi
ti
ons:

A.For
eignWomenMar
ri
edt
oNi
ger
ianMen

Af
orei
gnwomanmar
ri
edt
oaNi
ger
ianmancanappl
yforci
ti
zenshi
p.

However,
afor
eignmanmarri
edt
oaNi
ger
ianwomani
snotaut
omat
ical
l
yel
i
gibl
e(duet
othe
Const
it
uti
on'
sgenderbi
as)
.

B.Per
sonsofNi
ger
ianDescentLi
vi
ngAbr
oad

Apersonwhocanprov
ethei
rNiger
ianancest
ry(
par
ent
sorgr
andpar
ent
s)butwasbor
nand
r
aisedout
sideNi
ger
iacanappl
y.

C.GoodChar
act
erandResi
dencyRequi
rement

Theper
sonmustbeofgoodchar
act
erandmusthav
eli
vedi
nNi
ger
iaf
oratl
east15y
ear
s.

KeyPoi
nts:

Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyr
egi
str
ati
oncanber
evokedi
ffr
audordi
shonest
yisdi
scov
ered.

Theappl
i
cantmustswearanoat
hofal
l
egi
ancet
oNi
ger
ia.

Thegov
ernmentmaydenyanappl
i
cat
ioni
ftheper
soni
sseenasasecur
it
yri
sk.

3.Ci
ti
zenshi
pbyNat
ural
i
zat
ion

Thi
sappliest
ofor
eigner
swhohav
eli
vedi
nNi
ger
iaf
oranext
endedper
iodandwantt
obecome
ful
lci
ti
zens.

WhoCanAppl
y?(
Sect
ion27oft
he1999Const
it
uti
on)

Af
orei
gnnat
ional
canbecomeaNi
ger
ianci
ti
zenbynat
ural
i
zat
ioni
ftheymeett
hesecondi
ti
ons:

A.Resi
dencyRequi
rement

Theper
sonmusthav
eli
vedi
nNi
ger
iaf
oratl
east15y
ear
sbef
oreappl
yi
ng.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Theymusthav
emadeNi
ger
iat
hei
rhomeandbecont
ri
but
ingt
osoci
ety
.

B.GoodChar
act
erandNoCr
imi
nal
Recor
d

Theappl
i
cantmustbeseenasar
esponsi
bleandl
aw-
abi
dingmemberofsoci
ety
.

Arecommendati
onfr
om l
ocalaut
hori
ti
esorr
espect
edi
ndi
vi
dual
s(e.
g.,
tradi
ti
onal
rul
ers,
communit
yleader
s)mayberequi
red.

C.Ev
idenceofEconomi
cCont
ri
but
ion

Theappli
cantmustbeengagedi
npr
ofi
tabl
ebusi
ness,
empl
oyment
,orcommuni
tyser
vicei
n
Niger
ia.

D.Under
standi
ngofNi
ger
ianCul
tur
e

Theper
sonshoul
dbef
ami
l
iarwi
thNi
ger
iancust
oms,
tradi
ti
ons,
andv
alues.

E.Wi
l
li
ngnesst
oRenouncePr
evi
ousCi
ti
zenshi
p(i
nSomeCases)

Ci
ti
zenshi
pbybi
rt
hisaut
omat
icandi
rr
evocabl
e.

Ci
tiz
enshipbyregi
str
ati
onappl
i
esmai
nlyt
ofor
eignwi
vesofNi
ger
ianmenandpeopl
eof
Ni
ger
iandescent
.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

 Ci
tizenshi
pbynatur
ali
zat
ioni
sforf
orei
gner
swhohav
eli
vedi
nNi
ger
iaf
oral
ongt
imeand
contr
ibutedtothesoci
ety
.

CI
TIZENSHI
PANDCI
VICRESPONSI
BILI
TIESOFNI
GERI
ANS

Niger
ianci
ti
zenshav
eimpor
tantr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesanddut
iest
oensur
enat
ional
growt
hand
st
abil
i
ty.

A.Obedi
encet
otheLaw

Ci
ti
zensmustobeyl
awssetbyt
hegov
ernmentatf
eder
al,
stat
e,andl
ocal
lev
els.

Lawsr
egul
atebehav
ior
,ensur
eor
der
,andpr
otectpeopl
e’
sri
ght
s.

Br
eaki
ngt
hel
awl
eadst
openal
ti
es,
fines,
ori
mpr
isonment
.

B.Pay
mentofTaxesandLev
ies

Cit
izensmustpaytaxessuchasi
ncomet
ax,
val
ue-
addedt
ax(
VAT)
,andpr
oper
tyt
axt
osuppor
t
nati
onaldev
elopment.

Taxeshel
pfundi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,
secur
it
y,educat
ion,
andpubl
i
cser
vices.

Av
oidi
ngt
axes(
taxev
asi
on)i
sapuni
shabl
eof
fense.

C.Loy
alt
yandPat
ri
oti
sm

Ci
ti
zensshoul
dbel
oyal
toNi
ger
ia’
suni
ty,
peace,
andpr
ogr
ess.

Pat
ri
oti
sm i
nvol
vessuppor
ti
ngt
hecount
ry’
sint
erest
s,cul
tur
e,andi
dent
it
y.

Acti
onssuchasspreadi
ngf
alsei
nfor
mat
ion,
engagi
ngi
ncor
rupt
ion,
ori
nci
ti
ngv
iol
encear
e
consi
der
edunpatr
ioti
c.

D.Def
enseoft
heCount
ry

Ci
ti
zensmustber
eadyt
odef
endNi
ger
iadur
ingwaroremer
genci
es.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

TheNigeri
anAr
medFor
cesActal
l
owst
hegov
ernmentt
ocal
lci
ti
zenst
oser
vei
nthemi
l
itar
yif
needed.

Vol
unt
eer
ingi
nsecur
it
yandsaf
etypr
ogr
amsal
socont
ri
but
est
onat
ional
def
ense.

E.Vot
ingandPol
i
tical
Par
ti
cipat
ion

Vot
ingi
saci
vi
cdut
ythatal
l
owsci
ti
zenst
ochooset
hei
rleader
s.

Ci
ti
zensshoul
dregi
stert
ovot
eandpar
ti
cipat
einel
ect
ionsatal
ll
evel
s.

Engagi
ngi
npol
i
tics,
joi
ningpol
i
tical
par
ti
es,
andhol
dingpubl
i
cof
fi
cehel
pingov
ernance.

F.Pr
otect
ionofPubl
i
cPr
oper
ty

Ci
ti
zensshoul
drespectpubl
i
cinf
rast
ruct
urel
i
ker
oads,
school
s,andgov
ernmentof
fi
ces.

Vandal
i
sm,
thef
t,anddest
ruct
ionofpubl
i
cpr
oper
tyhar
m soci
etyandr
educedev
elopment
.

G.Respectf
ort
heRi
ght
sofOt
her
s

Ci
ti
zensmustr
espectot
herpeopl
e'
sri
ght
sregar
dlessofet
hni
cit
y,r
eli
gion,
orsoci
alst
atus.

Di
scr
imi
nat
ion,
hat
espeech,
andv
iol
enceagai
nstot
her
sar
eagai
nstNi
ger
ianv
alues.

H.Pr
omot
ionofNat
ional
Uni
ty

Ci
ti
zensshoul
dwor
ktoget
herr
egar
dlessoft
ri
bal
,rel
i
gious,
orr
egi
onal
dif
fer
ences.

Av
oidi
nget
hni
candr
eli
giousconf
li
ctspr
omot
espeaceanddev
elopment
.

Respectf
ort
henat
ional
symbol
s(f
lag,
ant
hem,
pledge)f
ost
ersuni
ty.

I
.Ser
vicet
otheCommuni
ty

Engagi
ngincommunityservi
celi
kev ol
unteer
ing,hel
pingt
hel
esspr
ivi
l
eged,
andsuppor
ti
ng
l
ocaldevel
opmentpr
ojectsstr
engthensthenation.

TheNati
onalYouthSer
viceCor
ps(
NYSC)i
sanexampl
eofmandat
orynat
ional
ser
vicef
or
younggr
aduates.

J.Repor
ti
ngCr
imesandCor
rupt
ion

Ci
ti
zensshoul
drepor
tcr
imi
nal
act
ivi
ti
esandcor
rupt
iont
oaut
hor
it
ies.

Agenciesl
iket
heEconomicandFi
nanci
alCri
mesCommi ssi
on(
EFCC)andI
ndependentCor
rupt
Pract
icesCommissi
on(I
CPC)handl
ecorrupt
ioncases.

Whi
stl
ebl
owi
nghel
psf
ightcor
rupt
ionandi
mpr
ovegov
ernance.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

KEYPOI
NTS:

BeingaNi ger
ianci
ti
zencomeswi thbothpr
ivi
legesandresponsi
bil
i
ties.Ci
ti
zensenjoyri
ghts
l
ikefreedom,secur
it
y,andeconomi coppor
tunit
ies,
butt
heymustal soobeylaws,paytaxes,
vot
e, andpromotenati
onaluni
ty.

Right
sandr esponsi
bil
i
tiesgohandinhand–t
hegov
ernmentpr
ovi
dessecur
it
yandser
vices,
whi
l
eci t
izenscontr
ibut
etonational
growt
h.

Act
iveci
ti
zenshi
pensur
esNi
ger
ia’
spr
ogr
ess,
stabi
l
ity
,andpr
osper
it
y.

NI
GERI
A'SI
NDI
GENOUSLANGUAGES

Niger
iai
soneofthemostl i
nguisti
cal
lydiver
secountri
esint
hewor l
d,withover500indi
genous
l
anguagesspokenacrossit
sregions.Theselanguagesbel
ongtodiff
erentl
inguist
icf
amili
es
andserv
easacor epartofNigeri
a’
sculturali
denti
ty,
communicat
ion,andherit
ge.

1.Maj
orI
ndi
genousLanguagesi
nNi
ger
ia

Alt
houghther
earehundr
edsoflanguages,
afewarespokenbyasi
gni
fi
cantper
cent
ageoft
he
popul
ati
on.Thet
hreemostwidelyspokeni
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
e:

A.Hausa

LanguageFami
l
y:Af
ro-
Asi
ati
c(Chadi
cbr
anch)

SpokenI
n:Nor
ther
nNi
ger
ia(
Kano,
Kaduna,
Sokot
o,Kat
sina,
Bauchi
,et
c.)

NumberofSpeaker
s:Ov
er50mi
l
li
on(
nat
iveandsecond-
languagespeaker
s)

Role:
Hausaisthelar
gesti
ndi
genouslanguagei
nNiger
iaandservesasali
nguafr
anca
(commonlanguage)i
ntheNort
h.Iti
salsowidel
yusedinbusi
ness,medi
a,andeducat
ion.

B.Yor
uba

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

LanguageFami
l
y:Ni
ger
-Congo(
Kwabr
anch)

SpokenI
n:Sout
hwest
ernNi
ger
ia(
Lagos,
Oyo,
Ogun,
Ondo,
Eki
ti
,Osun,
Kwar
a,Kogi
)

NumberofSpeaker
s:Ov
er45mi
l
li
on

Role:
Yorubai
sdeeplyconnectedtot
radit
ionalr
eli
gion,cult
ural
pract
ices,
andl
i
ter
atur
e.I
thasa
ri
choral
tradi
ti
on,
incl
udingprover
bs,poetr
y,andmy thology.

C.I
gbo

LanguageFami
l
y:Ni
ger
-Congo(
Benue-
Congobr
anch)

SpokenI
n:Sout
heast
ernNi
ger
ia(
Anambr
a,I
mo,
Enugu,
Abi
a,Ebony
i)

NumberofSpeaker
s:Ov
er40mi
l
li
on

Role:I
gboi
sfamousfori
tstonalnature,
richpr overbs,
andent
repreneur
ial
expr
essi
ons.I
tis
spokeninv
ari
ousdi
alect
s,butther
ei sast andardizedfor
mforeducati
onandmedia.

2.Ot
herPr
omi
nentI
ndi
genousLanguagesi
nNi
ger
ia

Apar
tfr
om Hausa,
Yor
uba,
andI
gbo,
ther
ear
esev
eral
othermaj
ori
ndi
genousl
anguages:

A.Ful
ful
de(
Ful
aLanguage)

SpokenBy
:TheFul
ani
peopl
e,mai
nlyi
nNor
ther
nNi
ger
ia.

Rol
e:Usedi
nnomadi
ccommuni
ti
es,
trade,
andI
slami
ceducat
ion.

B.Kanur
i

SpokenI
n:Bor
noandYobeSt
ates.

Rol
e:I
twast
hel
anguageoft
heKanem-
Bor
nuEmpi
reandi
sst
il
lwi
del
yspokeni
ntheNor
theast
.

C.Ti
v

SpokenI
n:Benue,
Tar
aba,
Nasar
awa,
andPl
ateauSt
ates.

Rol
e:Oneoft
hel
argestet
hni
clanguagesi
ntheMi
ddl
eBel
tregi
on.

D.I
jaw

SpokenI
n:Bay
elsa,
Riv
ers,
Del
ta,
andOndoSt
ates.

Rol
e:Maj
orl
anguagei
ntheNi
gerDel
ta,
li
nkedt
ofi
shi
ngandoi
l
-pr
oduci
ngcommuni
ti
es.

E.I
bibi
o-Ef
ik

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

SpokenI
n:AkwaI
bom andCr
ossRi
verSt
ates.

Rol
e:I
bibi
oandEf
ikar
ecl
osel
yrel
atedl
anguages,
wit
hEf
ikbei
nghi
stor
ical
l
yinf
luent
ial
int
rade
andl
it
erat
ure.

F.Nupe

SpokenI
n:Ni
ger
,Kogi
,andKwar
aSt
ates.

Rol
e:I
twashi
stor
ical
l
yassoci
atedwi
tht
heNupeKi
ngdom andi
sst
il
lusedi
ntr
adi
ti
onal
l
eader
shi
pandcommer ce.

G.Ur
hoboandI
soko

SpokenI
n:Del
taSt
ate.

Rol
e:TheUr
hobol
anguagehasast
rongor
alt
radi
ti
on,
incl
udi
ngf
olkl
oreandmusi
c

USAGEANDDEVELOPMENTOFNI
GERI
A'SI
NDI
GENOUSLANGUAGES

Niger
iahasover500indigenousl anguages,
makingitoneoft
hemostlingui
sti
callydiver
se
count
riesint
heworld.Thesel anguagesserveaskeyelement
sofcommuni cat
ion, cul
tur
e,
i
denti
ty,andt
radi
ti
on.Howev er,t
heusageanddev el
opmentofthesel
anguagesv aryacross
di
ffer
entregi
onsandsoci alcontexts.

1.UsageofI
ndi
genousLanguagesi
nNi
ger
ia

Theusageofi
ndi
genouslanguagesinNiger
iadependsonf
act
orssuchasr
egi
on,
educat
ion,
media,
busi
ness,
rel
i
gion,
andgov ernmentpoli
cies.

A.HomeandCommuni
tyCommuni
cat
ion

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
epr
imar
il
yspokenathomeandwi
thi
ncommuni
ti
es.

MostNi
ger
iansgr
owupspeaki
ngt
hei
rmot
hert
onguebef
orel
ear
ningEngl
i
sh.

Local
dial
ect
spl
ayacr
uci
alr
olei
ncul
tur
ali
dent
it
y,t
radi
ti
onal
stor
ytel
l
ing,
andf
olkl
ore.

B.Educat
ionSy
stem

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

TheNi
ger
ianNati
onal
Pol
i
cyonEducat
ionencour
agest
het
eachi
ngofi
ndi
genousl
anguagesi
n
pri
mar
yschool
s.

Student
sareexpectedt
olear
nonemaj
ori
ndi
genousl
anguage(
Hausa,
Yor
uba,
orI
gbo)i
n
secondaryschool
.

However,i
nmanyurbanareas,Engl
i
shi
sdomi
nant
,andi
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
enotf
ull
y
i
ntegr
atedint
ohi
ghereducati
on.

C.Medi
aandEnt
ert
ainment

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
ewi
del
yusedi
nradi
o,t
elev
isi
on,
andonl
i
nepl
atf
orms.

Exampl
esofi
ndi
genousmedi
aout
let
s:

Wazobi
aFM (
Pidgi
n)

Ar
ewa24(
Hausa)

Af
ri
caMagi
cYor
uba,
Igbo,
andHausa(
Mov
ies&TVShows)

BBCPi
dgi
nSer
vice(
Newsandi
nfor
mat
ion)

Musi
candNol
l
ywood(
Niger
ia’
sfi
l
mindust
ry)hav
ehel
pedpr
omot
eindi
genousl
anguages
wor
ldwi
de.

D.Pol
i
ticsandGov
ernance

Engl
i
shi
sNi
ger
ia’
sof
fi
cial
language,
andmostgov
ernmentact
ivi
ti
esar
econduct
edi
nEngl
i
sh.

Indi
genousl
anguagesareusedatthestat
eandl
ocal
gov
ernmentl
evel
s,especi
all
yforpol
i
tical
campaignsandpubli
cannouncements.

E.Busi
nessandCommer
ce

Manyl
ocal
mar
ket
soper
atei
nindi
genousl
anguages,
especi
all
yinr
ural
areas.

I
nNor
ther
nNi
ger
ia,
Hausai
swi
del
yusedf
ort
radeandbusi
ness.

I
nLagosandt
heSout
hwest
,Yor
ubai
scommoni
ninf
ormal
busi
nessi
nter
act
ions.

Pi
dgi
nEngl
i
shi
sapopul
arl
anguagef
orcommuni
cat
ioni
ndi
ver
sebusi
nessset
ti
ngs.

F.Rel
i
gionandWor
shi
p

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
eusedi
nchur
ches,
mosques,
andt
radi
ti
onal
rel
i
giouspr
act
ices.

Manyr
eli
giousor
gani
zat
ionspr
intBi
bles,
Qur
’ans,
andot
herr
eli
gioust
ext
sinl
ocal
languages.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Popul
arr
eli
giouspr
ogr
amsonr
adi
oandTVar
eof
tenbr
oadcasti
nHausa,
Yor
uba,
Igbo,
and
ot
herl
anguages.

2.Dev
elopmentofI
ndi
genousLanguagesi
nNi
ger
ia

Eff
ortst
odevelopandpr
omotei
ndigenousl
anguagesinNigeri
ahavef
acedchal
l
enges,
but
var
iousi
nit
iat
iveshav
ebeeni
mplementedtoensuret
heirsurv
ival
andgrowt
h.

A.LanguageSt
andar
dizat
ionandDocument
ati
on

ManyNi
ger
ianl
anguageshav
ebeenst
andar
dizedwi
thof
fi
cial
ort
hogr
aphi
es(
wri
ti
ngsy
stems)
.

Someuni v
ersi
ti
esandresear
chi
nsti
tut
ions,
suchastheNati
onalI
nst
it
uteforNi
geri
an
Languages(NI
NLAN),f
ocusonpreserv
inganddevel
opi
ngindi
genousl
anguages.

Di
cti
onari
es,gr
ammarbooks,
andl
i
ter
arywor
kshav
ebeenpubl
i
shedi
nmaj
orNi
ger
ian
l
anguages.

B.I
ndi
genousLanguage

Educat
ion

Thegover
nmentencour
agesschool
stot
eachi
ndi
genousl
anguages,
buti
mpl
ement
ati
oni
s
weakinmanyar
eas.

Someuni
ver
sit
iesof
ferdegr
eepr
ogr
amsi
nNi
ger
ianl
anguages,
suchas:

Uni
ver
sit
yofI
badan(
Yor
uba)

AhmaduBel
l
oUni
ver
sit
y(Hausa)

Uni
ver
sit
yofNi
ger
ia,
Nsukka(
Igbo)

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
eal
sot
aughtt
oNi
ger
iansi
nthedi
aspor
a.

C.Di
git
alandSoci
alMedi
aInnov
ati
ons

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
egai
ningv
isi
bil
i
tyt
hroughdi
git
alpl
atf
orms.

Exampl
esofonl
i
net
ool
sandr
esour
ces:

Mobi
l
eappsf
orl
ear
ningYor
uba,
Igbo,
andHausa.

Googl
eTr
ansl
atei
ncl
udesHausa.

YouTubechannel
sandbl
ogsi
nNi
ger
ianl
anguages.

Soci
almedi
auser
sincr
easi
ngl
ycr
eat
econt
enti
nPi
dgi
n,Yor
uba,
Hausa,
andI
gbo.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

D.Li
ter
atur
eandPubl
i
shi
ng

Ni
geri
anauthor
sli
keAmosTut uol
a,Chi
nuaAchebe,
andWol
eSoy
inkahav
ewr
it
teni
nor
i
ncor
porat
edindi
genousl
anguagesint
othei
rworks.

Mor
ewr
it
ersar
epr
oduci
ngnov
els,
poet
ry,
andpl
aysi
nlocal
languages.

I
ndi
genousl
anguagenewspaper
sandmagazi
nesexi
st,
thought
hei
rci
rcul
ati
oni
sli
mit
ed.

E.I
ndi
genousLanguageBr
oadcast
ing

Radi
oandTVstat
ionscont
inuet
obr
oadcastini
ndigenousl
anguages,
incr
easi
ngaccesst
o
i
nfor
mati
onfort
hosewhodonotspeakEngli
shfl
uently
.

Governmentandpr
ivat
est
ati
onssuppor
tindi
genouscont
ent
,butmor
efundi
ngi
sneededf
or
expansi
on.

3.Chal
l
engesi
ntheDev
elopmentofI
ndi
genousLanguages

Despi
teongoi
ngef
for
ts,
Niger
iani
ndi
genousl
anguagesf
acesev
eral
chal
l
enges:

A.Decl
i
nei
nNat
iveSpeaker
s

Youngergener
ati
ons,
especi
all
yinur
banar
eas,
pref
erspeaki
ngEngl
i
shandPi
dgi
n.

Somepar
ent
snol
ongert
eacht
hei
rchi
l
drent
hei
rnat
ivel
anguages.

B.LowSt
atusi
nEducat
ionandGov
ernance

Engl
ishdomi
nat
esf
ormal
educat
ion,
li
mit
ingt
heuseofi
ndi
genousl
anguagesi
npr
ofessi
onal
set
ti
ngs.

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
enotwi
del
yusedi
nsci
ence,
technol
ogy
,andadmi
nist
rat
ion.

C.PoorFundi
ngandResear
ch

Ther
eisl
i
mit
edgov
ernmentf
undi
ngf
orl
anguagedev
elopmentpr
ogr
ams.

Manymi
nor
it
ylanguagesar
enotwel
l
-document
edorst
udi
ed.

D.I
nfl
uenceofGl
obal
i
zat
ion

West
ernmedi
a,t
echnol
ogy
,andeducat
ionpr
omot
eEngl
i
shov
erl
ocal
languages.

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesar
enotwi
del
yint
egr
atedi
ntomoder
ntechnol
ogy
,apps,
andsci
ent
if
ic
r
esear
ch.

E.Ext
inct
ionofMi
nor
it
yLanguages

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Someindigenousl
anguages,
especi
all
ythosespokenbysmal
let
hni
cgr
oups,
areatr
iskof
ext
inct
ion.

Accor
dingt
oUNESCO,
someNi
ger
ianl
anguageshav
eal
readydi
sappear
edorar
eendanger
ed.

4.St
rat
egi
esf
ort
heFut
ureDev
elopmentofI
ndi
genousLanguages

Topr
omot
eandpr
eser
veNi
ger
ia’
sindi
genousl
anguages,
thef
oll
owi
ngact
ionscanbet
aken:

A.St
rengt
heni
ngLanguageEducat
ion

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesshoul
dbecompul
sor
yinschool
satal
ll
evel
s.

Teachi
ngmat
eri
als,
books,
anddi
git
alt
ool
sshoul
dbedev
eloped.

B.Encour
agi
ngI
ndi
genousLanguagei
nMedi
aandTechnol
ogy

Mor
eradi
o,TV,
andonl
i
nepl
atf
ormsshoul
dbeest
abl
i
shedi
nindi
genousl
anguages.

Techcompani
esshoul
dint
egr
atei
ndi
genousl
anguagesi
ntoapps,
AIassi
stant
s,anddi
git
al
ser
vices.

C.Gov
ernmentPol
i
ciesandSuppor
t

I
ndi
genousl
anguagesshoul
dhav
eamor
epr
omi
nentr
olei
ngov
ernance.

Mor
efundi
ngshoul
dgoi
ntor
esear
chanddocument
ati
onofendanger
edl
anguages.

D.Communi
tyI
nvol
vementandAwar
eness

Fami
l
iesshoul
dencour
agechi
l
drent
ospeakt
hei
rmot
hert
ongue.

Cul
tur
alev
ent
s,f
est
ival
s,andl
i
ter
atur
eshoul
dbeusedt
opr
omot
eindi
genousl
anguages

NI
GERI
ANSNEGATI
VEATTI
TUDES

Nigeri
a,l
ikemanyothernati
ons,f
acessocial
,pol
i
tical
,andeconomicchallenges.Someoft
hese
chall
engesstem f
rom negat
iveat
ti
tudesandbehav i
orsthathi
ndernat
ionalgrowthand

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

dev
elopment.Thesenegati
veat
tit
udesandconductsexi
stati
ndiv
idual
,communi
ty,
and
i
nsti
tut
ional
level
s,af
fect
inggover
nance,economy,
andsociet
alprogr
ess.

1.Cor
rupt
ion

Corr
upt
ionisoneoft
hebi
ggesti
ssuesaf
fect
ingNi
ger
ia.I
texi
stsi
ngov
ernment
,busi
nesses,
anddai
l
ylif
e.

A.For
msofCor
rupt
ion

Br
iber
y:Pay
ingorr
ecei
vi
ngmoneyt
oby
passl
egal
processes(
e.g.
,pay
ingpol
i
ceof
fi
cer
sto
av
oidfi
nes)
.

Embezzl
ement
:Gov
ernmentof
fi
cial
sdi
ver
ti
ngpubl
i
cfundsf
orper
sonal
use.

Nepoti
sm &Fav
ori
ti
sm:
Appoi
nti
ngf
ami
l
ymember
sorf
ri
endst
oposi
ti
onsi
nst
eadofqual
i
fied
candi
dates.

El
ect
ionRi
ggi
ng:
Mani
pul
ati
ngel
ect
ionr
esul
tst
hroughv
otebuy
ingandbal
l
otst
uff
ing.

B.Ef
fect
sofCor
rupt
ion

Poori
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,
aspubl
i
cfundsar
est
olen.

Weaki
nst
it
uti
onsandl
ackoft
rusti
nleader
shi
p.

I
ncr
easedpov
ert
yduet
omi
smanagementofnat
ional
resour
ces.

2.Di
shonest
yandFr
aud(
Scams)

Niger
iahasgai
nedar
eput
ati
onf
orf
raud,
especi
all
ycy
ber
cri
me(
commonl
yknownas“
Yahoo
Yahoo”)
.

A.CommonTy
pesofFr
aud

Onl
i
neScams:
Emai
lscams,
fakebusi
nessdeal
s,andr
omancescams.

BankFr
aud:
ATM cl
oni
ng,
fakeal
ert
s,andmoneyl
aunder
ing.

Exami
nat
ionMal
pract
ice:
Cheat
ingi
nschool
sthr
oughbr
iber
yandl
eakedquest
ions.

B.Ef
fect
sofFr
aud

Lossoft
rusti
nNi
ger
ianbusi
nessesi
nter
nat
ional
l
y.

Damaget
oNi
ger
ia’
sgl
obal
reput
ati
on.

I
ncr
easedf
inanci
alcr
imesandi
nsecur
it
y.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

3.LackofPat
ri
oti
sm

ManyNi
ger
iansdonotact
ivel
ycont
ri
but
etonat
ional
growt
h.

A.Si
gnsofLackofPat
ri
oti
sm

Notr
espect
ingnat
ional
symbol
s(e.
g.,
thef
lagandant
hem)
.

Pr
efer
ri
ngf
orei
gngoodsov
erNi
ger
ian-
madepr
oduct
s.

Speaki
ngnegat
ivel
yaboutNi
ger
iawi
thoutof
fer
ingsol
uti
ons.

B.Ef
fect
sofLackofPat
ri
oti
sm

Br
aindr
ain(
educat
edNi
ger
iansl
eav
ingf
orbet
teroppor
tuni
ti
esabr
oad)
.

Poornat
ional
uni
tyanddev
elopment
.

4.Tr
ibal
i
sm andEt
hni
cDi
scr
imi
nat
ion

Ni
ger
iai
sdi
ver
se,
wit
hov
er250et
hni
cgr
oups,
butt
ri
bal
i
sm weakensuni
ty.

A.Exampl
esofTr
ibal
i
sm

Hi
ri
ngpeopl
ebasedonet
hni
cit
yrat
hert
hanmer
it
.

Suppor
ti
ngcor
ruptl
eader
ssi
mpl
ybecauset
heyar
efr
om one’
str
ibe.

Et
hni
cvi
olenceandcl
ashes(
e.g.
,far
mer
-her
derconf
li
cts)
.

B.Ef
fect
sofTr
ibal
i
sm

Nat
ional
disuni
tyandpol
i
tical
inst
abi
l
ity
.

Mar
ginal
i
zat
ionofmi
nor
it
ygr
oups.

Hi
nder
edeconomi
cgr
owt
hduet
olackofi
ncl
usi
veness.

5.Rel
i
giousI
ntol
erance

Rel
igi
ousconf
li
ctsbet
weenChr
ist
iansandMusl
i
msordi
ff
erentsect
swi
thi
nar
eli
gionar
e
common.

A.CausesofRel
i
giousI
ntol
erance

Ext
remi
sti
deol
ogi
es(
e.g.
,BokoHar
am)
.

Mi
si
nter
pret
ati
onofr
eli
gioust
eachi
ngs.

Pol
i
tical
mani
pul
ati
onofr
eli
gion.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

B.Ef
fect
sofRel
i
giousI
ntol
erance

Lossofl
i
vesanddest
ruct
ionofpr
oper
ti
es.

Sl
owedeconomi
cgr
owt
hinconf
li
ct-
pronear
eas.

Deepeneddi
vi
sionswi
thi
nthecount
ry.

6.I
ndi
sci
pli
neandLawl
essness

ManyNi
ger
iansdi
sregar
dlawsandsoci
alor
der
,leadi
ngt
ochaosandi
nsecur
it
y.

A.CommonFor
msofLawl
essness

Di
sobey
ingt
raf
fi
crul
es(
e.g.
,runni
ngr
edl
i
ght
s).

Li
tt
eri
ngandpoorwast
emanagement
.

Vandal
i
zingpubl
i
cpr
oper
ty(
e.g.
,el
ect
ri
cit
ycabl
es,
pipel
i
nes)
.

Cul
ti
sm andgangst
eri
sm i
nuni
ver
sit
iesandcommuni
ti
es.

B.Ef
fect
sofLawl
essness

I
ncr
easedcr
imeandv
iol
ence.

Env
ironment
alpol
l
uti
onandpoorsani
tat
ion.

Weakenf
orcementofl
awsduet
owi
despr
eaddi
sregar
d.

7.Lazi
nessandGet
-Ri
ch-
Qui
ckMent
ali
ty

ManyNi
ger
ianswantt
omakemoneyqui
ckl
ywi
thouthar
dwor
k,l
eadi
ngt
oil
l
egal
act
ivi
ti
es.

A.CausesofGet
-Ri
ch-
Qui
ckMent
ali
ty

I
nfl
uenceofsoci
almedi
ashowcasi
ngl
avi
shl
i
fest
yles.

Hi
ghunempl
oymentr
ates.

Lackofpat
iencef
orl
ong-
ter
m busi
nessgr
owt
h.

B.Ef
fect
sofGet
-Ri
ch-
Qui
ckMent
ali
ty

I
ncr
easei
ncy
ber
cri
me,
rit
ual
kil
l
ings,
anddr
ugt
raf
fi
cki
ng.

Decl
i
nei
ngenui
neent
repr
eneur
shi
pandski
l
ldev
elopment
.

8.PoorWor
kEt
hicandLackofAccount
abi
l
ity

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

ManyNi
ger
iansdonott
aker
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hei
ract
ionsorputi
nef
for
tatwor
k.

A.Exampl
esofPoorWor
kEt
hic

Gov
ernmentwor
ker
scomi
ngl
atet
owor
korbei
ngabsent
.

Busi
nessesof
fer
ingl
ow-
qual
i
tyser
vicesduet
ogr
eed.

Leader
sbl
ami
ngot
her
sinst
eadoff
ixi
ngpr
obl
ems.

B.Ef
fect
sofPoorWor
kEt
hic

Sl
oweconomi
cgr
owt
h.

I
ncr
easedunempl
oymentasbusi
nessesf
ail
duet
oinef
fi
ciency
.

Lowi
nvest
orconf
idencei
nNi
ger
ianmar
ket
.

9.Vi
olenceandI
mpat
ience

ManyNi
ger
iansr
esor
ttov
iol
encei
nst
eadofdi
aloguei
nconf
li
cts.

A.CommonFor
msofVi
olence

St
reetf
ight
sandmobact
ions(
jungl
ejust
ice)
.

Domest
icv
iol
ence(
spouseandchi
l
dabuse)
.

Pol
i
tical
thugger
yandel
ect
oral
viol
ence.

B.Ef
fect
sofVi
olence

Lossofl
i
vesandpr
oper
ty.

Fearandi
nst
abi
l
ityi
ncommuni
ti
es.

Negat
ivei
mageofNi
ger
iaasav
iol
entcount
ry.

10.Ov
erdependenceonGov
ernment

ManyNi
ger
iansr
elyt
oomuchont
hegov
ernmentwi
thoutt
aki
ngper
sonal
ini
ti
ati
ve.

A.Exampl
esofOv
erdependence

Expect
ingt
hegov
ernmentt
opr
ovi
deal
lj
obs.

Ref
usi
ngt
oengagei
nsmal
lbusi
nessesduet
opr
ide.

Bl
ami
ngl
eader
sforev
ery
thi
ngi
nst
eadoff
indi
ngsol
uti
ons.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

B.Ef
fect
sofOv
erdependence

Hi
ghunempl
oymentr
ates.

Sl
oweconomi
cgr
owt
h.

Lowi
nnov
ati
onandent
repr
eneur
shi
p.

11.Exam Mal
pract
iceandCer
ti
fi
cat
eFor
ger
y

Educat
ioni
nNi
ger
iasuf
fer
sduet
ocheat
ing,
bri
ber
y,andf
akecer
ti
fi
cat
es.

A.Exampl
es

Pay
ingf
orspeci
alcent
erst
opassex
ams.

Usi
ngf
akedegr
eest
ogetj
obs.

Lect
urer
sdemandi
ngmoneyorsexf
orgr
ades.

B.Ef
fect
s

Low-
qual
i
tygr
aduat
eswhocannotper
for
minj
obs.

Empl
oyer
sloset
rusti
nNi
ger
iancer
ti
fi
cat
es.

Poorgl
obal
ranki
ngofNi
ger
ianuni
ver
sit
ies

12.LackofRespectf
orTi
me

ManyNi
ger
iansdonotv
aluepunct
ual
i
ty,
leadi
ngt
oinef
fi
ciency
.

A.Exampl
es

"
Afr
icanTi
me"(
arr
ivi
ngl
atef
ormeet
ingsandev
ent
s).

Gov
ernmentpr
oject
staki
ngy
ear
sinst
eadofmont
hs.

B.Ef
fect
s

Wast
edpr
oduct
ivi
ty.

Del
ayedi
nfr
ast
ruct
uredev
elopment
.

Lossofbusi
nessandeconomi
coppor
tuni
ti
es.

13.Consumer
ism andWast
eful
ness

ManyNi
ger
iansspendmoneyr
eckl
essl
yinst
eadofi
nvest
ing.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

A.Exampl
es

Lav
ishspendi
ngonpar
ti
eswhi
l
enegl
ect
ingsav
ings.

Buy
ingunnecessar
yluxur
yit
emsi
nst
eadofessent
ial
s.

B.Ef
fect
s

Hi
ghper
sonal
debt
.

Lackoff
inanci
alsecur
it
yandi
nvest
menti
nthef
utur
e.

WayFor
war
d

•
Promot
inghonest
y,account
abi
l
ity
,andpat
ri
oti
sm.

•
Str
engt
heni
ngl
awenf
orcementandant
i-
cor
rupt
ionmeasur
es.

•
Encour
agi
nghar
dwor
k,ski
l
ldev
elopment
,andent
repr
eneur
shi
p.

•
Educat
ingci
ti
zensont
oler
ance,
disci
pli
ne,
andnat
ional
uni
ty.

•
Aposi
ti
vemi
ndsetshi
ftwi
l
lhel
pNi
ger
iar
eachi
tsf
ull
pot
ent
ial
andcr
eat
eabet
terf
utur
eforal
l
.

NI
GERI
A'SCONDUCTS

Nigeria’
sconductr
eferstothegeneralbehavior,at
ti
tudes,andacti
onsofi
tspeopl
e,gov
ernment,
andi nst
it
uti
onsindi
fferentar
easoflif
e.Thesebehav i
orsshapethecount
ry’
simage,
development,andi
nternati
onalr
elat
ions.Nigerianconductcanbeexaminedinthr
eemainareas:
socialconduct,
pol
it
icalconduct
,andeconomi cconduct.

1.Soci
alConduct

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Socialconductr
eferst
ot hewayNiger
iansi
nter
actwi
thoneanot
heri
nsoci
ety
.Iti
ncl
udes
cul
turalnorms,val
ues,andever
ydaybehavi
ors.

A.Posi
ti
veSoci
alConducti
nNi
ger
ia

1.RespectforElder
s–Ni ger
iansoci
etyplaceshi
ghv
alueongr
eet
ingandr
espect
ingel
der
s.
Bowing,kneel
ing,orusi
ngrespect
fulwordsiscommon.

2.Hospi
tal
i
ty–Niger
iansar
eknownf
orthei
rwarm andwelcomi
ngnat
uret
owar
dsv
isi
tor
s.
Theyoft
enshar
efoodandaccommodat
eguestsgenerousl
y.

3.Str
ongFami l
yTi
es–Nigeri
anspri
ori
ti
zeext
endedf
ami
l
yrel
ati
onshi
ps,
wit
hfami
l
ymember
s
support
ingeachot
heremoti
onal
lyandfi
nanci
all
y.

4.Rel
igi
ousDevoti
on–Ni ger
iai
sadeeplyr
eli
giouscountr
y,wit
hChr i
sti
ani
tyandI
slam bei
ng
dominant
.Rel
igi
oninf
luencesper
sonal
behavi
oranddailyacti
vi
ties.

5.CommunitySpi
ri
t–Niger
iansoft
enengagei
ncooper
ati
veef
for
ts,
suchascommuni
ty
devel
opmentproj
ect
sandtradi
ti
onalmut
ualai
dsyst
ems.

B.Negat
iveSoci
alConducti
nNi
ger
ia

1.Tr
ibal
i
sm andEt
hni
cBias–Nigeri
anssomet
imesf
avort
hei
ret
hni
cgr
oupsov
ernat
ional
uni
ty,
l
eadi
ngtodiscr
imi
nat
ionanddi
vi
sion.

2.Rel
igi
ousInt
oler
ance–Confl
ictsbet
weenChri
sti
ansandMusli
ms,
aswel
lasi
nter
nal
di
visi
onswit
hinrel
igi
ousgr
oups,someti
mesleadtovi
olence.

3.LawlessnessandIndi
sci
pli
ne–ManyNi
ger
iansbr
eakr
ulesi
ntr
aff
ic,
sani
tat
ion,
and
gover
nance, r
educi
ngorderi
nsoci
ety
.

4.ViolenceandImpati
ence–Manypeopler
esorttophy
sical
fight
s,mobact
ions,
andpr
otest
s
thatturnvi
olenti
nst
eadofusi
ngpeacef
uldi
alogue.

5.LackofTi
meManagement–"Afr
icanTime"(habit
uall
ateness)i
sacommonpr
obl
em i
n
Niger
ia,
aff
ecti
ngpunct
ual
i
tyi
neventsandworkplaces.

2.Pol
i
tical
Conduct

Pol
it
ical
conductref
erst
othebehavi
orsandat
ti
tudesofNi
ger
ianl
eader
s,pol
i
tici
ans,
and
ci
ti
zensingover
nanceanddemocracy
.

A.Posi
ti
vePol
i
tical
Conducti
nNi
ger
ia

1.Gr
owingDemocrat
icSyst
em –Ni
ger
iahast
ransi
ti
onedf
rom mi
l
itar
yrul
etodemocr
acy
,
hol
dingr
egul
arel
ecti
ons.

2.Act
ivePol
i
tical
Par
ti
cipat
ion–ManyNi
ger
iansshowi
nter
esti
npol
i
ticsbyv
oti
ng,
discussi
ng

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

pol
i
tical
issues,
andsuppor
ti
ngcandi
dat
es.

3.I
ncreasedYouthInv
olvement–Mor
eyoungNi
ger
iansar
ebecomi
ngpol
i
tical
l
yact
iveand
advocat
ingforgoodgovernance.

B.Negat
ivePol
i
tical
Conducti
nNi
ger
ia

1.Corr
upti
oninGovernment–Manypol
i
tici
ansembezzl
epubl
i
cfunds,
demandbr
ibes,
and
engageinfr
audul
entacti
vi
ti
es.

2.El
ect
ionMal
pract
ice–Vot
e-buy
ing,
bal
l
otst
uff
ing,
andr
iggi
ngweakenNi
ger
ia’
sdemocr
acy
.

3.Poli
ti
cal
Viol
ence–Thugger
y,assassi
nat
ions,
andconf
li
ctsdur
ingel
ect
ionsr
educepol
i
tical
stabi
l
ity
.

4.LackofAccountabi
l
ity–Manygov
ernmentof
fi
cial
sdonotf
ulf
il
lthei
rpr
omi
sesorpr
ovi
de
serv
icesef
fi
cient
ly.

5.Godfatheri
sm –Powerf
ulpol
i
tici
ansi
nfl
uenceel
ect
ionsandappoi
ntment
s,l
i
mit
ingf
air
ness
i
nleadershipsel
ect
ion.

3.Economi
cConduct

Economicconductr
efer
stot
hewayNi
ger
ianshandl
ebusi
ness,
trade,
empl
oyment
,and
fi
nanci
almanagement.

A.Posi
ti
veEconomi
cConducti
nNi
ger
ia

1.Ent
repr
eneur
ialSpi
ri
t–Ni
ger
iansar
ehi
ghl
yent
erpr
isi
ng,
wit
hmanyst
art
ingbusi
nesses
despi
techal
l
enges.

2.HardWorkandResil
i
ence–ManyNiger
ianswor
khar
dinv
ari
ousf
iel
ds,
from agr
icul
tur
eto
technol
ogy
,tosur
viv
eandsucceed.

3.Resour
cef
ulness–Ni
ger
iansareknownf
orf
indi
ngcr
eat
ivesol
uti
onst
ofi
nanci
alpr
obl
ems,
suchasengagingi
nmul
ti
plejobs.

4.Gr
owingTechandInnov
ationSect
or–Niger
ia’
stechi
ndust
ry,
incl
udi
ngst
art
upsl
i
ke
Fl
utt
erwaveandPayst
ack,i
sexpandi
nggl
oball
y.

B.Negat
iveEconomi
cConducti
nNi
ger
ia

1.Fr
audandCyber
cri
me–Onl inescams(YahooYahoo)
,fakebusi
nessdeal
s,andf
inanci
al
fr
audaff
ectNi
geri
a’
sglobal
reputat
ion.

2.Ov
erdependenceonGov
ernment–ManyNi
ger
iansr
elyt
oomuchongov
ernmentj
obs

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

i
nst
eadofcr
eat
ingoppor
tuni
ti
es.

3.PoorWor
kEt
hic–Somewor
ker
sshowl
owcommi
tment
,absent
eei
sm,
andi
nef
fi
ciencyi
n
j
obs.

4.Get-Ri
ch-QuickMental
it
y–Manypeopl epr
eferi
l
legal
shor
tcut
stoweal
th,
incl
udi
ngr
it
ual
ki
ll
ings,Ponzischemes,andcor
rupt
ion.

5.Consumerism andWastef
ulness–ManyNi
ger
iansspendl
avi
shl
yoncer
emoni
esandl
uxur
y
i
temsinsteadofsavingori
nvesti
ng.

Niger
ia’sconductisshapedbyt
radit
ion,hi
stor
y,leader
ship,
andgl obali
nfl
uences.Whil
e
posit
iveatt
itudessuchashardwork,hospit
ali
ty,
andent r
epreneurshi
pexist
,negati
vebehav
ior
s
l
ikecorrupti
on,fr
aud,tr
ibal
i
sm,andlawlessnessslowthecount r
y’sdevel
opment.

Toi
mpr
ove,
Niger
ianeeds:

•
Str
ongerenf
orcementofl
awsanddi
sci
pli
ne.

•
Bet
terpol
i
tical
account
abi
l
ityandgov
ernance.

•
Economi
cref
ormst
opr
omot
esust
ainabl
edev
elopment
.

•
Promot
ionofnat
ional
uni
tyov
ert
ri
bal
i
sm andr
eli
giousdi
vi
sion.

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

Ajetomobi Olumyiwa Aduralere PhD

Department of Religions, Faculty of Arts/

Re-orientation ? Concepts, Strategies, and Recent Initiatives

Course Overview: This course delves into the concept of "Re-orientation," exploring its definition,

significance, and the various strategies employed to implement it across different sectors.

Emphasizing recent initiatives, particularly within Nigeria, the course provides a comprehensive

understanding of re-orientation's role in societal development.

Module 1: Understanding Re-orientation

Definition and Scope

Re-orientation refers to the process of changing, renewing, or reforming individuals' or groups'

beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors to align with desired values and objectives.

It encompasses efforts to redirect societal norms and personal conduct towards positive outcomes.?

Theoretical Framework

Review of theories underpinning re-orientation efforts, including behavioral change models and

value transformation theories.?

Module 2: Re-orientation in Governance and Politics

Political Leadership and Value Re-orientation

Examination of the role of political leaders in driving societal change through personal example and

policy initiatives.

Case Study: Value Re-Orientation of Political Leaders as an Instrument of Restructuring Nigeria for

Democratic Consolidation and Development. ?

National Re-orientation Campaigns

Analysis of government-led campaigns aimed at instilling national values and promoting civic

responsibility.?

Case Study: Launch of the "Change Begins With Me" campaign in Nigeria, focusing on personal

behavior and societal values.

Module 3: Re-orientation in Education

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University Education and Socio-Economic Development

Discussion on the role of higher education in promoting value re-orientation for national

development.?

Case Study: University Education and Values Re-Orientation for Socio-Economic Development in

Nigeria.

Counseling-Driven Value Reorientation

Exploration of counseling programs aimed at addressing moral decadence among students.?

Case Study: Perceived Influence of Counseling-Driven Value Reorientation in Addressing Moral

Decadence among Undergraduate Students in Benue State.

Module 4: Re-orientation in National Identity and Culture

Promoting National Identity through Re-orientation

Strategies for fostering a unified national identity amidst cultural diversity.?

Case Study: Nigeria's Launch of Re-orientation Programmes to Promote National Identity.

Innovative Approaches to Re-orientation

Introduction to tools and methodologies for effective re-orientation, including digital platforms and

interactive assessments.?

Case Study: An Innovative Approach to Reorientation in Educational Settings.

Module 5: Challenges and Future Directions

Barriers to Effective Re-orientation

Identification of challenges such as resistance to change, cultural barriers, and resource

constraints.?

Sustainable Strategies for Re-orientation

Discussion on ensuring the longevity and effectiveness of re-orientation programs.?

Recommendations for integrating re-orientation efforts into national policies and community

initiatives.?

Conclusion: Re-orientation is a multifaceted process essential for societal progress and

development. By understanding its principles and examining recent initiatives, individuals and

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

organizations can contribute to positive transformations within their communities and beyond.?

Moral and National Values ? The 3R's: Reconstruction, Rehabilitation, and Reconciliation

Course Overview: This course explores the pivotal concepts of Reconstruction, Rehabilitation, and

Reconciliation (the 3R's) as essential components in rebuilding societies affected by conflict and

socio-economic challenges. Focusing on Nigeria's recent initiatives, the course examines how these

strategies aim to restore moral and national values, fostering sustainable peace and development.

Module 1: Introduction to the 3R's Framework

Definition and Importance

Understanding Reconstruction, Rehabilitation, and Reconciliation as foundational pillars for societal

healing and progress.?

The role of moral and national values in sustaining peace and unity.?

Historical Context

Overview of Nigeria's post-conflict efforts and the need for the 3R's.?

Lessons learned from past initiatives and their impact on national cohesion.?

Module 2: Reconstruction ? Rebuilding Physical and Social Infrastructure

Infrastructure Development

Strategies for reconstructing war-torn regions and restoring essential services.?

Case Study: The establishment of the South East Development Commission (SEDC) to address

infrastructural deficits and promote socio-economic growth in the South East region. ?

Community Empowerment

Empowering local communities through participatory planning and resource allocation.?

Initiatives aimed at reducing poverty and improving living standards.?

Module 3: Rehabilitation ? Restoring Health and Social Well-being

Psychosocial Support

Providing mental health services to individuals affected by conflict and displacement.?

Training community leaders and professionals in delivering effective psychosocial support.?

Vocational Training and Education

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Offering skills development programs to reintegrate former combatants and vulnerable populations

into the workforce.?

Collaborations with educational institutions to enhance literacy and technical skills.?

Module 4: Reconciliation ? Fostering Unity and Social Cohesion

Restorative Justice Practices

Implementing restorative justice as a tool for healing and accountability.?

Case Study: The Nigerian government's advocacy for restorative justice in conflict resolution,

promoting healing and reconciliation within affected communities. ?

Transitional Justice Mechanisms

Establishing mechanisms to address past human rights violations and promote lasting peace.?

Collaborations with international partners to support transitional justice initiatives.?

Module 5: Integrated Approaches and Collaborative Efforts

Multi-Stakeholder Engagement

Coordinating efforts among government agencies, NGOs, community leaders, and international

partners.?

Building partnerships to enhance the effectiveness of the 3R's initiatives.?

Monitoring and Evaluation

Developing frameworks to assess the impact of reconstruction, rehabilitation, and reconciliation

programs.?

Utilizing feedback mechanisms to improve ongoing and future initiatives.?

Conclusion: The 3R's framework serves as a comprehensive approach to healing and rebuilding

societies emerging from conflict and adversity. By focusing on reconstruction, rehabilitation, and

reconciliation, Nigeria aims to restore moral and national values, paving the way for sustainable

peace, unity, and development.??

Re-orientation Strategies in Nigeria ? A Historical Perspective

Course Overview: This course examines Nigeria's historical re-orientation strategies aimed at

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

fostering national development and instilling moral values. It provides an in-depth analysis of

initiatives such as Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), the Green Revolution, Austerity Measures,

War Against Indiscipline (WAI), War Against Indiscipline and Corruption (WAIC), Mass Mobilization

for Self-Reliance, Social Justice and Economic Recovery (MAMSER), and the role of the National

Orientation Agency (NOA).?

Module 1: Introduction to Re-orientation Strategies

Definition and Importance

Understanding re-orientation in the context of national development.?

The role of moral and national values in societal progress.?

Historical Context

Overview of Nigeria's socio-political landscape leading to the implementation of these strategies.?

Module 2: Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) and the Green Revolution

Operation Feed the Nation (OFN)

Launched in 1976 to achieve self-sufficiency in food production.?

Strategies included agricultural extension services, subsidized fertilizers, and large-scale farming

initiatives

Despite efforts, food production lagged behind population growth, leading to the introduction of the

Green Revolution.?

In Nigeria, Operation Feed the Nation was established in 1983 during the regime of Major General

Muhammadu Buhari. The program was aimed at addressing food insecurity and boosting

agricultural production in the country. It encouraged farmers to increase food production, and it also

aimed at reducing Nigeria's dependence on food imports.

Green Revolution

Aimed to increase food production through modern farming techniques and technologies.?

Emphasis on irrigation, high-yield crop varieties, and mechanization.?

The Green Revolution in Nigeria was launched in 1973 under the regime of General Yakubu

Gowon. The initiative aimed to boost agricultural production and ensure food security by introducing

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

modern farming techniques, improving irrigation systems, and encouraging the use of fertilizers and

high-yielding crop varieties. The Green Revolution was part of the government's broader strategy to

reduce Nigeria's dependence on imported food and promote self-sufficiency in agriculture.

Module 3: Austerity Measures and Economic Reforms

Austerity Measures

Implemented in the early 1980s to address economic challenges.?

Focused on reducing government spending and controlling inflation.?

Impact on public services and societal reactions.?

Economic Reforms

Structural adjustments and policy changes aimed at stabilizing the economy.?

Role of international financial institutions in shaping these reforms.?

The Austerity Measures in Nigeria were introduced in 1981 under the regime of President Shehu

Shagari. The measures were implemented in response to an economic downturn caused by a

decline in oil prices, which significantly impacted Nigeria's economy. The austerity policies were

aimed at reducing government spending, managing the country's foreign debt, and stabilizing the

economy. These measures included cuts in public sector wages, reductions in imports, and efforts

to control inflation.

Module 4: War Against Indiscipline (WAI) and War Against Indiscipline and Corruption (WAIC)

War Against Indiscipline (WAI)

Launched in 1984 to instill discipline and moral values.?

Phases included promoting orderliness, work ethic, national unity, combating corruption, and

environmental cleanliness.?

Critiques regarding enforcement methods and effectiveness.?

The War Against Indiscipline (WAI) was established in 1984 under the regime of Major General

Muhammadu Buhari. The initiative was aimed at promoting discipline, cleanliness, and moral values

among Nigerians, as well as combating public indiscipline, corruption, and societal vices. The

program focused on enforcing proper behavior in public places, such as queuing at bus stations,

BIG J - 0707 640 5978

cleaning the environment, and encouraging law-abiding conduct. It was part of Buhari's broader

effort to instill order and discipline in the country.

War Against Indiscipline and Corruption (WAIC)

An extension of WAI, focusing on eradicating corruption.?

Strategies included public awareness campaigns and stricter law enforcement.?

The War Against Indiscipline and Corruption (WAIC) was established in 1984 under the regime of

Major General Muhammadu Buhari. The campaign was aimed at promoting discipline, moral

uprightness, and the fight against corruption in Nigeria. It sought to address issues such as public

indiscipline, bribery, and corruption by enforcing strict laws and promoting ethical conduct among

citizens. The initiative was part of Buhari's broader efforts to instill a sense of responsibility and

accountability in both government institutions and the general public.

Module 5: Mass Mobilization for Self-Reliance, Social Justice, and Economic Recovery (MAMSER)

MAMSER

Established in the mid-1980s to promote self-reliance and social justice.?

Initiatives focused on community development, education, and economic empowerment.?

Collaboration with various stakeholders to achieve objectives.?

The Mass Mobilization for Self-Reliance, Social Justice, and Economic Recovery (MAMSER) was

established in 1987 under the regime of General Ibrahim Babangida, who was the military Head of

State at the time. MAMSER was created to mobilize Nigerians towards self-reliance, social justice,

and economic recovery, with the goal of fostering national unity and promoting positive social

change in the country.

Module 6: National Orientation Agency (NOA)

The National Orientation Agency (NOA) was established in 1993 under the regime of General Sani

Abacha, who was the military Head of State at the time. The NOA was created to promote national

values, unity, and civic responsibility, and to educate Nigerians on important issues such as national

development, democracy, and social integration.

Role and Functions

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Established to promote and inculcate societal values.?

Activities include public enlightenment campaigns, civic education, and national integration

programs.?

Recent Initiatives

NOA's involvement in contemporary re-orientation programs.?

Collaboration with other agencies and stakeholders in promoting national values.?

Conclusion: The re-orientation strategies discussed have played significant roles in shaping

Nigeria's socio-political and economic landscape. While some initiatives achieved varying degrees

of success, others faced challenges in implementation and sustainability. Understanding these

historical efforts provides valuable insights into the complexities of national development and the

continuous pursuit of moral and societal betterment.?

References

Alamu, A. O. (2020). Value Re-Orientation of Political Leaders as an Instrument of Restructuring

Nigeria for Democratic Consolidation and Development. Greener Journal of Social Sciences, 10(1),

21-25.

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