Dr. Md.

Ashraful Alam
Associate Professor
Institute of Social Welfare and Research
University of Dhaka
Society
 The term society can be traced to the Latin word socius
which means companionship or friendship.
 Greek Philosopher Aristotle, “Man is a social animal”.
 MacIver - “Society is a web of social relationship”.
 Morris Ginsberg – “ Society is a collection of
individuals united by certain relations or mode of
behavior which mark them off from others who do not
enter into these relations or who differ from them in
behavior”.
 A.W. Green, “A society is the largest group to which any
individual belongs.”
 P. Gisbert, in his book “Fundamentals of Sociology” stated
that, “Society in general, consists in the complicated
network of social relationships by which every human being
is interconnected with his fellowmen.”
 Anthony Giddens (2000) states; “A society is a group of
people who live in a particular territory, are subject to a
common system of political authority, and are aware of
having a distinct identity from other groups around them.”
 Example of society:
 Primitive Society, Modern society, Rural and Urban society.
Characteristics of Society
➢ Abstract in Nature
 society is viewed as web of social relationships
 We can not see the structure of it, we can just feel it. It
consists of social relations, human behavior, customs,
rituals, etc.
 Maclver argued, “we may see the people but cannot see
society or social structure, but only its only external
aspects”.
➢ Dynamic in Nature
 Society is not static, it is dynamic. Change is ever-present
in it.
 According to Herbert Spencer- change is the rule of
society. It is like water in a stream or river that forever
flows.
 Changes take place slowly, or gradually, suddenly or rapidly.
➢ It Consists of People
 It is composed of people. Without people, there is no
society.
 No social relationships and no social life is possible.
➢ It is not only a group of persons
 According to sociologist Wright, society is not a group
of persons rather it is a relationship and interaction
process among and between people and groups.
➢ It is a complex system
 It is ever-changing. Due to continuous changes in people’s
roles, rights, duties, and conditions whole social structure
gets changed.
 Its nature changed from simple to complex due to its
dynamic nature.
➢ It is based on interdependence
 Nobody is self sufficient
 Society’s people and groups are interdependent.
 One has to depend upon others for the satisfaction of
needs.
➢ Cooperation and conflict
 People can satisfy their desires and fulfill their needs with
the help of cooperation. Due to a lot of differences, we find
conflicts in society. In it, like cooperation, conflict also
existed directly or indirectly.
 “Society is cooperation crossed by conflict”. (Maclver and
Page)
 “Cooperation is most elementary process of social life
without which society is impossible” (Gisbert, 1957).
➢ It is means of social control
 It has various formal as well as informal means of social
control.
 It means it has customs, traditions, conventions and
folkways, mores, manners, etiquettes, laws, legislations,
police, court, and other formal or informal means of social
control to regulate the behavior of its members.
➢ It consists of culture
 Each society is distinct from others. Every society is
unique because it has one way of life, called culture.
➢ Mutual interaction and awareness
 It is a group of people in continuous interaction with
each other.
 Social interaction is made possible because of mutual
awareness.
 without interaction and awareness (we feelings),
there are no societies.
➢ Society as a system of stratification:
 Society provides a system of stratification of statuses
and classes that each individual has a relatively stable
and recognisable position in the social structure.
➢ Permanent Nature:
 It is not a temporary organisation of individuals.
Society continues to exist even after the death of
individual members.
 Society is a co-herent organisation.
Types/Evolution of Society
 1. Hunting and gathering society
 2. Pastoral society
 3. Horticulture society
 4. Agriculture/agrarian society
 5. Industrial society and
 6. Post industrial society
Hunting and gathering society
 Hunting / gathering society is the oldest and the simplest
type of society.
 It relies heavily on hunting wild animals and gathering
food for its survival.
 Example: Bushmen of Southwestern Africa Hunting
 These societies consist of very small but scattered groups.
 Statuses in these societies are essentially equal and hence
the difference between the leader and followers is not
there.
 Most decisions are made through group discussion.
 Their needs are simple and easily satisfied
 Political institutions are absent,
 The social structure of these societies is necessarily very
simple,
 Their culture cannot become elaborate and diversified
 Hunters and gatherers constantly face the danger of
extinction in a struggle against adverse environments
 Limited or no division of labor
 There is no gender inequality.
Pastoral society
 Pastoral societies are those whose livelihood is based
on pasturing of animals, such as cattle, camels, sheep
and goats.
 The first pastoral societies emerged between 10,000
and 12,000 years ago,
 Many pastoral societies still exist in the modern world,
particularly in Africa and the Middle East.
 Pastoralism is a much more reliable and productive
strategy than hunting and gathering.
Horticulture society
 Horticultural are those whose economy is based on
cultivating plants by the use of simple tools, such as
digging sticks, hoes, axes, etc.
 Horticultural societies developed around 7000 BC in
the Middle East and gradually spread west through
Europe and Africa and east through Asia.
 Cultivation is more often a female responsibility in
horticultural societies than in agrarian societies
 Polygamy—when a husband has multiple wives—is
common.
Agriculture society
 An agrarian society focuses its economy primarily on
agriculture and the cultivation of large fields.
 The first agrarian societies arose approximately 5000
to 6,000 years ago in Mesopotamia and Egypt and
slightly later in China and India.
 Simple living pattern
 Emphasis on agriculture and farming as the primary
method of subsistence
 Agrarian farmers work much harder than do the
members of earlier types of societies.
 Most members of agrarian societies are peasants.
 Non-mechanised agriculture
 Grow most of own food etc to meet most of
subsistence needs.
 They also grow a surplus to sell etc.
 Status of women is usually low.
Industrial society
1. Industrial Society is Associated with Industrial
Revolution
2. The economy is industry-based
3. Rapid Social Changes
4. Larger Societies with Huge Populations
5. Losing Importance of Family and Kinship
6. Religion Losing its Hold over the People
7. Increasing Importance of Science and Education
8. Widening Gap between the Rich and the Poor
9. Crime and social problems
10. Materialism
11. Heterogeneous culture
12. Statuses are achieved
13. Formal social control
14. Individualism
15. Migration to cities
Post industrial society
 Postindustrial societies dominated by information, servic
es, and high technology more than the production of go0d
 The replacement of blue-collar manual labourers with
technical and professional workers—such as computer
engineers, doctors, and bankers—as the direct production
of goods is moved elsewhere.
 The replacement of practical knowledge with theoretical
knowledge.
 Welfare state
 Global culture
 Individualism
 Competition
 Thank you all
 The term “sociology”was coined in 1838 by Auguste
Comte.
 But, sociological writings have a long background in
history and are rooted in the works of philosophers
such as Aristotle (384-322 B.C .), Plato (427-347 B.C.).
 Plato’s ‘Republic’ and in Aristotle’s ‘Ethics and Politics’
focused on methodical explanation of law, the state
and society.
 Sir Thomas Moore in his book “Utopia” in 1515, dealt
with day to day social problems.
 Italian writer Vico (1668–1744) in his book “The New
Science” opined that society was subject to definite
laws which could be observed through objective
observation.
 French scholar Saint Simon(1760-1825) tried to develop
a new science which would study social life like physics
studies the physical world.
 14th century philosopher and historian Ibn Khaldun (1332-
1406) often considered as one of the world’s first
sociologists
 His works include; a social conflict theory, a description of
political economy, and an investigation linking the level of
social cohesion of a tribe to its capacity for power, all of
which is believed to set the foundation of the development
of modern sociology.
 In the 18th century, scholars such as John Locke, David
Hume, Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, Thomas Hobbes and Jean
Jacques Rosseau among others (often referred to as
enlightenment philosophers) developed several theories
and principles that explained social reality.
 Despite the writings and contributions of early
philosophers, the basis for sociology as a modern
discipline was not established until the nineteenth
century.
 The origin of sociology is attributed to the numerous
developments in the 18th and19th century especially
through the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution
and the French Revolution.
The Enlightenment
 The Enlightenment refers to an intellectual
movement, primarily in France and Britain which
spans approximately one hundred years from the1680s
to 1789.
 According to the French historians, the era of
Enlightenment was initiated in the years 1715 just after
the death of Louis XIV and referred as ‘The Age of
Reason’.
 The stage for the Enlightenment were writers and
scientists who investigated the natural world and
systems of thought, writers such as Galileo (Italian),
newton (English), Francis Bacon (1561-1626, English).
 During the Enlightenment, thinkers such as
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau challenged
traditional norms and institutions, such as the
monarchy and the church, and called for greater
individual liberty and equality.
 The writings of the Enlightenment profoundly affected
politics and the development of sociology.
 These ideas inspired a more scientific and rational
approach to understanding human society, and set the
stage for the development of sociology as a discipline.
Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679)
 Argued that people are cruel, greedy, and selfish- as a
result government (law) protects people from each
other
 Without government, people would fight, rob, and
oppress one another;
 Social Contract- an arrangement where people give up
their rights to be protected by the government;
 Supported absolute monarchs;
 Wrote about his ideas in his book “The Leviathan.”
John Locke(1632-1704)
 Believed that people are basically moral and
reasonable. They want to do the right thing.
 All people are born free & equal with three natural
rights- life, liberty, and property
 Government exists at the consent of the governed to
protect their rights. If the government fails to protect
these rights, the contract is broken and the people may
change or replace the government.
 Wrote “Two Treatises of Government” stressing the
best governments had limited power—not an absolute
monarchy.
Montesquieu (1689 –1755)
 Montesquieu in his famous work “The Spirit of Laws” had
analysed the role of external factors in life of human societies
 Criticized absolute monarchies—admired Britain's limited
monarchy and said it protected people’s rights.
 He argued as Locke and Thomas Jefferson that all people were
created equal. If the King did not have the right to rule, then the
people had the right to rebel which they did.
 Believed having 3 branches in government would prevent
tyranny (absolute ruler abuses power; unfair and harsh rule)
 Believed gov’t should be split into these three branches, and that
each branch should be able to serve as a check on the other two:
 -Executive (enforces laws)
 -Legislative (makes the laws)
 -Judicial (applies laws)
Voltaire(1694-1778)
 Believed in the freedom of press and used it to expose
the abuses of corrupt political and church leaders.
 Fought for civil liberties- rights/freedoms of citizens
 -Freedom of Speech
 -Freedom of Religion
 -Separation of Church and State
 Believed that humanity’s worst enemies were
intolerance, prejudice & superstition
 His writings angered government and church officials.
 He was imprisoned and forced into exile.
 To stop his ideas from spreading his books and
writings were outlawed and burned.
Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778)
 Rousseau wrote “The Social Contract” where he lays out his ideas of
government and society
 Believed that people were naturally good, but were corrupted by
society
 Unequal distribution of property was an especially great evil of
society
 Stressed the importance of the general will- the will of the people as
a whole
 Believed the good of the community should be placed above
individual interests- common good
 Hated all forms of political and economic oppression
 Only governments that had been freely elected should impose law
 Sovereignty (the power to make laws) should be in the hands of the
people, and therefore the only good government is a direct
democracy
French Revolution
 French Revolution(1789) was the mass uprising of the
people of France against the dictatorial and anti-
people policies of the monarch.
Social Cause
 French society in the 18th century was divided into three
estates Clergy, Nobles & Common people.
 The members of the first two estates, enjoyed privileges by
birth.
 Peasants made up about 90% of the population, however,
only a small number of them owned the land they
cultivated.
 About 60% of the land was owned by nobles and church
which they leased to peasants for greater share in the
production.
 Peasants were obliged (bound) to render free services to
the lord- to work in his house and fields to serve in the
army or to participate in building roads.
ECONOMIC CAUSES
 French economy was based on revenue from land
and on feudal system.
 During Louis XVI, France had 2 billion liver ( French
currency) debt ( loan ).
 The government charged huge taxes from third
estate.
 First two estates were exempted from paying.
 The population of France rose from about 23 million
in 1715 to 28 million in 1789.
 High prices of the food grains.
 Low wages of workers.
 Useless wars
POLITICAL CAUSES
 In 1774, Louis XVI ascended the throne of France.
 He was 20 years old when he married to the Austrian
princes Marie Antoinette who always interfered with
the administration.
 He ruled as an absolute monarch.
 He had maintained a huge army and built a big
extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles
which drained the wealth of France.
Industrial Revolution
 A Revolution is a rapid, total and permanent change.
 The Industrial Revolution changed human life
drastically.
 More was created in the last 250+ years than in the
previous 2500+ years of known human history.
 The term Industrial Revolution was first popularized
by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee
(1852–83) to describe Britain’s economic development
from 1760 to 1840.
 The Industrial Revolution was a fundamental change in the
way goods were produced, from human labor to machines.
 The industrial revolution was a period of
major industrialization that took place during the late
1700s and early 1800s.
 The Industrial revolution was the major shift of
technological, socioeconomic and cultural conditions in
the late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain
and spread throughout the world.
 The Phrase Industrial Revolution covers many different
developments which all took place at the same time.
 By 1850 industrialization was taking root in parts of
Western Europe and the USA, and by the end of 19th
century it had spread to Russia and Japan.
 Industrial revolution is the vast social and economic
changes that resulted from the development of steam-
powered machinery and mass-production methods,
beginning in the late eighteenth century in Great
Britain and extending through the nineteenth century
elsewhere in the world. [Academic Press Dictionary
of Science and Technology]
Main Feature of IR
 Mass production of goods.
 Increased numbers of goods.
 Increased diversity of goods produced.
 Development of factory system of production.
 Rural-to-urban migration.
 People left farms to work in cities.
 Development of capitalism.
 Financial capital for continued industrial growth.
 Development and growth of new socio-economic classes.
 Working class, and wealthy industrial class.
 Commitment to research and development.
 Investments in new technologies.
 Industrial and governmental interest in promoting invention,
the sciences, and overall industrial growth.
Background of the Industrial
Revolution
 Commercial Revolution
 Increased geographic knowledge
 Colonies in the Americas and Asia
 Europeans expanded their power worldwide
 Increased trade and commerce
 Guild system could not meet the demands of increasing
numbers goods
 Scientific Revolution
 17th and 18th centuries
 invention of Galilio, Boyle, Lavoisier, Newton, etc.
 Intellectual Revolution
 17th and 18th centuries
 Writings of Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau etc.
 Atmosphere of discovery and free intellectual inquiry
 Greater knowledge of the world
 Weakened superstition and tradition
 Encouraged learning and the search for better and newer
ways of doing things
Bill of Rights
 When the Constitution was approved in 1789, some people
felt that it did not protect some basic rights and that the
Constitution should be changed to protect those rights.
 On December 15, 1791, changes were made to the
Constitution. These first 10 changes, or amendments,
guarantee specific freedoms and rights; together they are
called the Bill of Rights.
 The Bill of Rights was influenced by the Virginia
Declaration of Rights written in 1776 by George Mason.
 The Bill of Rights includes some of the most basic
freedoms and rights that we think of today in the United
States. These are a few of the key ideas in each amendment:
 Bill of Rights
Rights and Protections
Amendment

First Freedom of speech

Freedom of the press
Freedom of religion
Freedom of assembly
Right to petition the government

Second Right to bear arms

Third Protection against housing soldiers in civilian homes

Forth Protection against unreasonable search and seizure

Protection against the issuing of warrants without probable
cause
Fifth Protection against
trial without indictment
double jeopardy
self-incrimination
property seizure
Sixth Right to a speedy trial
Right to be informed of charges
Right to be confronted by witnesses
Right to call witnesses
Right to a legal counsel

Seventh Right to trial by jury

Eighth Protection against
excessive bail
excessive fines
cruel and unusual punishment

Nineth Rights granted in the Constitution shall not infringe on other

rights.

Tenth Powers not granted to the Federal Government in the

Constitution belong to the states or the people.
 Most influential sociologists:
 Auguste Comte
 Karl Marx
 Herbert Spencer
 Emile Durkheim
 Max Weber
Auguste Comte(1798-1857)
 Founder of Sociology because he first used the term
Sociology as the study of society
 Lived during the French Revolution and believed his
philosophy would bring stability to the world;
 Believed sociologists should use the scientific methods
to uncover the laws that govern the operation of
society;
 Comte wanted to use scientific observation to study
social behavior
 He called this positivism - should be a science on
knowledge of which we can be “positive”, or sure
 He also distinguished between studying social stability
and order (social statics) and study of social change
(social dynamics)
 Used the term social statics to describe the processes
by which the overall structure of a society remains
relatively stable, or unchanged, over time… relates to
order
 Used the term social dynamics to the processes by
which elements within the society change in a
systematic fashion to allow for social development …
relates to change
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
 Got his doctorate from the University of Berlin,
 Moved to Paris but was expelled from there at the request
of the German government…moved to Brussels and then
London
 Believed that the overall structure of society is influenced
by how the economy is organized;
 Society is divided into two: Those that own the means of
production and those who own only their labor
 This imbalance of power leads to a conflict between
owners and laborers
 Saw that the ills of the capitalist system would not be
solved until the workers overthrew those in power.
Herbert Spencer(1820-1903)
 Influenced by Charles Darwin and so adopted a
biological model of society
 In a living organism, the biological systems work
together to maintain the health of the organism… so
he saw society as a set of independent parts that work
together to maintain the system over time
 Took the theory of evolution to describe the nature of
society: saw social change and unrest to be natural
occurrences in a society’s evolution toward stability
and perfection
 Thought that since the best aspects of society will
survive over time [“survival of the fittest”], we
shouldn’t correct social ills
 Thought that the fittest societies would survive over
time, which will lead to a general upgrade of the world
as a whole
 Started type of sociology called Social Darwinism: the
perspective that holds that societies evolve toward
stability and perfection
Emile Durkheim(1858-1917)
 French, taught philosophy before switching and offering
the first social science course in France
 First to apply the scientific method to the study of society
 Focused on social order and like Spencer, saw society as
interdependent parts that maintain the system over time
 Saw those roles as functions
 A function is a positive consequence that an element of
society has for the maintenance of the social system
 Shared beliefs and values are the glue that holds society
together
 Especially how religion maintains social order and suicide
Max Weber(1864-1920)
 Max Weber created his own theory of social
stratification, defining social differences through three
components: class, status, and power.
 Here, Class is a person”s economic position based on both
birth and individual achievement.
 Status is one”s social prestige or honor either influenced or
not influenced by class;
 Power is the ability for someone to achieve their goals
despite the resistance of others.
 Sociology is defined as the study of society
 It covers all the elements of society like social relation,
social behaviour, social interaction and culture that is
common in our everyday life.
 The teaching of sociology as a separate discipline
started in 1876 in the United States, in 1889 in France,
in 1907 in Great Britain, after World War I in Poland
and India, in 1925 in Egypt and Mexico, and in 1947 in
Sweden.
 The teaching of sociology began as early as 1926 in the
philosophy department at Dhaka University as a part
of a course “Ethics and Sociology”
 As separate department started its journey in 1956 at
Dhaka University.
Origin of the term ‘Sociology’
 The term ‘Sociology’ is derived from the Latin word
‘socius,’ which means ‘associate’ or ‘society,’ and the
Greek word ‘logos,’ which means ‘systematic study’ or
‘science.’
 Hence, it is a systematic study of society and
associated people.
 The term ‘Sociology’ was first used by the French
philosopher and Mathematician ‘Auguste Comte’ in
1842 in his book “Cours de Philosophie Positive”
(Course of Positive Philosophy) for which he was
considered as the father of Sociology.
Definition
 Sociology is a scientific study of human society, it’s
origin, structure, function, and direction.
 August Comte-“sociology is the scientific study of
society”
 Mex Weber-“Sociology is the study of social action”
 Park & Burgess-“Sociology is the study of collective
behavior”
 Emile Durkhiem-“Sociology is the study of social
facts through social institutions”.
 Tonnies-“Sociology is the study of humans living
together”
 Mack Young-“Sociology is the study of social aspects
of human life”
 Kingsley Davis -“Sociology is a general science of
society”
 Harry M. Johnson- “sociology is the science that deals
with social groups”.
 Ogburn and Nimkoff- “the scientific study of social
life”.
 Franklin Henry Giddings- “the science of social
phenomena”.
 On the basis of above definitions, we can conclude
that sociology is concerned with men, their social
relations and their society.
Subject matter of Sociology
 Sociology focuses on almost every aspect of society.
 It investigates society as a whole, as an interrelated
system.
 It examines how society and people interact with one
another.
 It tries to explore how societies appear, continue and
then change.
 It focuses on society, human social activities, social
relationships, social interaction and aspects of culture
associated with our everyday life.
 It uses various methods and ways to develop an idea
about society and social problems.
 It focuses on other institutions like education, health
care, medicine, economy, military, punishment and
system of control.
 Some sociologists do research to get the actual
solution for a problem or to know how a topic is
responsible for social inequalities within our society.
 It also focuses on traditional issues of society like
Social class, caste, gender, race, religion, law, social
stratification, social mobility, etc.
Nature/characteristics of Sociology
 Humanizing Science:
 It is a humanizing science that focuses on
understanding human behavior, interactions, and
societies.
 Sociology is an Independent Science.
I. It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other
science like philosophy or political philosophy or
history.
II. As an independent science it has its own field of
study, boundary and method.
 Sociology is a Social Science and not a Pure
Science.
I. As a social science it concentrates its attention on
man, his social behaviour, social activities and social
life.
II. The fact that sociology deals with the Social universe
it distinguishes from astronomy, physics, chemistry,
geology, mathematics and other physical sciences.
 Sociology is a Categorical and not a Normative
Discipline
I. Sociology “confines itself to statements about what
it is, not what should be or ought to be”.
II. But it does not mean that sociological knowledge is
useless and serves no purpose.
III. It only means that sociology as a discipline cannot
deal with problems of good and evil, right and
wrong, and moral and immoral.
 Sociology is a Theoretical and not an Applied
Science
I. It’s main aspect is acquisition of knowledge about
human society
II. Each pure science may have its own applied field.
For example: physics is a pure science and
engineering is its applied field.
III. Sociology as a theoretical subject and its applied
field such as administration, diplomacy, social work
etc.
 Sociology is Relatively an Abstract Science and
not a Concrete Science
I. Sociology is not interested in concrete only it
demonstrations of human events.
II. It is more concerned with the form of human events
and their patterns.
III. For example: sociology is not concerned with
particular wars and revolutions but with war and
revolution in general, as a social phenomena, as a
type of social conflict.
 Sociology is a Generalising and not a
particularising or individulalising Science
I. Sociology tries to find out the general laws of
principle about human interaction and association,
about the nature, form, content and structure of
human groups and societies.
II. It does not study each and every event that takes
place in society. It is not possible also.
Importance Of Sociology
 Sociology makes a scientific study of society
 Scientific study of social behaviour of humans
 Provides basic knowledge about human society
 Sociology studies role of the institutions in the
development of the individuals
 Understanding social circumstances
 For understanding and planning of society
 Identifying social problems
 Solution of social problems
 To change outlook the problems of crime
 To enrich human culture
 To keeps us update on modern situations
 Helps in conciliation and adjustment
 Social reform and reconstruction
 To preserve cultural heritage
 To overcome prejudices, misconceptions
 To promote the welfare of the tribal/minorities/weaker
people
 For socialization
Sociology as a Science:

 According to Auguste Comte and Durkheim,

“Sociology is a science because it adopts and applies
the scientific method”.
 Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the
study of its subject matter.
 Hence Sociology is a science.
 It is a science because of the following reasons:
 (1) Sociology adopts scientific method:
 Though it cannot do experiment with men in a
laboratory still man’s social behaviour is subject to
scientific investigation like natural phenomenon.
 It employs scientific methods as scales of sociometry
schedule, case study, interview and questionnaire
which is used to quantitatively measure social
phenomenon.
 (2) Sociology makes accurate observation:
 laboratory experiment is not the only criteria of
science.
 The whole social world is the laboratory of sociology.
‘Newton did not invent their laws inside a laboratory.
 Sociology makes observation of tribal marriage at the
time of occurrence.
 (3) Objectivity is possible in Sociology:
 Sociology can also make objective study of social
phenomena.
 New techniques and methods are also introduced to
make social phenomena more objective.
 The statement that dowry is a social evil is an objective
statement which is based on facts collected by
sociologists.
 Further Survey and revivification proves this.
 (4) Sociology describes cause-effect relationship:
 While studying family or population growth Sociology
has traced the relationship between family
disorganisation and divorce and population growth
and poverty.
 Family disorganisation is the cause of divorce and
population growth is the cause of poverty.
 Thus sociology describes cause-effect relationship in
social disorganisation and population explosion.
 Hence sociology is a science.
 (5) Sociology makes accurate measurement:
 Sociology, like natural sciences also accurately
measures social phenomena or relationships.
 By using statistical method, socio-metric scale, scales
of measurement sociology effectively and accurately
measures social relationships.
 Hence Sociology is a science.
 (6) Sociology makes accurate Prediction:
 On the basis of cause-effect relationship sociology can
accurately predict about future.
 If there will be dowry in society then it will lead to
suicide, poverty.
 Cuvier opines this predictive value of Sociology is
improved day by day. As Sociology matures day by day
it predicts more accurately.
 (7) Sociology makes generalization:
 The notion that generalization drawn by social
sciences are not universal proved wrong. Like natural
sciences Sociology became able to draw generalization
which is universally applicable.
 The concept of incest taboo-prohibited sex
relationship among blood relatives is a universal truth.
 The principles of Sociology are Universal:
 The laws of sociology prove true at all times and
places. As long as the conditions do not vary, the laws
are devoid of any exceptions.
 For example, the principle that individual
disorganisation and social disorganisation depend
upon each other is true in all times and at all places.
Limitations of Sociology as a
Scientific Discipline
 There are some others like Max-weber who deny the
status of science to Sociology.
 He said Sociology can’t be an objective Science.
However, those who deny the status of science to
Sociology they put forth following arguments:
 Lack of Experimentation:
 Lack of Prediction:
 Lack of accurate measurement
 The above argument shows that Sociology is not a science.
But famous Sociologist Robert Bierstedt in his book “The
social order” clearly explain the nature of Sociology in the
following way:
 (1) Sociology is a social and not a natural science.
 (2) Sociology is a positive and not a normative science.
 (3) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science.
 (4) Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete
science.
 (5) Sociology is a generalising science and not a
particularising science.
 (6) Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science.


 Thank you All

sociological perspective
 “The perspective of sociology involves seeing through the
outside appearances of people’s actions and organisations”
(Berger, 1963).
 The sociological perspective is one that observes society
through a lens without personal opinions.
 It not only observes the patterns of society but also tries to
explain such patterns or behaviours.
 Sociologists are not concerned with personal
characteristics; instead, they aim to find common attitudes
and features as well as hidden patterns in those
characteristics and behaviours across millions of people.
 One of the main objectives of the sociological perspective
is to find and understand patterns behind recurring
features of social interaction, as well as to examine the
social impacts of these.
The Functionalist Perspective
 Functionalism is a sociological consensus theory that
places importance on our shared norms and values.
 The functionalist perspective is based largely on the
works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott
Parsons, and Robert Merton.
 It states that we all have a function in society and
compares society to a human body with its many
functioning parts.
 All parts are necessary to maintain function and to
promote orderly social change.
 Therefore, if one part, or organ, is dysfunctional, it
may lead to complete dysfunction.
 Functionalists believe all individuals and institutions
in society should cooperate as they carry out their
roles.
 Functionalists believe this consensus comes from
shared norms and values.
 In this way, society will function, and prevent 'anomie',
or chaos.
 It is a consensus theory, believing that societies are
typically harmonious and based on high levels of
consensus.
 According to functionalism, society is a system of
interconnected parts that work together in harmony to
maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the
whole.
 For example, each of the social institutions contributes
important functions for society:
 Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and
socializing children; education offers a way to transmit a
society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics
provides a means of governing members of society;
economics provides for the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services; and religion provides
moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power
 The functionalist perspective emphasizes the
interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each part
influences and is influenced by other parts.
 For example, the increase in single parent and dual-earner
families has contributed to the number of children who are
failing in school because parents have become less available to
supervise their children’s homework.
 As a result of changes in technology, colleges are offering more
technical programs, and many adults are returning to school to
learn new skills that are required in the workplace.
 The increasing number of women in the workforce has
contributed to the formulation of policies against sexual
harassment and job discrimination.
 Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional
to describe the effects of social elements on society.
 Elements of society are functional if they contribute to
social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social
stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional
and dysfunctional.
 For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated
with physical violence, loss of property, and fear.
 But according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime
is also functional for society because it leads to heightened
awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social
cohesion.
The Conflict Perspective
 It is the reverse of functionalism
 The conflict perspective views society as composed of
different groups and interest competing for power and
resources
 There is a constant struggle for power and control
 Those in power can then constrain those who are less
powerful by limiting their access to resources
(Inequality)
 As the power shifts between one group or another,
change occurs.
 The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the
classic works of Karl Marx.
 Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of
economic development.
 As societies evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern
over meeting survival needs is replaced by concern over
making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system.
 Industrialization leads to the development of two classes of
people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of
production (e.g., factories, farms, businesses); and the
proletariat, or the workers who earn wages
 The division of society into two broad classes of
people—the “haves” and the “have nots”—is beneficial
to the owners of the means of production.
 The workers, who may earn only subsistence wages, are
denied access to the many resources available to the
wealthy owners.
 According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to
control the institutions of society to their advantage.
Symbolic Interactionist
perspective
 The primary focus in this approach is communication
and exchange of ideas using symbols.
 Symbols are culturally derived social objects having
shared meanings that are created and maintained in
social interaction.
 Major sociological theorists or contributors to this
theoretical approach include: Max Weber; George
Herbert Mead; Charles Horton Cooley; Erving
Goffman; George Homans; and Peter Blau.
 Symbolic interactionism focuses on the interaction of
individuals and on how they interpret their interaction.
 Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that human behavior
is influenced by definitions and meanings that are created
and maintained through symbolic interaction with others.
 The symbolic interactionist perspective is based on the
notion that people make sense of their social worlds
through communication and social interaction - the
exchange of meaning through symbols and language.
 Its roots lie in the work of early 1900s American
sociologists, social psychologists, and philosophers who
were interested in human consciousness and action.
 Thank you
Research
 RESEARCH=Re ---------------- Search
 Re means (once more, afresh, anew) OR (back; with return
to a previous state)
 Search means (look thorough or go over thoroughly to look
something) OR (examine to find anything concealed)
 Research is search for knowledge.
 Research means finding answers to the questions.
 Research is defined as a scientific and systematic search for
information on a specific topic.
 Organized scientific investigations to solve problems, test
hypotheses, develop or invent new products.
 The systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation or
problem in order to generate new knowledge or
validate existing knowledge.
 Bulmer- Research is primarily committed to
establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge
about the social world.
 Neuman -A collection of methods and methodologies
that researchers apply systematically to produce
scientifically based knowledge about the social world.
Social Research
 Social research is the combination of three words. “Social”
means society “Re” means again and again and “Search”
means to discover, to find and to investigate.
 Social research is a procedure to investigate the social
problems and issues and also it helps us to find the causes
and give solution for problems which are faced by society.
 Social research is a method used by social scientists and
researchers to learn about people and societies.
 Social research works to answer many of the questions we
have about human behavior.
 Through scientific study, social research seeks to
understand the how and why of human behavior.
 According to P. V. Young, “Social research is a scientific
undertaking which by means of logical methods, aim to
discover new facts or old facts and to analyze their
sequences, interrelationships, casual explanations and
natural laws which govern them.”
 According to C. A. Moser : “Social research is a
systematized investigation to gain new knowledge
about social phenomenon and problems.”
 According to Wallace and Wallace, “Sociological
research refers to the structural observation of social
behavior.”
Objectives of social research
 To facilitate the understanding of human behavior.
 To acquire knowledge about social phenomena, events,
issue, problems etc.
 To identify functional relationship existing in the social
phenomena.
 To find out the natural laws that regulates or directs social
phenomena.
 To standard the society concept, e.g. culture, struggle,
generation gap, social distance etc.
 To formulate solution to social problems.
 To maintain social organization, remove social tension,
misconception, etc.
 To develop social plan.
Importance of Social Research
 Identifying the causes of social problems: social
research logically finds the causes of problems from grass
root level.
 Solution of problems: by the help of Social Research we
an be able to effectively solve a particular problem .
 New ideas and techniques: social research provides new
ideas and technique to solving the individuals, groups, and
communities problems.
 To develop theories: Many social scientist haves
presented their theories through social research. All social,
psychological, and environmental theories had been
depended on social research.
 Increase knowledge: social research is also consider as
source of knowledge increase. It increases the knowledge
of human being.
Types of social research
 Quantitative Research
 Quantitative research involves collecting and
analyzing numerical data.
 If there are no numbers involved, its not
quantitative
 Since this type of scientific research is numeric, its
aim is to evaluate the “when,” “where,” and “what”
of the research topic or question.
 It’s mainly expressed in numbers, statistics, and
graphs.
 This type of research is generally used to establish
generalised facts about a particular topic
 Creswell (2014) defines quantitative research as :“an
inquiry into a social or human problem, based on
testing a theory composed of variables, measured with
numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in
order to determine whether the predictive
generalizations of the theory hold true”.
 This method is widely used in natural and social
sciences, such as biology, chemistry, psychology,
economics, sociology, market evaluation, and others.
Quantitative research
characteristics
 Large sample size
 Quantitative data is measurable
 Close-ended questions
 Structured data
 Easy-to-use data collection methods
 Data analysis
 Reliable
 Reusable outcomes
 Generalization of results
Advantages of quantitative
research
 Easier to analyze
 Allows using large sample sizes
 Less biased and more accurate
 Does not require observation.
 Research performed is anonymous and can have
honest responses.
 Disadvantages:
 It does not study the reason behind a response.
 Quantitative research can be very expensive.
Types
 Surveys − This method involves the use of questionnaires to
gather data from a large group of people.
 The surveys can be administered face-to-face, through email or
online platforms.
 Kerlinger (1973) defined survey research as a study on large and
small populations by selecting samples chosen from the desired
population and to discover relative incidence, distribution and
interrelations.
 Experiments − Researchers manipulate the independent
variable in controlled laboratory settings to observe the effect on
the dependent variable.
 Observational Studies − This method involves observing and
recording the behaviour of people in their natural environment.
The researcher can use either structured or unstructured
observations.
 Content Analysis − This method involves the analysis of text,
audio, or visual media to identify themes, patterns, or trends in
the data.
Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is used to gain an understanding of
human behaviour, intentions, attitudes, experience, etc.,
based on the observation and interpretation of people.
 The aim of qualitative research is to understand the social
reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as
possible as its participants feel it or live it.
 Qualitative research aims to investigate the “why” and the
“how” of the decision-making process.
 It is an unstructured and exploratory technique that deals
with highly complex phenomena.
 This kind of research is usually done to understand the
topic in-depth.
 It is carried out by taking interviews with open-ended
questions, observations that are described in words, and so
on.
Types
 Historical research - studies available data to study,
understand, and interpret past events.
 Focus Groups − This method involves a group discussion
with a moderator to gather data on a specific topic or issue.
 Ethnography − This method involves the immersion of
the researcher in the culture or group being studied to
understand their experiences, values, and beliefs.
 Case Studies − This method involves an in-depth analysis
of a single individual, group, or event to understand their
experiences, motivations, and behaviours.
 Advantages:
 It has flexibility
 It becomes possible to understand attitudes
 It incorporates the human experience
 It allows creativity to be a driving force
 It gets to the reason behind the attitude of the
responders.
 It allows for detail-orientated data to be collected
 It gives a lot of data to work on.
 It is not very costly.
 Disadvantages:
 It does not statistically represent the data.
 It may require multiple sessions
 There is a chance of data loss due to its large data nature.
 It can be difficult to replicate results
 The results acquired from this approach can be influenced
by the researcher’s personal opinions.
 It can be influenced by researcher bias
 Time consuming.
 It creates data that is difficult to present
 Thank You
Selection of the problem
 A research problem is simply the topic of research.
 A problem statement is the description of an issue or
problem currently exist that needs to be addressed.
 It provides the context for the research study and generates
the questions that the research aims to answer
 It is the focal point of any research.
 Basically research problem originates from the following
three sources
I. Contemporary interest
II. own interest
III. gaps in the field
Key Characteristics of a Statement
of the Problem
 It should address a gap in knowledge.
 It should be significant enough to contribute to the
existing body of research.
 It should lead to further research.
 The problem should render itself to investigation
through collection of data.
 It should be of interest to the researcher and suit
his/her skills, time, and resources.
 The approach towards solving the problem should be
ethical.
 For example a researcher may select a broad area
“Domestic violence” as research problem
 He can split it in some area like
I. Situation of domestic violence
II. Causes of domestic violence
III. Impact of domestic violence
IV. Services available for the victims of domestic
violence
Literature review
 The review of literature is a summary of all the
reviews from various research literatures related to the
current study carried out by a researcher.
 It helps to discover what is already known about the
research problem and what more has to be done.
 An organized written presentation of what has been
published on a topic by the scholars. (Burns and
Grove, 2005)
 An Account of what has been published by accredited
scholars and researchers. (Taylor, 2011)
Characteristics of a Good Quality
Review of Literature
 A good review of literature must be comprehensive.
 It should include up-to-date references.
 It should be systemic.
 It should be reproducible.
 It should be free from bias.
 It should be well written.
 It should be in the form of sum of its parts.
 It should be clearly searched and selected.
 Accurate references should be given in the review
Purpose of Review of Literature
 to identify what is already known about a research
problem.
 to understand previous knowledge.
 to get idea for a new research study.
 to avoid duplication.
 to narrow the problem to be studied.
 to get acquainted with the relevant theory, strategies, tools
and instruments for conducting the research.
 to understand the different ways of conducting the
research study.
 to identify comparative data in interpretation and
discussion of previous study.
 to enable the investigator to gain expertise in his area of
interest.
HYPOTHESES
 A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question.
 “Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation
of the relationship between two variables’
 It implies that there is a systematic relationship
between an independent and dependent variable”
 “A proposition which can be put to test to determinate
validity” -Goode and Hatt
 Example of hypothesis are as follows
 The higher the illiteracy rate in a society, the higher
will be the domestic violence.
 The higher the poverty rate in a society, the higher will
be the domestic violence.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research design is the basic framework which provides
guidelines for the rest of research process.
 Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to
carry out research to tackle established research question
through the collection, interpretation, analysis and
discussion of data
 “Research design constitute the blue print for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data” – Bernard S
Philips.
 “Research design as the logical and systematic planning
and directing a piece of research” – Pauline and Young
 “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of
investigation conceived, so as to obtain answers to research
questions and to control variants” – Fred N Kerlinger
 It contains information regarding …..
 What is the study about ?
 Why is the study being made ?
 Where will the study being carried out ?
 What type of data is required ?
 Where can the required data be found ?
 What periods of time will the study include ?
 What will be the sample design ?
 What techniques of data collection will be done ?
 How will the data be analysed ?
 In what style will the report be prepared ?
Data collection
 Primary data can be collected through:
 By Observation
 Through personal interview
 Through telephone interview
 By mailing of questionnaires
 Through Schedules
 Published data are available in:
 Publications of central, state and local newspapers
 Publication of foreign government or of international
bodies
 Technical or trade journals
 Books, magazines and newspaper and Internet
 Public record and statistics, historical documents
Data analysis
 The Analyses of data can of two types: Quantitative
analysis & Qualitative analysis
 This stage mainly include :
 1. Coding
 2. Editing
 3. Tabulation
Structure Of A Research Report
 The research report format mainly consists of three
main sections:
 1) The Introductory Section
 2) The Main Body Of The Report
 3) The Reference Section
 1) The Introductory Section
 a) Title Page
 b) Acknowledgments (if any)
 c) Table of Contents
 d) List of Tables (if any)
 e) List of Figures (if any)
 f) Abstract
 2) The Body Of The Report
 2.1. Introduction
 a) Statement of the Problem
 b) Significance of the Problem
 c) Purpose
 d) Statement of Hypothesis
 e) Assumptions
 f) Limitations
 g) Definition of important Terms
 2.2. Review of Related Literature (analysis of
previous research)
 2.3. Design of the Study
 a) Description of Research Design and Sources of Data
b) Sampling Procedures
 c) Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
 d) Statistical Treatment
 2.4. Analysis of Data text with appropriate
 a) Tables
 b) Figures
 2.5. Results And Discussion
 a) Major Findings (reject or fail to reject Ho)
 2.6. Summary and Conclusions
 a) Conclusions
 b) Recommendations for Further Investigation
 3) The Reference Section
 a) References/ Bibliography
 b) Appendice
 Thank you all
August Comte
 Born January 19, 1798, in France, died September 5, 1857, Paris.
 He was a school dropout but still considered as a father of
sociology.
 Founder of Sociology because he first used the term Sociology as
the study of society
 Lived during the French Revolution and believed his philosophy
would bring stability to the world;
 Believed sociologists should use the scientific methods to
uncover the laws that govern the operation of society;
 Comte wanted to use scientific observation to study social
behavior
 He also distinguished between studying social stability and order
(social statics) and study of social change (social dynamics).
Social Statics
 It describes the processes by which the overall structure
of a society remains relatively stable, or unchanged,
over time.
 It studies the current laws, rules and present conditions
of the society.
 It observes how these laws and rules are affecting the
present society.
 It investigates the law of action and reaction of the
different parts of the social system.
 It is concerned with the study of major institutions,
which preserve the social order.
 For example, family; It provides the base for the social
order and progress of the society.
 Individual, family and social combinations are three
levels of society.
Social Dynamics
 It is a processes by which elements within the society
change in a systematic fashion to allow for social
development.
 It is concerned with the matter of social progress.
 The term 'Progress' refers to the orderly development
of the society, which are according to the natural law.
 Dynamics begin when the functions of the social
institutions are altered or changed.
 Thus, the social dynamics are found in all the aspects
of the society, such as physical, moral and intellectual.
 However, the intellectual is the most important.
Law of three stages
 Comte’s ideas relating to the law of three stages reveal
that man is becoming more and more rational and
scientific in his approach by gradually giving up
speculations, imagination etc.
 Comte considered his law of Three stages based upon
belief in social evolution to be the most important.
There has been an evolution in the human thinking.
 This law appeared in, the year 1822 in his book Positive
Philosophy.
Theological stage(<1300A.D)
 Theological thinking implies belief in super natural power.
 This type of thinking is found among the primitive races.
 In this stage, all natural phenomena and social events were
explained in terms of super natural forces, which
ultimately explaining everything as the product of God’s
will.
 Both philosophical speculation and scientific explanation
were absent, rather dominated by religious interpretation
of social phenomena.
 This stage is dominated by priests and ruled by military
men.
 This stage is further sub-divided into three sub stages
Fetishism
 Fetish means “inanimate” and ism means
“philosophy”.
 This is a philosophy which believes that super natural
power dwells in inanimate objects.
 Pieces of wood, stone, skull etc. are believed to be the
dwelling place of super natural powers, as these
objects are believed to possess divine power.
 But too many fetishes created confusion for people.
Polytheism
 Poly’ means many. So the belief in many Gods is
called polytheism. Human being received variety or
diversity of natural phenomena. Each phenomenon
was kept under the disposal of one God.
 One God was believed to be in charge of one particular
natural phenomenon.
 People created the class of priests to get the goodwill
and the blessings of these gods.
 The presence of too many gods also created for them
mental contradictions. Finally they developed the idea
of one God, i.e. monotheism
Monotheism
 It means belief in one single God. He is all in all. He
controls everything in this world. He is the maker of
human destiny.
 The monotheistic thinking symbolizes the victory of
human intellect and reason over non-intellectual and
irrational thinking.
 Slowly feelings and imaginations started giving place
to thinking and rationality.
 In monotheism a simplification of many gods into one
God takes place
Metaphysical (1300-1800)
 It is a bit more revolutionary stage than the theological
one.
 It is a transitional stage between the preceding theological
stage and the ensuing positivistic stage.
 ‘Meta’ means beyond and physical means material world.
 Metaphysics refers to the studies of what cannot be
reached through objective studies of material reality
 Abstract forces replace supernatural beings as the
explanation for the original causes and purposes of things
in the world.
 Mysterious forces such as “nature” are invoked to explain
why things are the way they are
 Rationalism started growing instead of imagination.
 Rationalism states that God does not stand directly
behind every phenomenon.
 Under metaphysical thinking it is believed that an
abstract power or force guides and determines the
events in the world.
 Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete God.
 It is characterized by the dominance of “ratiocination.”
Positive/Scientific stage(1800-now)
 The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking.
 The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts
and these facts are gathered by observation and experience.
 All phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can
be investigated by observations and experimentation.
 The dawn of the 19th Century marked the beginning of the
positive stage in which observation predominates over
imagination.
 All theoretical concepts have become positive.
 The concept of God is totally vanished from human mind.
Human mind tries to establish cause and effect
relationship.
 Mind is actually in search of final and ultimate cause.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
 Got his doctorate from the University of Berlin,
 Moved to Paris but was expelled from there at the request
of the German government…moved to Brussels and then
London
 Believed that the overall structure of society is influenced
by how the economy is organized;
 Society is divided into two: Those that own the means of
production and those who own only their labor
 This imbalance of power leads to a conflict between
owners and laborers
 Saw that the ills of the capitalist system would not be
solved until the workers overthrew those in power.
Marx’s view
 Was a materialist – to understand society, we have to
understand how it organizes production

 Forces of Production – land, technology, skills,

knowledge, etc.

 Social Relations of Production – who controls the forces

of production, and how

 The forces of production will come into conflict with the

relations of production
 Those is the top class control the wealth, and those in
the lower class do most of the work that produces the
wealth = exploitation

 This exploitation is the basis of class conflict

 Historical examples of class conflict i.e. slave vs slave

holder, feudal lord vs peasant;
 Capitalists (bourgeoisie) vs workers (proletariat) are
Marx’s focus

 Bourgeoisie alienates proletariat

Structure of society
 Economic Base – the forces and relations of
production (i.e. the bourgeoisie and proletariat)

 Superstructure – the legal and political structures of

society

 The economic base influences the superstructure;

economic power is the basis of all other types of power

 The bourgeoisie, therefore, control society’s

institutions to help maintain the status quo
(capitalism)
Marx’s critique captialism
Capitalism is…

 Exploitative
 Alienating
 Undemocratic
 Irrational
 Environmentally destructive
 Prone to war
Communism/socialism
 In his writings, Marx says very little about what a socialist
or communist society would look like

What he does say:

 Cooperation rather than division
 Economy democratically controlled
 Social equality exists and all forms of oppression would
disappear
 The environment would be respected
 No profits for a minority of people
 Work would be fulfilling
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
 Emile Durkheim (1858-1916) was born in Lorraine, France.
 He was a contemporary of Weber (1864-1920), but probably
never met Weber, and lived his adult life after Karl Marx
died.
 Durkheim came from a Jewish background, and was a
superior student at school and University.
 In 1902 he was appointed to a professorship at the
Sorbonne, in Paris, where he remained until he died.
 Durkheim's most famous works are The Division of Labor
in Society (1893), The Rules of Sociological
Method (1895), Suicide (1897) and The Elementary Forms of
Religious Life (1912).
Theory of suicide
 Durkheim first began to study the problem of suicide
in the year 1888.
 In 1897, he published his book entitled “Suicide” and
this was his third major social work, after “The theory
of division of labour” and “The rules of sociological
method”.
 The main purpose of Durkheim’s attempt to study
suicide was search for the social factors responsible for
suicide rather than looking at the psychological states
of individuals who take their own lives.
Types of Suicide
 1) Egoistic Suicide:
 a form of self centered suicide which is a result of the
individual’s lack of full participation together with
emotional involvement that participation entails.
 It’s a result of low degree of integration.
 The individual feels isolation, deprivation and
detachment.
 For Durkheim, this kind of state of mind exists among
Protestants than Catholics, among unmarried as
opposed to the married, divorced than un-divorced.
 2) Altruistic suicide:
 it is the result of an extreme integration into a
group/society to the point where group norms and goals as
the only thing that matter.
 Social norms or group expectations are strong enough to
force the individual to commit suicide.
 Altruistic suicide is common in “traditional” societies
where values, norms, customs and expectations of the
group have an extreme influence upon the individual.
 For example, Chinese society, killing oneself is preferred to
surrendering to an enemy.
 In some Indian societies a widow must accompany her
deceased husband by killing herself at his funeral.
 3) Anomic suicide:
 Anomie is a disjunction between means and ends or a
breakdown of societal norms–a state of normlessness.
 It is the failure to internalize the norms of the society or
inability to adjust to changing norms or tension resulted
from the conflicting norms themselves.
 In ability to adjust and choose to commit suicide occurs
during economic crisis or when a there occurs a change in
government.
 It is a result of low degree of regulation of norms of the
behavior of individuals.
 It is common in industrial societies.
 4) Fatalistic Suicide
 Fatalism signifies a form of suicide which occurs
because of an excess of social regulation.
 It occurs because of an overly developed system of
control over the individual.
 Fatalistic suicide was prevalent in slave society.
Social Solidarity
 Emile Durkheim argued that there are two different kinds
of solidarity (unity) among people in a society that holds
them together.
 Mechanical solidarity
 Characteristics of pre-industrial society
 In these societies, all of the people were of the same
religion, the same culture, and did the same tasks.
 Similarity of interest and experience as well as no division
of labor and differentiation of tasks.
 The social institutions perform almost all societal
functions.
 There were shared values, norms and beliefs all of which
help to hold society together.
 Organic solidarity
 This occurs in the modern industrial type of society.
 In this type of society, there is a division of labor where
people are engaged in specialized tasks and so their
interests, values are different.
 Durkheim believed that being different would not mean an
end to group solidarity, rather as people became more
specialized and different, they became more dependent on
each other.
 E.g. the farmer is dependent on blacksmiths for
agricultural tools, a tailor for clothing, cobblers for shoes,
etc.
Herbert Spencer(1820-1903)
 Spencer was born in Derby, England on 27 April 1820, the
eldest of nine children, but the only one to survive infancy.
 He was a strong believer of the theory of evolution.
 He advocated the superiority of sciences over religion.
 His views were highly influenced by his father and uncle.
 From 1837-1841 he worked as a railway civil engineer for
which he was professionally trained.
 Later, he turned towards Journalism and political writing.
 In 1851 Spencer published his first book, Social Statics, or
the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness.
 Influenced by Charles Darwin and so adopted a
biological model of society
 In a living organism, the biological systems work
together to maintain the health of the organism… so
he saw society as a set of independent parts that work
together to maintain the system over time
 Took the theory of evolution to describe the nature of
society: saw social change and unrest to be natural
occurrences in a society’s evolution toward stability
and perfection
 Thought that since the best aspects of society will
survive over time [“survival of the fittest”], we
shouldn’t correct social ills
 Thought that the fittest societies would survive over
time, which will lead to a general upgrade of the world
as a whole
 Started type of sociology called Social Darwinism: the
perspective that holds that societies evolve toward
stability and perfection
Max Weber(1864-1920)
 Max Weber created his own theory of social
stratification, defining social differences through three
components: class, status, and power.
 Here, Class is a person”s economic position based on both
birth and individual achievement.
 Status is one”s social prestige or honor either influenced or
not influenced by class;
 Power is the ability for someone to achieve their goals
despite the resistance of others.
Social Institution
 Social Institution is a social structures and social
mechanisms of social order and cooperation that
govern the behavior of its members.
 Is a group of social positions, connected by social
relations, performing a social role.
 Any institution in a society that works to socialize the
group of people in it.
Characteristics of an Institution
 Palispis (1996)
 Institutions are purposive.
 Relatively permanent in content.
 Institutions are structured.
 Institutions are a unified structure.
 Institutions are necessarily value-laden
Functions of an Institutions
 1. Institutions simplify social behavior for the individual person.
 2. Provide ready-made forms of social relations and social roles
for individual.
 3. Act as agencies of coordination and stability for the total
culture.
 4. Control behavior

 Major Social Institution

 The Family
 Marriage
 Education
 Religion
 Economic Institutions
 Government as a Social Institution
Family
 The word ‘Family’ has been taken over from Latin
word ‘Famulus’ which means servants. Thus originally
family consisted of a man and women with a child or
children and servants.
 Merrill-“Family is the biological social unit composed
of husband, wife and children”.
 M.F. Nimkoff- Family is a more or less durable
association of husband and wife , with or without
children.
 Ogburn-“Family is more or less durable association of
husband and wife and children”.
 Clare-“Family is a system of relationship existing
between parents and children”.
Types of Family
 TYPE OF FAMILY BY AUTHORITY:
 • Patriarchal Family.
 • Matriarchal Family.
 • Democratic Family.
 TYPE OF FAMILY BY STRUCTURE
 • Joint family system /Extended family
 • Nuclear family.
 Single parent family
 TYPE OF FAMILY BY SETTLEMENT:
 • Patrilocal Family.
 • Matrilocal Family.
 • Neo local Family.
 TYPE OF FAMILY BY LINEAGE.
 • Patrilenial Family.
 • Matrilenial Family.
 • Bilateral Family.
 TYPES OF FAMILY BY AMOUNT OF MATES
 Monogamous family
 Polygamous family
 Polyandrous family
Functions of family

 Stable satisfaction of Sexual needs

 Procreation and Rearing of Children
 Provision of Home
 Socialization
 Economic functions
 Educational functions
 Religious functions
 Health related functions
 Recreational function
Marriage
 Two Aspects of Marriage:
 1. Legal point of view- states that marriage is a
contract.
 2. Religious point of view- states that marriage is a
sacrament.
Marriage
 B. Malinowski:
 Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance
of children.
 Robert H. Lowie:
 Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between
permissible mates.
 Ian Robertson:
 Marriage is a socially approved mating arrangement
between two or more peoples.
 Encyclopedia Britannica:-“Marriage is a physical, legal
and moral union between man and woman in complete
community life for the establishment of a family.”
Characteristics of marriage
 Marriage is a universal social institution
 Marriage is a permanent bond between husband and
wife.
 Relationship is enduring
 Marriage requires social approval
 Marriage establishes family
 Marriage creates mutual obligations between husband
and wife.
 Marriage is always associated with some civil and
religious ceremony
 Marriage regulates sex relationship
Forms/Types of Marriage
(1) Monogamy- marriage of one man with one woman at a
time
 (i) Serial Monogamy- Having only one monogamous
relationship at a time, but multiple partners throughout a
lifetime due to death, divorce, or choice.
 (ii) Non-serial Monogamy- where a man gets married to
a woman and stays with each other till he or she dies.

(2) Polygamy- there is plurality of partners

 (i) Polygamy- a man marries more than one wife at a time
 (a) Sorroral Polygamy- a man marries the sisters of
his wife at a time or after the death of his wife
 (b) Non-sororal Polygamy- a man marries several
women at a time who are not necessarily sister to each
other
(ii) Polyandry- a woman marries several men at a time.
 (a)Fraternal Polyandry- When several brothers share
a common wife
 (b) Non-fraternal Polyandry- husbands of a woman
is not necessarily brother to each other.
 (iii) Endogamy or Group Marriage- a group of men
marry a group of women at a time.
(B) On the basis of choice of mate
(1) Endogamy or endogamous marriage- marriage
within one’s own group.
 (a) Caste endogamy-marriage takes place within
one’s own caste.
 (b) Sub-caste endogamy-marriage takes place within
one’s sub-caste only.
 (c) Varna endogamy-In varna endogamy the choice
of mate is restricted to one’s own varna only.
 (d) Tribal endogamy-married in which the choice of
mate is restricted to one’s own tribal group.
 (ii) Exogamy or Exogamous marriage-marriage in
which an individual has to marry outside one’s own
group.
 (a) Gotra exogamy-one has to marry outside one’s
own gotra
 (b) Pravara exogamy-one has to marry outside one’s
own pravara.
 (c) Sapinda exogamy-marriage within one’s own
sapinda is forbidden
 (d) Village exogamy-marriage within one’s own
village is forbidden
 (i) Cross-cousin marriage-marriage takes place between
one’s mother’s brother’s daughter/son with father’s sister’s
son/daughter
 (ii) Parallel Cousin marriage-marriage takes place
between the children of either two sisters or two brothers.
 (iii) Levirate-When a woman marries her husband’s
brother after the death of her husband it is known as
levirate.
 (iv) Sororate-When a man marries his wife’s sister after
the death of his wife or even when the wife is alive it is
called as sororate.
Functions of marriage

 Sex regulation
 Procreation of children
 Children socialization
 Provide legal parents to children
 Give economic security to women
 Provide social security to women
 Increase man power
 Establishes joint fund
 Fulfillment of basic needs
 Perpetuation of the lineage
 Thanks
Concept of Social Stratification
 The term stratification is derived from the geological
concept of “Strata” which means rock layers created by
natural processes.
 Social stratification refers to how societies categorize
people based on factors such as wealth, income,
education, family background, and power.
 T.B.Bottomore- No society is classless or unstratified.
 Ogburn and Nimkoff – ‘the process by which
individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less
enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification’.
 Gisbert- ‘social stratification is the division of society
into permanent groups of categories linked with each
other by the relationship of superiority and
subordination’.
 R.W. Murry – ‘ social stratification is a horizontal
division of society into ‘high’ and ‘lower’ social units.
 Lundberg – ‘a stratified society is one marked by
inequality, by differences among people that are
evaluated by them as being ‘lower’ and ‘higher’. •
Characteristics
 Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a
reflection of individual differences.
 Social stratification carries over from generation to
generation
 Social stratification is universal but variable
 Social stratification involves not just inequality but
beliefs as well.
Main Types of Social Stratification
 There are four types of Social Stratification:
 1.Caste;
 2.estate;
 3.Social class and status; and
 4.slavery.
Main Types of Social Stratification
 1.Caste:
 In a caste system, one’s rank is determined at birth;
based on ascribed characteristics.
 Caste system has majorly existed in India for about
3000 years, where Hindu religion had a very strong
influence.
 Lifelong status determined by their parents
 Prohibits exogamy (marriage outside caste), promote
endogamy
Main Types of Social Stratification
 According to caste system, society divided in to four
classes based on concept of ritual pollution and purity.
I. The Brahmins (priests/teachers/healers) From the
most pure
II. The Kshatriyas (soldiers/warriors)
III. The Vaishyas (traders/merchants)
IV. The Shudras (servants/labourers)
Main Types of Social Stratification
 2.Estate
 In the middle age, European society was divided into
three estate:
 1.First estate: Feudal lord, Nobility.
 They enjoy the all facilities of the society.
 2.Second estate: Father and clergy of the charge.
 3.Third estate: general people, mass people, and
commoners.
Main Types of Social Stratification
 3.Social class and status:
 Class system is a hierarchy based on achieved
characteristics in a society of equal opportunity, i.e. a
meritocracy.
 Class systems are legitimized by the belief that
rewards are proportional to effort or talent, i.e. people
get what they deserve.
 Social class is a category of people in a society, ranked
according to such criteria as relative wealth, power,
prestige, educational level or family background.
Main Types of Social Stratification
 In generally, we can classified our society into six
classes based on social class and status:
 1.The upper class;
 2.The upper-middle class;
 3.The middle class;
 4.The lower middle class;
 5.the lower class; and
 6.The working class
Main Types of Social Stratification
 Max Weber classified society into two ways:
 1.property class; and
 2.Lack of property class.
 According to Karl Marx:
 Classes developed on the basis of property and lack of
property of means of production (Bourgeoisie and
prolitariate);
Main Types of Social Stratification
 4. Slavery:
 The oldest and most closed stratification system is
slavery.
 It involves a situation in which one group or
individuals (often known as masters) claim ownership
of another group or individuals (called slaves).
 Slaves are the properties of their masters.
 Children born to slave parents automatically become
slaves by virtue of their parents’ status.
 The need for more people on farmland encouraged
slavery to thrive through the Middle Ages.
 Thank you all
Drug abuse
Drug abuse
 Drug abuse is the non permissive consumption of
certain substance that may lead to physical and
psychological dependence.
 Drug abuse refers to the use of certain chemicals for
the purpose of creating pleasurable effects on the
brain.
 The use of illegal drugs or the use of prescription or
over-the-counter drugs for purposes other than those
for which they are meant to be used, or in excessive
amounts
 The increased levels of dopamine caused by taking
drugs create feelings of pleasure and euphoria. This is
what makes people want to take drugs again and again,
despite the negative consequences.
 World Health Organization estimated that more than
275 million people use illicit drugs, accounting for
5.6% of the global population, and 31 million drug
users have an addiction.
 Approximately 2.5 million Bangladeshis are addicted
to drugs, and 80% are adolescents and young people of
15–30 years.
Drugs available use in Bangladesh
 Opium;
 Heroin;
 Phensidyl;
 Pethidine;
 Cannabis;
 Ganja;
 Chorosh;
 Yaba;
 Vayagra;
 Sleeping pill;
 Seduxene;
 Diazapam;
 Dexpotent;
. Causes of Drug Addiction
 There are many which affected to drug addiction.
 Physical abuse;
 Loneliness;
 Desperation;
 Easy access to drugs;
 Families problems;
 Unemployment problem/economic insolvency;
 Curiosity to innovation;
 Loss of a loved one ;
 Poor self esteem ;
 School/College problems;
 Financial difficulties ;
 Failed romance etc.
Steps to Reduce this Problems
 There are some step to get clean from Drugs in Our
Country.
 Families should be aware about there Son/Daughter.
 The program will strengthen the anti-drug smuggling.
 Be employments.
 Development and refinement of human values.
 Educational Awareness from Parents.
 Increased Personal and Social ability.
 Leave the bad company.
 Be gained general knowledge about dangerous of Drug.
 Thank you all
 GLOBALISATION is a process of interaction and
integration among the people ,companies and
governments of different nations ,a process driven by
international trade and investment and aided by
information technology.
 This process has effects on the environment, culture,
political systems, economic development, environment,
prosperity, human physical well being in societies.
 It also refers to movement of people and knowledge across
international borders.
 It is a result of human innovations and technological
process
 “ The growing economic interdependence of countries
worldwide through increasing volume and variety of
cross border transactions in goods and services and of
international capital flows, and also through the more
rapid and widespread diffusion of technology” (IMF)
 IMF identified four basic aspects of globalization:
I. trade and transactions
II. capital and investment
III. movements migration and movement of people
IV. dissemination of knowledge
Features of globalization
 Liberalization
 Connectivity
 Borderless Globe
 Globalization of Economic Activity
 Economic Interdependence
 Liberalization of Import – Export system
 Cultural Diversity
 Mobility
 Increased Collaboration
 Free Flow of Factors of Production
 Standarized Technology
 Global Competition
 Facilitated by Global Organizations
Benefits of globalization
 Growth in Trade
 Customer Supremacy
 Greater competition
 Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs)
 Reducing monopoly profits
 International Cooperation
 Improved Information Technology
 Use of Modern Technology
 Advancement in Transportation and Communication
 Expansion of Trade and Commerce
 Free Movement of Capital and technology
 Expansion of market
 Consumers and owners free from govt. interference
 Increase of production
 End of monopoly system
 Reduction of import duties
 Increase FDI.
 Employment generation
Costs of Globalization
 Threat to National Sovereignty
 Threat to Domestic Businesses
 Free trade can harm developing economies.
 Threat to Social and Cultural Values
 Environmental costs
 Labor drain
 Unequal competition
 Small/local industries meeting decay
 Rules of multinational company
 Inequality
 Dominant Global Brands
Economic Globalization
 Economic globalization defines the internationally connected
free markets and trade, as well as the global movement of capital,
business, goods, and people.
 Liberalization, deregulation, privatization, and lower
transportation and communication costs are all part of economic
globalization.
 examples of economic globalization include:
 Individual parts for one product, such as a car, made in and
distributed from various countries all over the world
 A large corporation like Coca-Cola with offices, employees,
factories, and distribution centers located around the globe
 Interconnected global stock markets that are affected by global
economies and current events
 A disruption in the worldwide supply chain affects the prices of
goods all over the world
Cultural Globalization
 Cultural globalization is marked by the spread and
merging of individual cultures on a global scale.
 Cultural globalization is made possible by
technological evolution like the Internet, social media,
and advances in transportation.
 Cultural globalization has the potential to both bring
the world’s cultures together, as well as homogenize
and dilute unique cultures.
 Cultural globalization include:
 Movement of people, and thus their cultures, around the
world through international travel
 Globally accessible social media platforms that allow
people to spread and access culture, ideas, knowledge, and
more
 International popular culture spreads through media like
music, social media, film, etc.
 International groups like the United Nations unite cultures
together in various ways
 Sports like football are gaining international prominence
 Influence and spread of multiple religions, such as
Christianity, around the world
Social globalization
 Social globalization refers to the sharing of ideas and
information between and through different countries.
 In today’s world, the Internet and social media is at the
heart of this.
 Good examples of social globalization could include
internationally popular films, books and TV series.
 The Harry Potter/ Twilight films and books have been
successful all over the world, making the characters
featured globally recognizable.
 However, this cultural flow tends to flow from the centre
(i.e. from developed countries such as the USA to less
developed countries).
 Social globalization is often criticized for eroding cultural
differences
Political Globalization
 Political Globalization is a form of globalization that is used to
manage and prevent political conflict among the countries.
 It tries to develop good relationships among the countries.
 Global organizations like the World Trade Organization and the
United Nations were established to resolve political issues and
maintain a healthy relationship among the countries.
 Political negotiations among the countries help to devise rules
and regulations regarding immigration issues and how to
enhance trade and cultural exchange among countries.
 Moreover, it also helps to mitigate the rivalry among the
countries.
 Political globalization made global leaders work for the
eradication of pandemic and other global issues like war and
climate change.
 Thank you
Poverty
 Poverty is a state or situation in which a person or a
group of people don't have enough money or the basic
things they need to live.
 “a condition in which a person cannot maintain himself
in accordance with living standards of his groups and
hence is unable to achieve the mental and physical
efficiency to function useful in it.” (John L. Gillin)
 Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and
comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes
and the inability to acquire the basic goods and
services necessary for survival with dignity(World
Bank).
Features of Poverty
 Poverty is defined as a relative concept:
 Poverty is defined as the lack of resources;
 It is defined as relative deprivation.
 It is the inadequacy to maintain the standard of
society
 It is defined as a lack of fundamental capabilities
 Poverty is an individual concern as well as a broader
social problem.
 Welfare programs are used by governments to help
alleviate poverty.
 Poverty is the result of multiple factors, not simply
income.
Poverty in BD
 The poverty rate in the country came down at 18.7
percent at the national level, which is 20.5 percent in
the rural areas and 14.7 percent in the urban areas.

 the overall rate of extreme poverty in the country is

5.6 percent, which is 6.5 percent in the rural areas and
3.8 percent in the urban areas.(HIES,2022).
Poverty (Upper poverty line)
Years National Rural Urban

2000 48.9 52.3 35.2

2005 40.0 43.8 28.4

2010 31.5 35.2 21.3

2016 24.3 26.4 18.9

2017 23.1 -

2018 21.8 -

2019 20.5 Source: HIES

(2018-2019)
 Extreme Poverty (Lower poverty line)
Years National Rural Urban

2000 34.3 37.9 19.9

2005 25.1 28.6 14.6

2010 17.6 21.1 7.7

2016 12.9 14.9 7.6

2017 12.1

2018 11.3

2019 10.5 Source: HIES

(2018-2019)
Types of poverty
 On the basis of social, economical and
political aspects, there are different ways to identify
the type of Poverty:
1. Absolute poverty.
2. Relative Poverty.
3. Situational Poverty.
4. Generational Poverty.
5. Rural Poverty.
6. Urban Poverty.
 1. Absolute poverty: it involves the scarcity of basic
food, clean water, health, shelter, education and
information.
 Absolute poverty is often known as “subsistence
poverty” since it is based on assessments of minimum
subsistence requirements such as food, clothing,
shelter, health requirements etc.
 Individual is not able to maintain a minimum decent
standard of living to maintain himself and his family.
 2. Relative Poverty: It is defined from the social
perspective that is living standard compared to the
economic standards of population living in
surroundings.
 Poverty according to this concept is to be measured
according to standards of life at a given time and place.
 A person may be relatively poor among the persons of
his own group who are relatively rich.
 3. Situational Poverty: It is a temporary type of
poverty based on occurrence of an adverse event like
environmental disaster, job loss and severe health
problem.
 People can help themselves even with a small
assistance, as the poverty comes because of
unfortunate event.
 4. Generational Poverty: It is handed over to
individual and families from one generation to the
one.
 This is more complicated as there is no escape because
the people are trapped in its cause and unable to
access the tools required to get out of it.

“Occurs in families where at least two generations have

been born into poverty. Families living in this type of
poverty are not equipped with the tools to move out of
their situation” (Jensen, 2009).
 5. Rural Poverty: It is the area where there are less job
opportunities, less access to services, less support for
disabilities and quality education opportunities.
 People are tending to live mostly on the farming and
other menial work available to the surroundings.
 6. Urban Poverty: It occurs in the metropolitan areas
with population over 50,000. These are some major
challenges faced by the Urban Poor:
• Limited access to health and education.
• Inadequate housing and services.
• Violent and unhealthy environment because of
overcrowding.
• Little or no social protection mechanism.
Causes of poverty in BD
 Low economic growth
 Lack of savings and investments
 Inequitable distribution of income
 Unemployment and underemployment
 High rate of population growth
 Lack of education
 Large Scale Import
 Traditional agriculture system
 Increase in Utility Charges
 Inflation
 Imposition of Taxes
 Non-Productive Expenditures
 Low Living Standard
 Landlordism
 Nepotism
 Backward Infrastructure
 Low level of human resource development
 Dependent economy
 Lack of good governance
 Impact of natural disaster
 Limited access to public services
 Gender discrimination
 Lack of industrialization
Effects of poverty
 Child labour
 Crimes and violence
 Malnutration
 Homelessness
 Children antisocial behaviour
 Increased suicides
 Hunger and starvation
 Human trafficking
 High crime rate
 Increased risk of political violence
 Terrorism, war, genocide
 Homelessness
 Lack of opportunities for employment
 Low literacy
 Social isolation
 Increased discrimination
 Lower life expectancy
 Drug/alcohol abuse
 Beggary
 Street children
 Slum
Strategies to reduce poverty and
inequality
 Making Vision 2041 a Reality: Perspective Plan of
Bangladesh 2021-2041
 The 8th Five Year Plan (8th FYP)
 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and
Bangladesh
 On-going Social Safety-net Programmes
 Old Age Allowance Programme
 Allowance Programme for Widow, Deserted and
Destitute Women
 Maternity Allowance for Poor Mother
 Working Lactating Mother Assistance Fund
 Honorarium Programme for Freedom Fighters
 Honorarium and Medical Allowance for Injured
Freedom Fighters and Shaheed (Martyr) Families
 Training and Microcredit Programme for the Freedom
Fighters and their Dependents Self-employment
 Allowance for the Financially Insolvent Disabled
Citizens
 Stipend for the Disabled Students
 Capitation Grant for Non-government Orphanage
 Development of the Living standards of the Bede community
 Living Quality Improvement Program for Backward
Communities
 Programme for Improving the Livelihood of Transgender (Hizra)
People
 Programmes under Food Assistance
 Food Friendly Programme
 Initiatives Open Market Sale (OMS)
 Distribution of Fortified Rice under Vulnerable Group
Development
 Food For Work (Kabikha) and Taka For Work (Kabita)
Programmes
 Vulnerable Group Feeding (VGF) Programme
 Test Relief (TR) programme
 Employment Programme for Ultra-Poor
 Ongoing Programmes/Projects under the Social
Safety-net
 Ashrayan-2 (Poverty Alleviation and Rehabilitation)
Project
 Grihayan Tahabil
 Poverty Alleviation Activities of Rural Development
and Co-operative Division
 Comprehensive Village Development Programme (CVDP)
3rd Phase
 Department of Co-operatives
 Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB)
 Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development (BARD)
 Rural Development Academy (RDA), Bogura
 Palli Daridro Bimochon Foundation (PDBF)
 Small Farmers Development Foundation (SFDF)
 Bangabandhu Academy for Poverty Alleviation and Rural
Development (BAPARD)
 Employment Programmes of Karmasangsthan Bank
 Bangabandhu Youth Credit programme
 Bangladesh Bank Loan Programme
 Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation (PKSF)
 Micro Credit Fund for Women's SelfEmployment
 Microcredit Programme Monitoring through
Microcredit Regulatory Authority (MRA)
 Microcredit Activities of Major NGOs
 Thank you all