UNIT 2: NATURAL RESOURCES

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE

RESOURCES
• Life on this planet earth depends upon a variety of goods and
services provided by the nature, which are known as Natural
Resources.
• Thus water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are all
examples of natural resources.
• The natural resources are of two kinds:
• Renewable resources which are inexhaustive and can be
regenerated within a given span of time. Eg. Forests, wildlife, wind
energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc.
• Non-renewable resources: which cannot be regenerated. e.g. Fossil
fuels like coal, petroleum, minerals etc.
• It is very important to protect and conserve our natural resources
and use them in a judicious manner so that we do not exhaust them.
• In this unit we shall discuss the major natural resources and
associated problems.
• Forest resources, water resources, mineral resources, food
resources, energy resources and land resources.
 Mineral Resources
MINERALS: are naturally occurring elements or compounds in the Earth’s crust
ORES: naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or
valuable mineral can be extracted profitably.
 TYPES OF MINERALS
Metallic Non-metallic
Ferrous Nonferrous
(minerals like iron (iron is absent but may Eg. Limestone, mica,
ore, manganese contain some other gypsum, coal and
and chromites metals such as gold, petroleum
contain iron) silver, copper or lead)

Generally, metallic minerals are found in Found in Sedimentary

igneous and metamorphic rock rock
• Uses and Exploitation: minerals find use in a large number of ways
in everyday in domestic, agricultural, industrial, and commercial
sectors and thus form a very important part of any nations
economy.
• Development of industrial plants and machinery
• Generation of energy. For example, coal, lignite, uranium
• Construction, housing and settlements
• Defence equipments. For example weapons and armaments
• Transportation means communication. For example, telephone
wires, cables, electronic devices.
• Medicinal system. Ayurvedic system
• Formation of alloys for various purposes (steel alloys)
• Jewellery. For example gold, silver, platinum and diamond.
 EFFECTS OF EXTRACTION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
LUNG Diseases (occupational diseases):
a) Black lung disease (pneumoconiosis)

b)Silicosis

c) Lung cancer – Radium (radioactive metal)

• Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities:
• Ecological Impacts
• Deforestation and devegetation
• Loss of flora and fauna
• Ecosystem degradation
• Physical Impacts:
• Land subsidence
• Underground fires
• Landscape destruction and soil erosion
• Positive Socio-economic impacts:
• Employment
• Infrastructure facilities
• Economic gains
• Negative Socio-economic impacts:
• Encroachment and evacuation
• Resettlement and Rehabilitation issues
• Environmental Pollution:
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil pollution
• Noise pollution
• Occupational Health Impacts:
• Health hazards due to long term exposure to hazardous chemicals
• Accidents
• OTHER EFFECTS OF MINING:
 Acid mine drainage (Contamination of ground and surface water)

 Depletion of available land

 Pollution of Land, water and air by industrial wastes

 Deforestation & Loss of biodiversity

• Remedial measures:
• To adopt eco-friendly mining technology.
• The biological method is helpful from economic as well as
environmental point of view.
• Restoration of mined areas by re-vegetating them with
appropriate plant species, stabilization of the mined lands,
gradual restoration of flora.
• Prevention of toxic drainage discharge and conforming to the
standards of air emissions are essential for minimizing
environmental impacts of mining.
• ACID MINE DRAINAGE
• If air, water, and sulfur-containing rocks mix, chemical
reactions can lead to the formation of sulfuric acid and iron
hydroxide. This acid runoff dissolves certain heavy metals
(e.g., copper, lead, and mercury) which contaminate
waterways. Acid mine drainage can also affect the pH of
water. Water with an extremely high or low pH is deadly.
Water with relatively low pH (acidic) may reduce the hatching
success of fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic insect gills, and
damage membranes.
 Conservation of Mineral Resources
Minerals are a non-renewable resource.
It takes thousands of years for the formation
and concentration of minerals. The rate of
formation is much smaller than the rate at
which the humans consume these minerals.

• Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner (to

reduce wastage).
• Recycling of metals
• Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
• Technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores
profitably.
 UNIT 2

FOREST RESOURCES
• Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this
earth.
• Covering the earth like a green blanket these forests not only
produce innumerable material goods, but also provide several
environmental services which are essential for life.
• Uses of Forests: forests are of immense value to us. They are not
only useful for industry but also for rural economic growth.
• Commercial Use: forests provide us a large number of commercial
goods which include timber, firewood, pulp wood, food items, gum,
resins, non-edible oil, rubber, fibers, lac, bamboo canes, fodder,
medicine, drugs and many more items.
• Ecological Uses:
 Production of oxygen
 Reducing global warming
 Wildlife habitat
 Regulation of hydrological cycle
 Soil conservation
 Pollution moderators
• Over Exploitation of Forests: Exploitation of forests has taken place
to meet human demands in the following ways:
• Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like
timber, pulp wood, fuel wood etc.
• Deforestation due to road construction
• Cleaning of forests to create more agricultural lands to meet the
food demands of growing population.
• Encroachment of forests leading to destruction of about 1.36
million hectares of forests.
• About 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing.
• Mining activities lead to clearing of forests.
• Big hydropower projects result in large scale destruction of forests.
• In India, Joint Forest Management has come up as an innovative
approach involving community participation, so that the rural
economy is strengthened as well as forest resources are conserved
through public involvement.
• Deforestation: deforestation involves a loss in the area covered by forests.
• Major causes of Deforestation:
• Shifting cultivation
• Fuel requirements
• Raw materials for industrial use
• Development projects
• Growing food needs
• Overgrazing
• Forest fires
• Major consequences of Deforestation:
• It threatens the existence of many wildlife species due to destruction of
their natural habitat.
• Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded.
• Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall.
• Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase.
• In hilly areas it often leads to landslides.
• More carbon is added to the atmosphere and global warming is enhanced.
• Major activities in forests:
• Timber extraction and Mining
• Dams and their Effects on Forests and Tribal People: Big dams and
river valley projects have multi-purpose uses and have been
referred as “Temples of modern India”. However these dams are
also responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forests.
• Big dams have been in sharp focus of various environmental groups
all over the world which is mainly because of several ecological
problems including deforestation and socio-economic problems
related to tribal or native people associated with them.
• For building big dams, large scale devastation of forests takes place
which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region.
• Floods, droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such
areas.
• Serious impact on reverine ecosystems.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging their habitat and cutting
off their migratory routes.
• Disruption of fishing, water logging.
• A Case Study of Sardar Sarovar Dam:
• The dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread over three states
of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
• The project is aimed at providing irrigation water, drinking water and
electricity to the three states, the environmental impacts of the
project have raised challenging questions.
• A total of 1,44,731 ha of land is submerged by the dam, out of which
56,547 ha is forest land.
• A total of 573 villages are submerged by the Narmada dam.
• Submergence of about 40,000 ha of forest under Narmada Sagar,
13,800 ha under sardar sarovar and 2,500 ha under Omkareshwar
would further create pressure on remaining forest areas in adjoining
areas.
• Submergence area is very rich in wildlife. Many of these species are
listed in schedule I and II of wildlife protection act.
• As per the estimates of the Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, the
Narmada valley project will lead to eventual displacement of more
than one million people, which is probably the largest rehabilitation
issue ever encountered as per the World Bank.
 Unit 2

WATER RESOURCES
Water resources
• Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which
all life depends.
• Water use and over exploitation:
• water use by humans is of two types: water withdrawal: taking
water from ground water or surface water resources and water
consumption: the water which is taken up but not returned for
reuse.
• With increasing human population and rapid development, the
world water withdrawal demands have increased many folds and a
large proportion of the water withdrawn is polluted due to
anthropogenic activities.
• Ground water: about 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in
the form of ground water and it is about 35050 times that of
surface water supplies.
• Surface water: the water coming from through rainfall, snow. In
form of streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands or artificial reservoirs
known as surface water.
The water cycle (hydrologic cycle), is the continuous movement of water
from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere and then back to the ground.
 Factors affecting the hydrological conditions:
1) Global climate change
Global warming due to GREEN HOUSE EFFECT is leading to increasingly erratic and
unpredictable climatic effects.
unprecedented storms or long droughts
2) Floods
– Destruction of WETLANDS (Wetlands are - nature’s flood control systems)
– DEFORESTATION (causes- floods and soil erosion)
3) Drought
rains are unpredictable. This leads to periods when there is a serious scarcity of water to
drink, use in farms, or provide for urban and industrial use.

4) Overutilization and pollution of surface and groundwater by

Agriculture & Industry – Power Generation-

Aquaculture Pollution by Solid waste Hydroelectric power plants –
1) over usage of water thermal pollution
2) Pollution by pesticides
& fertilizers
 FLOODS
• In some countries like India and Bangladesh rainfall does not occur
throughout the year, rather 90% of it is concentrated into a few
months.
• Heavy rainfall causes floods in the low-lying coastal areas.
• Prolonged downpour can also cause the over-flowing of lakes and
rivers resulting into floods.
• Floods have been regular features of some parts of India and
Bangladesh causing huge economic loss as well as loss of life.
• Causes:
 Overgrazing
 Mining
 Rapid industrialization
 Global warming
 Networking of rivers is being proposed at national level to deal with
the problems of floods.
 DROUGHTS
• When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation,
drought conditions are created.
• Ironically, the drought hit areas are often having a high population
growth which leads to poor and land use and makes the situation
worse.
• Anthropogenic causes:
• Drought is a meteorological phenomenon, but due to several
anthropogenic causes like overgrazing, deforestation, mining etc.
there is spreading of the deserts tending to convert more areas to
drought affected areas.
• Erroneous and intensive cropping pattern, increased exploitation
scarce water, over exploitation of water for sugarcane crop leads to
drought prone areas.
• Remedial Measures:
• To select the appropriate crop or plantation depending upon the
climate, soil type and its water requirements.
• Social forestry and wasteland development.
• Mixed cropping.
• Impacts of Big Dams: Big dams are often referred as a symbol of
national development.
• However, there are several other issues and problems related to
these.
• Positive Ecological Impacts:
 Reduction in drought
 Prevention of floods
 Promotion of productivity in lower areas
• Negative Ecological Impacts:
• Deforestation and loss of Biodiversity
• Water logging and salinity
• Flash floods
• Change in water flow and siltation
• Reservoir induced seismicity
• Positive Socio-economic Impacts:
• Employment
• Electricity generation
• Irrigation water supply
• Drinking water supply
• Promotion of navigation
• Promotion of fisheries
• Negative Socio-economic Impacts:
• Submergence of villages & Fertile lands
• Displacement of native people
• Resettlement issues
• Outbreak of vector bone diseases
Unit 2- FOOD RESOURCES
• We have thousands of edible plants and animals over the world out
of which only about 3 dozen types constitute the major food of
humans.
• The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of United Nations
estimated that on an average the minimum caloric intake on a global
scale is 2,500 calories/day.
• People receiving less than 90% of these minimum dietary calories
are called undernourished and if it is less than 80% they are said to
be seriously undernourished.
• Deficiency or lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition resulting
in several diseases.
 Proteins and calories ---------- stunted growth, Kwashiorkor,
Marasmus
 Iron ---------- Anaemia
 Iodine ----------- Goiter, Cretinism
 Vitamin A ---------- Blindness
• World Food Problems: During the last 50 years world grain
production has increased almost three times, there by increasing
per capita production by about 50%
• But, at the same time population growth increased in less
developed countries.
• Every year 40 million people die of undernourishment and
malnutrition.
• Although India is the third largest producer of staple crops, an
estimated 300 million Indians are still undernourished.
• The world food summit, 1996 has set the target to reduce the
number of undernourished to just half by 2015, which still means
690 million people undernourished on the earth.
• Effects of Modern Agriculture:
• It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety,
high-tech equipments and lots of energy subsidies in the form of
fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water.
• The food production has increased tremendously, evidenced by
“green revolution” also gave rise to several problems.
• 1. Impacts related to high yielding varieties: The uses of HYVs
encourage monoculture (same genotype).
• In case of any attack by some pathogen, there is total devastation of
the crop by the disease due to exactly uniform conditions, which help
in rapid spread of the disease.
• 2. Fertilizer related problems:
• A. Micronutrient imbalance: most of the chemical fertilizers used in
modern agriculture have N,P,K which are essential macronutrients.
• Formers usually use these fertilizers indiscriminately to boost up crop
growth.
• Excessive use of fertilizers cause micronutrient imbalance.
• B. Nitrate Pollution: the nitrates get concentrated in the water and
when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause of
a serious health hazard called “Blue Baby Syndrome” or
methaemoglobinemia.
• C. Eutrophication: A large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus used
in crop fields is washed off and along with runoff water reach the
water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes.
• 3. Pesticide related problems:
• A. creating resistance in pests and producing new pests: Some
individuals of the pest species usually survive even after pesticide
spray called super pests
• B. Death of non-target organisms: Many insecticides are broad
spectrum poisons which not only kill the target species but also
several non-target species that are useful to us.
• C. Biological Magnification: Many of the pesticides are non-
biodegradable and keep on accumulating in the food chain, a process
called biological magnification.
• 4. Water logging: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers for good
growth of their crop usually leads to water logging.
• 5. Salinity Problems: At present one third of the total cultivable land
area of the world is affected by salts.
• A major cause of salinization of soil is excessive irrigation. About 20%
of the world’s croplands receive irrigation with canal water or ground
water which unlike rainwater often contains dissolved salts.
LAND RESOURCES
 LAND AS A RESOURCE
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports
1) Natural vegetation
2) Wild life
3) Human life
4) Economic activities
5) Transport and communication systems

Various landforms include- hills, mountains, valleys, plains,

river basins, coasts, forests, grasslands and wetlands.

Equally importantly, man needs to protect wilderness area in

forests, grasslands, wetlands, mountains, coasts, etc. to protect our
vitally valuable biodiversity. These include sacred groves, national
park and wildlife sanctuaries.
 LAND UTILISATION
Land resources in India are used for several purposes:
• Agriculture
• For growing forests
• For grazing animals
• For mining
• For installing industries and for construction of
houses, roads, railways
• For sustainable development and prosperity of any
country, the proper and wise use of the land is
required.
 CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION
Deforestation – deforestation for urbanization and population explosion leads to
soil erosion and land destruction.

Overcutting of vegetation - Rural people cut natural forests, woodlands and shrub
lands to obtain timber, fuel wood and other forest products. Such cutting becomes
unsustainable where it exceeds the rate of natural regrowth.

Overgrazing - It leads directly to decreases in the quantity and quality of the

vegetation cover. This is a leading cause not only of wind erosion, but also of water
erosion in dry lands.

Improper crop rotations - As a result of population growth, land shortage and

economic pressures, farmers in some areas have adopted cereal-based, intensive
crop rotations, based particularly on rice and wheat, in place of the more balanced
cereal-legume rotations that were formerly found. This is a contributory cause of
soil fertility decline.
Unbalanced fertilizer use - There has been a steady increase in the
ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus, and nitrogen to all other nutrients, in
the region. Where phosphate deficiencies have been recognized and
counteracted by phosphatic fertilizer, deficiencies of other nutrients,
including sulphur and zinc, have been reported.

Problems arising from planning and management of canal irrigation

Application of water in excess of natural rainfall led to a progressive rise
in the water table from the 1930s onward. Where the water table has
reached close to the surface, water logging occurs leading, through
evaporation of water containing salts, to salinization.

Over pumping of groundwater In areas of non-saline ('sweet')

groundwater, the technology of tube wells has led to abstraction of
water in excess of natural recharge by rainfall and river seepage. This
has progressively lowered the water table,
CONSERVATION OF LAND RESOURCES
Afforestation - It is the planting or adding of trees in an
area where there was never a forest or plantation. This
is a method to create a new forest. Reforestation is the
replanting of trees in an area where there was once a
forest which was destroyed or damaged.
Land reclamation
Regulated use of chemical pesticide and fertilizers
Prevention of overgrazing
 UNIT 2
ENERGY RESOURCES
Power or energy plays a vital role in our lives. We also need power
for industry, agriculture, transport, communication and defense.
Power resources may be broadly categorized into 2 types:

Conventional sources of Non-conventional sources of

energy energy
Oil Solar energy
Natural gas Wind energy
Firewood Nuclear energy
Coal Geothermal energy
Hydel power Tidal energy
Biogas
PETROLEUM (Latin Petra (rock), oleum (oil)
It is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields located in off-shore and
coastal areas. This is then sent to refineries which process the crude oil and produce a
variety of products like diesel, petrol, kerosene, and lubricants. Petroleum and its
derivatives are called Black Gold as they are very valuable.
The chief petroleum producing countries are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.

NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the
surface. It can be used as a domestic & industrial fuel.
It consists primarily of methane (70-90%), ethane, propane and butane.
Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas.

FIREWOOD
It is widely used for cooking and heating. In our country more than fifty per cent of the
energy used by villagers comes from fire wood.

COAL
This is the most abundantly found fossil fuel. The coal which we are using today was formed
millions of years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the layers of earth. Coal
is therefore referred to as Buried Sunshine.
The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA, Germany
Coal-fired plants produce electricity by burning coal in a boiler to produce
steam. The steam produced, under tremendous pressure, flows into a turbine,
which spins a generator to create electricity. The steam is then cooled,
condensed back into water and returned to the boiler to start the process over.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Affordability - Since coal is abundant & its Greenhouse gas emissions.
extraction being inexpensive its price Combustion of coal will emit carbon
remains low compared to other fuel and emissions causing pollution and
energy sources. contribute to global warming.
Abundance. There are approximately over Mining destruction. Mining will result in
300 years of economic coal deposits still the destruction of habitat, scenery, and
accessible. Hence, can be continuously displaces humans as well.
fueled in many years to come. Generation of millions of tons of
Known technologies. The production and waste. Millions of tons of waste products
use of coal as a fuel are well understood, which can no longer be reused are
and the technology required is constantly generated from coal fired plants.
advancing. Emission of harmful substances.
Safety. A coal power plant's failure is These include mercury, sulfur dioxide,
certainly not likely to cause catastrophic carbon monoxide, selenium, and arsenic.
events such as a nuclear meltdown would These harmful substances not only cause
hence, are more safe. Additionally, the acid rain but also are very harmful to
welfare of employees has greatly improved humans as well.
over the years.
 HYDEL POWER

When water is at a height it has potential energy (PE) stored in it. When this water flows
down, its PE is first converted to kinetic energy (K.E) & then to mechanical energy with
the help of turbines. With the use of generator, the mechanical energy is transformed into
Electrical energy. Hydropower is essential only next to thermal power. Hydropower plants
meet nearly 20% of the total power of the world.
Eg. Nagarjunsagar and Damodar valley projects.
ADVANTAGES OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS

1) Rainwater is stored in the dam. Thus it is considered to be a renewable

source of energy
2) The construction of dams helps in providing irrigation to the local farmers; it
also helps in controlling floods.
3) Does not produce any pollution.
4) Their operational cost is very low.

DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS

1) The plants require high capital with a low rate of return.

2) Dams can only be built at specific locations.
3) A large area of agriculture is submerged under water.
Problems associated with use of fossil fuels:
• The increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its
shortage. It is estimated that if the present rate of
consumption continues, the reserves of these
fuel will get exhausted.
• Moreover, their use also causes environmental
pollution.
• Therefore, there is need for using non-
conventional sources such as solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy which are renewable.
Non-conventional Sources of Energy
 Solar energy
• Sun’s heat and light energy can be felt by us every day.

• Solar energy trapped from the sun can be used in SOLAR

CELLS to produce electricity. Many of these cells are joined
into SOLAR PANELS to generate power for heating and lighting
purpose.

• The technology of utilizing solar energy benefits a lot of

tropical countries that are blessed with abundant sun shine.

• Solar energy is also used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar

dryers besides being used for community lighting and traffic
signals.
ADVANTAGES
1) Renewable Energy Source
2) Reduces Electricity Bills
3) Diverse Applications - generate electricity (photovoltaics) or heat (solar thermal)
4) Low maintenance cost- Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of
maintenance. You only need to keep them relatively clean, so cleaning them a
couple of times per year will do the job.
5) Technology development: Technology in the solar power industry is constantly
advancing and improvements will double, or even triple, the electrical input of
the solar power systems.

DISADVANTAGES:
1) Cost - The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. This includes
paying for solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring, and the installation.
2) Weather-Dependent - the efficiency of the solar system drops during cloudy and
rainy days. solar energy cannot be collected during the night.
3) Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive - Solar energy has to be used right away, or it
can be stored in large batteries which are expensive.
4) Uses a Lot of Space – Solar PV panels require a lot of space and some roofs are
not big enough to fit the number of solar panels that you would like to have.
5) Associated with Pollution - use of hazardous materials in manufacturing—can
vary greatly depending on the technology, which includes two broad categories:
photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP).
Non-Renewable Energy Sources: These are the fossil fuels like coal, petroleum,
natural gas and nuclear fuels. These were formed by the decomposition of the remains of
plants and animals buried under the earth million years ago.

Coal: Coal was formed 255-350 million years ago in the hot, damp regions of the earth
during the carboniferous age. The ancient plants along the bank of rivers and swamps
were buried after death into the soil and due to the heat and pressure gradually got
converted into peat and coal over million years of time. There are mainly three types of
coal, namely anthracite (hard coal), bituminous (soft coal) and lignite (brown coal).
Anthracite coal has maximum carbon and calorific value. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in
the world.

All the present rate of usage, the coal reserves are likely to last for about 200 years
and if its use increases by 2% per year, then it will last for another 65years.

When coal is burnt it produces carbon dioxide, which is a green house gas responsible for
causing enhanced global warming. Coal also contains impurities like sulphur and
therefore as it burns the smoke contains toxic gases like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.

Major coal fields in India are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Singrauli, and Godavari valley.
The coal states of India are Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Petroleum: It is the lifeline of global economy. There are 13 countries in the world
having 67% of the petroleum reserves which together form the OPEC (organization of
petroleum exporting countries)

At the present rate of usage, the world’s crude oil reserves are estimated to get exhausted
in just 40 years.

Crude petroleum is a complex mixture of alkane hydrocarbons. Hence it has to be

purified and refined by the process of fractional distillation, during which process
different constituents separate out at different temperatures. We get a large variety of
products from this, namely, petroleum gas, kerosene, petrol, diesel, fuel oil, lubricating
oil, paraffin was, asphalt, plastic etc.

Petroleum is a cleaner fuel as compared to coal as it burns completely and leaves no

residue. It is also easier to transport and use. That is the reason why petroleum is
preferred amongst all the fossil fuels.
Oil fields in India are located at Digboi (Assam), Gujarat plains and Bombay high,
offshore areas in deltaic coasts of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanandi.

Natural Gas: it is mainly composed of methane (95%) with small amounts of propane
and ethane. It is a fossil fuel. Natural gas deposits mostly accompany oil deposits because
it has been formed by decomposing remains of dead animals and plants buried under the
earth. Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuel. It can be easily transported through
pipelines. It can be easily transported through pipelines.

Natural gas is used as a domestic and industrial fuel. It is used as a fuel in thermal power
plants for generating electricity. It is used as a source of hydrogen gas in fertilizer
industry.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): It is being used as an alternative to petrol and

diesel for transport of vehicles. Delhi has totally switched over to CNG where buses and
auto rickshaws run on this new fuel.

CNG use has greatly reduced vehicular pollution in the city.

Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG): it is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. It is

a connecting link between a fossil fuel and substituted natural gas.
 WIND ENERGY
Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy. As a renewable
resource that won't get depleted through use.
The high speed winds have a lot of energy in them as a kinetic
energy due to their motion.
The driving force of the winds is the sun.
The wind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills.
The blades of the wind mill keep on rotating continuously due
to the force of the striking wind.
A large number of wind mills are installed in clusters called
wind farms.
These forms are ideally located in coastal regions, open
grasslands or hilly regions, particularly mountain passes and
ridges where the winds are strong and steady.
The minimum wind speed required for satisfactory working of
a wind generator is 15km/hr.
Wind turbines convert the energy in wind to electricity by rotating
propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor turns the drive shaft, which
turns an electric generator. Three key factors affect the amount of energy a
turbine can harness from the wind: wind speed, air density, and swept
area. (The area of the circle created by blades as they sweep through the
air)
Pros: Cons:
When properly placed, wind energy can Wind reliability can vary. In addition,
produce low-cost and nonpolluting weak or strong winds will shut down
electricity about 90% of the time. a turbine and electricity won't be
There is minimal waste generated by a produced at all.
wind farm — nothing needs to be carted Turbines can be noisy depending on
away and dumped, no water supply is where they are placed, and some
needed to cool machinery, and there's no people don't like the way they look.
effluent to scrub or clean. Home wind turbines might offend
Once installed, wind turbines have a low neighbors.
operating cost, as wind is free. Wind turbines have been found to
It's space flexible: You can use a small harm wildlife, especially birds and
turbine to power a home or farm building, bats.
a large turbine for industrial energy needs, They have a high initial cost, though
or a field of giant turbines to create a they pay for themselves relatively
power plant-level source of energy for a quickly.
city.
 Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms
of naturally occurring radio active elements like URANIUM and
THORIUM.

These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors and emit large
amount of energy through a chain reactions.

In India Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium.

Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala.

The nuclear power stations in India are located in Kalpakkam in

Tamilnadu, Tarapur in Maharastra, Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in
Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kaiga in Karnataka.

The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe.

In nuclear power plants, neutrons collide with uranium atoms, splitting them.
In the core of nuclear reactors, the fission of uranium atoms releases energy
that heats water to about 520 degrees Farenheit. This hot water is then used to
spin turbines that are connected to generators, producing electricity.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

1. Low-cost energy- Although 1. Environmental impact- mainly

building nuclear power plants has through mining (of uranium etc)
a high initial cost, it’s relatively and water discharge (thermal
cheap to produce energy from pollution).
them and they have low operating 2. Intensive water requirement-
costs. Nuclear power plants require a
2. Reliable- a nuclear power plant lot of water to produce energy.
can produce energy nonstop, and This could be unsustainable.
you won’t have to experience any 3. Risk of nuclear accidents- a
delays in energy production. nuclear meltdown, harmful
3. Zero carbon emissions- Nuclear radiation can leak, which can
power reactors do not produce any cause adverse effects on the
carbon emissions unlike traditional environment and on human
sources of energy, like fossil fuels, health.
which releases tons of CO2 4. Radioactive waste- create
4. Promising future energy supply- hazardous waste which remains
If we can learn to control atomic dangerously radioactive for
fusion, we could practically have many years. Many issues arise
unlimited energy. even for storing these wastes.
 Geothermal Energy
• The energy harnessed from the hot rocks present inside the
earth is called geothermal energy.
• High temperature and high pressure fields exist below the
earth’s surface in many places.
• This heat comes from the fission of radioactive material
naturally present inside the rocks.
• We can artificially drill a hole up to the rocks and by putting a
pipe in it make the steam or hot water gush out through the
pipe at high pressure which turns the turbine of a generator to
produce electricity.
• In USA and New Zealand, there are several geothermal plants
working successfully.
Tidal energy is a form of hydropower which converts the energy obtained
from tides into other useful energies (electricity). It is the result of the sun’s
and the moon’s influence over the ocean. The height difference between low
and high tides gives rise to tidal currents in coastal areas which drives the
turbines.
• Ocean tides produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon
contain enormous amounts of energy.
• The high tide and low tide refer to the rise and fall of water in
the oceans.
• A difference of several meters is required between the height
of high and low tide to spin the turbines.
• The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal
barrage.
• During high tide, the sea water flows into the reservoir of the
barrage and turns the turbine, which in produces electricity
by rotating the generators.
• During low tide, when the sea lever is low, the sea water
stored in the barrage reservoir flows out into the sea and
again turns the turbines.
Advantages:

1) Renewable
2) Green – Environmental friendly source of energy.. It does not produce
any harmful gas. It utilizes very small space for energy production.
3) Effective at low speeds – possible to generate electricity at very low
speeds because the density of water is much more than that of the air.

Disadvantages:
1) Location restricted
2) Expensive
3) Earthquakes
4) Environmental side effects
 BIOGAS
• Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and
hydrogen sulphide, the major constituent being methane.
• Biogas is produced by anaerobic degradation of animal wastes
in the presence of water.
• Biogas is a non-polluting, clean and low cost fuel which is very
useful for rural areas where a lot of animal waste and
agricultural waste are available.
• India has the largest cattle population in the world (240
million) and has tremendous potential for biogas production.
• A sixty cubic feet gobar gas plant can serve the needs of one
average family.
ADVANTAGES OF BIOGAS

 Biogas is a clean, non-polluting and cheap.

There is direct supply of gas from the plant and there is no storage
problem.
 Environmentally friendly recirculation of organic waste from industry and
households.

DISADVANTAGES

Carbon dioxide is made as a product which is a greenhouse gas.

Leaks of unburned methane are an additional risk, because
methane is a potent greenhouse gas.
The content of toxic hydrogen sulfide presents additional risks and
has been responsible for serious accidents.
• Biofuels:
• Biomass can be fermented to alcohols like ethanol and
methanol which can be used as fuels.
• Ethanol can be easily produced from carbohydrate rich
substances like sugarcane, corn and sorghum.
• It burns clean and is non polluting. As compared to petrol its
calorific value is less and therefore, produces much less heat
than petrol.
• Gasohol: is a common fuel used in Brazil and Zimbabwe for
running cars and buses.
• It is a mixture of ethanol and gasoline.
• Methanol: is very useful since it burns at a lower temperature
than gasoline or diesel.
• Methanol too is a clean, non polluting fuel. Methanol can be
easily obtained from woody plants.
ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION
OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Role of an Individual
Natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, minerals and energy resources
play an important role in the economy and development of a nation. Humans can
play important role in conservation of natural resources. A little effort by
individuals can help to conserve these resources which are a gift of nature to the
mankind. Brief description of role of individual to conserve different types of
natural resources is given below:

ROLES TO CONSERVE WATER

 To minimize the evaporation losses irrigate the crops, the plants and the lawns in
the evening, because water application during day time will lead to more loss of
water due to higher rate of evapo-transpiration.
 Improve water efficiency by using optimum amount of water in washing machine,
dishwashers and other domestic appliances, etc.
 Install water saving toilets which use less water per flush.
 Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
 Don’t keep water taps running while they are not in use.
 Recycle water of washing of clothes for gardening.
 Installing rainwater harvesting structure to conserve water for future use.
ENERGY CONSERVATION FOR FUTURE USE
 Turn off all electric appliances such as lights, fans, televisions,
computers, etc when not in use.
 Clean all the lighting sources regularly because dust on
lighting sources decreases lighting levels up to 20-30%.
 Try to harvest energy from natural resources to obtain heat
for example drying the cloths in sun and avoid drying in
washing machine.
 Save liquid petroleum gas (LPG) by using solar cookers for
cooking.
 Design the house with provision for sunspace to keep the
house warm and to provide more light.
 Avoid misuse of vehicles for transportation and if possible
share car or car pooling journey to minimise use of
petrol/diesel. For small distances walk down or just use
bicycles.
 Minimise the use air conditioner to save energy
PROTECT SOIL HEALTH
 Use organic manure / biofertilizers to maintain
soil fertility
 Use sprinklers for irrigation to conserve the soil
& prevent erosion.
 Design landscape of lawn in large area which will
help to bind soil to avoid erosion.
 Provide vegetation cover by growing of
ornamental plant, herbs and trees in your
garden.
PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
 Diversify the existing cropping pattern for
sustainability of agriculture
 Cultivate need based crop
 Maintain soil fertility
 Make optimum use of fertilizers, pesticides and other
chemicals for production and processing of
agriculture products
 Save grains in storage to minimise the losses
 Improve indigenous breeds of milch animals for
sustainable dairy production systems.
 Adopt post harvest technologies for value addition
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
1) Mixed cropping
2) Crop rotation
3) Mixed farming
What can you do to save electricity?

 Turn off lights and fans as soon as you leave the room.
 Use tube lights and energy efficient bulbs that save energy rather
than bulbs. A 40- watt tube light gives as much light as a 100 watt
bulb.
 Keep the bulbs and tubes clean. Dust on tubes and bulbs decreases
lighting levels by 20 to 30 percent.
 Switch off the television or radio as soon as the program of interest
is over.
 A pressure cooker can save up to 75 percent of energy required for
cooking. It is also faster.
 Keeping the vessel covered with a lid during cooking, helps to cook
faster, thus saving energy.
EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR
SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES
In last 50 years, the consumption of resource in the society has increased many folds.

There is a big gap in the consumers lifestyle between developed and developing

countries. Urbanisation has changed the life style of middle class population in

developing countries creating more stress on the use of natural resources. It has been

estimated that More Developed Countries (MDC) of the world constitute only 22% of

world’s population but they use 88% of natural resources. These countries use 73% of

energy resources and command 85% of income and in turn they contribute very big

proportion of pollution. On the other hand less developed countries (LDCs) have

moderate industrial growth and constitute 78% of world’s population and use only

12% of natural resources, 27% of energy and have only 15% of global income.
There is a huge gap between rich and poor. In this age of development the rich have
gone richer and the poor is becoming more poorer.. This has lead to unsustainable
growth. There is an increasing global concern about the management of natural
resources. The solution to this problem is to have more equitable distribution of
resources and income. Two major causes of unsustainability are over population in
poor countries and over consumption of resources by rich countries. A global
consensus has to be reached for balanced distribution of natural resources.

For equitable use of natural resources more developed countries/rich people have to
lower down their level of consumption to bare minimum so that these resources can
be shared by poor people to satisfy their needs. Time has come to think that it is need
of the hour that rich and poor should make equitable use of resources for sustainable
development of mankind.
 STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Composition and organization of biological communities and abiotic
components constitute the structure of an ecosystem.
1. Biotic Structure:
• The plants, animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem
form the biotic component.
• Theses organisms have different nutritional behavior and status in
the ecosystem and are accordingly known as producers, consumers
and decomposers.
A. Producers:
• They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food
themselves by making use of carbon dioxide present in the air and
water in the presence of sunlight by involving chlorophyll, the green
pigment present in the leaves, through the process of
Photosynthesis.
• They are also known as photo autotrophs.
B. Consumers: All organisms which get their organic food by feeding
upon other organisms are called consumers, which are of the
following types:
• Herbivores: They feed directly on producers and hence also known
as primary consumers. E.g. Insect, rabbit
• Carnivores: They feed on other consumers. If they feed on
herbivores called as secondary consumers. E.g. frog, and if they
feed on other carnivores (snake, big fish etc.) called as tertiary
carnivores/consumers.
• Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. e.g. Humans,
rat, fox and many birds.
• Detritivores: They feed on the parts of dead organisms, wastes of
living organisms. E.g. beetles, termites, ants, crabs and earthworms.
C. Decomposers: They derive their nutrition by breaking down the
complex organic molecules to simpler organic compounds and
ultimately into inorganic nutrients. Various bacteria and fungi are
decomposers.
2. Abiotic Structure: The physical and chemical constitute its abiotic
structure.
• Physical Factors: The sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux,
duration of sun hours, average temperature, annual rain fall, wind,
latitude and altitude, soil type, water availability are some
important physical features which have a strong influence on the
ecosystem.
• Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrients like
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, hydrogen and
oxygen, level of toxic substances present in the soil or water largely
influence the functioning of the ecosystem.
 Functional Attributes of an Ecosystem
• The major functional attributes of an ecosystem are as follows:
1. Trophic structure, food chain, food webs
2. Energy flow
3. Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
4. Primary and secondary production
5. Ecosystem development and regulation
Trophic Structure: The structure and function of ecosystem are very
closely related and influence each other so intimately that they
need to be studied together.
• The producers and consumers are arranged in a ecosystem in
definite manner and their interaction along with population size
are expressed together as trophic structure.
• Each food level is known as trophic level.
Food Chains: The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem
is known as food chain.
• All organisms, living or dead, are potential food for some other organism
and thus, there is essentially no waste in the functioning of a natural
ecosystem.
• Grass →→→ grasshopper →→→ frog →→→ snake →→→ hawk (grassland
ecosystem)
• Phytoplanktons →→→ water fleas →→→ small fish →→→ tuna (pond
ecosystem)
• Lichens →→→ reindeer →→→ man (arctic tundra)
• Types of food chains:
• Grazing food chain: it starts with green plants and culminates in
carnivores.
• Grass →→→ rabbit →→→ fox
Detritus food chain: it starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores
and decomposers consume.
Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even the decomposers are
consumed by detritivores and their predators. e.g. Mangroves
• Here, a large quantity of leaf material falls in the form of litter into the
water.
• The leaf fragments are eaten by saprotrophs. These fallen leaves are
colonized by small algae, which are also consumed by the saprotrophs or
detritivores consisting of crabs, mollusks, shrimps, insect larvae and fishes.
• The detritivores are eaten by small carnivorous fishes, which in turn
are eaten by large carnivorous fishes.
• Leaf litter →→→ algae→→→ crabs →→→ small carnivorous fishes
→→→ large carnivorous fishes (mangrove ecosystem)
• Dead organic matter →→→ fungi →→→ bacteria (Forest ecosystem)
• Food Web:
• Food chains in ecosystem are rarely found to operate as isolated
linear sequences. Rather, they are found to be interconnected and
usually form a complex network with several linkages and are
known as food webs.
• Food web is a network of food chains where different types of
organisms are connected at different trophic levels, so that there
are number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic
level.
• Simple food chains of Arctic Tundra ecosystem
• Cladoina →→→ Reindeer →→→ Man
• Grass →→→ Caribou →→→ Wolf
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
•Graphic structure of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is
known as an ecological pyramid.
•Ecological pyramids are of three types:
•Pyramid of numbers: It represents the number of individual organisms at each
trophic level.
•We may have upright or inverted pyramid of numbers, depending upon the type
of ecosystem and food chain.
•A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of
numbers.
•The producers in the grasslands are grasses and that in a pond are
phytoplanktons, which are very small in size and very large in number.
•So the producers form broad base.
•The herbivores in a grassland ecosystem are insects while tertiary carnivores are
hawks or other birds which are gradually less and less in number and hence the
pyramid apes becomes gradually narrower forming an upright pyramid.
•Similar is the case with the herbivores, carnivores and top carnivores in pond
which decrease in number at higher trophic levels.
• In forest ecosystem, big trees are the producers, which are less in
number and hence form a narrow base.
• A large number of herbivores including birds, insects and several
species of animals feed upon the trees (on leaves, fruits, flowers, bark
etc.) and form a much broader middle level.
• The secondary consumers like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in
number than herbivores while top carnivores like lion, tiger etc. are still
smaller in number.
• So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle.
• Parasitic food chain shows an inverted pyramid of number.
• The producers like a few big trees harbour fruit eating birds acting like
herbivores which are larger in number.
• A much higher number of lice, bugs etc. grow as parasites on these
birds while a still greater number of hyperparasites like bugs, fleas and
microbes feed upon them, thus making an inverted pyramid.
• Pyramid of Biomass:
• It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level
in a food chain.
• The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted.
• The pyramid of biomass in a forest is upright in contrast to its
pyramid of numbers.
• This is because the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass
while the consumers total biomass feeding on them declines at
higher trophic levels, resulting in broad base and narrowing top.
• The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
• The total biomass of producers (phytoplanktons) is much less as
compared to herbivores (zooplanktons, insects), carnivores (small
fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish).
• Thus the pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and
broad apex.
• Pyramid of Energy:
• The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered
for this type of pyramid.
• Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic
relationships and it is always upright.
• At every successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy
(about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration etc.
• Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on.
Hence, there is a sharp decline in energy level of each successive
trophic level as we move from producers to top carnivores.
• Therefore the pyramid of energy is always upright.
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• An ecosystem is not static in nature. It is dynamic and changes its
structure as well as function with time and quite interestingly, these
changes are very orderly can be predicted.
• It is observed that one type of community is totally replaced by another
type of community over a period of time and simultaneously several
changes also occur. This process is known as ecological succession.
• The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as
Seral stages or seres.
• Whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is called a
Pioneer community.
• Ecological successions starting on different types of areas are named
differently as follows:
1. Hydrarch or Hydreosere: starting in watery area like pond, swamp,
bog
2. Mesarch: starting in an area of adequate moisture.
• Xerarch or Xerosere: strating in a dry area with little moisture.
• They can be of the following types:
• Lithosere: starting on a bare rock
• Psammosere: starting on sand
• Halosere: starting on saline soil
Process of succession: the process of succession takes place in a
systematic order of sequential steps as follows:
1) Nudation: it is the development of bare area without any life form.
• The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption
etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost etc.
(climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak,
agricultural/ industrial activities (biotic factors)
2) Invasion: it is the successful establishment of one or more species
on a bare area through dispersal or migration, followed by ecesis or
establishment.
• Dispersal of the seeds, spores etc. is brought about by wind, water,
insects or birds.
• Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth and
reproduction starts, these pioneer species increase in number and
form groups or aggregation
3) Competition and coaction:
• As the number of individuals grows there is competition, both inter-
specific and intra-specific, for space, water and food.
• They influence each other in a number of ways as coaction.
4) Reaction: the living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from
the substratum, and in turn, they have a strong influence on the
environment which is modified to a large extent and this is known
as reaction.
• Thus, reaction leads to several Seral communities.
5) Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or
less stable community called climax which is in equilibrium with
the environment.
The climax community is characterized by maximum biomass and
symbiotic linkages between organisms and are maintained quite
efficiently per unit of available energy.
Let us consider very briefly succession of Hydrosere.
• Hydrosere or Hydrarch:
• This type of succession starts in a water body like pond.
• A number of intermediate stages come and ultimately it culminates
in a climax community which is a forest.
• The pioneer community consists of phytoplanktons, which are free
floating algae, diatoms etc.
• Gradually these are replaced by rooted submerged plants followed
by rooted-floating plants.
• Growth of these plants keep on adding organic matter to the
substratum by death and decay and thus a layer of soil builds up
and shallowing of water takes place.
• Then Reed swamp (marshy) stage follows in which the plants are
partly in water and partly on land.
• This is followed by a sedge-meadow stage of grasses then by a
woodland consisting of shrubs and trees and finally by a forest
acting as a climax.
 DESERT ECOSYSTEM
The ecosystem occur in regions where evaporation exceeds
precipitation.
The precipitation is less than 25cm per year.
About 1/3rd of our world’s land area is covered by deserts.
Deserts have little species diversity and consist of drought resistant or
drought avoiding plants.
The atmosphere is very dry and hence it is a poor insulator. That is why
in deserts the soil gets cooled up quickly, making the nights cool.
Deserts are of three major types, based on climatic conditions:
A. Tropical Deserts like Sahara and Namibia in Africa and Thar desert in
Rajasthan, India are the driest of all with only a few species.
Wind blown sand dunes are vey common.
B. Temperate Deserts like Mojave in Southern California where day time
temperatures are very hot in summer but cool in winters.
C. Cold Deserts like the Gobi desert in china has cold winters and warm
summers.
• How are desert and semi-arid ecosystems used?
• Areas of scanty vegetation with semi-arid scrubland have been used
for camel, cattle and goat grazing in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and for
sheep grazing in the Deccan Plateau.
• Areas that have a little moisture, for example along the
watercourses, have been used for growing crops such as Sorghum,
Millets.
• The natural grasses and local varieties of crops have adapted to
growing at very low moisture levels.
• These can be used for genetic engineering and developing semi-arid
land crops for the future.
• Threats to Desert Ecosystem:
• Several types of development strategies as well as human
population growth.
• The conversion of these lands through extensive irrigation systems
has changed several of the natural characteristics of this region.
• Canal water evaporates rapidly bringing the salts to the surface.
• The over extraction of groundwater from tube wells lowers the
water table, creating an even drier environment.
• Human activities are destroying the authenticity of this
unique ecosystem.
• Conservation strategies:
• There is a pressing need to protect residual patches of this
ecosystem within national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in
desert and semi-arid areas.
• The Indira Gandhi canal in Rajasthan is destroying this
important natural arid ecosystems, as it will convert the
region into intensive agriculture.
• In Kutch, areas of the little Rann, which is the only home of
the wild ass, will be destroyed by the spread of salt works.
• Development projects alter the desert and arid landscape.
There is a sharp reduction in the habitat available for its
noteworthy species, bringing them to the verge of extinction.
• We need a sustainable form of development that takes the
special needs of the desert into account.
 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
• Grasslands are dominated by grass species but sometimes also
allow the growth of a few trees and shrubs.
• Rainfall is average but erratic .
• Limited grazing helps to improve the net primary production of the
grasslands but overgrazing leads to degradation of these grasslands
resulting in desertification.
• These type of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic
regions:
Tropical grasslands:
• They occur near the boarders of tropical rain forests in regions of
high average temperature and low to moderate rainfall.
• In Africa, these are typically known as savannas, which have tall
grasses, shrubs and stunted trees.
• The savannas have a wide diversity of animals including zebras,
giraffes, gazelle, antelopes etc.
• During dry season fires are quite common. Termite mounds are
very common here.
• Tropical savannas have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis.
• Most of the carbon assimilated by them in the form of
carbohydrates is in the bulbs, rhizomes, runners etc. which are
present underground.
• Deliberate burning of these grasslands can release huge quantities
of carbon dioxide, a green house gas, responsible for global
warming.
Temperate grasslands:
• They are usually found on flat, gentle, sloped hills.
• Winters are very cold but summers are hot and dry.
• In USA and Canada these grasslands are known as Prairies, in South
America as Pampas, in Africa as Velds and in central Europe and
Asia they are known as Steppes.
• Winds keep blowing and evaporation rate is very high. It also
favours rapid fires in summer.
• The soils are quite fertile and therefore, very often these grasslands
are cleared for agriculture.
 Polar grasslands:
• They are Arctic polar region where severe cold and strong,
frigid winds along with ice and snow create too harsh a
climate for trees to grow.
• In summers the sunshine almost round the clock and hence
several small annual plants grow in the summer.
• The animals include arctic wolf, weasel, fox, reindeer etc.
• A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface
throughout the year and is known as permafrost.
 FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• These are the ecosystems having a predominance of trees that are
interspersed with a large number of species .
• Forests are found in undisturbed areas receiving moderate to high
rainfall and usually occur as stable climax communities.
• Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions forests can be of
various types:
• A. Tropical rain forests: They are evergreen broadleaf forests found
near the equator.
• They are characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high
rainfall, all of which favour the growth of trees.
• All through the year the climate remains more or less uniform.
• Different forms of life occupy specialized areas within different layers
and spaces of the ecosystem depending upon their needs for food,
sunlight, water and nutrients.
• Interestingly, the flowers of forest trees are very large, colourful,
fragrant and attractive which helps in pollination by insects, birds, bats
etc.
• Ex. Rafflesia arnoldi, the biggest flower (7 kg weight) is known to
smell like rotten meat and attracts flies and beetles which help
in its pollination.
• The Silent Valley in kerala is the only tropical rain forest lying in
India which is the natural habitat for a wide variety of species.
• B. Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from
the equator and are characterized by a warm climate the year
round.
• Rain occurs only during monsoon.
• A large part of the year remains dry and therefore different
types of deciduous trees are found here, which lose their leaves
during dry season.
• C. Tropical scrub forests: they are found in areas where the dry
season is even longer. Hence there are small deciduous trees
and shrubs.
• D. Temperate rain forests: they are found in temperate areas with
adequate rainfall.
• These are dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs, red woods etc.
• They also consist of some evergreen broad leaf trees.
• E. Temperate deciduous forests: They are found in areas with
moderate temperatures.
• There is a marked seasonality with long summers, cold but not too
severe winter and abundant rainfall throughout the year.
• the major trees include broad leaf deciduous trees like oak, hickory,
poplar etc.
• F. Evergreen coniferous forests (Boreal Forests):
• They are found just south of arctic tundra. Here winters are long, cold.
Sunlight is available for a few hours only.
• The major trees include fir, pines, spruce, cedar etc. which have tiny,
needle shaped leaves having a waxy containing so that they can
withstand severe cold and drought.
Tropical rain forests
Temperate rain forests

Evergreen coniferous forests

emergent layer
LIANAS
EPIPHYTES
CANOPY
UNDERSTORY TREES
• The symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant roots is
called a mycorrhiza.
• Plant roots and fungi form symbiotic relationships. The fungi
help trees or shrubs, and in return, the roots give the fungi
carbon, carbohydrates, and other nutrients.
 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
• Aquatic ecosystems dealing with water bodies and the biotic
communities present in them are either freshwater or marine.
• Freshwater ecosystems are further of standing type (lentic) like
ponds and lakes or free-flowing type (lotic), like rivers.
Some important ecosystems:
(a) Pond ecosystem: it is a small freshwater aquatic ecosystem where
water is stagnant.
• Ponds may be seasonal in nature i.e. receiving enough water
during rainy season.
• Ponds are usually shallow water bodies which play a very
important role in the villages where most of the activities center
around ponds.
• They contain several types of algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes
and birds.
• The ponds are, however, very often exposed to tremendous
anthropogenic pressures,
• They are used for washing clothes, bathing, swimming, cattle
bathing and drinking etc. and therefore get polluted.
(b) Lake ecosystem: Lakes are usually big freshwater bodies with
standing water.
• They have a shallow water zone called Littoral zone, an open-water
zone effective penetration of solar light takes place, called Limnetic
zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible,
known as profundal zone.
• The Dal Lake in Srinagar (J&K), Naini Lake in Nainital (Uttarakhand)
and Loktak Lake in Manipur are some of the famous lakes in our
country.
• Organisms: the lakes have several types of organisms.
• Planktons: that float on the surface of waters. E.g., phytoplanktons
like algae and zooplanktons like rotifers.
• Nektons: that swim e.g. fishes
• Neustons: that rest or swim on the surface. E.g. Beetles, spiders,
worms, insect larvae
• Benthos: That are attached to bottom sediments. E.g., snails
• Periphytons: that are attached or clinging to other plants or any
other surface. E.g., crustaceans
• Stratification: The lakes show stratification or zonation based on
temperature differences.
• During summer, the top water become warmer than the bottom water.
• Therefore, only the warm top layer circulates without mixing with the
colder layer, thus forming a distinct zonation.
• Epilimnion: Warm, lighter, circulating surface layer.
• Hypolimnion: Cold, Viscous, non-circulating bottom layer.
• In between the two layers is thermocline, the region of sharp drop in
temperature.
• Types of Lakes:
• Oligotrophic Lakes: which have low nutrient concentrations. Ex. Michigon
• Eutrophic Lakes: which are overnourished by nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorus, usually as result of agricultural run-off or municipal sewage
discharge. E.g., Dal Lake
• Dystrophic Lakes: that have low pH, High humic acid content and brown
waters. E.g., Bog lakes
• Endemic Lakes: that are very ancient, deep and have endemic fauna which
are restricted only to that lake. E.g., Baikal
• Desert Salt Lakes: that occur in arid regions and have developed high salt
concentrations as a result of high evaporation. Sambar Lake in Rajasthan
• Volcanic Lakes: that receive water from magma after volcanic
eruptions. e.g., many lakes in Japan
• Meromictic Lakes: that are rich in salts and are permanently
stratified e.g., Lake Nevada
• Artificial Lakes: that are created due to construction of dams e.g.
Govindsagar Lake at Bhakra-Nangal.
Streams: These are freshwater aquatic ecosystems where water
current is a major controlling factor, oxygen and nutrient in the
water is more uniform and land-water exchange is more extensive.
River Ecosystem: Rivers are large streams that flow downward from
mountain highlands and flowing through the plains fall into the sea.
Oceans: these are gigantic reservoirs of water covering more than 70%
of our earth’s surface and play a key role in the survival of about
2,50,000 marine species, serving as the food for humans and other
organisms, give a huge variety of sea-products and drugs.
• Oceans provide us iron, phosphorus, magnesium, oil, natural gas,
sand and gravel.
• Oceans are the major sinks of carbon dioxide and play an important
role in regulating many biogeochemical cycles and hydrological
cycle, there by regulating the earth’s climate.
• The oceans have two major life zones:
• Coastal zone with relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water.
• Due to high nutrients and ample sunlight this is the zone of high
primary productivity.
• Open Sea: it is the deeper part of the ocean, away from the
continental shelf (The submerged part of the continent). It is
vertically divided into three regions:
1. Euphotic zone: which receives abundant light and shows high
photosynthetic activity.
2. Bathyal zone: receives dim light and is usually geologically active.
3. Abyssal zone: is the dark zone, 2000 to 5000 meters deep. The
abyssal zone has no primary source of energy. i.e solar energy. It is
the world’s largest ecological unit but it is an incomplete
ecosystem.
• Estuary: an estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the
mouth of a river where fresh water and salty sea water meet.
• These are the transition zones which are strongly affected by tidal
action.
• Constant mixing of water stirs up the silt which makes the
nutrients available for the primary producers.
• Coastal bays and tidal marshes are examples of estuaries.
• Estuaries have a rich biodiversity and many of the species are
endemic.
• They are many migratory species of fishes like eels and
salmons in which half of the life is spent in fresh water and
half in salty water.
• Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems.
• The river flow and tidal action provide energy subsides for the
estuary thereby enhancing its productivity.
• Estuaries are of much use to human beings due to their high
food potential.