COURSE TITLE

Agricultural Informatics
(Portion of Dr RK Kar)

BAS 421 3(2+1)

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
Dr R. K. KAR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR AND IC
DEPARTMENT OF FOREST POLICY AND LAW

COLLEGE OF FORESTRY,
ODISHA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY BHUBANESWAR
Email: ranjankumarouat@[Link] Phone: 8256948897
 Theory
Computer Programming, General Concepts, Documentation and Program Maintenance, Debugging programs,
Errors. Introduction to Visual Basic, Java, Fortran, C/ C++, etc, concepts and standard input/output operations,
Variables and Constants, Operators and Expressions, Flow of control, Inbuilt and User defined functions,
programming techniques for agriculture/forestry.e-Agriculture, concepts, design and development. Application
of innovative ways to use information and communication technologies (IT) in agriculture/forestry. ICT for
Data Collection, formation of development prorammes,
Monitoring and evaluation of Programmes. Computer Models in agriculture/forestry: statistical, weather
analysis and crop simulation models, concepts, structure, inputs, outputs files, limitation, advantages and
application of models for understanding plant processes, sensitivity, verification, calibration and validation. IT
application for computation of water and nutrient requirement of crops, Computer, controlled devices
(automated systems) for Agri-input management, Smartphone mobile apps in Agriculture for farm advises,
market price, postharvest management etc; Geospatial technology, concepts, techniques, components and uses
for generating valuable agri-information. Decision support systems, taxonomy, components, framework,
classification and applications in agriculture/forestry, DSS, Agriculture Information/ Expert System, Soil
Information Systems etc for supporting Farm decisions. Preparation of contingent crop planning and crop
calendars using IT tools.
Practical
Study of Computer Components, accessories, practice of important DOS Commands. Introduction of different
operating systems such as windows, Unix, Linux, Creating, Files & Folders, File Management. Use of
MS,WORD and MS Power point for creating, editing and presenting a scientific Document, Handling of
Tabular data, animation, video tools, art tool, graphics, template & designs. MS,EXCEL , Creating a
spreadsheet, use of statistical tools, writing expressions, creating graphs, analysis of scientific data, handling
macros. MS,ACCESS: Creating Database, preparing queries and reports, demonstration of Agri,information
system. Introduction to World Wide Web (WWW) and its components, creation of scientific website,
presentation and management agricultural information through web. Introduction of various programming
languages such as Visual Basic, Java, Fortran, C, C++, and their components Hands on practice on writing
small programmes. Hands on practice on Crop Simulation Models (CSM), DSSAT/Crop,Info/CropSyst/
Wofost. Preparation of Inputs file for CSM and study of model outputs, computation of water and nutrient
requirements of crop using CSM and IT tools. Use of smart phones and other devices in agro,advisory and
dissemination of market information. Introduction of Geospatial Technology, demonstration of generating
information important for Agriculture. Hands on practice on preparation of Decision Support System.

DESCRIPTON
INTRODUCTION
Definition: Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extensional term for information
technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration
of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise
software, middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, that enable users to access, store, transmit, and
manipulate information.
The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisual and telephone networks with computer
networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large economic incentives to merge the telephone
network with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and
management. ICT is an umbrella term that includes any communication device, encompassing radio, television,
cell phones, computer and network hardware, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and
appliance with them such as video conferencing and distance learning.
IT is the branch of engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunication to retrieve, store
and transmit information
 IT is a broad subject and the concepts are evolving. It covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate,
transmit, or receive information electronically in a digital form (e.g., personal computers, digital television,
email, or robots). Theoretical differences between interpersonal-communication technologies and mass-
communication technologies have been identified by the philosopher Piyush Mathur. Skills Framework for the
Information Age is one of many models for describing and managing competencies for ICT professionals for
the 21st century.
ICT: TOWARDS AGRICULTURE EDUCATION AND AGRICULTURE AS OCCUPATION
A. ICT AND AGRICULTURE EDUCATION
1. ICT to enhance teaching and learning environments.
2. ICT enables self-paced learning through various tools such as assignment, computer etc as a result
of this the teaching learning enterprise has become more productive and meaningful.
3. ICT helps facilitate the transaction between producers and users by keeping the students updated
and enhancing teachers capacity and ability fostering a live contact between the teacher and the student
through e-mail, chalk session, e-learning, web-based learning including internet, intranet, extranet, , TV
audio-video aids, CD-ROM. Edusat technology has become very powerful media for interactive
participation of experts and learners and it reaches the unreachable. Emerging learning Technology (ELT) of
bogging, Integrated Learning Modules, a pod cast, Wikis, Enhancement of Browsers, e-learning, M-learning,
U-learning have started making rapid strides in teaching learning processes.
How ICT is being used very effectively
Broadening horizons with more opportunities for creative expression Flexibility to study where, when and
how best suits individual needs and preferences Increased motivation through learning that stimulates and
stretches Wider access to learning and participation Sensible choices about when, when not and how to use
new technology to enhance, enrich and extend learning
Advantages of using ICT in lessons:
1. Increased commitment to learning works
2. Enhanced enjoyment and interest in learning and the subject
3. Enhanced sense of achievement in learning and pride in the work
4. Increase in self-directed learning and independence
5. Enhanced self-esteem leading to expectations of achieving goals.
6. Getting a lot of information and ideas
7. Learning computer skills
8. Analysing information
9. ICT can have on learners learning, including
10. Increased motivation to stay on-wark, behave better and produce higher
11. Quality output
12. Produce higher quality work
13. Learn more independently and at their own pace
14. Do things they cannot do using traditional methods and resources
15. Do more work and work more quickly
ICT: contributes the stake holders in teaching learning processes of agriculture education:
1. Increased motivation : Many studies describe the motivating effect of using ICT in college and its
observed the positive effect it can have on students attention and effort in class Trimmel and Bachman (2004)
studied the impact of introducing laptops into classrooms and one of their conclusions was that: “information
technology has a positive impact on college attendance and learning interest”. ICT can play an important role in
motivating learners and encouraging them to engage in learning, within and beyond the classroom. Most
students enjoy working on computers and if it a novelty rather than the norm then that makes it even more
motivating. However, whilst student enjoyment is an important factor in education, adherence to the curriculum
is even more so and therefore, careful planning is an essential element of teaching with ICT.
2. Get higher quality output: A good example of ICT being used imaginatively to create high quality output
is where pupils in a Geography lesson used PowerPoint to create animated presentations of the way that
volcanoes erupt . They had to create a series of pictures of the stages of an eruption, scan them into the
computer and then animate them using PowerPoint. It would have been possible to show pupils an animated
sequence of a volcanic eruption, but by getting them to make one themselves, they learned a great deal about
the way volcanoes behave, and also how to use PowerPoint to create animated sequences
3. Learn independently: It is common place for schools & colleges to use the Internet as a research tool to
allow students to find their own information. Concept to enhance pupils’ understanding of many aspects of the
subject. The Internet is often used to augment textbooks at much lower cost, the Internet extensively for
research and gathering ideas, and even for interacting directly with
4. Denied the traditional methods: The use of specialist hardware and software by learner involved in Art
projects. They use digital cameras to capture original images that are used as the basis for paintings or digitally
manipulated to create new and interesting effects. The colleges also uses digital scanners to explore the light
filtering properties of different plastics, net curtains and film negatives. The use of digital technology allows
students to experiment much more than would be possible with traditional techniques given the amount of
curriculum time available. ICT can be used effectively in Science to show video sequences of things that are
hard to explain or visualise. For example, animated sequences could be used to show how water molecules
behave as temperature changes alter the state of the water from ice, through liquid water to steam Can more
5. People generate interest to use of ICT: ICT enables high quality output to be produced at a speed that
cannot be matched using traditional methods and resources. Teaching applications such as graphing packages in
Mathematics, multimedia authoring software and data analysis packages in Geography and Science all allow
students to work much faster than if they had to do the tasks manually. ICT as a tool to increase the breadth and
speed of learning, increasing the efficiency of both teacher and students. ICT was used to gather, analyse and
present information and the teacher described her use as great for cutting down time where you want to analyse
information.
6. Integrate in more subjects: The work done in all lessons is set in a context that encourages cross
fertilisation of skills across subjects Teachers plan and work collaboratively, facilitating skills transfer across
subjects What are the difficulties of successfully using ICT in other subjects? Lack of confidence of teachers
in using ict Lack of detailed planned into how ict can be used to enhance the teach.
7. Teacher’s confidence in ICT: That teacher’s expertise in ICT was an important factor in its successful
use in lessons the ways that teachers have their students use computers are certainly affected by their own level
of technical expertise The representations of software of many non-specialist teachers are idiosyncratic,
fragmentary and transient with imperfectly learnt links and false assumptions and that these teachers are
concerned that the skills of their students are more advanced than their own. It is hardly surprising that teachers
are reluctant to experiment with ICT if they are concerned that their students’ knowledge is greater than their
own.
8. Planning the use of ICT: ICT alone does not enhance learning. How ICT is incorporated into learning
activities is what is important. Some teachers use ICT as a way of encouraging independent learning skills.
However, this still needs to be planned and supervised with the teacher directing the learners activities and
output: there is a risk that using ICT-based learning may make it too easy to hand over too much responsibility
to the pupils themselves, with the hope that as long as the pupils are occupied in front of the computer there is
always a chance that they might manage their own learning process. It is possible that highly motivated pupils
may take responsibility for their own learning and meet the desired learning outcomes, but it is unlikely to be a
successful strategy with the majority of classes. ICT is only an effective tool in the hands of an effective
teacher, and not a panacea in its own right. It would seem that a prerequisite for success is the subject
knowledge of the teacher and their ability to weave the use of ICT into the existing curriculum
9. Technical reliability: It is important to acknowledge that ICT can have technical problems and
contingency planning is necessary to ensure that alternative strategies are in place. Same time situation in a
school & colleges where the ICT was particularly unreliable and this led to lower attainment among high ability
learners students lost so much time when the computers would not work at all that the high attainders working
on the computers produced work of a much lower standard than usual and were demotivated. As computers
become more sophisticated and the range of software used by schools & colleges continues to increase, its
must recognise the need to employ more and higher quality technical staff. With pressure on budgets and
competition from the commercial sector for the best staff, it is becoming increasingly difficult for schools to
attract and retain technical staff with the appropriate skills and experience.
10. Facility overload: Learners often focus on the facilities provided by the application rather than the
expected outcome and the learning objectives. for example, pupils will spend the majority of a lesson
experimenting with different colours and backgrounds and have no time left to create the required content. it is
important that pupils are given an initial design brief so they know what they are aiming towards and begin the
process with something simple so that they can build up their confidence in using the tools available rather than
playing with all of them all at once. the internet is used extensively in schools as a research tool, but a major
problem is the wealth of material available, a lot of which is biased and unreliable. where a student produced a
paper about how the holocaust did not happen because of what he read on a website. this shows why it is
necessary for teachers to be very aware of what the internet is being used for and to ensure that the information
used is unbiased and from reliable sources. students are unable to detect bias or determine between fact and
advertising raises serious concerns for teachers that allow their students to find their own information with little
or no guidance. also, students spend huge amounts of time searching for information and comparatively little
time analysing and processing the information.
11. Time saving and less expensive: Incorporating ICT across the curriculum requires careful timetabling
and cooperation among departments. Generally we point out that in science in particular, it may not be possible
to move practical classes to ICT suites because of health and safety considerations or to site computers in
science Laboratories because of space constraints. In other subjects, the times when the ICT suites are available
may not suit the schemes of work planned by the teachers. Consequently, much more cross-curricular and
departmental planning is required than most schools & colleges have been used to in the past.
12. Changing pedagogy: Teachers have to accept that the widespread use of ICT in schools & colleges is
having an impact on teaching pedagogy and requires a significant rethinking of approach. Two main teaching
methods and their effect on the way in which ICT is used in lessons: traditional transmission instruction
assumes that pupils will learn through teacher explanation or reading from texts. Skills are learnt through
Practicing each skill in a sequence prescribed by the teacher. Constructivist instruction assumes that
understanding comes from relating new ideas to the learner’s prior beliefs. Skills acquisition comes in an
unstructured way as new skills are used as required to solve practical problems. We concludes that when ICT is
used in lessons, the constructivist approach is more likely to lead to successful outcomes. Furthermore, his
study showed that teachers with the most constructivist philosophies tend to use computers more often and in a
more challenging way both in their classrooms and as users themselves
SOME NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ICT IN EDUCATION:
1. Excess use of ICT harmful for health.
2. Teacher s prefer already prepared material than hand written.
3. Eye sights become weak of the learners.
4. Learners can be learnt a lot of bad things like unuseful
5. chatting bad literature
6. Students going out of content
7. download absurdity and
8. silly songs, pictures, dialogues and videos.
9. Foreign technology and culture is going heavy on our culture.
Conclusions: The overall conclusion who rightly challenges ICT is largely incompatible with the
requirements of teaching. Under the right conditions – where teachers are personally comfortable and at least
moderately skilled in using computers themselves, where the school’s daily class schedule permits allocating
time for students to use computers as part of class assignments, where enough equipment is available and
convenient to permit computer activities to flow seamlessly alongside other learning tasks and where the
teacher’s personal philosophies support a student-centred, constructivist pedagogy that incorporates
collaborative projects partly defined by student interest – computers are clearly becoming a valuable and
wellfunctioning instructional tool
 B. ICT AND AGRICULTURE: AS OCCUPATION
1. Information technology is potential tool for improving decision making in agriculture
2. IT can improve farm management and farming technologies by efficient farm management.
3. The widespread use of IT to make a direct contribution to agricultural productivity
4. Satellite technology
5. geographic information systems using the techniques of agronomy and soil science is to increase
agricultural production.
6. Farmers in India must use Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for agricultural
purposes.
7. India’s food production and productivity can be increased by an effective use of IT for agricultural
purposes.
8. The developed nations are using laser technology instead of tractors to plough lands. This helps in
optimizing the use of various inputs such as water, seeds, fertilizers, etc .
9. They have also started an initiative titled e-agriculture in India that would endeavor to amalgamate
ICT with agriculture in India.
10. As far as initiatives for e-agriculture in India are concerned, they have shared their research works
and suggestions with national and international community.
11. The Association For People of Haryana (AFPOH) has taken many steps and initiatives at national
and international level in the fields of agriculture, rural development etc.
ADVANTAGES OF IT IN AGRICULTURE
1) The benefits of IT for the improvement and strengthening of agriculture sector in India include
timely information on weather forecasts and calamities
2) Better and spontaneous agricultural practices.
3) Better marketing exposure and pricing and reduction of agricultural risks and enhanced incomes
4) Facility of online trading
5) E-agriculture can play a major role in the increased food production and productivity in India.
6) WEATHER FORCASTING Weather forecasting find out the
1) Weather
2) Climate
3) Water Stresses
7) DIGITAL MANDI: A mobile application developed by IIT Kanpur and BSNL, aims to provide current
rates of crops to farmers so they can choose suitable time and market to sell their crops for maximum profit.
8) mKrishi : TCS mobile agro-advisory system - uses mobile phones and sensor technology to let farmers
send queries, receive information on microclimate, local mandi prices, seek expert’s advice and other
information relevant to them in their local language; supports text, voice, pictures.
9) Kisan Call Centres: In order to harness the potential of ICT in Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture
launched the scheme "Kisan Call Centres (KCCs)" on January 21, 2004. Main aim of the project is to answer
farmers' queries on a telephone call in their own dialect. These call Centres are working in 14 different
locations covering all the States and UTs. A countrywide common eleven digit Toll Free number 1800-180-
1551 has been allotted for Kisan Call Centre. This number is accessible through mobile phones and landlines of
all telecom networks including private service providers. Replies to the farmers' queries are given in 22 local
languages.
10) E choupal: e-Choupal is an initiative of ITC Limited, a conglomerate in India, to link directly with
rural farmers via the Internet for procurement of agricultural and aquaculture products like soybeans, wheat,
coffee, and prawns. e-Choupal tackles the challenges posed by Indian agriculture, The programme installs
computers with Internet access in rural areas of India to offer farmers up-to-date marketing and agricultural
information.,
11) Technology used in Green House:The new technology consists of a motherboard computer systems. By
this technology, monitoring the humidity, temperature , wind speed and radiation, as well as elements that
enable wireless connectivity between the greenhouse and mobile devices like cell phones.
 12) Weed Control: proposed system aims to develop a computer vision based robotic weed control system
(WCS) for real-time control of weeds in onion fields. This system will be able to identify weeds and selectively
spray right amount of the herbicide. It is designed to automate the control of weeds and thus reduces the
difficulties of farmers in maintaining the field. The proposed system is based on a combination of image
processing, machine learning and internet of things (IoT).
13) Use of GIS in Agriculture
1. Geographic information systems, or GIS, are extensively used in agriculture, especially in
precision farming. GIS is used in decision making such as
2. what to plant and where to plant using historical data and sampling. Function of GIS
3. Digital Mapping
4. Analysis of the soil
5. Use of GPS in Agriculture In agriculture, the use of the Global Positioning System provides benefits in
6. Geo-fencing
7. Map-making
8. Surveying
14) Remote Sensing in Agriculture: Remote sensing is directly connected with satellite. By the help
of this technique find out the Monsoon, Ozone layer Depletion, Smog etc.
1. Uses of Drones in Agriculture: By the help of Drone Technology: [Link] Data Collection, [Link]
Survey, 3. Seeds Planting, [Link] Fertilizers, 5. Using Pesticides and 6. Water Irrigation
15) Agri Advisory Services in India :1. Ikisan, 2. E-Chopal, 3. Kisan Mitra, 4. Nokia Life Tools
5. MRC, India, 6. Airtel, 7. TCS, 8. ICAR-KMAS
17) IT Vision 2020 Department of Agriculture & corporation (DAC) has formulated IT vision 2020.
a) Information relating to agriculture sector would be available to the ultimate users – the farmers - for
optimizing their productivity and income;
b) Extension and advisory services making use of information technology would be available to the farmers
on round the clock basis;
c) The tools for information technology will provide networking of agriculture sector not only in the country
but also globally.
CONCLUSION
1. IT can improve farm management and farming technologies by efficient farm management.
2. IT helps in better marketing exposure and pricing and reduction of agricultural risks and enhanced
incomes.

ICT AND FORESTRY

1. Development of GIS based resources
2. Inventory query and forest land Management system
3. Forest offence management system and fire alert messaging system
4. Forest, forest produce, protection area and research information management system
5. Human resource management system
6. Applications used in forestry development of GIS based resources inventory query and land
management system:
7. Forest protection management system
8. Forest management system
9. Gis application interface.
10. Location based tracking and monitoring using gps technology
11. Mobile application interface to capture data at source and computer to enter data at divisional
level. Usage of it enabled system:
12. Establishment,
13. Vigilance
14. Working plan,
 15. Land management,
16. Forest conservation act, ø plantation, ø nursery, ø monitoring & evaluation, ø eco-tourism, forest
offence,
17. Forest produce,
18. Wild life management,
19. Training & Research
20. Protected area Network Management System (PANMS)
21. Physical and financial management system :
22. Human resource management system
23. Interface and integration requirements the applications would be interfaced and integrated
REQUIREMENTS OF ICT
1. Developing appropriate application software.
2. Data capturing
3. Centralized repository of data.
4. Digitization of maps for location based monitoring.
5. Web-based Workflows for management/monitoring and a Portal for publishing various types of
information on the Internet.
6. Establishing internal system of communication and messaging to utilize the ICT infrastructure and
the PDAs.
7. Establish identity & rights based access management for built-in security and to provide single
sign-on for accessing multiple applications and emails etc.
8. Building security in ICT setup as the application access would be through Firewall. In order to
execute ICT initiatives following major group are identified.
9. Development of Applications.
10. Creations of a Data Centre
11. Development of computer based communication network
12. Sharpening the ICT skills of manpower
CONCLUSIONS
Forest Management activities handles with geo-relational data using ICT rather geographic data, excel
information, conventional maps and inventory data are not sufficient to meet all the forest management
activities. A centralized approach is required to avoid duplication of efforts and to maintain uniformity and
compatibility.
A COMPUTER PROGRAMME:
A computer programme is a collection of instructions that can be executed by a computer to perform a
specific task. Most computer devices require programs to function properly. A computer program is usually
written by a computer programmer in a programming language.
Example: Operating system.
A web browser like Mozilla Firefox and Apple Safari can be used to view web pages on the Internet.
An office suite can be used to write documents or [Link] games are computer programs.
 TERMINOLOGY USED IN IT FOR AGRICULTURE
Access The reading or writing of data; as a verb, to gain entry to data. Most commonly used in connection
with information access, via a user ID, and qualified by an indication as to the kinds of access that are
permitted. For example, read-only access means that the contents of the file may be read but not altered or
erased.
Access Control List (ACL) A list of the services available on a server, each with a list of the hosts permitted
to use the service.
access time The time interval between the instant that data is requested and the instant that it is received.
Account: Your subscription to a networked computer system.
account name: Same as your login ID or user ID. The word you type at the "Login:" prompt; your electronic
name.
Address: A character or group of characters that identify a register, a location or some other data source or
destination.
Aggregate n. A total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an aggregate of
the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county.
v. To total data from smaller units into a large unit. Example: "The Census Bureau aggregates data to preserve
the confidentiality of individuals."
aggregate data: Data that have been aggregated.
Algorithm: A set of rules for solving a problem in a given number of steps.
Alias: See nickname.
Analog: A method of storing information, used by most audiotapes, videotapes and laserdiscs (and all LP
phonograph records, remember those?). An analog device uses a physical quantity, such as length or voltage, to
represent the value of a number. By contrast, digital storage relies on a coding system of numeric units.
Application Layer: Layer seven of the OSI reference model. It serves as a means by which applications
access communications services.
Application: The use to which a data processing system is put within a given discipline, such as a payroll
application, an airline reservation application or a network application.
Application program: A program that is written for or by a user that applies to the users discipline.
Application software: A group of programs designed to perform tasks that can be tailored to a users specific
needs.
Archive: v. To copy programs and data onto an auxiliary storage medium (disk, tape, etc.) for long-term
retention, such as when disk space has become full.
 n. A file with a structure that allows storage of multiple files within it in such a way that the names of the files
can be listed and files can be individually added and deleted. The terminology is typically associated with
microcomputers. On a mainframe, such a file is typically called a library.
Argument: A value supplied to a procedure, macro, subroutine, or command that is required in order to
evaluate that procedure, macro, subroutine, or command. Synonymous with parameter.
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange (pronounced ask-ee). The form in which text
characters are handled in most computer systems and networks. ASCII text has no special characters for
formatting such as underlined or bold characters, font changes, etc., thus can be viewed on any personal
computer or terminal.
Assembler: A program that converts symbolically-coded programs into object level, machine code. In an
assembler program, unlike a compiler, there is a one-to-one correspondence between human-readable
instructions and the machine-language code.
ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode. A standard for cell relay that uses fixed length cells of 53 bytes, 5 bytes
of which are headers. Can support multiple services including voice, video and data.
ATM Forum: An industry-wide effort that is now an international consortium of more than 400 companies
who define ATM interoperability specifications and promote industry-wide cooperation to help proliferate
ATM and thus drive implementation costs down.
Audit: A personal or computerized review process that accounts for the adequacy, effectiveness, security and
overall functionality of a data activity.
Authentication: Process of establishing who you are.
Authorization: Permission to access non-public information or use equipment that is either fully or partially
restricted. Process of establishing what you can do.
Autonomous system: A collection of one or more networks that are administrated by the same entity. Each
regional network (such as SURAnet) is an autonomous system.
Backbone: Refers to a piece of cable used to connect different floors or departments together into a network.
Also generalized to a network that connects networks together.
Background processing: Users may use a terminal for one project and concurrently submit a job that is
placed in a background queue that the computer will run as resources become available. Also refers to any
processing in which a job runs without being connected to a terminal.
Bandwidth: A piece of the spectrum occupied by some form of signal, where it is television, voice, fax data,
etc.. Signals require a certain size and location of bandwidth in order to be transmitted. The higher the
bandwidth, the faster the signal transmission, and thus allowing for a more complex signal such as audio or
video. Because bandwidth is a limited space, when one user is occupying it, others must wait their turn.
Bombarding the Internet with unnecessary information is referred to as "taking up bandwidth."
Baseband A network medium that uses only one carrier frequency. Examples are Ethernet and PhoneNet.
BASIC Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. A commonly used personal-computer language,
first developed at Dartmouth during the 1960s.
Batch processing: Originally, a method of organizing work for a computer system, designed to reduce
overhead by grouping similar jobs. In one scheme, jobs were collected into batches, each requiring a particular
compiler. The compiler was loaded, and the jobs submitted in sequence to the compiler. The term has come to
be applied to background processing of jobs not requiring user intervention on multiuser systems. See compiler.
Batch query: A query that has been saved so that it can be used more than once and run in the background.
Binary: A file containing one or more strings of data bits which are not printable characters. Some binary
files may be computer programs or other forms of data that contain no text characters at all. Binary files cannot
be displayed on screen, but can be downloaded for use with appropriate applications on your computer. Binary
(base 2) is also the building block of computer information, representing "on" or "off" and "true" or "not true"
as 1 or 0.
Binary number: A number written using binary notation which only uses zeros and ones. Example: decimal
number seven in binary notation is: 111.
Bit: A binary digit, either a 0 or 1. In the U. S. , 8 bits make up one byte; in Europe, byte equals one word.
 Bitmapped terminal: A terminal that can turn individual screen dots on or off.
BITNET: Because Its Time NETwork. Started in 1981 by City College of New York and Yale University, it
is a network linking hosts at educational and research institutions in the United States, Canada, Europe and
other countries using the RSCS protocols. Merged with CSNet to form CREN.
Bits per second (bps): The speed at which bits are transmitted.
Block: A sequence of words or characters written contiguously, such as into a group, by a computer and
stored on a disk, diskette, magnetic tape, etc.
Bold: A way of emphasizing a word of text, as in darker type or brighter characters on a video display
terminal.
Booting: Turning on your computer.
Break: An interruption to a transmission; usually a provision to allow a controlled terminal to interrupt the
controlling computer.
Bridge: A device that connects two networks and passes traffic between them based only on the node address,
so that traffic between nodes on one network does not appear on the other network. For example, an Ethernet
bridge only looks at the Ethernet address.
Broadband: A communications medium on which multiple signals are simultaneously transmitted at different
frequencies. Also refers to switching capability implemented on this medium that allows communication
between devices connected to it. In telecommunications it is defined as any channel with a bandwidth greater
than voice grade (4 KHz).
Broadcast: A single message addressed to all nodes on a network.
Browser: A software tool used to read electronic documents. Mosaic, NetScape and Lynx are the most
popular browsers.
cell relay: Packet-switching using small, fixed-sized packets called cells. The fixed size allows for very high
speed switching. It is the basis for SMDS and ATM.
Channel: Any medium by which information can be transmitted. For example, the air is a channel for our
voices just as much as a fiber optic line can be data for a video signal.
Character: Any symbol (usually alphabetic, numeric, or punctuation) that can be entered into your computer.
Character set: A set of characters handled by a specified machine; sets include alphabetic characters,
numbers, symbols, graphics characters, a space character and control characters. Graphics characters denote a
printed mark; control characters produce some particular effect. Two of the most widely used sets are ASCII
and EBCDIC.
Chip: A tiny piece of semi-conductive material, usually based on silicon, used in the manufacture of
electronic components.
Client: A computer program that uses the services of another computer program. Software that extracts
information from a server; your auto-dial phone is a client, and the phone company is its server.
client/server: A relationship in which client software obtains services from a server on behalf of a person.
Client-Server Interface: An architecture that provides for the splitting of user requests (usually called
clients) and a related server function, most commonly across a network. The combined effect is to provide the
clients with access to some service such as databases, printing, etc.
COBOL: COmmon Business Oriented Language The first standardized computer language. At Emory it is
most commonly used for administrative applications.
Code: n. A language for expressing operations to be performed by a computer.
v. To write in such a language.
Collision: The result of two nodes transmitting at the same time on a multiple access network such as
Ethernet. Both packets may be lost or partial packets may result.
Column: A vertical arrangement of characters or other expressions.
Command: A request, typed from a terminal or embedded in a file, to perform an operation or to execute a
particular program.
communications line: A physical medium (wire, microwave beam) used to transmit data.
 communications program: A program that makes a computer act as a terminal to another computer.
Communications programs usually provide for file transfer between microcomputers and mainframes.
Compiler: A program that translates human-readable programs into a form the computer understands. The
input (source code) to the compiler is a description of an algorithm in a problem- oriented language; its output
(object code) is an equivalent description of the algorithm in a machine-oriented language.
Computer: A device or system that is capable of carrying out a sequence of operations in a distinctly and
explicitly defined manner. The operations are frequently numeric computations or data manipulations, but also
include data input and output. The ability to branch within sequences is its key feature.
Concentrator: A device that brings together at a common center connections to a particular kind of network
(such as Ethernet), and implements that network internally.
Conference: An electronic meeting place dedicated to a particular subject where users come to participate in
discussions or group projects
Configuration: The particular hardware elements and their interaction in a computer system for a particular
period of operation.
connect time: Time that elapses while the user of a terminal is connected to a time-sharing system; it is
measured by the duration between logon and logoff.
control character: One of 32 characters of the ASCII character set that defines a control function for a
character entry and display device such as a terminal. Examples are carriage return, tab, form feed and bell.
control key: A special function key on a computer keyboard, frequently used in combination with alphabetic
keys, to enter commands.
Copy: A function that reads data from a source, leaving the source data unchanged and writes it elsewhere.
One example would be to copy a deck of punched cards onto magnetic tape.
CPU: Central Processing Unit. The main internal component of a computer where executions of instructions
are carried out and calculations are performed.
Crash: A computer system is said to crash when it stops working for some reason and must be restarted.
Cursor: A symbol on a display screen that indicates the position at which the next character entered will be
displayed.
cursor control: The keyboard keys used to position the cursor on a display screen. They are usually keys
labeled with arrows indicating the direction of movement.
Cyberspace: The nebulous "place" where humans interact over computer networks (the Internet is considered
Cyberspace). Coined by William Gibson in Neuromancer.
Physical Layer.
Data: Information suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by a computer.
data communications: The collection and redistribution of data through communications channels, often
including operations such as coding, decoding and validation.
data entry: The entry of data into a computer or onto a computer-readable medium by an operator from a
single data device, such as a card reader or keyboard.
data processing: The systematic performance of operations upon data, for example, handling, merging,
sorting and computing.
Dataset: A file or group of files associated with one part of a study.
Database: A collection of interrelated data values that may be integrated permanently into a single connected
structure or integrated temporarily for each interrogation, known as a query. In its most technical sense,
database implies that any of the data may be used as a key for specific queries. In more common usage it means
any accessible collection of information and that only a limited set of data values may be used to specify
queries.
Database management system: A systematic approach to storing, updating, securing and retrieving
information stored as data items, usually in the form of records in one or more files.
DBMS: DataBase Management System.
Debug: To detect, trace and eliminate errors in computer programs.
 Default: A software function or operation which occurs automatically unless the user specifies something
else.
Delete key: Personal computers normally allow deletion of typing mistakes by either the backspace key or the
Del key. Users must either specify which of these keys they wish to use, or set their communication software to
match whichever key the network expects.
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Supports booting workstations and other devices that need
information from outside before they can complete the booting process, such as an IP number or name of
program file to download.
Dial-up: To connect to a computer by calling it on the telephone.
Dictionary file: A special form of machine-readable codebook that contains information about the structure
of a datafile and the locations and, often, the names of variables variables in the datafile.
Data Link Layer: Layer two of the OSI reference model. It controls the transfer of information between
nodes over the Physical Layer.
Data: Information suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by a computer.
data communications: The collection and redistribution of data through communications channels, often
including operations such as coding, decoding and validation.
data entry: The entry of data into a computer or onto a computer-readable medium by an operator from a
single data device, such as a card reader or keyboard.
data processing: The systematic performance of operations upon data, for example, handling, merging,
sorting and computing.
Dataset: A file or group of files associated with one part of a study.
Database: A collection of interrelated data values that may be integrated permanently into a single connected
structure or integrated temporarily for each interrogation, known as a query. In its most technical sense,
database implies that any of the data may be used as a key for specific queries. In more common usage it means
any accessible collection of information and that only a limited set of data values may be used to specify
queries.
Database management system: A systematic approach to storing, updating, securing and retrieving
information stored as data items, usually in the form of records in one or more files.
DBMS: DataBase Management System.
Debug: To detect, trace and eliminate errors in computer programs.
Default: A software function or operation which occurs automatically unless the user specifies something
else.
Delete key: Personal computers normally allow deletion of typing mistakes by either the backspace key or the
Del key. Users must either specify which of these keys they wish to use, or set their communication software to
match whichever key the network expects.
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Supports booting workstations and other devices that need
information from outside before they can complete the booting process, such as an IP number or name of
program file to download.
Dial-up: To connect to a computer by calling it on the telephone.
Dictionary file: A special form of machine-readable codebook that contains information about the structure
of a datafile and the locations and, often, the names of variables variables in the data file.
Digital: Used in computerese to describe information that can be represented by a collection of bits.
Direct access: The ability to read or write data directly from or to any location on a storage device without
having to refer to data that was previously written. Files written with direct access do not have to be read
sequentially starting at the beginning.
Directory: A logical container of files and other directories; synonymous with folder. Typically implemented
as a file that contains pointers (directions) to files or other directories.
Disk or diskette: A small, flat, either rigid or floppy magnetic disk for storing data permanently. Magnetic
medium for data storage. Either "floppy" diskettes (720K to 1.4 megabytes), or "hard" disks (usually 20
megabytes or more).
 Display: A device that enables information, either textual or pictorial, to be seen but not permanently
recorded. The most widely used kind is the cathode-ray tube.
Distributed: Processing resides in more than one computer in a network.
Distributed application: Application designed so that components run on different - but cooperating -
systems on a network.
Distributed database: The data resides in more than one physical database in a network. Access to the data
involves more than one database server. Clients may have to connect to more than one server directly and
integrate the data they receive according to the applications needs.
Distributed file system: Allows files on remote nodes of a network to appear locally connected.
Document: A medium and the data recorded on it for human use; for example, a report sheet or book. By
extension, any record that has permanence and that can be read by human or machine.
Documentation: A collection of organized documents or the information recorded in documents. Also
instructional material specifying the inputs, operations and outputs of a computer program or system.
DOS: Disk Operating System. A Microsoft program that controls a computers transfer of data to and from a
hard or floppy disk. DOS generally refers to the operating systems for the IBM PCs and their clones. Also the
name of an old operating system on IBM mainframes.
Dot-matrix printer: A printer that creates each character from an array of dots. The dots are formed by pins
striking a ribbon against the paper, one pin for each dot position. The printer may be a serial printer (printing
one character at a time) or a line printer.
Down: A computer is down when it is not running. It may be shut down for maintenance, hardware failure, or
failure of the operating system or user program.
Download: The transfer of information from a remote computer system to the users system. Opposite of
upload.
Downtime: The time interval during which equipment is nonfunctional.
Drag and drop: A protocol supported by OPEN LOOK and Macintosh System 7 that allows a user to specify
the input file to an application by dragging the icon representing the file onto the applications icon and dropping
it there. OPEN LOOK also recognizes dragging the icon into the applications input panel. For example,
dragging a files icon into the printool application causes it to be printed.
Drive :A generic term used to identify the equipment that serves as a player or recorder for a storage medium.
Dump: A printed representation of the contents of a computer storage device, usually main memory, backed-
up when a system crash or other failure has occurred. As a verb, refers to a large amount of data.
Edit: To enter, modify or delete data.
Editor: A program that permits the review and editing of the contents of a file.
e-mail: Electronic mail. Information exchanged by electronic means in a manner analogous to that provided
by the postal service.
e-mail address: The way you specify where an E-Mail message should be delivered.
e-mail server: A computer system that provides MTA, mailbox storage and directory services and optionally
UA services.
e-mail service: UA, MTA, mailbox storage, and directory service.
Encapsulation: Combining or defining a data structure of attributes and a group of associated functions and
behaviors as a single object.
enter key: A special function key on a keyboard used to transmit a line or screen of data from a display screen
to a computer. Often used interchangeably with return key.
Environment: The setting in which computing takes place that is the aggregate of the hardware, software,
policies and procedures relating to their use. The computing environment may be influenced by software, such
as the operating system (for example, a UNIX environment) or the vendor (for example, an IBM environment).
Erase: To remove data from a data medium, leaving the medium available for recording new data.
error message: A message that reports the detection of an error.
error checking: Uploading or downloading transfer check employed to identify errors in data transmission.
 Ethernet: A local area network originally developed by Xerox for linking personal computers. Later adapted
by DEC and Intel as well and subsequently adopted as an international standard called 802.3. It transmits data
at 10 megabits per second. All computers on a network were originally connected to a coaxial cable up to one
kilometer. Each computer monitors all transmissions, looking for packets containing its identifier as the
destination. Only one signal may be present on the channel at a time and no single computer controls
transmissions. Several upper layer protocols, such as DECnet and TCP/IP use Ethernet as an underlying
transport mechanism. Ethernet is to be contrasted with other data link protocols such as token ring, DDCMP or
SDLC. Uses CSMA/CD.
Execute: To interpret a computer instruction and carry out the operations specified in the instruction.
fiber optics: A high speed channel for transmitting data. Made of high-purity glass sealed within an opaque
tube. Much faster than conventional copper wire such as coaxial cable.
Field: Usually the smallest data element in a record; a specified area used for a particular category of data; for
example, columns used to represent a particular item of data, such as an employees wage (fixed field). The
particular field is always used to record the same kind of information. In free field records, each field has an
identifier that is present in the record and linked to the contents of the field.
File: A collection of any form of data that is stored beyond the time of execution of a single job. A file may
contain program instructions or data, which may be numerical, textual or graphical information.
File format: The type of file, such as picture or text; represented as a suffix at the end of the filename (text =
TXT or .txt, etc.).
File server: A computer designated to store software, courseware, administrative tools, and other data on a
local- or wide-area network. It "serves" this information to other computers via the network when users enter
their personal access codes.
Folder: A place where a user's e-mail messages may be stored. Every user has a folder for new messages, and
on most systems may create other folders for specific purposes.
Font: A set of consistent size, shape or style of printer characters, including alphabetic and numeric characters
and other signs and symbols.
Foreground : High-priority processing, usually for realtime activities, automatically given precedence, by
means of interrupts, over lower-priority processing.
Form: The paper on which output data is printed.
form feed: The feature that automatically advances a roll of paper to the top of the next page or the next form
when the printer has finished printing a document or form of one or more pages.
Format: The defined structure of information that is recorded on magnetic media, displayed on a visual
display device or printed on a page. Used as a verb, it means to put data into a predetermined structure or divide
a storage medium, such as a disk into sectors, so that it is ready to receive data.
FORTRAN: Formula Translation. A high level scientific programming language.
Fragment: Partial packet caused by a collision.
Garbage: Unwanted or meaningless information in memory, on disk or on a tape.
Gateway: An electronic door between one computer network and another. A device or set of devices that
connects two or more networks, enabling data transfer between them. When the networks are similar, a gateway
routes packets or messages. When the networks differ, a gateway also performs extensive protocol conversion.
GIF: Graphic Interchange Format. Compuserves non-platform specific format for low-resolution, compressed
graphics interchange.
Gopher: A client program available via the Internet that allows users to review and retrieve information on
other host systems via easy-to-use menus.
Graphic: A computer-generated picture produced on a computer screen or paper, ranging from simple line or
bar graphs to colorful and detailed images.
Groupware: Software that serves the group and makes the group as a whole more productive and efficient in
group tasks. Example: Group Scheduling
Frame: A packet sent over a serial link.
Freeware: Software that is distributed for free, with no license fee.
 Frequency: A measurement of the number of electromagnetic waves that pass over a given point in a given
period of time.
FAQ : Frequently Asked Questions. A collection of information on the basics of any given subject. Often put
together and archived on a server so that people don't waste bandwidth asking simple questions.
FTP: File Transfer Protocol. A program that allows for file transfers over the Internet.
FUD: Fear, Uncertainty and Doubt. "FUD factor"
Function key: A keyboard key that gives an instruction to a computer, as opposed to keys that produce
letters, numbers, marks of punctuation, etc.
Garbage: Unwanted or meaningless information in memory, on disk or on a tape.
Gateway: An electronic door between one computer network and another. A device or set of devices that
connects two or more networks, enabling data transfer between them. When the networks are similar, a gateway
routes packets or messages. When the networks differ, a gateway also performs extensive protocol conversion.
GIF: Graphic Interchange Format. Compuserves non-platform specific format for low-resolution, compressed
graphics interchange.
Gopher: A client program available via the Internet that allows users to review and retrieve information on
other host systems via easy-to-use menus.
Graphic: A computer-generated picture produced on a computer screen or paper, ranging from simple line or
bar graphs to colorful and detailed images.
Groupware: Software that serves the group and makes the group as a whole more productive and efficient in
group tasks. Example: Group Scheduling.
GUI: Graphical User Interface. Defines a format for scroll bars, buttons, menus, etc., and how they respond to
the user.
H:Handshaking A procedure performed by modems, terminals, and computers to verify that communication
has been correctly established.
Hang: When a computer freezes, so that it does not respond to keyboard commands, it is said to "hang" or to
have "hung."
Hard copy: A printed copy of machine output in a visually readable form.
Hard disk: A data-recording system using solid disks of magnetic material turning at high speeds.
Hardware: Physical computer equipment such as electrical, electronic, magnetic and mechanical devices.
Hardwired: Circuits that are permanently interconnected to perform a specific function, as distinct from
circuits addressed by software in a program and, therefore, capable of performing a variety of functions, albeit
more slowly. Also used to describe a non-switched connection between devices.
Header: The portion of a message, preceding the actual data, containing source and destination address and
error-checking fields.
Help: Users in need of help can often issue a command such as "?" to access on-line help and tutorial systems.
Hierarchical file: A hierarchical file is one that contains information collected on multiple units of analysis
where each unit of analysis is subordinate to another unit. For example, if the physical housing structure is one
unit, and individual persons within the structure is another unit, the person records are subordinate (e.g. related
to) the housing unit. An example would be the Current Population Survey Annual Demographic File which has
household, family, and person units of analysis. Studies that include data for different units of analysis often
link those units to each other so that, for instance, one can analyze the persons as they group in a structure. Such
studies are sometimes referred to as having a relational structure.
Hierarchical file structure: A format for storing hierarchical files . Each unit of analysis has its own record
structure or record type . Different units of analysis do not necessarily have the same number of bytes or
characters as the records for other units of analysis. In order to give such a file a common physical record
length , short logical records are typically "padded" with blanks so that they will all be the same physical record
length. A hierarchical file can be also be stored in a rectangular file . For instance, the Survey of Income and
Program Participation is distributed both ways; users can choose the format they prefer. Typically, the
hierarchical file structure is more space-efficient but more difficult to use.
Host: A computer that is made available for use by multiple people simultaneously.
 Host computer: In the context of networks, a computer that directly provides service to a user. In contrast to
a network server, which provides services to a user through an intermediary host computer.
HTML: Hypertext Markup Language. A convention of codes used to access documents over the World-Wide
Web. Without HTML codes, a document would be unreadable by a Web browser.
HTTP: HyperText Transfer Protocol. Extremely fast protocol used for network file transfers in the WWW
environment.
Hub: A device that is a center of network activity because it connects multiple networks together.
Hyperlink: A pointer that when chosen displays the item to which it points. It typically takes the form of a
button or highlighted text that points to related text, picture, video, or audio. Hyperlinks allow non-linear
exploration of media that contain them.
Hypermedia: Media (such as text, graphics, video, audio) that contains hyperlinks.
Hypertext: A document which has been marked up to allow a user to select words or pictures within the
document, click on them, and connect to further information. The basis of the World-Wide Web.
Icons On-screen pictures that symbolize various commands.
I/O Input/Output. The part of a computer system or the activity that is primarily dedicated to the passing of
information into or out of a central processing unit.
IEEE Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers. A leading standards-setting group in the United States.
Inbox The mailbox that holds incoming e-mail.
Index A list of the messages contained in a conference or a mail folder. Indexes generally show the date of the
message, its title (or subject), the name of the user who wrote it, and an indication (with a "*" marker) of
whether you have read that message.
Information hiding A technique by which the structure and precise usage of information and data is
concealed. The information is private to its owning objects and accessible to all other objects only by sending a
message to the owner. This is the basis of encapsulation.
Information server A computer on the Internet which acts as a library of documents and files that users can
download.
Information superhighway A term popularized by Vice President Al Gore. According to his vision, it is a
high-speed network of computers that will serve thousands of users simultaneously, transmitting E-mail,
multimedia files, voice, and video.
Inheritance: The ability of hierarchically-arranged objects to acquire attributes and behaviors of objects
above them without duplicating the code.
Input: As a verb, to enter information, instructions, text, etc. , in a computer system or program. As a noun,
the data so entered. Input devices include the keyboard and OCR reader.
Instance: A particular occurrence of an object defined by a class. All instances of a class share the behavior
implemented and inherited by the class. Each instance has its own private set of the instance variables
implemented and inherited by the class.
Instantiation: The act of creating an instance of a class.
Instruction: A statement to the computer that specifies an operation to be performed and the values and
locations of the data to be processed.
Interactive: Pertaining to an application in which each entry evokes a response from a system or program, as
in an inquiry system, for example, an airline reservation system. An interactive system may also be
conversational, implying continuous dialog between the user and the system.
INTERNET: A concatenation of many individual TCP/IP campus, state, regional, and national networks
(such as CSUNET, SUPERNET, WESTNET, NSFNET, ARPANET) into one single logical network all
sharing a common addressing scheme. The global "network of networks" that connects huge corporations,
small businesses, universities, and individuals. Every Internet user can send E-Mail to every other Internet user.
Most Internet users can also read and post Netnews messages. In addition, many Internet users have access to
more advanced services for information search and retrieval, such as Gopher, FTP, WWW, and WAIS.
IP: Internet Protocol. The Internet standard protocol that provides a common layer over dissimilar networks,
used to move packets among host computers and through gateways if necessary.
 IP Address: The numeric address of a computer connected to the Internet; also called Internet address.
Interrupt: A suspension of a process, such as the execution of a computer program, caused by an event
external to the computer and performed in such a way that the process can be resumed. Events of this kind
include sensors monitoring laboratory equipment or a user pressing an interrupt key.
IRC: Internet Relay Chat, or just Chat. An on-line group discussion.
ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network. An international communications standard for a common
interface to digital networks that allows the integration of voice and data on a common transport mechanism.
Proposed by Bellcore for transmission of data, voice and higher-bandwidth technologies over phone lines.
ISO: International Standards Organization. International standard making body responsible for the OSI
network standards and the OSI reference model.
Job A set of data that defines a unit of work for a computer; it usually includes all necessary computer
programs, linkages, files and instructions to the operating system.
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group. The ISO proposed standard for compression of digital data,
especially 24-bit color images. It is lossy in that it reduces the file size at the expense of image quality.
PostScript Level 2 color printers are supposed to be able to receive, decompress and print JPEG compressed
images. Uses quantization and Huffman encoding.
Justify: In word processing, to print a document with even (straight, non-ragged) right and left margins.
Kermit: A communications protocol that allows you to transfer files between your computer and on-line
network systems. Kermit has built-in error correction and can handle binary (non-text) files.
Key: An identifier in a database or file. A primary key is a unique identifier. A secondary key is typically not
unique. A key may be used to specify data in a query. Example: Tag number to specify a car in a database of
automobile registration information.
Keyboard: Similar to a typewriter, contains the letters for typing text, and keys that give the computer its
commands.
kilobyte(K): 1,024 bytes, often used to mean 1,000 bytes.
LAN: Local Area Network. A network that usually covers a contiguous and fairly small geographical area.
LAN e-mail system: An e-mail system in which the UA runs on LAN-attached workstations.
Laserdisc: Large, metallic-looking records about the size of 33 RPM albums (12 inches in diameter),
sometimes called videodiscs. Laserdiscs can store a vast amount of information in text, sound, and images. To
play a laserdisc, you need a laserdisc player and either a computer monitor or television set. Laserdiscs come in
two formats. CLV (constant linear velocity) is accessed by time and CAV (constant angular velocity) is
accessed by frame number.
Laser printer: A electrophotographic (xerographic) printer in which a laser is used as the light source.
Layer: A grouping of related tasks involving the transfer of information. Also, a level of the OSI reference
model.
Line: In communications, a wire connecting a terminal to a computer; also a unit of text.
Line editor: An editor where the text is considered to be a series of lines separated by end-of-line markers
and in which alterations are made to individual lines or groups of lines through editor commands.
Line printer: A computer output device in which an entire line of print is composed and determined within
the printer prior to printing. The line is printed as a unit and there is no movement of a print head.
Link: A form of markup which designates that data within a document will automatically connect with either
nested data or an outside source. Used in the design of hypertext.
LISTSERV: A server that manages named lists of recipients and files and access-controls for them. Accepts
commands by interactive message or electronic mail. A note sent to a list name is resent to each recipient in the
list. Will send a copy of a file on command.
Load: v. To transfer a program held on some external storage medium (such as magnetic tape or disk) into the
main memory of the machine in a form suitable for execution.
Logical record: All the data for a given unit of analysis . It is distinguished from a physical record because it
may take several physical records to store all the data for a given unit of analysis. For instance, in Card Image
data, a "card" is a physical record and it usually takes several "cards" to store all the information for a single
case or unit of analysis.
Login or logon: The opening sequence of keystrokes used via computer screen instructions to connect to a
system or begin operations on a computer.
login ID: Same as account name or user ID.
Logoff: Leave a network system, usually by typing "bye" or "q" for quit. Sometimes called "logout."
Longitudinal Study: In survey research, a study in which the same group of individuals is interviewed at
intervals over a period of time. See also: panel study . Note that some cross sectional studies are done regularly
(for instance, the General Social Survey and the Current Population Survey (Annual Demographic File) are
conducted once a year), but different individuals are surveyed each time. Such a study is not a true longitudinal
study.
LPR: Line Printer Remote. A protocol that allows one system to send a file to another system to be queued to
a device to which the receiving system has access.
Lynx: A text-based World-Wide Web browser. Because it does not employ a graphics capability, it allows
slower computers (or computers using a modem) to access the Internet with ease.
Machine language: A programming language or instruction code that is immediately interpretable by the
hardware of the machine concerned.
Macro: A single computer instruction that stands for a given sequence of instructions.
Magnetic disk: A flat circular plate with a magnetizable surface layer used for storage of data.
Magnetic tape: A tape with a magnetizable surface layer on which data can be stored by magnetic recording.
MAIL: A RiceMail UA that can send mail and operate on incoming messages.
Mailbox: A file of e-mail messages on which a UA can operate as if they were incoming messages (read,
reply, forward, delete, etc). Compare with inbox.
MAILER: A BITNET MTA for VM/CMS that natively supports domain names and routing through
gateways. It is supplied without charge to BITNET members by Princeton University.
Main memory: Usually the fastest storage device of a computer and the one from which instructions are
executed.
Mainframe: The cabinet that houses the central processing unit and main memory of a computer system,
separate from peripheral devices such as card readers, printers, disk drives, etc. and device controllers. The term
has come to be applied to the computer itself in the case of large systems. A large computer system; the IBM
ES9000.
Mainframe, minicomputer, micro-computer: Three sizes of computers. Big corporations use mainframes
and large school systems might use a mid-range computer, sometimes called a minicomputer, as a file server
and administrative tool. The correct term for microcomputer is personal computer or PC.
MB: Megabytes. 1,048,576 bytes, often used to mean one million bytes (1,000,000) bytes.
Medium: The material used to support the transmission of data. This can be copper wire, coaxial cable,
optical fiber, or electromagnetic wave as in microwave.
Memory: A device or medium that serves for temporary storage of programs and data during program
execution. The term is synonymous with storage, although it is most frequently used for referring to the internal
storage of a computer that can be directly addressed by operating instructions. Your computer's temporary
storage capacity, measured in kilobytes (KB) or megabytes (MB) of RAM (random-access memory). Long-
term data storage on discs, is also measured in kilobytes or megabytes.
Menu: A displayed list of options from which a choice can be made. The list is often displayed with a code
opposite each option; the selection may be made by typing the appropriate code.
Message: E-Mail: The unit of information transferred by an e-mail system. It consists of an envelope that
identifies the recipients to an MTA; headers containing who the message is from, to, subject, relaying
information, etc; and a body that contains the information the sender wishes to communicate.
Method: A procedure whose code implements the behavior invoked by sending a message.
Methodology: A methodology is a collection of methods and tools, designed and arranged so as to provide
guidance in achieving a specific objective.
 Microcomputer: A computer system in which the central processing unit is built as a single tiny
semiconductor chip or as a small number of chips.
Microprocessor: Main computer chip that provides speed and capabilities of the computer. Also called CPU.
Microwave: Bandwidth ranging above one gigahertz, used for high-speed data transmission.
Mission: Purpose; what you are in business to do.
Modem: Short for MOdulation/DEModulation, it is a device that can convert a digital bit stream into an
analog signal (modulation) and can convert incoming analog signals back into digital signals (demodulation).
The analog communications channel is typically a telephone line and the analog signals are typically sounds.
Modem setup: Modem speed or baud rate, parity, data bits, stop bits, and duplex must be set the same at the
user's computer as at the network system. Communication software is used to set up the modem.
Module: A logically self-contained and discrete part of a larger computer program.
Monitor: A television-like screen that shows text, graphics, and other functions performed by the computer.
Mosaic: An Internet-based, global hypermedia browser that provides a unified interface to the various
protocols, data formats, and information archives (i.e. gopher) used on the Internet and enables powerful new
ways for discovering, using, viewing, and sharing information. It was developed by NCSA as part of the WWW
project.
Mouse: A device that is moved by hand to move a pointer to indicate a precise position on a display screen.
The device has one or more buttons on top and a cable connected to a computer; it may use wheels and be
friction-driven or it may use light reflected from a special pad.
Multimedia: A single work assembled using elements from more than one medium, such as high-resolution
color images, sounds, video, and text that contains characters in multiple fonts and styles.
Multimedia mail: Provides the capability to compose, send and read messages that include things such as
spreadsheets, line drawings, animated graphics, high-resolution color images, digitized speech, video, and
WYSIWYG text that may contain characters in multiple fonts and styles, etc.
Multiplexer: A device that merges information from multiple input channels to a single output channel.
Multiuser: The capability of some computer systems to provide access to many simultaneous users.
Nesting: Placing documents within other documents. Nesting allows a user to access material in a non-linear
fashion - this is the primary factor needed for developing hypertext.
NetScape: One of the most recent developments in browsing technology, it is considered to be faster than the
original Mosaic. Oddly enough, it has been designed by the Mosaic Corporation, made up of programmers that
authored Mosaic in the first place.
Network Layer: The third layer of the OSI reference model. It controls underlying telecommunications
functions such as routing, relaying, and data link connections.
Network: A collection of two or more computers interconnected by telephone lines, coaxial cables, satellite
links, radio, and/or some other communication technique. A computer "network" is a group of computers which
are connected together and which communicate with one another for a common purpose. Computer networks
support "people and organization" networks, users who also share a common purpose for communicating.
Nickname: A name that can be used in place of an e-mail address. Same as alias.
Node: A member of a network or a point where one or more functional units interconnect transmission lines.
A VAX is a node on a DECnet.
Noise: Undesirable signals bearing no desired information and frequently capable of introducing errors into
the communication process.
Object: An entity consisting of attributes (such as color and size) stored as data and behaviors or functions
(such as draw and move) that manipulate the attribute data. It is capable of interacting with other objects. As
defined by OMG: encapsulation of the attributes, relationships, and methods of software-identifiable program
components. Complete and reusable pieces of data or applications. Essentially packets of program code
wrapped with data that behave like things in the real world.
Object-based: Supports the concept of the object and the use of messages to communicate between the
objects.
 Object code: Output from a compiler or assembler that is itself executable machine code or is suitable for
processing to produce executable machine code.
Object-oriented: Supports the concepts of objects, encapsulation, message passing, dynamic binding and
inheritance.
Object-oriented technology: A collection of languages, tools, environments and methodologies aimed at
supporting development of software applications centered around interrelated, interacting objects.
OLE: Object Linking and Embedding. A Microsoft approach that allows data from one OLE application to be
placed in any document of another OLE application in such a way that you can edit the object using the first
application's capabilities without leaving the second application. With OLE2.0 you can move data using drag
and drop within and between documents and applications. OLE automation provides a cross-platform
infrastructure that allows one application to control another.
Off-line: Not connected to a network. You can save money on pay-for-use networks by preparing your
messages off-line using your word-processing software, and uploading them instead of typing them in while
you're connected to (or on-line with) the network.
On-line: Active and prepared for operation. Also suggests access to a computer network. Connected to a
network or via a network. Examples: Send me a message on-line. In other words, send me an e-mail message.
Online Service: Commercial online services like America Online, CompuServe, and Prodigy enable their
users to send and receive Internet E-Mail, although they don't yet offer access to most other Internet services.
Open: Under open systems, unencumbered specifications are freely available, independent branding and
certification processes exist, multiple implementations of a single product may be created and competition is
enhanced.
Open platform: A national Internet network that would allow citizens the ability to access, create, and
publish information.
Open system: A system that implements sufficiently open specifications for interfaces, services and
supporting formats to enable properly-engineered applications software to be ported with minimal changes
across a wide range of systems, to interoperate with other applications on local and remote systems, and to
interact with users in a style that facilitates user portability.
OSI: Open Systems Interconnect. An international standard suite of protocols defined by International
Standards Organization, that implements the OSI reference model for network communications between
computers.
Open Windows: A windowing environment from Sun Microsystems based on X-windows and NeWS.
Operating system: software that controls the basic, low-level hardware operations, and file management. It is
provides the link between the user and the hardware. Popular operating systems include: DOS, MacOS, VMS,
VM, MVS, UNIX, and OS/2. (Note that "Windows 3.x" is not an operating system as such, since in must have
DOS to work. )
Output: Information retrieved from a computer, displayed by a computer or produced by a program running
on a computer.
Packet: Basic component of communication over a network. A group of bits of fixed maximum size and well-
defined format that is switched and transmitted as a complete whole through a network. It contains source and
destination address, data and control information. See also frame.
Parameter: A variable, or quantity that can assume any of a given set of values, of which there are two kinds:
formal and actual. (See argument.)
Parity: Data has even or odd parity if the number of 1 bits is even or odd. A parity bit is a bit added to data to
make the parity always even or odd. A parity bit may be used for detection of errors in RAM as well as in data
transmitted through noisy communications channels. A parity error is detected when data that is supposed to be
even parity is not, or vice versa.
Password: A string of characters that a program, computer operator, or user must supply to meet security
requirements before gaining access.
Peripheral: Anything extra or added on for your computer, such as a modem, a mouse, or a fax adapter.
Peripherals can be added on externally or installed inside the machine.
 PC: Personal Computer. An IBM or IBM clone personal computer (Microcomputer) that is used by one
person, as opposed to a Macintosh.
Physical Layer: The first layer of the OSI reference model. It governs hardware connections and byte-stream
encoding for transmission.
Ping: Packet Internet Groper. Probably originally contrived to match the submariners term for a sonar pulse.
n. Slang term for a small network message (ICMP ECHO) sent by a computer to check for the presence and
aliveness of another.
Pixel: Picture Element. In computer graphics, the smallest element of a display space that can be
independently assigned color or intensity.
Platform: Hardware environment that supports the running of a computer system.
Plotter: An output device for translating information from a computer into pictorial or graphical form on
paper or a similar medium.
Polymorphism: A technique for generalizing a single behavior across many kinds of objects. It simplifies
software design, since a programmer need only specify an action or behavior (such as draw) and elaborate on
how it is implemented (for example, line or ellipse).
Port: That portion of a computer through which a peripheral device may communicate. Often identified with
the various plug-in jacks on the back of your computer. On a network hub, it is the connector that receives the
wire link from a node.
Portable: In computer usage, a file or program is "portable" if it can be used by a variety of software on a
variety of hardware platforms. Numeric data files written as plain character format files are fairly portable.
Post: The act of placing a message in an on-line conference. The noun "posting" is sometimes used to refer to
a conference message.
PostScript: A language defined by Adobe Systems, Inc. for describing how to create an image on a page. The
description is independent of the resolution of the device that will actually create the image. It includes a
technology for defining the shape of a font and creating a raster image at many different resolutions and sizes.
Power PC: A RISC CPU chip designed by IBM and Apple and manufactured by Motorola. It features a 32/64
bit implementation and full binary compatibility with the IBM RS/6000. Four models are planned: 601, 603,
604,and 620. The 601 borrows its basic architecture from the Model 200 RS/6000. It adopts the internal bus
structure of the Motorola 88100 and the construction plans from the 0.5 micron chip fabrication techniques
used by the Model 970 RS/6000. The 603 is an entry-level device targeted toward embedded applications and
low power consumption uses such as notebooks and low-end workstations. The 604 is a second-generation
version of the 601.
Presentation layer: The sixth layer of the OSI reference model. It lets an application interpret the data being
transferred.
Printer: An output device that converts the coded information from the processor into a readable form on
paper.
Printout: The printed output of a computer.
Procedure: A portion of a high-level language program that performs a specific task.
Process: A systematic sequence of operations to produce a specified result; a unique, finite course of events
defined by its purpose or by its effect and achieved under given conditions. As a verb, to perform operations on
data in a process. Also an address space and the code executing in it.
Program: A set of actions or instructions that a machine is capable of interpreting and executing. Used as a
verb, to design, write and test such instructions.
Programmer: A person who designs, write and tests computer programs.
Programming: A notation for the precise description of computer programs or algorithms. Programming
language languages are artificial languages in which the syntax and semantics are strictly defined.
Prompt: A character or message provided by an operating system or program to indicate that it is ready to
accept input.
 Protocol: An agreement that governs the procedures used to exchange information between cooperating
entities and usually includes how much information is to be sent, how often it is sent, how to recover from
transmission errors and who is to receive the information.
Public domain: Not protected by copyright; you may freely make copies and distribute them; you may make
derivative works.
Quality: It is meeting your own specifications and meeting your customers expectations. It is also concerned
with doing the right things and doing things right.
Query: A request that specifies the manner in which data is to be extracted from one or more databases.
Queue: A sequence of stored computer data or programs awaiting processing that are processed in the order
first-in first-out (FIFO).
Quit: Ends the work without writing out a new file or new version of the exiting work file unless there is a
save that interrupts before dumping the session.
RAID: Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks. A way of creating a fault-tolerant storage system. There are 6
levels. Level 0 uses byte-level striping. Level 1 uses mirroring. Level 2 uses bit-level striping. Level 3 stores
error correcting information (such as parity) on a separate disk, and uses data striping on the remaining drives.
Level 4 is level 3 with block level striping. Level 5 uses block level and parity data striping.
RAM: Random Access Memory. Memory in which each element can be individually addressed and accessed
with the same speed as any other element of the memory. The main memory of a computer is usually RAM.
One of the earliest forms of RAM was called core, because it consisted of directly addressed doughnuts or cores
of ferromagnetic material each of which represented one bit. A faster more recent form of RAM is called
Dynamic RAM.
Random access: Differs from direct access by the fact that each element can be accessed with the same ease
and speed as any other.
Re-engineering: The circular process of going from code to models then back to code that might be in a
different language, use a different DBMS or be more structured.
Read: To sense and retrieve or interpret data from a form of storage or input medium.
Read/write
A magnetic mechanism that can read, write and erase data encoded as polarized patterns on magnetic disk or
tape.
Realtime: The processing of transactions as they occur rather than batching them. Pertaining to an application
in which response to input is fast enough to affect subsequent inputs and guide the process and in which records
are updated immediately. The lag from input time to output time must be sufficiently small for acceptable
timeliness. Timeliness is a function of the total system: missile guidance requires output within a few
milliseconds of input, scheduling of steamships requires response time in days. Realtime systems are those with
response time of milliseconds, interactive system in seconds and batch system in hours or days.
Record: A collection of related data or words, treated as a unit. For example, in stock control, each invoice
could constitute one record.
Rrecord length: Depending on the context, the length in bytes (i.e., columns) of a physical record or a logical
record . On ICPSR Tape Information Forms and on CDNet, the abbreviation "RecLen" is used for physical
record length.
Record type: A record that has a consistent logical structure. In files that include different units of analysis,
for instance, different record types are needed to hold the different variables. For example, one record type
might have a variable for income in one column and another record type might have a variable for household
size in that same column. The codebook will describe these different structures and how to determine which is
which so that you can tell your statistical software how to interpret that particular column as income or
household size.
Recovery: The process by which data bases are rebuilt after a system fails.
Rectangular file: A physical file structure. A rectangular file is one which contains the same number of card-
images or the same physical record length for each respondent or unit of analysis . A Hierarchical file can be
stored in a rectangular file structure by storing all units of analysis in a single physical record . For instance,
each record might contain one household unit, two family units, and four person units for each family unit. This
method of storage of hierarchical files can be very inefficient in terms of storage space, but can make the file
easier to describe and work with.
Reel tape: One-half inch magnetic tape stored on round reels. Also called Round Tape.
Relational database: An organization of data into tables with each column containing the values of a data
element and each row representing a record.
Relational structure: A study that includes different units of analysis, particularly when those units are not
arranged in a strict hierarchy as they are in a hierarchical file, has a relational structure. Note that the data could
be arranged in several different physical structures to handle such a data structure. For instance, each unit of
analysis might be stored in a separate rectangular file with identification numbers linking each case to the other
units; or, the different units of analysis might be stored in one large file with a hierarchical file structure; or the
different units could be stored in a special database structure used by a relational data base management system
such as INGRES. An example of a study with a relational structure is the Survey of Income and Program
Participation which has eight or more record types; these record types are related to each other but are not all
members of a hierarchy of membership. For instance, there are record types for household, family, person,
wage and salary job, and general income amounts.
Remote: Equipment or site that is located out of the way or at a distance from primary equipment or a larger
or primary site. Sometimes used as the opposite of local.
Remote access: The ability to access a computer from outside a building in which it is housed. Remote access
requires communications hardware, software, and actual physical links, although this can be as simple as
common carrier (telephone) lines or as complex as TELNET login to another computer across the Internet.
Resource: An on-line information set or an on-line interactive option. An on-line library catalog or the local
school lunch menu are examples of information sets. On-line menus or graphical user interfaces, Internet e-
mail, on-line conferences, telnet, FTP, and Gopher are examples of interactive options.
Response: A message placed in a conference as a follow-up to a topic or to another response; or, a reply to an
e-mail message.
Retiming: A function of a repeater or Ethernet hub that receives a signal, cleans and regenerates it, and then
sends it.
Return key: The key on a terminal keyboard that, when struck, places the cursor at the left margin one line
below its previous horizontal position.
Reuse and reusability: An approach to software engineering that emphasizes reusing software assets,
including designs and code, and building software assets likely to be reuseable in future applications.
Reverse engineering: The process of going from the more concrete level of code to the more abstract level of
models for data and processes.
ROM: Read-only memory. Information is stored once, usually by the manufacturer, that cannot be changed.
Most compact discs are ROM.
Root directory: The directory that contains all other directories.
Router: A device connecting separate networks that forwards a packet from one network to another based
only on the network address for the protocol being used. For example, an IP router looks only at the IP network
number.
Routine: Part of a computer program, or a sequence of instructions called by a program, that may have some
general or frequent use.
Routing: The process of finding a path over which a packet can travel to reach its destination.
Run: The single, continuous execution of a program by a computer on a given set of data. As a verb, to
initiate processing by a program.
Scanner: A device that senses alterations of light and dark.
Scheduling: An automated capability to schedule meetings and/or resources (such as meeting rooms,
projectors, etc.) by looking at online calendars.
Screen: The surface of a monitor on which information can be viewed.
 screen editor: A program that allows a file to be edited by making changes to the text displayed on the
screen. It may also support commands to make changes to the whole file at once. Changes to the portion
displayed on the screen are immediately shown.
Scroll: To move all or part of the display image vertically or horizontally to view data otherwise excluded.
Scrolling can be performed with a mouse in the horizontal/vertical bars on each window or by using the page
up/down - home/end - or arrow keys.
Segment: A section of network wiring. Segments are connected by repeaters, bridges or routers.
Sequential: A method of storing and retrieving information that requires data to be written and read
sequentially. Accessing any portion of the data requires reading all the preceding data.
Server: A computer that shares its resources, such as printers and files, with other computers on the network.
An example of this is a Network Files System Server which shares its disk space with a workstation that does
not have a disk drive of its own.
service (or service provider): An organization that provides access to part of the Internet. You have to
arrange for an account with a service to connect your computer to the Internet.
Session: Networking term used to refer to the logical stream of data flowing between two programs and being
communicated over a network. There may be many different sessions emanating from any one node on a
network.
Session Layer: The fifth layer of the OSI reference model, it provides the means for two session service users
to organize and synchronize their dialogs and manage data exchange.
Shareware: Protected by copyright; holder allows you to make and distribute copies under the condition that
those who adopt the software after preview pay a fee to the holder of the copyright; derivative works are not
allowed; you may make an archival copy.
Shell: A term that usually refers to the user interface of an operating system. A shell is the command
processor that is the actual interface between the kernel and the user. The C shell or the Bourne shell are the
primary user interfaces on UNIX systems. Contrasts with the kernel, which interacts with the computer at low
levels.
Simulation: An imitation of the behavior of some existing or intended system, or some aspect of that
behavior. Examples of areas where simulation is used include communications network design, weather
forecasting and training. Physical systems can also be simulated, for example, chemical or nuclear reactions.
Smiley:Character combinations such as :-) to denote whether a message is being made in jest with various
modifications thereof ;-) to wink, etc. Also called emoticons, since not all are smiling %-( .
Soft copy: An electronic version of a file, usually in computer memory and/or on disk; as opposed to hard
copy, the paper printout.
Software: Computer programs that perform various tasks. Word processing programs (like WordPerfect or
Microsoft Word), spreadsheet programs (like Lotus or Excel), or database programs (like dBase III+, Foxbase,
or FileMaker) are all software.
Software tool: A program that is employed in the development, repair or enhancement of other programs.
Tools include editors, compilers and linkers. Also refers to utilities, such as formatters and file utilities.
Sort: To arrange a set of items in sequence according to keys; for example, to arrange the records of a
personnel file into alphabetical order by using the employee names as sort keys.
Source code: The program in a language prepared by the programmer. This code cannot be directly executed
by the computer and must first be translated into object code.
SPARC: Scalable Processor ARChitecture. Trademark of SunMicrosystems 32-bit RISC microprocessor
architecture. The architecture is open in the sense that other vendors can obtain the processor chips and
documentation sufficient to build computers using it.
SPARC station: A workstation (usually a Sun Microsystems brand) based on the SPARC chip.
Sponge: A job that runs in the background on the IBM 3090 mainframe computer in such a way that it uses
only those CPU cycles not needed by other work, yet is so computationally intense that it soaks up all unused
CPU cycles.
 Spool: Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On-Line. A scheme that allows multiple devices to simultaneously
write output to the same device such as multiple computers printing to the same printer at the same time. The
data are actually written to temporary files while a program called a spooler sends the files to the device one at
a time.
Spreadsheet Software program that allows mathematical calculations, such as budgeting, keeping track of
investments, or tracking grades.
SQL: Structured Query Language. ANSI standard data manipulation language used in most relational data
base systems. A language for requesting data from a relational database.
Storage: A device or medium that can retain data for subsequent retrieval.
Strategy: long-term plan, tactic, or scheme for attaining a vision.
String: A sequence of characters.
Striping: Disk striping copies blocks, bytes or bits across multiple disks in such a way that if one disk is lost,
the data can be created using the blocks or bits on the remaining disks.
Sun Microsystems: Sun originally stood for Stanford University Network, a name given to a printed circuit
board developed in 1981 that was designed to run UNIX.
SunOS: The name of the operating system of the workstation from Sun Microsystems. It is based on Berkeley
UNIX and AT&Ts System V UNIX. It is composed of three major parts: the kernel and file system, shells and
graphical interfaces, and utility programs.
Surfing: Netspeak for wandering, whether one is surfing through cable stations or surfing the Internet.
Tape density: A measure of how much data, can fit on a magnetic tape.
Task: A separately dispatchable function on a computer.
TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/INTERNET Protocol. The communication protocols on which the
Internet is based.
TEAM: Together Everyone Accomplishes More
Telecommunication: Communicating with other people through the computer using communication software
and modems.
Telecomputing: Using computers for telecommunication; computer networking.
TELNET: A program that allows users on the Internet to log in to remote systems from their own host
system.
Terminal: A device connected to a computer network that acts as a point for entry or retrieval of information.
Personal computers can be made to act as network terminals, by running terminal emulation (communication)
programs.
Terminal emulation: Most communications software packages will permit a personal computer or
workstation to communicate with another computer or network as if it were a specific type of hardware
terminal.
Terminal server: A device that allows asynchronous devices such as terminals to select and then
communicate with hosts or other devices over a network.
Terabyte: 1,099,551,627,776 bytes, often used to mean one trillion bytes (1,000,000,000,000).
Text: A string of characters. A text file should contain only characters - as opposed to codes or commands.
Time out: What happens when two computers are talking and one fails to respond within a certain time, for
whatever reason.
Time series: Observations of a variable made over time. Many economic studies such as International
Financial Statistics, and Citibase are time series datafiles. Time series, of a sort, can also be constructed from a
cross sectional study if the same questions are asked more than once over time.
TN3270: A version of TELNET providing IBM full-screen support.
Toggle: Using one command or keystroke to change between one mode and its opposite.
Token ring: A LAN and protocol in which nodes are connected together in a ring and communication is
controlled by a special packet called a token that is passed from node to node around the ring. A node can send
data only when it receives the token and the token is not in use. Data is sent by attaching it to the token. The
receiving node removes the data from the token.
 Topic: In a conference, a message which is generally written to convey a new idea or a new piece of
information, relevant to that conference.
Transfer: To copy or move information from one computer to another.
Transport Layer: The fourth layer of the OSI reference model. It provides transparent, reliable and cost-
effective transfer of data.
Tree: A way of organizing information with general categories at the top, subcategories below, and narrower
subcategories on a further level.
UNIX: A popular computer software operating system used on many Internet host systems.
Upload: To transfer information from a users system to a remote system. Opposite of download.
URL: Uniform Resource Locater. A scheme used to locate a document accessible over the Internet.
Usenet: The network of UNIX users, generally perceived as informal and made up of loosely coupled nodes
that exchange mail and messages. Started by Duke University and UNC-Chapel Hill. An information
cooperative linking around 16,000 computer sites and about 1 million people. Usenet provides a series of "news
groups" analogous to on-line conferences.
User: Anyone who uses a computer connected to the Internet.
User-friendly: A system or program that relatively untrained users can interact with easily.
Userid: A code that uniquely identifies a user and then provides access privileges to a computer system.
Username: Account name or user ID.
Utility: A specialized program that performs a frequently required everyday task such as sorting, report
program generation, or file updating.
Variable: In social science research, for each unit of analysis , each item of data (e.g., age of person, income
of family, consumer price index) is called a variable.
Vision: A future-oriented statement of where you want to be, of what you want things to be like.
Virtual: Pertaining to a device or facility that does not physically exist, yet behaves as if it does. For example,
a system with 4 megabytes of virtual memory may have only one megabyte of physical memory plus additional
(slower and cheaper) auxiliary memory. Yet programs written as if 4 megabytes of physical memory were
available will run correctly.
Virtual terminal: A program that makes a general purpose computer behave like a terminal.
VMS: Virtual Memory System. An operating system for the VAX and Alpha computers of Digital Equipment
Corporation.
Virus: A program that can make a copy of itself without you necessarily being aware of it; some viruses can
destroy or damage files, and generally the best protection is to always maintain backups of your files
Volume: A physical unit of a storage medium, such as tape reel or disk pack, that is capable of having data
recorded on it and subsequently read. Also refers to a contiguous collection of cylinders or blocks on a disk that
are treated as a separate unit.
Wavelength: The length of one complete electromagnetic wave, measured usually from crest to crest or
trough to trough of successive vibrations.
Whois: The name of the nickname database that contains full name, postal address, telephone number, and
network mailbox for registered users. Also the name of the local command to access this database, and the
name of the protocol used by this command (RFC-954) that is now an elective draft standard.
Window: A rectangular area on a display screen in which part of an image or file is displayed. The window
can be any size up to that of the screen and more than one window can be displayed at once.
Windows: A trademark of Microsoft Corporation for a software product that provides an environment for a
graphical user interface for DOS and DOS applications.
Word processor: A program used to enter or edit text information in personal computers, often used to create
a file before it is uploaded to a network; may also be used to process text after it has been downloaded.
Wordwrap: An editor feature that causes a word that will not fit on a line to be moved in its entirety to the
next line rather than be split at the right margin.
 Work space: Disk space made available to the system to provide temporary storage space for files too large
to fit within a users permanent disk storage quota or for files not needed beyond a single run of a program or set
of programs.
Workstation: A general purpose computer that is small enough and inexpensive enough to reside at a persons
work area for his or her exclusive use. It includes microcomputers such as Macintosh, and PCs running DOS, as
well as high-performance desktop and deskside computers.
Write: To record data in a storage device, a data medium, or an output display. To save information,
especially files, to a disk, to replace old data with new and permit later access from within a software package;
the complement of read.
WWW: World Wide Web. A wide-area hypermedia information retrieval technology that interconnects
information around the world. It allows you to travel through the information by clicking on hyperlinks that can
point to any document anywhere on the Internet. Originated at CERN and collaborated upon by a large,
informal, and international design and development team, WWW allows links inside and between documents,
plus pointers to FTP sites, news, telnet sessions, gopher sites, and WAIS databases.
X window system: A standard for controlling the display on a bitmapped terminal. X-windows normally uses
a network connection, and unlike the typical terminal connection, multiple applications possibly on different
computers can use the display simultaneously in different windows.
X-term: An X-windows client that provides a window for terminal emulation.
PROGRAMMING
A computer program : A computer program is a collection of instructions that can be executed by a
computer to perform a specific task. Most computer devices require programs to function properly. A computer
program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language.
Software : Computer software consists of both programs and data. Programs consist of instructions for the
processor. Data can be any information that a program needs: character data, numerical data, image data, audio
data, and countless other types. The distinction between programs and data is not as clear-cut as you might
think, however.
Types of Programs
There are two categories of programs. Application programs (usually called just "applications") are programs
that people use to get their work done. Computers exist because people want to run these programs. Systems
programs keep the hardware and software running together smoothly. The difference between "application
program" and "system program" is fuzzy (indistinct). Often it is more a matter of marketing than of logic. The
most important systems program is the operating system. The operating system is always present when a
computer is running. It coordinates the operation of the other hardware and software components of the
computer system. The operating system is responsible for starting up application programs, running them, and
managing the resources that they need. When an application program is running, the operating system manages
the details of the hardware for it. For example, when you type characters on the keyboard, the operating system
determines which application program they are intended for and does the work of getting them there. Some
embedded systems do not use an operating system, but run their programs directly on the processor.
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software
resources, and provides common services for computer programs. Modern operating systems for desktop
computers come with a user interface that enables users to easily interact with application programs (and with
the operating system itself) by using windows, buttons, menus, icons, the mouse, and the keyboard. Examples
of operating systems are Unix, Linux, Android, Mac OS, and Windows.
Application Programs Systems Programs
 Word processors  Operating system
 Game programs  Networking system
 Spreadsheets  Programming language software
 Data base systems  Web site server
 Graphics programs  Data backup
 Web browsers
 Fundamental Idea: Both programs and data are saved in computer memory in the same way. The electronics
of computer memory (both main memory and secondary memory) make no distinction between programs and
data.
The insight that both programs and data can be saved using the same electronic methods is an important
concept in computer science. Computer systems use memory for either programs or data, as needed.
Programmers use an integrated development environment for formatting code, checking syntax, and testing
programs. Learn about some of the specific tools used by programmers, such as syntax highlighting, auto
completion, and debugging.
Steps to Writing a Program
The general steps for writing a program include the following:
1. Understand the problem you are trying to solve
2. Design a solution
3. Draw a flow chart
4. Write pseudo-code
5. Write code
6. Test and debug
7. Test with real-world users
8. Release program
9. Iterate (repeat) the steps for the next version
This lesson will look more closely at writing code in programming language. Once code has been written, it
has to be tested and debugged to make sure it works as intended.
Writing Code
Computer code is essentially a list of instructions that can be run by a certain program. Most code consists of
plain-text documents so they can be used for many different programs. A unique file extension is given to the
document to indicate the nature of the code. For example, a file created using Python is saved with a .py
extension, like '[Link].' However, the actual content of the file is still just plain text. Because most code
is in plain text, you can write code using a basic word processor or text editor. However, it is much more
effective to use a software application that is specifically designed for coding in a particular language. For
example, when you write a document in plain English, you would use word processor software, which can
assist you with things such as formatting, spelling, and grammar. Similarly, a code editor provides tools such as
syntax checking. Syntax is to code what spelling and grammar are to writing English. A code editor is also
called an integrated development environment, or IDE. An IDE is a software application for formatting your
code, checking syntax, as well as running and testing your code. Some IDEs can work with multiple
programming languages, while some are very specific for only one language.
COMPUTER MODELS IN AGRICULTURE
What is a Model? It is a simplified description (often, a mathematical representation) of a system to assist
calculations and predictions. In the present context, ‘model’ is expressed as a computer program that can be
repeatedly run several times for computing several designed mathematical or statistical expressions (equations)
governing crop growth-environment relations, given appropriate input data.
Simulation: This is the reproduction of an observed phenomenon (e.g., growth of biomass with time; water
use by a growing crop etc.,) by developing a model and a computer programme written for it. Such a
programme usually is comprised of mathematical, statistical, physical, graphical or empirical expressions
relating the various parameters given as input information or data.
Description: Model is a concept; simulation helps reproduction of a system in the laboratory using the
concept;; could contain measurable or estimated parameter values or both. Most often, the computer
programme written for any particular purpose is itself called a model. Crop-environment interactions are
unlimited in number. They can be studied from several points of view (physical, physiological, chemical,
biochemical, bio-technological, agronomical, entomological or pathological, economic benefit angles etc.,). We
have the roots growing with passage of time and interacting with soil, taking up water and nutrients for
transport to the aboveground parts of a plant. The stem, branches, leaves as they grow interact with
environment (both individually and together), under the influence of solar radiation to produce flowers and
pods / oils, 2 grains— ultimately yield. Evapo-transpiration, Leaf-air interactions, Photosynthesis, respiration,
carbon dioxide assimilation, are the other processes involved in crop growth. Crop is also affected by
pest/disease incidence. Thus crop growth is usually viewed as a “complex system” which comprises of “sub-
systems” in which several processes take place. One process leads to the other and so, individual processes
(water or nutrient uptake by roots, biomass accumulation, grain growth etc.,) are considered as “sub-systems”.
All the processes which interact among themselves (since the start of growth of plant from seeding to final
yield) and put together are considered as a “system”. Thus one can have “sub-models” as part of a “model”,
“sub-systems” and a “System”. One can simulate water uptake, branching pattern and growth, leaf
development, pod growth, etc. and their interaction with soil and aerial environment, as individual models. The
point to note is that there is no limit to the items that can be taken up to develop a simulation model. Systems
analysis models: Modeling several of the soil-plant-atmosphere-water interactions which are mutually
dependent on each other resulting in crop growth, popularly known as the SPAW-system, is a linked single
entity of sub-systems. System models could also include economic factors such as operating costs, cost-benefit
ratios from the time land is prepared, till transport and marketing of the produce. Examples of systems-model
are the Oryza model for rice, CERES maize model, DISSAT models etc., which have several component sub-
systems
Types
Systems analysis models: Modeling several of the soil-plant-atmosphere-water interactions which are
mutually dependent on each other resulting in crop growth, popularly known as the SPAW-system, is a linked
single entity of sub-systems. System models could also include economic factors such as operating costs, cost-
benefit ratios from the time land is prepared, till transport and marketing of the produce. Examples of systems-
model are the Oryza model for rice, CERES maize model, DISSAT models etc., which have several component
sub-systems.
Subsystems: These are parts of a complex ‘whole’ which themselves could be viewed independently where
needed. Rainfall-yield model, Soil moisture distribution model, rainfall-run off model, root growth model etc.,
are all sub-systems. Interaction among leaf-atmospheric vapour, stomatal resistance, air stream adjoining the
leaf surface, net radiation could be the parameters of a theoretical (mechanistic) subsystem model development.
Each such objective can become a submodel material. In modeling crop-weather interactions, possibilities are
immense and limitless. Ultimately, such subsystems can be appropriately connected to evolve them into a
single ‘Systemmodel’. Mechanistic process models: A process model is an elaborate and practically complete
description of the mechanism involved in a process—e.g., photosynthesis, green or dry matter production,
partitioning of 3 photosynthates, soil water uptake and transport by the root system etc., Such models for crop
growth usually are designed to compute the products daily to simulate growth of a plant including all known
processes (the underlying mechanisms) in the soil-plant-water-environment system. These could include water-
fertilizer uptake and their transport, effect of flood and water logging, effect of pest-disease incidence etc.,
popularly known as the dynamic crop growth simulation models, since, given the relevant data input, they are
designed to compute day-to-day expected crop growth as a result of several growth related phenomena that
ultimately influence the yield.
Operational models: On the other hand, operational models(for day-to-day field operations) in relation to
the SPAW system can be developed to simulate crop growth using known relations (statistical, empirical,
mathematical or graphical models) depending on data availability, regional and local crop-environmental
conditions for growth, including or bypassing some of the mechanistic details involved in the system.
Statistical models and dynamic simulation models Crop-weather modelling has two approaches (i)
statistical (ii) dynamic simulation modelling. Statistical approach has found wide application since the early
20th century but it has several limitations for application in operational agriculture at the present time. Dynamic
simulation approach similarly has both advantages and disadvantages. Process oriented approaches are
considered desirable for establishing rate-processes and linkages in the soil-plant-atmosphere-water flow
system. They have their own role to play more as research tools and for yield forecasting rather than for field
operations.
Dynamic simulation models: On the other hand, dynamic simulation models seek to compute such growth
values on a day to day basis using the relations between crop growth parameters and weather parameters. It
seeks to rebuild the day to day crop growth in mathematical or mechanistic terms (simulation) depending on the
magnitude of rainfall (or any other parameters) on a particular day and magnitude of a crop parameter (or other
parameters like physiological, soil, biological parameters) representing crop growth till that day. i.e., daily
simulation is done depending on the parameter values obtaining on a 5 day and cumulated over the growth
period.. Such simulation is continued till harvest time.
“Growing the crop on the computer” is a popular expression. It is not essential to run a mechanistic model
for all purposes. In subsystems of such models, several assumptions are made with boundary conditions. One
need not always look to full-scale mechanistic models and systems approach for finding solutions to day-to-day
problems arising in agriculture operations imposed by short-period adverse weather conditions. Individual
subroutines can be utilized profitably.
Graphical and Checklist models: Besides simulation models, graphical, parametric or checklist models are
also useful in day-to-day work in field operational decisions. These are developed from thumb rules from past
experience and simple relations between crop growth and related environmental parameters For example, at a
particular growth stage of crop, afternoon humidity more than 60percent, a brief rainfall of 3mm or more,
temperature between 25 to 30°C is known to initiate a pest/disease development, Such information can be
displayed in a graphical form everyday and marked ‘favourable’ or ‘unfavourable’ using weather data.
CROP-ENVIRONMENT MODELS. A pertinent question in the above context is: Is it always essential to
use mechanistic models? The answer is “NO”. Mechanistic models are more geared towards research and need
several data inputs which are always not measurable or experimented at every location. This is a physiological
approach, and such models also involve several approximations and estimates often resulting in deviations from
the actual. Crop-weather models should preferably be designed as operational models needing weather and
agronomic data with no genetic coefficients involved, or not always requiring potential conditions of moisture
or nutrients etc.,
These are only a few examples and not an exhaustive list.
1. Rainfall- yield model (atmospheric drought, flood)
2. ET-biomass-yield model ---(Yield potential)
3. Rainfall-soil moisture distribution model – (ET, Water balance)
4. Rainfall-soil water balance-yield model.
5. Solar radiation interception, LAI, green/dry matter production (Remote sensing) Rainfall
intensity / surface run-off model ----- (water harvesting) Root zone moisture linked to growth
phase ----
6. water availability to crop Yield potential models without any constraints (for water, soil,
pest disease, nutrient etc.,)
7. Water –nutrient uptake ---yield models
8. Yield potential models with constraints like drought, water logging, pest/disease etc.,
9. Yield correction models for catastrophic or disastrous events linked to growth phase
10. Storms and cyclones
11. Heat and cold waves
Potential uses and limitations of crop models
Crop models have many current and potential uses for answering questions in research, crop management, and
policy. Models can assist in synthesis of research understanding about the interactions of genetics, physiology,
and the environment, integration across disciplines, and organization of data. They can assist in preseason and
in-season management decisions on cultural practices, fertilization, irrigation, and pesticide use. Crop models
can assist policy makers by predicting soil erosion, leaching of agrichemicals, effects of climatic change, and
large-area yield forecasts. Cautions and limitations in model uses are suggested, because appropriate use for a
particular purpose depends on whether the model complexity is appropriate to the question being asked and
whether the model has been tested in diverse environments. There is a need for both complex and simple
models. In some cases, simple models are not appropriate because they are not programmed to address a
particular phenomenon. In other cases, complex models are not appropriate because they may require inputs
that are not practical to obtain in a field situation Modellers need to be forthright in model description and
promotion. For example, what does a given model respond to? What are the limitations of the model? What
factors does the model not address. What are the limitations of inputs to run the models? Examples are given of
model use to evaluate genetic improvement in photosynthesis and seed-
LIGHT INTERCEPTION AND CROP GROWTH
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is the amount of light available for photosynthesis, which is
light in the 400 to 700 nanometer wavelength range. PAR changes seasonally and varies depending on the
latitude and time of day. Levels are greatest during the summer at mid-day. Factors that reduce the amount of
PAR available to plants include anything that reduces sunlight, such as cloud cover, shading by trees, and
buildings. Air pollution also affects PAR by filtering out the amount of sunlight that can reach plants. Usually
measured in Einsteins (Einstein = 6.02 x 1023 photons or one mole of photons). At night, PAR is zero. During
mid-day in the summer, PAR often reaches 2,000 to 3,000 millimoles per square meter.
How is Photosynthetically Active Radiation measured? Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is
reported as millimoles of light energy per square meter. Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is measured
by a silicon photovoltaic detector.

This detector measures light in the 400 nanometer to 700 nanometer range. Some PAR sensors measure the
PPFD of photosynthetically active radiation.
PAR Spectral Characteristics of the Crop: Spectral characteristics explains the reflectance , transmittance,
absorption of surface under different wavelength . spectral properties of a vegetation or canopy or it’s
components like leaves, stems, ear head in the wavelength visible (0.4 -0.7µm) , NIR(0.76-1.0 µm ),mid IRC
(2.0- 4.0 µm) can be measured with spectral radiometer (LICOR-1800-10) with cosine correction.
Diurnal Pattern and Seasonal variation : PAR, albedo increases from PI (panicle initiation) to flag leaf as
LAI and chlorophyll concentration increases further till boot stage as LAI becomes highest .PAR albedo at boot
to 50% flowering. Green reflectance decreases with senescence. Moisture stress increases blue and red
reflectance. Changes in Spectral Composition in Plant Canopy : The spectral composition of the radiation after
transmission changes. This may be partly due to the factor that most of the visible (about 80% in maize) is
absorbed by leaf however the leaf allows the transmission of IR radiation. Kyle (1971) found that 30-40% IR
transmitted to the ground while only 5-10 % of visible part transmitted to the ground in corn crop.
Light Distribution in canopy: There is a exponential relationship between light intensity and height in the
canopy which is know as Beer’s Law. In double plant density of a crop, less incident radiations travel to the
ground as compare to single planting. In closer spacing also, less penetration of radiation takes place.
Computer For Crop Water Requirement
CROPWAT is a decision support tool developed by the Land and Water Development Division of FAO.
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program for the calculation of crop water requirements and
irrigation requirements based on soil, climate and crop data. In addition, the program allows the development of
irrigation schedules for different management conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for
varying crop patterns. CROPWAT 8.0 can also be used to evaluate farmers’ irrigation practices and to estimate
crop performance under both rainfed and irrigated conditions.
All calculation procedures used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the two FAO publications of the Irrigation
and Drainage Series, namely, No. 56 "Crop Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water
requirements” and No. 33 titled "Yield response to water".

As a starting point, and only to be used when local data are not available, CROPWAT 8.0 includes
standard crop and soil data. When local data are available, these data files can be easily modified or new
ones can be created. Likewise, if local climatic data are not available, these can be obtained for over 5,000
stations worldwide from CLIMWAT, the associated climatic database. The development of irrigation
schedules in CROPWAT 8.0 is based on a daily soil-water balance using various user-defined options for
water supply and irrigation management conditions. Scheme water supply is calculated according to the
cropping pattern defined by the user, which can include up to 20 crops.
CROPWAT 8.0 is a Windows program based on the previous DOS versions. Apart from a completely
redesigned user interface, CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows includes a host of updated and new features,
including:
1. monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of reference evapo-transpiration (ETo)
2. backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
3. possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
4. decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated calculation algorithms
including adjustment of crop-coefficient values
5. calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for paddy & upland rice, using a newly
developed procedure to calculate water requirements including the land preparation period
6. interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
7. daily soil water balance output tables
8. easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user-defined irrigation schedules
9. graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation schedules
10. easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
11. extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
12. context-sensitive help system
13. Multilingual interface and help system: English, Spanish, French and Russia
Computing For Crop Nutrient Requirement

1. Tiger Calculator: With this calculator, customers can enter the amount of yield they would like to
harvest and the Tiger-sul product that they would like to use. The Tiger-sul application will calculate
and show you the amount of product that should be used on your crops.
2. Nutrient Removal Calculator: With this advanced calculator, farmers will enter the crop that they
would like to harvest and Tiger-sul will calculate the amount of nutrients that will be absorbed. In short,
this calculator will show the amount and name of nutrients that will be removed from the soil. The App
covers all macro, secondary and micronutrients like N, P, K, S, Mg, Ca, Cu, Mn, Zn, B and Fe.
3. Nutrient Deficiency Image Library: The image library is divided into three categories: Primary,
Secondary and Micro. These categories will have its set of nutrients, along with a ‘filter’ category. With
filter, you can choose a specific crop. The library will show several pictures of said crop and the farmer
will choose a picture of the crop that is identical to their crop’s current situation. You can then find out
about the nutrients that are missing from your crop, in order for you to understand how to make your
crop healthier again.
4. Languages: The Tiger-sul application is available in four languages for the convenience of customers
worldwide: English, Chinese-Mandarin, Spanish and Portuguese.
Computer, controlled devices (automated systems) for Agri-input management
1. Office Automation: The office automation is application of computers, computer networks, telephone
networks, and other office automation tool such as photocopy machines, scanners, printers, cleaning
equipment, and electronic security systems to increase the productivity of organizations. There are many
government, private and non-government organizations involved in agriculture sector and rural
development. They all have to work together to give better service to farming community. Therefore,
application of office automation is one of the solutions to enhance the efficiency and inter-connectivity of
the employees work in all above mentioned organizations. Many computer applications such as MS Office,
Internet Explorer, [Link] and other tailor-made office automation software packages are
providing unlimited potential to organizations and individuals to fulfill their day to day data processing
requirements to give an efficient service to their customers.
 2. Automatic milking is the milking of dairy animals, especially of dairy cattle, without human
labour. Automatic milking systems (AMS), also called voluntary milking systems (VMS), were
developed in the late 20th century. They have been commercially available since the early 1990s. The core
of such systems that allows complete automation of the milking process is a type of agricultural robot.
Automated milking is therefore also called robotic milking. Common systems rely on the use
of computers and special herd management software. Also it used to monitor the health status of cows.
3, An agricultural robot is a robot deployed for agricultural purposes. The main area of application of
robots in agriculture today is at the harvesting stage. Emerging applications of robots or drones in agriculture
include weed control, cloud seeding, planting seeds, harvesting, environmental monitoring and soil analysis.
According to Verified Market Research, the agricultural robots market is expected to reach $11.58 billion by
2025. Fruit picking robots, driverless tractor / sprayers, and sheep shearing robots are designed to
replace human labor. In most cases, a lot of factors have to be considered (e.g., the size and color of the fruit
to be picked) before the commencement of a task. Robots can be used for other horticultural tasks such
as pruning, weeding, spraying and monitoring. Robots can also be used in livestock applications (livestock
robotics) such as automatic milking, washing and castrating. Robots like these have many benefits for the
agricultural industry, including a higher quality of fresh produce, lower production costs, and a decreased
need for manual labour. They can also be used to automate manual tasks, such as weed or bracken spraying,
where the use of tractors and other manned vehicles is too dangerous for the operators.
SMARTPHONE MOBILE APPS IN AGRICULTURE
A mobile application, also referred to as a mobile app or simply an app, is a computer program or
software application designed to run on a mobile device such as a phone, tablet, or watch. There are apps for
social networks, banking, travel, health, fitness, news, calendars, games, you name it, there is sure to be an
app there for it. The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to support the transmission
of localized information and services working towards making farming socially, economically and
environmentally sustainable, while contributing to the delivery of nutritious and economical food for all –
this comprises the Digital Agriculture. 10 important Apps
Here are 10 Mobile Apps that has made agriculture easy and more productive for the farmers:
1. Kisan Suvidha- Launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2016 to work towards empowerment
of farmers and development of villages, the app design is neat and offers a user-friendly interface. It
provides information on current weather and also the forecast for the next five days, market prices of
commodities/crops in the nearest town, knowledge on fertilizers, seeds, machinery etc. The option to use the
app in different languages makes it more widely accessible.
2. Pusa Krishi - The app was also launched in 2016 by the Union Agriculture Minister and aims to help
farmers to get information about technologies developed by Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI),
which will help in increasing returns to farmers. The app also provides farmers with information related to
new varieties of crops developed by Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), resource-conserving
cultivation practices as well as farm machinery and its implementation will help in increasing returns to
farmers.
3. Crop Insurance -The app helps farmers to calculate insurance premium for notified crops and
provides information cut-off dates and company contacts for their crop and location. It can also be used to
get details of normal sum insured, extended sum insured, premium details and subsidy information of any
notified crop in any notified area. It is further linked to its web portal which caters to all stakeholders
including farmers, states, insurance companies, and banks.
4. Agri Market -Launched along with the Crop Insurance app by the government of India, the app has
been developed with an aim to keep farmers abreast of crop prices and discourage them to go for distress
sales. Farmers can get information related to prices of crops in markets within 50km of their own device
location using the Agri Market Mobile App.
5. ‘Uzhavan’ (meaning - farmer)’ App - This app allows farmers to have access to nine types of
services, including details about their crop insurance, information on farm subsidies, book farm equipment
and related infrastructure and receiving weather forecast for the next four days.
 6. CCMobile App -Tracking health metabolic metrics and delivery of a parcel is a norm but thi app goes
beyond it. Interestingly, this time for farmers. Actually, “CC” is an acronym for Connected Crops and the
app, compatible with Android and iOS, tends to connect farmers with their crop. The users can read the
environment metrics like temperature, humidity, wind velocity and moisture remotely. They can also
compare those metrics over a period of time, say weekly, fortnightly or monthly to assess the status of their
crop. The sensor readings are available through SMS / email alerts, graphing and historical data.
7. Spray Guide -Ensuring the right composition, viscosity or consistency of pesticide or other
agricultural solutions is important. The app calculates everything, viz, the amount of solute, the amount of
solvent, the mixing time and the spraying areas so that you get the best value from your investment. The app
is compatible with Android, iPhone and iPad. Users can share their experience including data and results
with others over their social accounts.
8. IFFCO Kisan - Offered by Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), the app is
dedicated to farmers of India. They can seek advice from agriculture experts and scientists and explore its
library to know about crops, agriculture cycle, agriculture field preparation, water management, disease
control and agriculture proactive actions.
9. Ag Mobile – is an agriculture app designed to provide commodity market reports and agriculture news
for farmers as well as agriculture professionals. Take stock of weather, related forecasts and maps, watch
live commodity market prices and seasonal comparison, and capture news that can affect your agricultural
endeavour on the go. The data or insights are derived from Barchart and Successful Farming. Also, learn
commodity trading skills and listen to crop advisor, grain merchandiser, analyst, or broker, etc.
10. Machinery Guide - As the name echoes, this app is to assist you with using the farm equipment for
various purposes like soil cultivation (cultivator, rotator, roller, etc.), sowing, manuring, planting,
fertilization, pest control, produce sorting, harvesting, irrigation, etc. precisely. The app
GEO-SPATIAL TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE:
.Geospatial technologies is a term used to describe the range of modern tools contributing to the
geographic mapping and analysis of the Earth and human societies. These technologies have been evolving
in some form since the first maps were drawn in prehistoric times.
Most will be aware of the recent crisis that hit the Agriculture sector wherein despite a scenario of
plentiful produce the individual farmer was in acute distress. Sound agricultural practices entail the use of
good quality disease resistant seeds sown in good quality soil, the use of appropriate soil nutrients and
pesticides and the availability of water among others. Under such salubrious conditions the crop would be
bountiful and both the farmer and the consumer go back happy to continue the cycle. However, sustained
agricultural development goes beyond increasing the quantity of agricultural produce and sustaining that
increase for the near future. As was seen, the farmer was not happy with the money he was getting for his
bountiful produce. On the other hand, the consumer was happy that the prices of vegetables had fallen and
had become affordable. Thereafter the converse happened. The prices of certain vegetables suddenly shot up
leaving a big hole in the consumers pocket without any benefit to the farmer. A central objective of
sustainable development is to ensure social inclusion. To enable all stake holders to optimise the returns
from the efforts & investments made in agriculture, it becomes important to monitor crop quantity with other
socio-economic indicators such as crop acreage, soil type, crop type, crop yield, socio-economic status,
geography, gender, age, transportation facility, storage facility, a fair return on investment, market trends and
other dimensions in order to track and address marginalization and inequalities across sub-populations. New
Geospatial technologies & tools, such as, GIS, remote sensing, social networking, mobile phones, crowd
sourcing, etc. would give capabilities to provide ‘Decision Support Scenarios’ which would be vital to
monitor the overall health of the Agricultural sector. Embedded within the GIS would be a robust MIS that
incorporates the above mentioned and other factors as ‘national indicators’ to be maintained on a regional
and national basis. Models can be generated from the aggregated data to produce food supply & demand
projections. Refinements in the models would be required over time depending on data quality and
assumptions made for the model scenarios. This would go a long way in mitigating the causes for the farmer
crisis that occurred recently. Many of the actual solutions will need to be implemented at the state and
district levels, all the way down to the household, farm, field and even within-field scales where changes in
behaviour as well as farming technologies, such as, precision farming, modern low‐pressure drip or other
micro-irrigation systems etc, will be a critical condition for success. India is on route to create an
Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS). Incorporating Geospatial technologies into this system
would improve basic socio-economic & crop statistics for the overall management of crops and demand &
supply. It would also enable an equitable distribution of crop insurance due to more accurate crop forecasts
and more precise assessment of crop damage due to disease, natural disasters such as drought & flood etc.
This quarterly issue attempts to give a balanced information on the research and practical aspects of the
application of Geospatial technology for Agricultural Development. It is hoped that readers will use the
information to get a better understanding of the issues involved. This is also an attempt to engage the
stakeholders in an exchange of technology and information
DSS IN AGRICULTURE
What is DSS: Decision support systems: A decision support system (DSS) is a computerized program
used to supportdeterminations, judgments, and courses of action in an organization or a business. A DSS
sifts through and analyzes massive amounts of data, compiling comprehensive information that can be used
to solve problems and in decision-making. DSS are software-based systems that gather and analyse data
from a variety of sources. Their purpose is to smoothen the decision-making process for management,
operations, planning, or optimal solution path recommendation. In the agricultural sector, it helps farmers to
solve complex issues related to crop production. As tools for diagnosis, risk assessment and reasoning
assistance, DSS use agronomic models and calculations based on water, climate, energy and genetic data but
they also take into account other factors such as human and economic inputs.
DSS as a solution to optimize irrigation and better water management
Facing obstacles such as limitation on volumes of water withdrawal or volatile agricultural prices, farmers
must adapt by changing their practices. Thanks to more accurate irrigation technologies it is possible to
reduce water use in agriculture, improve productivity, and ultimately produce as much or even more with
less water. As a good example, the research institute Irstea based in Montpelier has developed a software
called "Pilot" capable to estimate future yields of crops according to climate conditions and irrigation. More
precisely, this tool consists of a "soil" module, which models water transfers in the soil, and a "plant"
module, which simulates the evolution of the leaf area index as a final performance indicator. Combined
with climate data obtained from rainfall, temperature measurement and radiation, the results of the two
modules provide not only an estimate of the predicted yield for given crop and soil characteristics, but it also
gives an estimate of the water consumption needed to achieve the targeted return. Using such a DSS could
help the operator prepare an irrigation schedule without a need of multiple parameters.
Future of DSS
Being a key part of sustainable agriculture, DSS will become more and more robust. The increased
connectivity of technologies and the multiplication of smart devices on the field stimulates the accumulation
and storage of data. By integrating and analysing the captured data, DSS are meant to become more accurate
as well as reliable. Last but not least, actors from the sector have the ambition to make DSS more ergonomic
and user-friendly. Companies already offer mobile interfaces on smartphones and tablets, that are easy to
handle and can be used in real time, directly on the field. Such developments allow more farmers to use
DSS, since, at the end of the day, they are the final recipients and users of new technologies which will
revolutionize agriculture.
Preparation of contingent crop planning and crop calendars using IT tools.
Contingency plan can be defined as a plan aimed and executed for an outcome other than in the usual or
expected plan. In other words, it is frequently used for risk management when an exceptional risk in future.
In general, the change in sowing or planting time of crops, change in seed rate, change in schedule of
fertilizer use, use of short duration varieties, improved crop genotypes form the core component of
contingency crop planning. Crop weather calendar is a comprehensive guide for farmers. It is a tool that
provides information on average weather of every week, planting, sowing and harvesting periods of locally
adapted crops in a specific agro-ecological zone. It also provides stage-wise pest disease infestation
information. This information is crucial for proper and timely planning of agricultural activities. Information
on crop, its stages and the week by week weather during the crop season is essential for proper management
of agriculture. Thus, farm operations planned in conjunction with weather information are very likely to
curtail the costs of inputs and various field operations.
To better adapt to increased climate variability, a system to help monitor crop-growing conditions in real
time and make reliable yield forecasts, would be hugely valuable!

One such system has actually been developed, and it is the Regional Agricultural Forecasting Toolbox
(CRAFT) for South Asia, a software platform launched in May in New Delhi, India of this year.

The Toolbox can help policy makers with providing precise information on the likely volume of crop
production in specific areas at different times of the year. This will help to plan the necessary steps to
address the food production situation. The use of this strategy will enable better management of
agricultural risks associated with increasing climate variability and extreme events.

CRAFT is a flexible, adaptable, accessible software platform to support within-season forecasting of crop
production, which also provides risk analysis and climate change impact studies and presents timely
information to policy makers.

It provides support for:

1. Spatial input data & spatial crop simulations,

2. Integration of seasonal climate forecasts,
3. Spatial aggregation and probabilistic analysis of forecast uncertainty,
4. Calibration of model predictions from historic agricultural statistics,
5. And, analysis and visualization.
It is currently based on Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) group of models
that simulate the growth and development of 28 different crops, but this will be expanded to include more
models. Incorporated is a Climate Predictability Tool from the International Research Institute (IRI) in
Columbia to support analysis based on weather forecast. The tool, developed by the CGIAR Research
Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) South Asia with the support of the
Asia Risk Centre (ARC), supports the efforts of governments, policy makers and scientists to anticipate
the impacts of climate variations on crop and rangeland production in support of agricultural management
and food security decisions.
Read more about the software on the Asia Risk Centre News site.
CCAFS South Asia has been closely working with stakeholders in the region to enhance their capacity in
yield forecasting and to bring together policy makers to inform them about the kinds of tools and
techniques that would be helpful for them while planning and making decisions. Participants from Nepal,
India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka representing NARS, Ministries of Environment and Agriculture, NGOs
and the CGIAR attended a workshop and worked on their country-specific studies to understand
CRAFT’s structure and functions.
Though CRAFT has the potential to be applied in many South Asian countries, some tweaks still
need to be made. For example, the traditional crop cutting method for yield forecasting is slow and
information becomes available after harvesting and is often not precise.
As the information reaches policy makers long after harvesting, contingency measures could not be taken
effectively. With CRAFT, information on in-season production starts coming in from the day the plants
start growing and it is updated at regular intervals of time. By the time the crop reaches its maturity, the
likely volume of production can be made available for planning. Case studies will soon be undertaken in
Nepal, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to help fine-tune the toolkit and make it appropriate for each
country. It will require a handful of data related to soil, crop varieties, area planted, agronomic practices,
irrigation and historical weather information to precisely predict in-season yields. Researchers will
continue to work on these country specific case studies to test the tool and to share information with
policy makers that will improve the development of contingency plans