A Study on Gender and Disability: Examining the Unique Challenges Faced by Women

with Disabilities

AUTHOR
Sabitha.S.S
3rd yr, BBA LLB (Hons)
Saveetha School of law
Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical science (SIMATS)
Chennai - 600 077.
Email : [email protected]
Phone number : 9150545559
A Study on Gender and Disability: Examining the Unique Challenges Faced by Women
with Disabilities
Author: Sabitha.S.S
Co-Author: Xavier Louis

ABSTRACT

Women with disabilities (WWDs) face unique and multifaceted challenges arising from the
intersection of gender and disability. People with disabilities face many hurdles in their fight for
inclusion and equality. Although, both men and women with disabilities are subjected to
discrimination, it is the latter who are at a further disadvantage. Women with disabilities face
“double discrimination” given that these women are subjected to not just disability limitations
but also gender oppression. This research explores the compounded discrimination experienced
by WWDs, who often contend with societal, institutional, and cultural barriers that hinder their
full participation in society. The study examines key areas such as access to education,
employment, healthcare, and social inclusion, highlighting how gender-based biases exacerbate
the marginalization of WWDs. Additionally, the research investigates the prevalence of gender-
based violence against WWDs and the lack of adequate support systems. Cultural perceptions
and societal norms often render WWDs invisible, limiting their access to opportunities and
decision-making roles. The study also explores case studies of successful interventions, such as
grassroots movements, inclusive programs, and community-based support networks, which
empower WWDs to overcome barriers. By addressing the intersectionality of gender and
disability, this research underscores the urgency of creating inclusive frameworks that ensure
equity, dignity, and autonomy for WWDs. The findings aim to inform policymakers, advocates,
and stakeholders in their efforts to foster a more inclusive society.

KEYWORDS

Disability, women, women with disabilities, marginalised, discrimination, abuse.

INTRODUCTION

During the early periods of history, there is a limited understanding of the experiences of
individuals with disabilities. However, the fact that life in the ancient world was disagreeable,
brutal, and brief, particularly for those who were less able, is not concealed. The Romans,
Greeks, and other ancient societies held the common belief that disability was an impurity. The
enraged Gods inflicted it on them as a symbol of punishment. They also believed that it was the
consequence of transgressions committed in previous lives and should be accepted as divine
punishment. Nevertheless, the earliest history of disability is also characterised by pity and
compassion for the disabled, but it lacks recognition of social equality.

It is a widely recognised fact that disabled individuals have been a repressed and subjugated
group for centuries. They have been institutionalised, stigmatised, isolated, and written about.
This is due to the fact that we inhabit a society that is replete with conventions. Norms that are
more a characteristic of a specific type of society than a natural state of human nature (Davis,
2006). Humans have a propensity to evaluate themselves as either normal or deficient. The
necessity for homogeneity is rooted in the concept of normalcy in society, as individuals desire
to be a part of it.

At some point in our lives, we all encounter disability, a conundrum that we do not always
comprehend. Some individuals are born with disabilities, while others experience them during
their youth. However, the majority of us become acquainted with disability as we age (Albrecht,
Seelman, and Bury, 2001).

It is a widely recognised fact that individuals with disabilities encounter numerous obstacles in
their pursuit of equality. Additionally, the consequences of social exclusion are significant for
both genders. Despite the fact that both men and women with disabilities are discriminated
against, women are at a greater disadvantage due to their gender. This leads to a higher
likelihood of destitution, economic barriers, sexual and verbal abuse, physical violence, and
fewer opportunities in education, healthcare, and employment when contrasted with their male
counterparts.
In comparison to men with disabilities and women without disabilities, women with disabilities
experience a variety of severe challenges, including marginalisation, stigmatisation,
discrimination, social exclusion, and the inability to participate in public life (United Nation.
Population Fund, 2019).

WHAT IS DISABILITY?

Disability refers to a condition or impairment that significantly affects an individual’s ability to

perform everyday activities or participate fully in societal roles. Disabilities can arise from
physical, sensory, intellectual, or mental health impairments and can vary in severity, type, and
duration. The concept of disability is multifaceted, encompassing medical, social, and cultural
dimensions.

Types of Disabilities

Disabilities can generally be categorized into several types:

1. Physical Disabilities: These involve mobility or bodily function impairments,

such as paralysis, amputations, or chronic conditions like arthritis or cerebral palsy.
2. Sensory Disabilities: These include impairments related to vision, hearing, or
speech, such as blindness, deafness, or speech disorders.
3. Intellectual Disabilities: These affect cognitive functioning and include conditions
like Down syndrome or autism spectrum disorder.
4. Psychiatric or Mental Health Disabilities: These refer to psychological conditions,
such as depression, anxiety disorders, or schizophrenia, that impact daily life and interactions.

Models of Disability
Two primary models of disability help frame how societies understand and respond to the
concept:

1. The Medical Model: This focuses on the individual’s impairment as a problem to

be treated or cured. It emphasizes the need for medical interventions to address the condition.
2. The Social Model: This views disability as a result of societal barriers and
attitudes that limit inclusion. According to this model, disability is not an inherent characteristic
but a consequence of an environment that fails to accommodate diverse needs.

The definition of disability is a highly contentious matter due to its complex, multidimensional,
and dynamic nature. This is due to the fact that the term does not denote a homogeneous
category. Its significance has fluctuated over time and among individuals. It has been recognised
as a "evolving concept" (UNCRPD, 2006). Consequently, it is challenging to define in a singular
definition. Nevertheless, the term has been defined by a variety of academicians and
organisations in accordance with their most accurate interpretation. Given that there is no
singular definition, the following are some of the more acceptable ones:

According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(UNCRPD, 2006), individuals with disabilities are defined as those who encounter "long-term
physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments that, in conjunction with a variety of
obstacles, may impede their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with
others."

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) of the World Health
Organisation (WHO) defines disability as "the adverse consequences of the interaction between
an individual (with a health condition) and the contextual factors (environmental and personal
factors)" (WHO, 2001).

Functioning and disability are multidimensional concepts that analyse an individual's level of
functioning as a dynamic interaction between personal factors, environmental factors, and health
conditions, as clearly defined by the aforementioned definition by ICF. The definitions provided
above also provide insight into the fact that disability is a social construct rather than a physical
construct. A person's disability may be perceptible to the naked eye or invisible. It may manifest
at birth, during infancy, during the working age years, or even in old age. Disability can be
broadly classified into five categories: physical, mental, sensory, developmental, and non-visible.
The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016 (RPwD) of India has established 21 categories
to identify disabilities.

• Blindness
• low vision
• Leprosy cured persons
• Hearing impairment
• Locomotor disability
• Dwarfism
• Intellectual disability
• Mental illness
• Autism spectrum disorder
• A liberal policy
• Muscular dystrophy
• Chronic neurological conditions
• Specific learning disability
• Multiple sclerosis
• Speech and language disability
• Thalassaemia
• Haemophilia
• Sickle cell disease
• Multiple disabilities including deaf blindness
• Acid attack victims
• Parkinson’s disease
Under the Indian Constitution, a “person with benchmark disability” means a person suffering
from not less than 40% of any specific disability, as certified by a medical authority
(RPwD,2016).

CAUSES

The notion of disability is perpetually changing. We are cognisant of the fact that a disability is a
condition that restricts or limits an individual's functional capabilities. It can occur in any social
environment at any age, whether before, during, or after childbirth. Therefore, it is crucial to
comprehend the factors that contribute to the development of these disabling conditions.
Disability can be divided into two categories:

• Disability at the onset of birth – includes disabilities that are the result of injuries or
complications during birth, such as a lack of oxygen supply to the brain, prolonged labour, or
premature birth, and that result in disabilities such as mental retardation, cerebral palsy,
locomotor disabilities, and more.
It also encompasses congenital malformations (e.g., spina bifida, cleft lip, cleft palate, and club
foot) that may arise as a result of the presence of pharmacological agents with high potency.
Maternal malnourishment, maternal infection, and maternal endocrine and Rh factors are also
included.
It also encompasses genetics or any form of gene abnormality.

• Acquired disability, on the other hand, encompasses a variety of factors, including poverty,
conflicts, accidents, crime, natural calamities, occupational hazards, ageing, the environment,
pollution, and/or malnutrition.

WIDESPREAD
There are more than one billion individuals worldwide who are currently afflicted with a
disability. This accounts for approximately 15% of the global population, with 2-4% of
individuals experiencing substantial functional challenges. Approximately 300 million women
and girls worldwide are affected by a mental, sensory, intellectual, or physical disability.
Additionally, women have a higher global prevalence of disability (19%) than males (12%)
(WHO and World Bank 2011). The population of India is the second largest in the globe. It is
also home to the second-largest population of individuals with disabilities, following China.
Around 2.21% (2.68 crore) of the 121 crore population has a disability, as per the Census of
India (2011). The disabled population is composed of 44% (1.18 crore) females and 56% (1.5
crore) males. The 2011 census also indicated that 20% of the disabled population has a
locomotor disability, 19% have a visual disability, the remaining 19% have a hearing-related
disability, and 8% have multiple disabilities.

India's prevalence of disability is 2.2%, according to the National Statistical Office's (2008)
survey of individuals with disabilities. The disability rate was 2.4% among men and 1.9% among
women. The World Bank Report (2009) on persons with disabilities in India provides mounting
evidence that the Indian population is comprised of disabled individuals, with estimates ranging
from 5 to 8%.

Nevertheless, the Registrar General of India (2001) concurs that the Indian data on disability
may be unreliable as a result of social stigma, a variety of other socio-cultural variables, and the
scarcity of well-trained field investigators.

WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES IN INDIA

In India being born a male is usually celebrated however when a girl is born there are no such
celebrations. Moreover, if the girl child is born with any kind of disability, it’s considered a
curse. (Vidhya,2016). It isn’t hidden that for ages people with disabilities in India have been seen
as victims requiring sympathy and charity. The situation for a woman with disabilities is much
worse. Not only are these women looked down upon, considered useless but are also treated as
mere objects. There is a lack of voice, proper rehabilitation systems and access to adequate
healthcare (Philippa,2005). The gendered nature of the Indian society is evident in the fact that
women and girls with disabilities generally receive lesser care than disabled male members and
are also more likely to be abandoned or even killed. (Mohapatra & Mohanty,2004; Erb and
Hartis-white,2002).

Women with disabilities are a socially invisible category. As stated earlier their plight is worse
than non-disabled women and men with disabilities (Addlakha,2008). The most punishing
handicap is not just the attitude taken towards them by the society itself
(Das,2012; Nayak,2013) but the problem of social exclusion barriers they face, depending on
their disabilities

In the Indian society there exists a 'corporal standard' for able-bodied people and any kind of
disability is regarded as a personal flaw (Kumari,2009). As a result, women with disabilities
constantly struggle against negative stereotyping even when trying to embrace a positive sense of
self given the bodily and societal restrictions. It is a struggle that limits the celebration of
difference and the pride one feels in one’s individuality. In a most of cases the society does not
expect women with disabilities to embrace the role of a mother, a wife and a homemaker, given
their lack of physically measuring up to the able-bodied standards (Addlakha,2006). A research
conducted by Ghosh (2010) on women with locomotor disability in Bengal found that there in
fact does exist certain images of the ‘ideal’ woman. These images are socially constructed
through common gender ideologies, which are experienced and interpreted by disabled women
who grow up negotiating their disabled bodies while internalising the “normal” female body. It
also explores as well as highlights the ways in which women and their bodies are being
controlled and oppressed by these age-old patriarchal ideologies. Therefore, she is someone who
is unable to confirm to the stereotypical standards of beauty and femininity in terms of their
physical appearances (Limaye ,2016). A report by the Women with Disabilities India Network
(WDIN, 2019) revealed that women with disabilities are not just consider a burden, deprived of
decision-making powers, frequently abused and harassed against, they are also not considered to
be ‘woman enough’.
Women with disabilities in India are often denied their sexuality. They’re seen as being
incapable of producing children and/or looking after them, thus being separated from them when
they do happen to give birth. Similarly, many non-disabled women who happen to birth disabled
children especially girls are often left by their husbands or abused (Philippa,2005).

A supportive family in the lives of women with disabilities is an important factor in their growth.
However, not all families are as supportive as they would like them to be. Many disabled women
in India are restricted to their homes given the shame, overprotectiveness of the family,
inaccessible environments due to their disability, not allowing the disabled woman to work in
order for them to start a self-dependent life, disrespecting them and portraying negative attitudes
towards and them are some of the very common problem that a woman with disabilities faces in
India (WDIN,2019). Exclusion from religious and/or social events in the communities as well as
in the families given the stigma that surrounds them, is another common phenomenon that Indian
women with disabilities encounter many a times (Mohapatra & Mohanty 2004). All this
therefore leads to disabled women experiencing extreme neglect, isolation and unawareness of
their options for participation in a more vocational life. (Buettgen, Gorman, Rioux, Das and
Vinayan, 2015). Similarly, a study conducted in Andhra Pradesh, India found that women with
disabilities have a lot lesser anatomy and decision-making power with regards to their own lives
as compared to their male counterparts with disabilities (Disability Rights Promotion
International, 2009).

Indian women, in general, remain disproportionately untrained, un/undereducated, poor as well

as un/underemployed. The situation is worse for women suffering from disabilities. A research
undertaken by the Society for Disability and Rehabilitation Studies (n.d), on the employment
rights of disabled women in India, found that when it comes to employment women suffering
from any kind of disability is often treated unequally, as though their particular disability has
affected all their other abilities to work. In the eyes of the community, they are not capable of
earning, let alone live an independent life. Likewise, work carried out by D’Souza and Singhe
(2019) in Raichur district of Karnataka, on rural women with locomotor disability, discovered
that these women experienced problems of underemployment, unemployment, no training, low
incomes, lack of opportunities as well as societal prejudice. Low enrolment and workforce
participation of disabled women can be attributed them being frequently marginalized in the
areas of education and employment (WDIN,2019)

A study embarked upon by Mitra and Sambamoorthi (2006) in India found that a man with
disabilities had a three times higher employment rate as compared to women with disabilities.
Though, according to them, this could also be a reflection of a man’s unacceptability towards
‘women’s work’. This results in women with disabilities earning the lowest wages as compare to
the disabled men and non- disabled women. Even while working full time jobs they merely earn
only 56% of the salary of a disabled man who is employed full time (Rao,2004). Another reason
being that women with disabilities in India are way more likely, than their disabled male
counterparts, to be absorbed in as 'cheap labour' on contractual basis with almost no social
security benefits (UNNATI, 2011).

In the views of Mohanty & Schmidt (as cited in Sightsavers, 2018) some of the more major
obstacles, for disabled women to getting employment, were low levels of education, a lack of
vocational skills, inaccessible infrastructure, no official training, amongst other things. The
negative attitude of the employees has also been stated as one of the reasons. Due to the
stigmatisation and insecurities that these women feel they prefer staying at home and therefore
not engaging in economic activities. Women in general, and disabled women in particular, are
not only less valued as workers they also paid lesser than their male counterparts as established
earlier.

In the India society, women and girls are perceived to be a burden for their family, disabled
women are a greater liability. This lies in the fact that there are very limited opportunities related
to productive work or gainful employment for them. Therefore, this enforced financial
dependency makes them the most vulnerable group, not just in India but in the entire world.
Even though it may seem like the disability sector in India has made progress however,
providing proper employment opportunity still remains one of the main concerns of the sector.
For employment is the key to empowerment as well as inclusion of women with disabilities in
the society. (Society for disability and rehabilitation studies, n.d.)
In India, poverty is considered to be both the cause as well as consequence of disability. A study
carried out by Phillipa (2005) found that most of the informants, especially female informants,
reported becoming poorer due to their disability. Disabled women also tended to experience
poverty more intensely given the lack of opportunity to escape it, as compared to the disabled
men or even the non-disabled female population. It is not hidden that women with disabilities
suffer from discrimination given their gender and disability which in return affects the economic
aspect of their lives leading to poverty. According to the World Bank report a quarter of these
disabled women in India are rarely able to manage three complete meals in a day (World bank
2007; Addlakha, 2008). Therefore, a large number of women with disabilities in India, end up
facing what is known as “triple discrimination” - gender, disability and poverty. (World bank
2007; Addlakha, 2008 ; Vidhya 2016 ).
Disability is often another excuse for domestic violence as they are perceived to be ‘more
dependent’. Though a disabled woman’s disability itself is not her primary problem, it is actually
an added strain to their already marginalized position as a woman in the Indian society
(Mehrotra,2004). Many hurdles faced by women with disabilities is due to the precarious attitude
of the society towards them and this very mindset, that largely prevails in Indian society, is due
to illiteracy as well as ignorance. As a result, many of these disabled women are subjected to
violence, betrayals as well as abuse by near and dear ones (Nayak,2013). Rao (2004) in her
report state that disabled women and girls, in India, are especially vulnerable to violence in their
family situation. For women with mental/hearing disabilities, sexual abuse is quite common
especially by the hands of their caregivers. According to her, women with disabilities also fall
common preys to incest. A study carried out in Odisha by Mohapatra and Mohanty (2004)
reported that majority of women with disabilities faced physical abuse which included denial of
basic rights such as access to food, social participation, education etc. The most common culprits
for such physical, emotional, and sexual abuse were parents, husbands as well as close family
members.

Physical violence, threats of abandonment, emotional abuse, verbal insults, forced marriages,
disputes with in-laws, threats of abandonment and spousal alcohol use are some of the many
problems that a woman with disabilities experiences in her marriages (Daruwalla, Chakravarty,
Chatterji, More, Alcock, Hawks and Osrin, 2013). Data by 2002 National Sample Survey
Organisation (2003) indicated that in India disabled women are four times more likely to
experience widowhood as compare to non-disabled women, both in rural and urban settings.
Also, the proportion of disabled women who are currently married is much lower than women
without disability. This is due to the fact that most women with disabilities are married off to
men who are much older than them resulting in higher rates of divorces and abandonment as well
as spouse deaths (UNNATI and Handicap International,2004)

On the contrary however, a study conducted by Mehrotra (2004) in rural Haryana describes how
disabled women, though stereotyped to be incomplete, insufficient are not treated any
differently. She is expected to do all the work and more regardless of her disability. It also
describes how disability after marriage not just lead to conflict but also estrangement in many
cases.
It doesn’t come as a surprise that women with disabilities face a higher risk of sexual assault.
'Gazing', inappropriate touching and sexual 'misbehaviour' usually by members of the family, is
not an unknown phenomenon in the lives of disabled women. However, most of these episodes
often times go unreported (Daruwalla, et al.,2013). According to Human Rights Watch (2018),
this is due to the fact that there are significant barriers that disabled women and girls, in India,
face when seeking justice. These barriers include difficulties in reporting the abuse to the police,
in obtaining proper medical care, having their complaints investigated as well as navigating
through the court system and difficulty in obtaining compensation. They also tend to face
humiliation at the police stations and hospitals. The reality is that these women have very limited
access to the justice system because getting proper access to the system is difficult for disabled
women mostly due to the stigma associated with their disability and sexuality (WDIN,2019).
According to Lalitha Kumaramangalam, former chairwoman of the National Commission for
Women once said “One of the biggest challenges for women [with disabilities] is access [to
services], not just physical but access across the board.” (as quoted in Human Rights
Watch,2018).

Lack of awareness and proper education to women with disabilities is one of the many reasons as
to why disabled women are unable to ask for correct aids for themselves. Under the 86th
amendment of the Indian Constitution 2002, Right to Education is a fundamental right of the
Indian citizen which promises free and compulsory education to all children between the ages 6
to 14. However, in actuality, the story is quite different in case of the female population specially
those suffering from disabilities, as the barriers are not always monetary in nature. (Nair,2010).

In a country like India there is a lack of published information in order to show in detail the exact
data as well as the extent of illiteracy experienced by women with disabilities, amongst other
things. ActionAid (2003), estimates that there are 20 million disabled women in India out of
which 98% are illiterate and less than 1% can utilize the rehabilitation and healthcare services
available for them in the country. Similarly, in a study done in Gujarat it was discovered that
43% of the disabled people interviewed were found to be literate, however only 35% of these
were women. This indicates towards a strong gender disparity in the Indian education system,
where girls with disability are far less likely to attend school as compare to other disabled and
non-disabled children. Their dropout rates also tend to be on the higher side, thus resulting in a
high number of uneducated disabled women (Unnati,2004). In the Raichur district of Karnataka
it was found that the literacy rates of disabled women was around 7% in comparison to the
general literacy rate of the disabled in the state which stands at 46% (D’Souza and Singhe,
2019). Not only are they deprived of quality education but also a chance at quality livelihood,
making them feel neglected and marginalised (Nayak 2013).

The published literature on the reproductive health status and needs of women with disabilities in
India is also very limited as compared to other aspects of their lives. Human Rights Watch
(2014) found that there was a huge scarcity of accessible and appropriate government services
for women suffering from intellectual or psychosocial disabilities. Apart from this, it was the
general lack of awareness and support which often results in women with such disabilities to be
dumped in mental hospitals or institutions, where they may experience all different kinds of
abuse. These women often face abuse by the hands of their physicians who suggest forced
sterilisation. (Rao,2004) Furthermore, a study administered by Murthy, John, Sagar & South
India Development Evidence Study Group (2014) found that women with disabilities reported
significantly lower pregnancy rate when compared to able bodied women. They faced
significantly higher pregnancy outcomes and complications as compare to women without a
disability. Evidence also highlights the fact that women with disabilities have an increased rate
of premature delivery as well as infant low birth weight. The study demonstrates that women
with disability have higher rates of pregnancy related complications, urinary tract infection and
also higher chances of co-morbidities such as depression and diabetes.

The World Bank Report (2007) stated that one of the main reasons that women with disabilities
in India sufferer from many gynecologically related health issues is due to the fact that there are
no bathrooms inside most of the houses in rural areas of our country. It is not just women with
disabilities, but women in general, who have to face humiliation and discomfort, not just in their
houses but also outside. Even though disabled women are included in healthcare, rehabilitation,
education and employment schemes, but in actuality they often lack meaningful access to these
basic services. (Human Rights Watch 2014). In addition to this, Bacquer and Sharma (1997)
have also reported that a large number of disabled women and girls in India are continuously in
poor health. They have a constant risk of falling ill over and over again. Furthermore, a research
conducted by Mohanty (2005) discovered that in case of disasters no special preference is given
to women with disabilities and they struggle to get relief or help during such an event.

In a country like India, men and their concerns have dominated the disability movement.
Therefore, male centric concerns have been guiding the developments of the movements and
disabled women are seen as invisible elements in this general movement (Ghai,2003; Hans and
Patri,2003). It is ironic how even though the women’s movement emphases on issues such as
class and caste inequality, patriarchal ideologies, domestic violence, sexual abuse and much
more, it does not include the injustice and hardships experienced by disabled women. This is
despite the fact that disability cuts across all these categories of repression that the women’s
movement is fighting for (Ghai,2002). For Chaudhuri (2006) it did not come as a surprise when
the research conducted revealed that disabled women are not considered a priority group in any
kind of rehabilitation programmes, mass movements, research as well as state policies and
programmes. Moreover, they are further cut off from any kind of political and social
participation given the stigma and discrimination tied to disability. Hence, women with
disabilities are neither fully represented nor completely integrated with their society, with the
disability movement nor with the women’s movement (Ghai,2006).
CONCLUSION

Disability whether acquired naturally or by accident is considered to be the most unwanted gift
of nature. It is not only a challenge to the legal system, the state, the medical field but also to the
society and the people who have to live with it. Persons with disabilities, especially women, are
considered to be the most marginalized and vulnerable sections of the society. More often than
not they are humiliated, discriminated against, stigmatized and also isolated. They are denied the
basic rights to live with dignity, to employment, to proper education, adequate healthcare and
more.

Millions of women are present all around the globe that are suffering from physical, sensory,
intellectual or any other impairments/disabilities. They are not just subjected to socially and
culturally constructed ideologies that our patriarchal in nature but are also discriminated against
as compared to their peers. They face attitudinal, economic, and infrastructural barriers that
hinders their prospects of enjoying equal access to opportunities and basic rights. They are often
seen as inferior, non-productive, incomplete and denied any recognition as a woman and human
being.

In a country like India the situation of an individual with disability is bleak. It is even worse for a
woman with a disability. However, these difficulties and obstacles faced by them seem to be
more due to the attitude of the society towards them rather than structural problems. Our society
at large is too indifferent and harsh to understand the condition of women with disabilities in
general. Many of these disabled women and girls are unable to make valid contributions to the
community and economy due to the lack of skills, support and opportunities. Even though the
Government has laws, acts and policies to address the needs of the disabled, these are more
general and male centric rather than taking into account gender specific issues. Too often these
women with disabilities are the ones who end up fighting with the system that is complex and
fragmented in nature. Rather understanding and putting the needs of women with disabilities at
the heart of the policies for improving their chances in life as well as social inclusion, these legal
and political frameworks often result in their social exclusion.
The most notable finding from this literary review is that almost all research on disability has
used a gender blind approach. They have presumed the insignificance of gender and other social
dimensions in this field. In an approach to therefore examine the lives of women with disabilities
they have failed to take into account the influence that their gender has in their lives. Another
prominent characteristic that can be found in this study is that majority of the literature, from
around the world and specially India, is devoted to the barriers faced by women and girls with
disabilities. There is a dearth of literature that brings to notice the positive aspects of their lives.
Despite all the difficulties and limitations how these disabled women have empowered
themselves. Therefore, the literature is somewhat limited in its scope.

In the end women with disabilities are the most unsafe and excluded category in today’s society.
Therefore, there is a need to have a better understanding of their lives in order to make progress
and also to provide for them a life more equal, socially inclusive and just.

REFERENCES

1. Action, Aid (2003). Just people–nothing special, nothing unusual. Bangalore: Books
for Change.
2. Addlakha, R. (December, 2006). Body politics and disabled femininity: perspectives
of adolescent girls from Delhi (India). Paper presented at The International
Conference on a World in Transition: New challenges to gender justice, Gender and
Development Network and Centre for Women’s Development Studies, New Delhi,
India.
3. Addlakha, R. (2008). Disability, gender and society. Indian journal of gender studies,
15:191-207
4. Albrecht, G.L., Seelman, K. and Bury, M. (Editors). (2001). Handbook of disability
studies. London: Sage Publications, Inc. 5. Bacquer, A. and Sharma, A. (1997).
Disability: challenges vs responses. New Delhi: Concerned Action Now
6. Buettgen, A., Gorman, R., Rioux, M., Das, K., and Vinayan, S. (2015). Employment,
poverty, disability and gender: A rights approach for women with disabilities in
India, Nepal and Bangladesh. In N. Khanlou & B. Pilkington (Eds.), Women's mental
 health: resistance and resilience in community and society. Advances in Mental
Health and Addiction (Series Editor: Masood Zangeneh). New York: Springer.
7. Census of India (2011). Data on Disability. New Delhi: Office of the Registrar
General & Census Commissioner.
8. Chaudhuri, L. (2006). Disability in India-issues and concerns. Mumbai: The Centre
for Enquiry into Health and Allied Themes (CEHAT)
9. Daruwalla, N., Chakravarty, S., Chatterji, S., Shah More, N., Alcock, G., Hawkes, S.
and Osrin, D. (2013). Violence against women with disability in Mumbai, India: A
qualitative study. Sage Open.
10. Das, S. (2012). Social oppression, resistance and social change- The feminist
disability discourse. Paper presented at conference: Contemporary Ways and Voices
of Resistance/ Resilience. Organised by: Research Scholars Forum (RSF)
EFLUniversity, Alam Khundmiri Foundation (AKF), and Indian Council for Social
Science Research, Hyderabad.
11. Davis, L.J. (2006). The disability studies reader. 2nd edition. New York: Routledge.
12. Disability Rights Promotion International. (2009). Monitoring the human rights of
persons with disabilities country report India: Summary. Toronto : Disability Rights
Promotion International.
13. D'Souza, L.V. and Singhe M.S. (2018). Economic and occupational profile of the
rural disabled women: A study of Raichur district of Karnataka. Research Journal of
Humanities and Social Sciences,19(4):1001-1005
14. Erb, S. and Harriss-White, B. (2002). Outcast from social welfare: Adult
incapacity and disability in rural South India.
Bangalore: Books for Change.
15. Ghai, A. (2002). Disabled women: An excluded agenda of Indian feminism.
Hypatia,17(3):49-66
16. Ghai, A. (2003). (Dis)embodied form: Issues of disabled women. New Delhi: Har
Anand publications pvt ltd
17. Ghai, A. (2006), Disembodied from: Issues of disabled women. New Delhi: Shakti
Books
18. Ghosh, N. (2010). Embodied experiences: Being female and disabled. Economic and
Political Weekly, 45(17):58-63
19. Hans, A. and Patri, A. (editors). (2003). Women, disability and identity. New Delhi:
Sage Publications
20. Human Rights Watch (2014). “Treated worse than animals” Abuses against women
and girls with psychosocial or intellectual disabilities in institutions in India.
Retrieved from https://www.refworld.org/docid/548178e64.html
21. Human Rights Watch (2018). Invisible victims of sexual violence access to justice for
women and girls with disabilities in India. Retrieved from
https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/04/03/invisible-victims-sexual-violence/access-
justice-women-andgirls-disabilities
22. Kumari, C. F. A. (2009). Contours of ableism: The production of disability and
abledness. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan
23. Limaye, S. (2016). Social inclusion for the differently-abled: issues and strategies.
Yojana Journal, 60:37-39
24. Mehrotra, N. (2004). Women, disability and social support in rural Haryana.
Economic and political weekly, 39(52): 56405644
25. Ministry of Law and Justice (2016). Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act –
2016.The Gazette of India. No.59. New Delhi : India.
26. Mitra, S. and Sambamoorthi, U. (2006). Employment of persons with disabilities:
Evidence from the National Sample Survey. Economic and political weekly, 41:199-
203
27. Mohanty, R. (2005). Impact of disaster on disabled women special reference to
Jagatsinghpur District. Bhubaneshwar: Shanta Memorial Rehabilitation Centre.
28. Mohapatra, S. and Mohanty, M. (2004). Abuse and activity limitation: A study on
domestic violence against disabled women in Orissa, India. Orissa: Swabhiman.
29. Murthy, G. V., John, N., Sagar, J., and South India Disability Evidence Study Group
(2014). Reproductive health of women with and without disabilities in South India,
the SIDE study (South India Disability Evidence) study: a case control study. BMC
women's health, 14:146.
30. Nair, N. (2010). Women's education in India: A situational analysis. Indore
management journal, 1(4):100-114
31. National Sample Survey Organisation (2003). Disabled Persons in India, NSS 58th
round (July – December 2002). New Delhi: NSSO.
 32. Nayak, B. (2013). The status of women with disabilities from personal, familiar and
social aspects: A study in India, International Journal of Asian social science, Asian
economic and social society, 3(5):1244-1259
33. Philippa T. (2005). Mainstreaming Disability in development: India country report.
Disability Knowledge and Research Report.
34. Rao, I. (2004). Equity to women with disability in India - A strategy paper prepared
for the National Commission for Women.
Retrieved from
https://standindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/7667871Equity-to-women-with-
disabilities-in-
Indi2012-october.pdf
35. Sightsavers (2018). Gender and disability study : A
perspective from India 2018. Retrieved from
https://www.sightsaversindia.in/reports/2019/08/gender-and-disability-a-perspective-
from-india/
36. Society for Disability and Rehabilitation Studies (n.d). Employment rights of
disabled women in India : A study of compliance & impact of the PDA with Special
Reference to UP, Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra and Tamilnadu. New Delhi:
National Commission for Women
37. The World Bank (2009). People with disabilities in India: From commitments to
outcomes. Retrieved from
http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/577801468259486686/pdf/
502090WP0Peopl1Box0342042B01PUBLIC1.pdf
38. UNNATI & Handicap International (2004). Understanding disability: Attitude and
behaviour change for social inclusion. Retrieved from
http://www.unnati.org/pdfs/books/research-eng.pdf
39. UNNATI. (2011). Realising UNCRPD: Learning from inclusive practices—Case
studies in education and employment. Retrieved from
https://www.unnati.org/pdfs/books/uncrpd-eng.pdf
40. United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006).
Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities and optional protocol. New
York: UN.
41. United Nation Population Fund (2019). Women and girls with disabilities : Needs of
survivors of gender-based violence and services offered to them. Denmark: Ministry
of Foreign Affairs Denmark.
42. Vidhya, S. (2016). Social status of women with disability. International Journal of
Applied Research, 2(2): 488-490
43. Women with Disabilities India Network (2019). Women with disabilities advocate
for their rights in Geneva. Retrieved from
https://commonwealthfoundation.com/author/wdin/
44. World Bank. (2007). People with disabilities in India: From commitments to
outcomes. Washington, DC: Human Development Unit South Asia Region
45. World Health Organization. (2001). International Classification of Functioning,
Disability and Health. Geneva: Author.
46. World Health Organisation and World Bank. (2011). World report on disability.
Geneva: WHO