institute's popular series no. !

THE ANCIENT WORLD

By

BHAGWAT SARAN UPADHYAYA,

Director, Institute of Asian Studies, Hyderabad

THE INSTITUTE OF ASIAN STUDIES,

HYDERABAD
1954
 Author’s Copyright

FRINTE© BY %Z , GtfFTA, B#SC., AT THE TECHNICAL

yqpKS fiO&B* AIXA^BAB ■ ■
To The Solidarity
Of Asia
 PUBLISHER’S NOTE

This is the first of the Popular Series of publications

of the Institute of Asian Studies, Hyderabad. The
Institute proposes to publish, besides research volumes
and Bulletins, a series of books and periodicals for the
lay reader giving non-technical information about the
history and culture of the peoples of Asia. It is written
mainly with a view to profiting Asian readers. It is
noted with regret that though Asia has been the cradle
of almost all ancient civilizations yet scholars of this
continent have taken little interest in the study of the
same. It is hoped that this little volume will foster
some interest in the reading public in the great cultural
heritage of Asia.
 FOREWORD
This little volume has no pretensions to research.
It purports to give a very brief account of the ancient
civilizations of Asia. Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia,
Palestine, Syria, Crete, India, and China alone have,
for the present, been treated. It is hoped that: subse¬
quent volumes will take up the rest of the countries
of Asia.
The author cannot help feeling unhappy about the
apathy of Asian scholars towards the study, chiefly,
of the ancient Near and Middle East cultures. It is
a great pity that while the West has done a lot in the
direction, practically nothing has been done in Asia
to foster study in that field. It is hoped that this little
piece of history, written perhaps for the first time by
an Asian national, will find favour with the readers of
this continent.

This book has quite a few limitations. Indeed,

none so drastic as the treatment of India and China.
Both of these countries have had a history that has been
continuous and has come down to the present day
and, since an artificial contemporanicty had to be
maintained, their accounts have had to be arbitrarily
closed. The continuity of Indian culture is unbroken
to the present day. All the same, there sets in a hiatus
after the close of the Indus Valley civilization ami it
has been not so very unnatural to end the Indian
account there. But the treatment of China has had
to be extremely restricted since its history is of one
piece down to the contemporary times. •
n I am grateful to my young friend Subhas Chandra
Chaturvedi, m.a,, for assisting me in reading the proofs
*uid doing the Index, * r

Author
 CONTENTS
CHAP. PAOE
I. Egypt 1
II. Mesopotamia .. •• 44.
I*
III. Palestine .. 99
IV. Babylonia and Persia .. Ill
V. Aegean Civilization ., . ■ # # I107
mw

VI. Indus Valley Civilization .. .. 141

VII. China ., ,, « N
1 EL 7
VIII, Retrospect .. 174
Bibliography .. ,, .. 17$
Index ,, ,,
177
 THE ANCIENT WORLD
CHAPTER I

EGYPT
1. History

The Land and its People

' Cast amidst burning sands there lies a piece of

living gloryThis is Egypt, one of the earliest cradles
oi human civilization. This straggling fruitful valley
is but an oasis of gigantic dimensions. On the west
lie the endless sand-dunes of the Libyan desert, on the
east rises a rocky highland of solid quartz, the crystalline
masses of the Arabian hills, lining the naked, reddish,
glimmering plateau beyond. Pressed between the
two the valley of the Lower Nile, a bare breadth of
hiteen to thirty miles, has moulded the destiny of man
for ages.

The narrowest country in the world, not larger

than the little kingdom of Belgium, Egypt has on her
breast emblazened glory of millenniums. Through
a vast expanse of sand the life-giving Nile winds her
way to a land-locked sea flooding the narrow dale in
midsummer when the Ethiopian snow melts and seeks
an .outlet. The river was called Ha-pi by the ancients
and the land, through which it coursed, Kamit, ‘the
Black Country . The Greeks called the valley Egypt,
the Hebrews Mizrain and the neighbourly Semite popu¬
lation Mesr. ’ . r r

Before man was able to harness nature to his ad¬

vantage, he lay at the mercy of the herds of hippopo¬
tami and the crowds of crocodiles in the swamps and of
the horned cerastes and the deathdealing cobra. But
soon that savage who could stand erect and could
2 THE ANCIENT WORLD

combine with the advantage of a mind the shaping

services of a thumb, got the better of his deadly enemies
and addressed himself to the noble task of humanizing
the world.

His march through the stages of civilization is

marked by the implements he has left behind ever
since the palaeolithic age. He fought and hunted,
made fire and cooked and soon rode the whirlpool to
direct the storm. Effort and toil changed the face
of his world. He began to sow and irrigate, grow and
harvest his corn, the gift of the river in spate, indeed,
his well deserved annuity. Mud and reed afforded
him dwelling, pottery and paper, signalizing his passing
out of barbarism into civilization.

Once the light had dawned on the restive genius

of man, the progress was rapid. Civilization grew
by leaps and bounds and mighty men covered the
marches of the arid waste and intrepid mariners brav¬
ed the dangers of the deep. Mysteries of nature
opened their secret to them when they discovered the
balm to secure the dead skin against the temper of
Inclement weather. The skies gaped with wonder
when little men, getting into the secret of team work,
lifted tons5 weight of rocks over naked sinews and,
raising tire upon tire, drove the wedge of pyramids
into their bosom ensuring the safety of human corpse
under the vaulted domes against the decaying frown
of the Heavens themselves.

But who were these makers of the mummies and

builders of the pyramids ? That is not easy to answer.
But who indeed were they? Numerous origins, from
Indian to African, have been suggested. Some regard
the ancient Egyptians as descended from the Ethiopians
and the Nubians, others give them a common ancestry
with the Phoenicians, yet others suppose them to have
come to the land of the Nile from the east, from the
land of Punt across the Red Sea. At least a foreign,
 EGYPT 3

north-eastern, element is discernible in both their

religion and language. The sun-worship without
doubt was an essentially Semitic cult and was absolu¬
tely foreign to the beliefs of the Neolithic Egyptians
So also do their early language, mainly their verbs
seem to have imbibed Semitic influences, apart from the
belief of the philologists that the ancient Egyptian was
a Semitic language. But certainly influences on re¬
ligion and language can hardly determine the compo-
sition ox a race, as both can be acquired*

Purity of race, as purity of culture, is a myth It

may be that the ancient Egyptians also like other peo¬
ple mingled their blood with neighbours and invaders
The separate existence of the lands of the Upper and the
Lower Nile and their consequent welding i£to a single
[Link] to this opposition. It is possible
that the Semites entered the tube of Egypt from the top
north and the Hamites from the bottom south. But
these southerners were by no means negroes, not even
negroid. They came probably from the north-eastern
jCtTt s°uthern Arabia by way of the Upper Nile
and Nubia, the usual way by which Egyptian caravans
Kingdom to Punt throughout the period of the Old

Legendary traditions credit Shemsu-Hor, ‘followers

of Horus , to have marched from the Upper Nile and
conquered the Arm, the followers of Set, in the region
of the Lower Nile. This refers to the southern con-
quest of the north at a time much anterior to the rise
of the famous ruling dynasties of Egypt. Set was the
god of the northern people, the Libyan Semites of the
Delta, the Anu, while Horus, the skygod with his
emblem of the falcon, was worshipped by the southern
Egyptians. Hawk continued to be the .godly symbol
of authority of the ancient kings of united Egypt.

Who effected this conquest and union ot the Upper

and Lower Egypt no one can tell, but the legehds
 THE ANCIENT WORLD

credit Mena with' accomplishing the difficult task.

This Mena is supposed to have founded the first of the
famous Dynasties of Egypt.

Early Dynasties

In course of some thirty-five centuries Egypt

was ruled by thirty-one dynasties of kings of which
the 27th and 31st were Persian. Persians were suc¬
ceeded in Egypt by Greeks and the possibility of an
Egyptian revival was put to an end.

The annals of the first few dynasties are very obs¬

cure Their kings are mere names and thir exploits
mostly legendary. Some tables of their names have
been preserved both in the Greek and earlier local
sacred records but they too are confused, and are ot
doubtful import, their order many a time disturbed
and sequence broken. Sometimes it is even difficult
to distinguish historical names from those divine.

One name, that of Mena, however, stands out

both in the Egyptian and Greek records as the founder
of the First Dynasty of Egyptian kings. Although
his historicity too has been questioned by some, he may
be accepted as perhaps the first human king to have
ruled over the united Nile valley. How the Neoli¬
thic man in the valley of the Nile developed into
the citizen of the 1st Dynasty is difficult to say,
but we know for certain that in course of the early
centuries the land fell to the power of a family ot rulers
among whom hereditary succession had already been
established. 'This family came from a place called
Teni (Greek This or Thinis) in Middle Egypt. Mena
(Menes) himself was a king of this family who moved
his royal residence to the gate of the Delta. ^ The
new capital was. called Memphis which continued
to be the royal residence and "commercial centre down
to the latest periods of Egyptian history. Today it
is the great mound of Monf, Tel-el-monf, at Mitraheni.
 EGYPT 5

Mena is credited with a number, of important works

of which the most outstanding was perhaps the build¬
ing of a great dam io protect Memphis from the inun¬
dations of the Nile which even today serves as a bul¬
wark for the province of Giza against the terrific floods
of the river. Perhaps Mena also built the first temple
of the metropolis, the temple of Ptah, and regulated
service in the temple. Mena was the hero-king of
the ancient Egyptians and was honoured and wor¬
shipped as a god.

Teta (Athothis, Atu) is the next name in the an¬

cient records. He is supposed to have built the royal
castle of Memphis. He was-interested in medicine
and perhaps wrote a treatise on anatomy. Those
that followed are sheer names on the list, mere legends
in the current time. Ata’s reign was disturbed by
the breaking out of a great plague. Sem-Ti and Semsu
were perhaps kings of some consequence. Pestilence
and epidemic rendered the rule ,of the latter unfor¬
tunate.

It is not easy to say who founded the 2nd Dynasty.

Kakau’s name, standing second on the lists, is indeed
important, for he was responsible for the institution
of the worship of the Apis-bulk But the greatest dynast,
without doubt, was the king Baneteren (Binothris
or Biophis) who established the legitimacy of female
succession. This declaration was the first of its kind
in history. In Egyptian history this decree was of
immense importance to which even the Greek Ptole¬
mies succumbed when they came to hold the sceptre
of Egypt. Baneteren thus was the first feminist of
the world. Send or Senedi was the rfext important
ruler. His name signified ‘terror’ which may suggest
some conquests to his credit. He was certainly wor¬
shipped. Khasekhem seems to have* been another
important historical figure, who held his court in a
great fortress palace and who is said to have conquered
both the north and south. He was himself a southerner
6 THE ANCIENT WORLD

who married Ne-maat-Hap, the last of the long line of

the 2nd Dynasty, thus renewing the union of the two
powers, and assumed the significant sobriquet of Kha-
sekheinui (‘Appearance of the Two Powers’). He
built an enormous tomb for himself at Abydos.

The names of the rulers of the 3rd Dynasty are

greatly confused and their sequence is gravely doubt¬
ful. But the most important figure of the line was
Tjeser, perhaps the son of Khasekhem. He was a
conqueror of some dimensions and the builder of the
first pyramid of stone, the Step-Pyramid of Sakkara
with its admirable temple. Sa-Nekht, his brother,
probably succeeded him. Another king of this dynas¬
ty, Nefarka, deserves mention for he unsuccessfully
began the huge rock-cut excavation at Zawiyet el-
Aryan, south of Giza.

With the 3rd Dynasty the archaic period ends

and the epoch of the Great Pyramids begins.

The Age of the Pyramids

The Pyramids of Egypt have attracted visitors

perhaps ever since they were built. Herodotus and
Diodorus were lavish in their compliments to the great
architects of antiquity who erected these massed enor¬
mities of solid masonry, and visitor after visitor, nation
after nation, has gone on paying tributes to those
wonders of the Nile. Egypt is the Pyramids. The
country has become identical with its architectonic
achievement which time has not succeeded in des¬
troying. Pyramids epitomize the history of an epoch.

As the visitor drives to the south-west of modern

Cairo and approaches the low ridge ol the desert
jutting up at the edge of the cultivated north-west of
ancient Memphis, triangular structures of rocks loom
large on the horizon and strike the sight. These are
the pyramids, of which the biggest was called Khut,
‘the Horizon’ itself. They signalize an age which
 EGYPT 7

had attained all the essentials of a. civilization as fully

developed as our own as early as 3000 B. c. They
have stood there in the full glare of the Egyptian sun
under the cold canopy of the sky for more than five
thousand years and, despite the vandalism of man
and time, they have disdained symptoms of decay.

Towering high over the necropoles of the common

Egyptians these great pyramids were meant to house
the jauxophagi and served as tombs and sepulchres
at tHPend of their pompous toils on the earth. The
prospect of that arid expanse preserves endless remains
of funerary temples, buildings of hewn stone, pillared
courts with outer temples and inner fanes, with maga¬
zines and store-houses packed to capacity with the
objects denied to the living, needed for the dead.
Amidst these deadly environs did Khufu, Khafra and
Menkaura build their domes of the dead from where
there was no returning to the world of the living.

Seneferu heads the list of the kings of the 4th

Dynasty and begins the Age of the Pyramid-builders.
Tjeser had already built the Step-Pyramid near the
city, Seneferu built farther south at Dahshur and
Medum; Khufu returned to the vicinity of the capital
where Khafra and Menkaura followed him. They all
built their pyramids there. The greatest of them
all was one built by Khufu, 476 ft. high on a base of
764 ft. square originally, now 450 and 730 ft. respec¬
tively. Khafra’s pyramid is 443 ft. high while Men-
kaura’s barely attained an elevation of 216 ft. Men-
kaura’s pyramid has been excavated and has afforded
generous yields. The model set by these builders
was continued by subsequent dynasts and the cons¬
truction of pyramids remained a state affair with
kings right down to the 14th Dynasty.
■

Pyramids were built undoubtedly at great costs

by endless human labokr. The word ‘pharaoh5 signi¬
fies a ‘dweller of the Big House’. That the king
8 THE ANCIENT WORLD

undoubtedly was. «The phrase incidentally points to

the unenviable character of the duab huts where the
commoner must have dwelt. His earnings yielded
the enormous revenues which went to feed the sinews
that raised the rocks aloft and shaped the pyramids.
If we can believe the histories of Herodotus and Dio¬
dorus, people who were made to work for building
for the dead to the negation of the needs of the living
naturally resented it and the royal mummies were
buried elsewhere for fear of reprisals at the hands
of the labourers. Around the pyramids lay stretched
the necropoles and the mustabas where the bodies
of the courtiers of the kings were interred. We have
no evidence to ascertain if in very ancient times the
attendants of the kings had also to die in the manner
of those in Ur to keep company with their royal dead.

Except for some records about Seneferu, we know

nothing about these great builders of the age. A
relief with an inscription represents him as a conqueror
of the peninsula of Sinai. He was succeeded by
Khufu followed by Dadfra and Khafra. Menkaura
followed next and was himself succeeded by Shepse-
skaf and the 4th Dynasty probably ended with him.

The kings of the 5th Dynasty founded by Useref,

continued to build pyramids and their funerary temples
at Abusir, south of Giza, mark the apogee of the re¬
markable development of art and architecture under
the rulers of the 4th Dynasty. For the first time they
come to bear reliefs on their walls depicting scenes
from the life of the dead king. The builders of these
pyramids were Sahura, Neferarikara and Neuser-Ra.
The last of the Dynasty, Unas, built his pyramid at
Sakkara, south of Abusir, and got the walls of his inner
chambers inscribed with incantations to ensure the
safety of his spirit in the next world.
it- ►

. Teta founded a new dynasty, the 6th. But

the most noted potentate of this family of rulers was
 EGYPT 9

Merira Pepi I. His activities embraced the entire

land from the Delta and Sinai to Elephantine
and Sahal. Great stone temples had already appeared
with the 4th and 5th Dynasties. Pepi developed acti¬
vities in that direction to an unprecedented limit.
He built lifesize images of bronze plates fastened with
nails. South also attracted his attention and he sent
punitive expeditions to “the Sand-Dwellers” of the
Isthmus of Suez and the gulf coast. Pepi passed on
an extensive domain to his two sons.

Decay soon overtook the 7th and 8th Dynasties

and they started disintegrating and falling off. _ Alien
raids made life in the Delta insecure and foreign in¬
trusion necessitated a change of capital. The capital
was thus moved to Herakleopolis. Among the 9th
and 10th Dynasties also_ only a few kings deserve
mention, namely Khati I, Tefa-ba, and Khati II.

Thebes had now become practically independent.

Memphis had shrunk into a shadow of glory while
Thebes had grown in power and importance. A
new era thus began ushering in what is called the Old
Theban or the Middle Kingdom. The Theban epoch
witnessed great changes in the land of the Niles. Civil
wars and luckless encounters with the Shepherd inva¬
ders from the east broke the backbone of resistance
and finally the Shepherd kings or the Hyksos, as they
were called, succeeded in establishing their sway over
Egypt where they ruled for several generations. Their
overthrow and expulsion finally was rejoiced by the
Egyptian people as a national event. But of that
in due context. . #

The Old and Middle Kingdoms

While the 10th Dynasty driven from Memphis

ruled at Herakleopolis^ the 11th Dynasty prospered
at Thebes. The real founder of the dynasty was Uah-
ankh but because of his greatness Neb-hapet-Ra was
10 THE ANCIENT WORLD

later regarded a great ruler and almost the father of

the royal line of Thebes. Perhaps he established his
authority over the entire country. He excavated
for himself, his queen and concubines, the oldest rock-
cut royal tomb and a long gallery extending far be¬
neath the mountain at Der el-Bahri (in the western
necropoles opposite Thebes) ending in a chamber
which originally held his coffin. It seems that his
concubines (the priestesses of goddess Hathor) were
all slain at the death of the king to accompany him
to the next world. Courtiers and slaves were killed
and buried with kings in the time of the 1st Dynasty,
and the custom held on till as late as the time of Amen-
hetep II. Neb-hapet-Ra fought Libyans, Nubians,
and Semites and he seems to have invaded as far as
southern Palestine.

Neb-hapet-Ra _ was succeeded by Sankhkara Men-

tuhetep whose reign was distinguished by an expe¬
dition to the land of Punt by Henu. Henu reached
the Red Sea by the Hammamat road and then sailed
down to Somaliland and returned laden with incense,
gum and myrrh.

Amenemhat I, the prime-minister of Sankhkara,

founded the 12th Dynasty. As to the historicity of
the rulers of this line we are somewhat on surer ground.
The lists are fairly in agreement with one another
regarding their statements about these kings.

The kings of this dynasty were energetic and

Egypt enjoyed a period of unprecedented peace and
prosperity. Amenemhat III reclaimed a whole pro¬
vince in the Fayyum and regulated the flow of water
in and out of Lake Moiris. On the slopes of the tomb-
hill of the kings were buried the functionaries of state,
stewards, physicians, and retainers of various ranks,
each, like his lord, with his own funerary state of great
rectangular wooden coffins and the models of servants
and boatmen which were supposed to turn into ghostly
 EGYPT 11

ministrants in the underworld. The security'

problematic other world must rest indeed on certain
destruction of human and other living beings!
The affluence and majesty of the 12th Dynasty
is marked by the great temples its rulers built at Karnak,
Heliopolis, Bubastis, Koptos, and at Herakleopolis.
Colossal statues of kings adorned the fanes and served
for motifs for later monarchs to copy and emulate.
Senusert I was a great builder and he erected the first
splendid obelisks in Egypt. Greek historians have
waxed eloquent over the famous labyrinth at Hawara
which is but a funerary temple built by Amenemhat
III in front of his pyramid containing numerous halls
and corridors.
The epoch of the 12th Dynasty was noted parti¬
cularly for its commercial expeditions. Caravans
by land and ships by sea ferrated land and sea alike in
search of commercial goods and barterable commo¬
dities. The east, south, west and north lay at the
doors of Egypt through her intrepid expeditionists
and sailors. No wonder that the land grew rich as
never before and there was ample wealth to be spent
on the splendour of buildings.
The dynasty also waged successful wars against
the Nubians and added power and glory to the memo-
rable line of rulers. Amenemhat Ill’s reign marks
the culmination of the Middle Kingdom. Two
monarchs that followed him hardly deserve mention/
They hastened the fortunes of the illustrious house
down the road to ruin. They passed power to the
rulers of the 13th Dynasty, hardly better than themse¬
lves, who in the gathering gloom of thte approaching
misfortune submitted to the Hyksos and entered abyss.

The Hyksos Kings

Hyksos kings, whom the Egyptians called She¬

pherd kings out of spite, were indeed Syrian Canaanites.
12 THE ANCIENT WORLD

The conquest was complete due to the dissensions of

the Egyptian rulers. Another significant incident that
changed the fortunes of war was the new method of
warfare that the invaders introduced in their battles.
This was the war-chariot and its horses. Horses,
domesticated in Iran and introduced in western Asia
by Iranians, replaced asses in chariots and changed
the shape of fighting. «Egypti ans themselves later
employed horse-drawn chariots in Palestine and else¬
where to their advantage.

The Hyksos were cruel and unsparing to their

enemies. They sacked and burnt their cities and
temples and drove women and children into captivity.
They conquered both Memphis and Thebes and collect¬
ed revenue from Lower and Upper Egypt with great
force and hardship. These kings stayed behind their
strongly garrisoned fastness-towns and emerged
only to lead expeditions and to exact hated tributes.

Manetho preserves a list of the most notorious

of the pillaging barbarians. The most important
of them was perhaps Senserenra Khian who ruled
as a great pharaoh and dedicated statues of himself
in the temple of .Bubastis. He must have been a great
overlord for relics bearing his name have been dis¬
covered at places far apart, from Baghdad in Iraq
and Knossos in Crete.

The Hyksos ruling later than about 1650 B. c.

became .completely Egyptianized. They adopted full
pharaonic titles and dignity, worshipped Egyptian
gods and built temples for them. Some new elements
of religion like the veneration of the naked goddess
Ishtar and the Syrian winged sphinx made their
appearance. in Egypt now. Although there were
at times risings against the usurpers, the latter always
suppressed them and having completely overrun the
country ruled it with an iron hand.
 EGYPT 13

Among the Theban kings of the 13th Dynasty

the best known was Nub-kheper-Ra. He was per¬
haps the greatest enemy of the Hyksos rule and his
inscription in the temple of Min at Koptos denounces
the officials who surrendered to the Hyksos and receiv¬
ed the hated enemies in the temple. He caused, de¬
predations in the territories of the Hyksos but could
not conquer the laird of his fathers from them.

With Maa-ab-Ra and others the first Hyksos

Dynasty (the 15th) came to an end. A new and more
energetic 16th Dynasty with Nekara Khian and Apcp
II ascended to power and subjugated the whole of
the south.

The Hyksos, however, had throughout their rule

in Egypt been hated as usurping foreigners and revolts
against them were never wanting. A war of libera¬
tion was fought sometime, between 1620 and 1573 n.c.
The final revolt came, as usual, from (he soullu It
is recorded that a long and bloody war was fought
and Misphragmouthosis (Aahmes) finally expelled,
them. Kings having Sekenenra as their names assumed
full royal titles to the defiance of the Hyksos and the
war of liberation began in full swing. Sekenenra 111
was killed in battle, and was succeeded by a son of
twelve, named Karnes. The death of the king gave
indeed a setback to the liberation movement, for a,
while but it gained vigour as young blood ascended
the scene of affairs. Karnes and his brolhers one
after another took up the challenge, fought, the foreign¬
ers and met their end probably on (he field of bailie.
At last when a third brother Nebpehlira, the youngest
of them, mounted the crest ofbattky the war was won.
Memphis was captured, the Hyksos were crowded
out of the land and Egypt was liberated. The libera¬
tor then founded a new the Ifllh Dynasty.
14 THE ANCIENT WORLD

The Restoration and the Empire

The new times indeed proved great in Egyptian

history. Vigorous rulers of the 18th Dynasty, which
Nebpehtira Aahmes I founded, proved great at home
and greater abroad for only half a century after ex¬
pelling the Hyksos, they were warring on Asiatic
land. The dynasty now entered on its epoch of imperial
greatness and marked the First Empire in Egypt. The
Hyksos were broken and flying, bringing war and
confusion into Palestine in their train. Kassites had
weakened Babylonia by their rule and the Hittites
had not yet penetrated far to the south. Western
Asia lay open to the manoeuvres of a chance adven¬
turer. Thothmes I, the second successor of Aahmes,
seized the opportunity, crossed to the north and overran
Palestine and Syria. And this was no inroad like
the raids of the Egyptian kings of the 12th or 6th
Dynasties but conquests that held forth. Egypt
was now opening a new chapter, one of imperial glory.
This new era of conquest affords infinitely interesting
incidents to the historian and luckily his way to them
does not lie in the dark for no period of Egyptian
history is so resplendent with records as this. The
famous Tell el-Amarna letters belong to this period
and throw a flood of light on the events of the 15 th
century b.c.

The Anatolian Hittites were beyond the Taurus,

the Aryan Mitannis far to the north-east, the Kassites
absorbed in home affairs, and the land of Lebanon
and the wealthy cities of Syria between the Amanus
Mountains andthe Euphrates, Damascus already enjoy¬
ing early fame among them, lay naked to the rapacious
thrusts of the Egyptian ambition. Thothmes I rode
down to the bank of the Euphrates which river he
fixed as the northern boundary of his empire.
' ®

_ But the Syrian and other Asian barons were not

easily to be denied their freedom and their suppression
 EGYPT 15

was to be weighed agaist the strength of the army

that Egypt could afford to keep on the bank of the
Euphrates. The Egyptian queen Malshcpsut, des¬
pite her bravedo and masculine attire, was, after all,
a woman given to the luxuries of the harem and was
naturally more interested in the glory of commercial
and exploratory expeditions nearer home, or, al: auv
rate, in what the danger of warfare listed least: than
in donning the battle habit: Her half-brother Thu-
thmes languished in his inactive slate of waslessm ■;>;
and fretted in silence while enemies on die Euphrates
federated and mustered strong for a (rial of strength
with a country whose royal reins were held iu the lender
fingers of a slim woman.

At last the queen died and Tliollnnes III ascended

the throne, which iu; had been only sharing with her
until now, and assumed undivided power. For most
of the period of his rule the emperor kept on camp
ing and his epigraphieal record on (he wall of ihr
corridor of the great temple of Amen, in Kamuk, the
most graphic of the Egyptian records, details the inci¬
dents of his continuous punitive and predatory en¬
gagements.

Thothmes crossed the desert year after year to

the land of the enemies abroad and made them lick
the dust of their own soil. As many as seventeen
military expeditions to western Asia wire undertaken
by him most of which have found detailed mention
in the inscription. Tributes, rich and varied, poured
into the royal coffers of Egypt. Enemies organized
revolt after revolt but the strong hand of the Egyptian,
monarch dealt the necessary blow to scatter the con¬
federation of tire foes. March against one organized
by the king of Kadcsli Iras been very vividly described
by the records. The enemy lay at Megiddo awaiting
the arrival of the Egyptian army. While in the
town of Yeham the latter argued against: the chances
of a march on the enemy who had taken position on
16 THE ANCIENT WOLD

die ridge which connects Carmel with Samaria and

separates the plain of Sharon from that of Esdraelon,
the plain beckoned to the Egyptian monarch to march
on, which he did. Horse behind horse, they marched,
man behind man, in Indian file, and compelled the
foe to seek shelter within the fortress which was later
reduced. Campaign followed campaign, hostages
followed hostages, in order to keep the vanquished to
their knees, but the spirit could not be broken of those
levelled low for a time in western Asia. Booty and
spoils weighed heavy with the victors, honour and
freedom heavier with the vanquished. Tributes came
from the banks of the Euphrates, from the Kassites,
from the land of Kadesh on theOrontes and from Crete,
but the spirit of the rebels could not be broken.
Euphrates, any way, continued to be the boundary
and the empire of Thothmes III reached the outskirts
of the land of the Mitarmis and the Taurus, of course
not a very peaceful one, all the same of dimensions un¬
precedented in Egyptian history.

The task of administering such vast possessions

was not easy and to the same Thothmes addressed
himself now.
The Organization of the Empire
The great king held his vast dominions by means
of a number of garrisoned fastnesses and spheres govern¬
ed by deputies and illustrious officials of state. One
such, Tahutia or . Thutii, administered the far off
Naharin and Phoenicia and the neighbouring islands.
Besides keeping the intransigent princes within their
prescribed loyal bounds, these • governors collected
and remitted ^regularly to the imperial exchequer rich
tributes from their provincial sway. Gold and silver,
sapphire and lapis-lazuli poured into the coffers of
state from the -grand marches of the empire.

A novel measure that Th'othmes adopted to hold

the ends of his empire foreshadowed the Roman and
 EGYPT
17
British inventions of later history. ' The Romans took
the German and Thracian chiefs to Rome, made them
.Romans who aped Roman manners and kept the state
ot their rigid masters. So also did the British by
founding colleges and public schools in India to train
little native princes and chieftains, whose training
completed m England, they proved the bulwark of
the empire. Thothmes was the original inventor
of this_ grand method. Sons and brothers of rulino-
chieftains were tom from their distant defying for*
tresses and were borne away to Thebes. As hostages
they ensured, m the first instance, the good conduct
of their ruling relations and by the time they reparied
to then native lands to succeed to their respective
heritage they had been completely Egyptianized and
rendered utterly incapable of taking field against their
ustwhile masters. The expanding harem of the
Egyptian monarch further cemented the process as
the royal lady adding to the list brought affection to
bcai on the relentless feuds and, if not the contempo¬
raneous, the generation that followed effected without
doubt 2l cohesion of humane ties between the parties

_ The genius of Thothmes III built up the first

Egyptian Empire which the magnificence of Amen-
hetep consolidated and raised to a state of unforeseen
splendour. Local authority had been wielded by
powerful feudal families during the rule of the kings
prior to XII Dynasty. It was fairly supreme even
during the early years of that Dynasty but slowly it
waned and came to be concentrated in the hands of
later monarchs. As the lure of conquest, however,
carried them away from Egypt, power had to be shared
of necessity. There had been the office of the Vizier,
that of the Tjate, or ‘Man pre-eminent,’ to whose charge
the pre-occupied king now left the government of the
metropolis and the police control. Bui he was the
Vizier of the Southern regions alone with headquarters
at Thebes. Later, one with like powers was appointed
for the North also with his seat at Memphis. From
2
18 THE ANCIENT WORLD

the tomb inscription of Rekhmara and the Tell el-

Amama 'letters it is evident that he was the first Minis¬
ter of state also responsible for dispensing justice.
He was, besides, the superintendent of the collection
of all taxes although he had no control over them.

They were received, treasured and spent on the

pleasure of the king. The Treasurer was thus another
important functionary of state. The Chamberlain
seems to have wielded ample authority and his proxi¬
mity to the monarch, who was as much divine as human,
naturally afforded him uncommon power.

The centre and fountain of all authority, however,

was the king himself. He could not be out-ridden
in any way. He was supreme in the internal affairs
of the state (appointing and dismissing at pleasure
all the important officials of his government and admi¬
nistering the revenues of the state as he thought best)
as also in foreign relations for he ordered his forces
forth into the field and, as their supreme commander,
led them against the enemy. Being a priest to the
gods, he added a divine character to his temporal
power. Slowly, however, there arose a formidable
rank of powerful priests who were helped to assume
their station of vantage in ecclesiastical affairs as in
politics by Thothmes III. Amen was the supreme
god and his priest the supreme officer.

Successors of Thothmes

Thothmes was succeeded about 1447 b.c. by

Amenhetep II; his son, an incomparable soldier and
a man of majestic built. His stern portliness bore
the strength of a bull but he never over-reached the
bounds of stately wisdom. He disdained cruelty as
he abhorred rebellion. He would not go to war for
mere conquest but likewise wpuld not unsheathe his
sword until he had brought the rebels to their knees
and made them lick the dust if they had the daring
 EGYPT 19
to revolt Lebanon rose against him and was made
to taste the sharpness of his blade. By hurried marches
the youthful monarch crossed the desert, overthrew
the enemy and stamped out revolt. Then he battled
across the Euphrates and subdued the Mitanni
princes bearing Aryan names. Artatama gave his
daughter m marriage to Thothmes IV, the successor
ot Amenhetep, and Dushratta became a faithful friend
and _ close correspondent of Amenhetep III. The
empire from the seat of the friendly Mitanni beyond
the Euphrates to the Third Cataract of the Nile knew
no disaffection until Amenhetep was laid in his grave.

Thothmes IV followed next on the throne of Egypt.

He was the first _ Egyptian potentate to marry the
daughter of an alien ruler, Artatama, the chief of the
Mitannis. He died young at the age of thirty and
was succeeded by his son Amenhetep III. The
latter preferred to many an Egyptian lady but con¬
tinued to favour the Mitanni house for he took from
it two wives one after another, first Gilukhipa, daughter
of king Shutarna, and then her niece Tadukhipa
daughter of Dushratta. He, however, never gave
them the status of the chief queen but only that
of the auxiliary beauties of the harem, flames that
might illumine the prospect without burning the skin.

The history of the times is recovered from the

famous Tell el-Amarna letters of Middle Egypt. They
bear numerous records, letters and despatches incised
m cuneiform characters on clay tablets revealing to
us mter-state activities during the middle of the second
millennium b.c. To this priceless ho^rd of letters
and to the epigraphical records in the Egyptian temples
are added the invaluable documents, excavated at
Boghaz Kyoi in Asia Minor, enriching pur knowledge
ot the contemporary international politics. The let-
^exceedingly human and where they are address¬
ed by the Mitanni king Dushratta to Amenhetep and
the queen, they have become exceptionally touching
20 THE ANCIENT WORLD

and affectionate. Those received on the succession

of Amenhetep IV to his father’s possessions and harem.
—it was normal for Egyptian royal heirs to succeed as
much to the inferior queens of their father, their step¬
mothers, as to his material riches—are profuse in their
condolences. Among other writers of these letters
and despatches were Assyrian, Babylonian and Hittite
princes. It is evident from these letters that Egyptian
kings were on the best of terms with the Khatti,
Kassite, Assyrian, Mitanni and Hittite rulers of Western
Asia. Gold and precious gems flowed freely from
one state to another as friendly tokens, tributes and
bribes, for many a time a revolt had to be met with
payment of gratuity. The Canaanites were generally
in revolt, plundering Babylonian and Egyptian cara¬
vans wherever advantageous and the Hittites camou¬
flaged their designs through letters of loving assurances
while they made bloody inroads whenever chances
of vulnerability admitted them to the east and south¬
east of the Taurus.

The southern points of the Egyptian empire were

penetrating, deeper into the heart of the continent.
During previous reigns the bounds had reached tire
“Pure Mountain,” to the Nubian town of Napata,
which had become the southern centre of the diffusion
of Egyptian culture, Amenhetep III carried his arms
right down to the “Springs of Horus,59 perhaps the
Sixth Cataract, a distance of a month’s sailing from
Napata. Upper Nubia thus came directly under
the sway of the Empire and thither Amenhetep III
erected his splendid colonnaded temples as Amenhetep
II and Thothi^es IV had done in Lower Nubia. Noble
colonnades were added to the great Temple of Luxor
at Thebes beckoning to the tired traveller of the desert
to that sole retreat of civlization in that sea of arid
waste. He called his temple after himself, Kha-m-
maat, ‘on a par with Maat’, the goddess of Right and
Law, and installed his own statue to be worshipped
while he was still alive, unlike the current usage.
 EGYPT 21
Amenhetep IV—Akhenaten

Amenhetep III had been a magnificent figure.

So was his queen the illustrious Tii, a woman of uncom¬
mon power and political stature in that ancient world.
Their son was Amenhetep IV on whom the judgement
of history has fallen in a queer way. Some historians
have adjudged him mad like the Tughlak king of'
India, Muhammad the visionary; others have accorded
him a brilliant intellect.

Brilliant Amenhetep IV indeed was, and if an

Alexander or a Sankara can be credited with uncom¬
mon genius for having accomplished extraordinary
feats of valour or mind before the age of thirty, Amen-
hetep’s achievement fell well within this range of age.
He died about twenty-five when he had already declared
his rebellious faith a decade earlier. He founded his
new religion when he was barely fifteen. Great insight
was needed to see what he saw, greater courage to say
what he said. Christ had to pay with his blood for
what he saw and said, the Prophets before him had
to pass into bondage for the same, and, much later,
the great seer of the desert had to seek asylum in an
unffiedly city, but Amenhetep died a king, and a natural
death defying the knife of the murderer and the noose
of the bigot.

Centuries before the official doctrine of monotheis¬

tic philosophy was registered among concepts and ad¬
vanced by philosophers, Amenhetep had preached it.
He refused to believe in a plurality of gods or in a dismal
divinity of death. He preferred to worship life and the
brilliant effulgent cause of life, the sun-disk. Then again
not the mere sun-disk as a frightened savage but the
divine and conscious single pervasive power behind
it. This was a brilliant idea. True the Prophets later
talked about a Jehova who had been a singular god
even to their forefathers, but the same was vague,
while again it cannot be traced in its singleness of pur-
22 THE ANCIENT WORLD

pose to the time anterior to Amenhetep. This boy

of fifteen founded his doctrine in the first quarter of the
14th cy. B. c., before the Dorian Greeks had swooped
down the rocky plains of the Olympian gods, before
Troy had risen to eminence, before the great battle of
Mahabharata had been fought, indeed long before
Zarathusthra, Buddha, Confucius and Lao Tzu had
preached their faith. His was without doubt the
first doctrinaire in history.

Born of a stately father and a majestic mother he

inherited the genius of both, but in a different way. He
came to the throne a child and for a few years had to live
under the strain of the regency of that brilliant queen
Tii and per force of circumstances had to accept the
feminine control of a masterly woman. Bom in purple
of a luxurious art-loving father and an energetic,
perhaps an Aryan or semi-Aryan mother, all the re¬
quisites for the creation of a striking and abnormal
character were present. A boy of absolutely original
brain, untrammelled by consideration of traditions
or usage, his genius had full play. Insensate and
oblivious to everything else but his own ‘truth’, he
preached his heresy and stood courageously by it.

The reaction was immense and disastrous for the

great and formidable priests arose against him. The
sun had been worshipped before but only as one of
several gods and now he alone was to hold the field
to the complete negation of the rest. Undeterred by
consequences the young king carried the process of
Atenizing the land. Temples in Egypt and Palestine
of the Sun-disk were built, names of other gods were
erased to make room for the new one and he himself
underwent a new christening and assumed a new
name, Akhenaten, ‘Pleasing to the Sun-Disk.’

Unlike his father, Akhenaten was a man of peace

and refused to go on expeditions of conquest in the
Asian lands. He even refused to go out of his capital
 EGYPT 23

and from there, in pursuit of his faith he declared war

on the exceptionally oppulent priests of Amen and gods
fattened on gold and land and cattle and on all the
hosts of supporters of the old gods and of the ancient
regime. The fury of the priests of Amen had no bounds;
the bitterness of the soldiers and statesmen, who saw
the genius and industry of the bygone ages thus dissi¬
pated by the caprice of a boy, called him mad and rushed
against him; the Egyptian masses lashed to action by
the frenzied fury of the priests and nobles in unrelent¬
ing hatred nicknamed him the ‘Criminal of Akhetaten’.
But Akhenaten bore the brunt with courage and
his intrepidity and application triumphed. The first
casualty to the faith was his own sister Nefretiti whom
he had married five years earlier, the nobles of the
court were the next and next to them those who seemed
to see light. His cause triumphed and he died a natural
death. His own poetical composition inscribed on
the walls of the Tell el-Amarna tombs proclaim in
beautiful hymns the tenets of his faith which sound
so singularly Upanishadic.

Amenhetep IV, Akhenaten, was one of those men

who do not leave male heirs behind. He had six issues
but all daughters, and he was succeeded by a short¬
lived shadow, Smenkhkara, on the Egyptian
throne. The light that went out in that desert was
never sought to be revived but to the historian to whom
nothing dies, this reviler of the ancient faith, this prea¬
cher of heresy, this insane Akhenaten was indeed the
first doctrinaire of history.

The Successors oj Akhenaten (C. 1362-1321 B. C.)

Smenkhkara, a son-in-law and successor of Akhena¬

ten, was soon followed on the Egyptian throne by
Nebkheperura Tutenkhamen, a better known figure,
whose tomb has yielded an enormous quantity of gold.
Tutenkhamen, himselfiperhaps a son of Amenhetep III
by an inferior wife, married the third daughter of
24 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Akhenaten. He began his reign as an Atenite but

he soon returned with his court to the older religion.
He even attempted to complete the colonnade in the
temple of Amen at Luxor.

Tutenkhamen ruled for about a decade and was

followed by Ai, originally a priest officer, soon sup¬
planted by Horemheb after a short reign of five years.
Horemheb had first been the ‘Mayor of the Palace’
and later the Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian
forces. It was through his help and influence that Ai
had succeeded to the throne and perhaps it was to
him again that he owed his deposition.

Horemheb was a fanatical devotee of Amen and he

completed the restoration to the orthodox faith. This
rigidly conservative monarch is a singularly dull and
uninteresting figure in Egyptian history. He was
however, a. soldier, with some organizing ability, for
he is credited with the promulgation of a revised code
of laws on a stele in the temple of Kamak. He ruled
for more than two decades and closed the 18th Dynasty.

The 19 th Dynasty

About 1320 b. c. a new dyansty, the 19th, came

to capture power in Egypt. It was founded by Rame-
ses I who ascended the throne of Horemheb. The
family was probably of Lower Egyptian origin al¬
though Thebes continued to be the national capital.

The dynasty sought to revive the supremacy of

Egypt over western Asia and came into sharp collision
with the Hittites who held sway over most of that re¬
gion. Rameses I, the founder of the family, was
not destined to rule long and soon left the sceptre to
his son Seti I.- Seti marched into Palestine against
Mursil the Hittite and recovered that povince. He,
however, desisted from further*'war and devoted his
energies to nation-building activities at home. The
 EGYPT 25

most important of them was the erection of a great

royal funerary temple at Abydos. The architecture
of the temple is commonplace but the sculptured re¬
liefs are of the first order. It registers the high water¬
mark in that kind of Egyptian art. The famous Hy-
postyle Hall begun by his father was mainly built by
him although completed by his successor, Rameses II.
The solemn structure was matchless in majesty and
magnificence.

Rameses II next followed on the throne of Egypt

about 1300 b. c. and enjoyed one of the longest reigns
in Egyptian history. His greatness has been miscal¬
culated for he ill-deserved the title ‘Great5. He was a
great self-aggrandizer and he lost no opportunity to
bring his name into display by inscribing it after
erasing others5, or by attaching his own statues to tem¬
ples that he restored. His most ambitious work was
a gigantic structure bearing ugly pillars and a colossus
of himself. It is generally known as the Ramesseum.
On its exterior are depicted scenes of the numerous
wars that he waged. The most important of these
lasted for about fifteen years and was fought against the
Hittites. It was concluded by a treaty and marked
the decline of Egyptian power which could not be
arrested despite the efforts of such energetic monarchs
as Rameses III and Shishak. Rameses II died about
1234 b. c.

Before passing on to other events mention must be

made of the admirable text of the treaty which is one of
the most remarkable diplomatic documents of anti¬
quity. This was the first instance in human history
when an attempt was made to adjust international
relations through literary documents preserved in
royal archives. Such documents were not entirely
unknown among .the political transactions of Asian
princes—for example, between the rulers of Babylon
and Assyria—but this »one is the lone instance of its
kind preserved to this day on the walls of Karnak and
26 THE ANCIENT WORLD

the Ramesseum in Egypt and —part of the cuneiform

original draft—among the clay archives of Boghaz
Kyoi in Asia Minor. The document is a rare specimen
of order and logic and its wording strikes a most
modern note.

The parties are placed on a footing of perfect equa¬

lity. The protocol declares with uncommon equani¬
mity that “There shall be no hostilities between them,
for ever. The great chief of Kheta shall not invade
the land of Egypt, for ever, to take anything there¬
from, and Rameses—Meriamen, the great prince of
Egypt, shall not invade the land of Kheta, to take any¬
thing therefrom, for ever.”

Then follows the clause which reiterates the former

treaties without recapitulating them. A few clauses
deal with the important topics of extradition of poli¬
tical fugitives and of common emigrants from one
country to the other anticipating the principle of in¬
ternational law that no man can change his country
or his allegiance at his own will.

After the clause bearing divine witnesses there

follows the final paragraph containing a description of
Hittite figures and some seals including those of the
contracting Hittite King Khattusil and his queen
Pudukhipa.

What followed the conclusion of the treaty registers

anolher specimen of international accord and amity
during those remote times. Pudukhipa, the Hittite
queen, received a letter from the queen of Rameses,
Nefertari, expressing her delight at the restoration
of peace. The peace did last throughout the reigns
of both monarchs.

_ . Thirteen years after the signing of the treaty, the

friendship of Egypt and Khatth (Hittite) was reaffirm¬
ed by the marriage with Rameses of a Hittite princess,
 EGYPT 27

daughter of Khattusil and Pudukhipa, The Hittite

emperor made an even unprecedented, state visit to
his brother-monarch bringing in his train his daughter
and vassals, and an immense amount of presents in
gold and silver. He journeyed in winter, much to the
astonishment of the Egyptians, in spite of snow in^the
passes of Taurus and rain among the hills of Palestine.
While wishing godspeed to the departing Anatolians
Rameses expressed the hope that they would not meet
with snow and ice in the northern passes on their
way back.

Meneptah succeeded Rameses II after the latter s

death and ruled for about a decade. Of the two impor¬
tant events of his reign one was his successful campaign
in Palestine and the other his breaking of the con¬
federacy of the "Northerners coming from all lands3
that invaded Egypt.

After the death of Meneptah anarchy followed

anarchy for a space of thirty years. Three kings ruled
Egypt one after another, the last being Seti II. When
he died throwing the land of the Nile into chaos and
confusion, a Syrian adventurer captured the kingdom
which was finally rescued by Setnekht.. His son,
Rameses III,' bears a great name in Egyptian history.
He sought to emulate Rameses II in every detail.

Rameses IIFs accession to throne, however, was

symbolic of the last flicker of a dying flame. It spelt
vigour, however. To the incessant wars of the two
centuries and a half since the invasion of [Link] I
had succeeded a peace (concluded by the Hittite-
Egyptian treaty between Khattusil and ^Rameses II),
a slumber of exhaustion, which was now brought to
an end when the reign of Rameses III awakened his
people to the realities of war and conflict. Egypt
was aroused from her torpor and -assumed her stature
once more, imposing and splendid, till the artificial
revival of Rameses III collapsed under his successors,
28 THE ANCIENT WORLD

and the empire fell into final decay. His model was,
far too inferior to his own genius but he preferred to
toe the line and echo the empty vaunts of his great
namesake.

The' conflict opened with an invasion by the Libyans

and Mediterranean tribes. Twice did" they make
their attempt and twice they were driven back into
Libya. third danger came from the east but--the
king beat it back. He saw that a vigorous offensive’
was the best defence. Advancing by sea and land,
along tim coast towards Palestine, he fell with ships
and chariots upon the barbarian host and inflicted
upon it a complete victory. “They were dragged,.,
capsized, and laid low upon the beach; slain and.
made heaps from stem to bow of their ships. And
all their belongings were cast upon the waters.53

^ In one particular instance, however, Rameses III

did not imitate his prototype; he embarked on no
wars of aggression. He left Egypt peaceful and weal¬
thy, wealthier perhaps than ever before. His records
relate of endless riches in corn, gold and silver which
he shared in common with the gods, a sad reflection
indeed on the condition of the people who must have
suffered the pangs of poverty amidst plenty, for the
wealth of Egypt meant the wealth of its monarchs.
No wonder that his old age was troubled, howsoever
little,: by a harem conspiracy of menial servants and
mercenaries.' Rameses III died fairly, old and was
succeeded by his numerous sons one after another, all
bearing his name.

: The last of the Ramessides was Rameses XI who

ended his royal career about. 1100 b.c . Ever since
the death of Rameses III the Egyptian Empire had
been tottering; to a fall and the: wealth, prestige and
power of the priests had been' growing enormously
through the endless endowments” and gifts of the
pharaohs. Ultimately Herihor, the high-priest,'
 EGYPT 29

quietly assumed the crown when Rameses XI died,

closing with him the 20th Dynasty. One Priest-king
followed another on the southern throne while the
North became independent under a new house. The
record of the 21st Dynasty, which came to an end
about 945 u. c., is one of power rotating between the
North and the South, now divided now combined.
The Egyptian Empire had ceased to exist.

'The Last Phase

The record of the rule of the following dynasties,

right down to the last, was one of gathering gloom.
An energetic king like Sheshenk (Shishak ) tried occa¬
sionally to save the situation by breathing life into
the nostrils of dying Egypt, but nothing could arrest
her downward march. Three thousand years are
even otherwise no mean length of life for any nation
and Egypt had lived her day. Decay and death were
her natural destiny. Ten dynasties, 22nd to 31st
(of which two were foreign), had yet to rise and fall
before Egypt could be finally extinguished as an in¬
dependent power, first by Alexander and next by the
Romans.

New powers kept on rising and crossing swords with

the decrepit old giant and all spoils of adventure on
the West Asian soil meant a strip cut out from Egypt’s
Asian possessions. Her frontiers went on shrinking
as younger nations in the north became restive and
ambitious and soon Egypt possessed nothing beyond
her geographical boundaries. She was politically para¬
lysed.

And yet a reference to the passing events that

thread her story of incompetence and infirmity through
occasional bursts of ambition to her final extinction
will not be out of place here. The following pages
relate the stages of her decline and ultimate disappear¬
ance into oblivion.
 30 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Sheshenk or Shishak founded the 22nd Dynasty

after the death of Psusennes II. He was a successful
military adventurer of Libyan descent who shifted
his capital from Tanis to Bubastis. For over a cen¬
tury the kingdom of Egypt had been governed from
two centres by two monarchs. Sheshenk at once
joined the two crowns and terminated the theocratic
rule by appointing his son as High-Priest. Sheshenk’s
triumphant march into Palestine was recorded on the
walls of Karnak. The great Solomon was his senior
contemporary in Palestine and Sheshenk awaited
his opportunity which afforded itself five years after
the death of that. Jewish potentate. This was almost
an attempt to revive the west Asian Egyptian Empire.
Another attempt was made by his son Osorkon I, the
successor of Sheshenk. The expedition was over¬
whelmed and the attempt proved singularly abortive.

_ The rest of the kings of the family were mere names.

One of them, Osorkon II, however, is credited to have
built a magnificent ‘Festival Hall 5 at Bubastis to
commemorate his Sed festival. During his rule a new
danger threatened Egypt. The Assyrians were build¬
ing up their great empire and while their king Shal-
maneser was measuring swords with his opponents
at Karkar, he sent a trepidation through his Egyptian
contemporaries and annexed Syria and Palestine.

Tbp 23rd Dynasty was contemporary with the

22nd from about 850 B. c. The two houses fought a
war which ended in the defeat of the former. The
[Link] Dynasty had its capital at Thebes. After some
time the kingdom north of Siut split into a dozen or
more principalities and the rulers of the important ones
assumed regal titles. They were all princes of the
Bubastite family. In course of time an independent
prince of Libyan descent and holding the region on
the western border of the desert soon got ascendancy
over all of them. This was Tefhakht who soon con¬
quered the entire Delta, and, establishing himself at
 EGYPT 31

Memphis; he even essayed to subjugate the remaining

parts of Egypt. Piankhi, the southern overlord, was
ruling at Napata. He received representations from
his vassals and had to send an army against Tefnakht.
The conflict opened at Per-pega, near Herakleopolis,
where a great battle was fought. It ended in the
defeat of the northern confederates. Piankhi moved
north reducing cities and fortresses and laid siege to
Memphis itself and finally invested it while Tefnakht
secretly abandoned the city and rode to North. After
making his triumphant entry into the capital the con¬
queror received the submission of all the Delta kings
at a solemn ceremony. Tefnakht was captured after
a hot pursuit in the marshes. He sent in his
submission and was pardoned on his declaring him¬
self a vassal and after taking an oath of allegiance to his
overlord. Piankhi returned to Napata in 721 b.c.
after appointing his son Shabaka his regent in the
North. Then it was that he came in touch with the
Assyrian steel a year after when on his instigation
Israel revolted against Shalmaneser V, who struck
quickly at the rebels, and after his murder Sargon,
his successor, brought great consternation to the holy
land. Not a soldier came from Egypt.

Shabaka, however, continued his intrigue. As

a result Hamath and Damascus, and Samaria and Gaza
rebelled against Assyria. Sargon was engaged in
Babylonia, but leaving his oprations there, he marched
forthwith against the rebels, defeated the Syrians' at
Karkar, and crushed the Philistines and Egyptians
at Raphia on the Egyptian frontier. The Ethiopians
fled the field and Shabaka showed fair quickness in
retreat. Egypt was spared the further humiliation
of an attack for she bought off her enemy who was not.
slow to record this offering of gifts as tributes from the
vanquished. Shabaka presently returned to the south,
the north again gaining freedom under Tefnakht.
Secret negotiations passed to and fro between the
Egyptians and the rebels of Palestine on the instiga-
32 THE ANCIENT WORLD

tion of the former. In 711 b. c. Shabaka moved

again to North, this time as full-fledged king and
overwhelmed the Lower Country burning aliveits king
Boknrenef (Uahkara, Bokkhoris), the son of Tefnakht.

Shabaka pushed on with his in trigues in Palestine

and when Sennacherib, the son and successor of Sargon,
ascended the Assyrian throne he found the entire west
in revolt. He struck at the rebels soon after and pushed
on to Palestine battling across the countries of the
west and accepting submissions of broken potentates.
Shabaka rushed on to his northen frontiers and sent
substantial succour to the rebels of Palestine though
he himself failed to take the field against his formi¬
dable adversary. Sargon smote and the ‘sons of the
kings of Musur’ disbanded making the best of their
way back across the desert to Egypt. Some Ethiopian
generals were taken prisoner but the rest found their
way back home.

The next Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon was the son

of Sennacherib and he resolved to destroy Egypt and
thus pay her back for her intrigues during half the
previous century. But all Egyptians had such abhor¬
rence for all Asians and could not be held down for
long. They would endure no Hyksoses although
their vigour had long damped. This fundamental
fact the Assyrian emperor missed. The only way to
win the Egyptian loyalty was to become Egypt’s king,
to ascend her throne and to accept her gods. But
since this could not be acceptable to Esarhaddon or,
later, to Ashurbanipal, the chances of making Egypt an
Assyrian province too were lost.

Esarhaddon attacked the frontiers of Egypt in

675 B. c. but nature taking the side of the Egyptians,
the invasion did not prosper. A great storm com¬
pelled the Assyrian army to withdraw. In the follow¬
ing year the Assyrian legions entered the Delta although
no conquest could properly be registered. Three
 EGYPT 33

years later (671 B. c.), however, Egpyt was conquered.

It was an answer to the Egyptian intrigues in western
Asia. Tirhakah was the ruling pharaoh and he fled
the field without fighting a single engagement. Al¬
though the danger of an Assyrian invasion had always
been there, the pharaoh had done nothing to strengthen
the national defences. He had been interested only
in building temples by fleecing his subjects.

After arranging for an unbroken supply of water

in the desert, Esarhaddon crossed the frontier, put
the pharaoh to flight and stormed Memphis. Memphis
was soon taken and its resistance was revenged by
putting the city to the sword. After reducing the
Delta and the land round Memphis and accepting
the allegiance of the northern kinglets the emperor
returned. But no sooner had he left the land of the
Nile than Tirhakah descended suddenly like a storm
and annihilated the Assyrian garrisons. Memphis
at once fell to his might. Esarhaddon on getting the
news was furious and essayed to return but was taken
ill and died on the way. Egypt was saved from being
laid waste.

Ashurbanipal, the mighty son of Esarhaddon,

who ascended the Assyrian throne, at once addressed
himself to the Egyptian affairs. Tirhakah met him
on his frontiers but was again defeated and Memphis
was reoccupied. Ships transported the Assyrian army
along the water course to Thebes which was taken
without resistance. Kinglets and princelings were set
up and reinstated all along the route, even at Thebes,
where the governor had capitulated.
•

Tirhakah made yet another attempt to regain his

possessions in the North but was beaten back by Assy¬
rian generals and those princelings who had secretly
negotiated with him were sent in chains to Assyria.
Tanutamon invaded North soon after. Thebes fell,
Memphis was taken with great slaughter of the Assy-
3
34 THE ANCIENT WORLD

rian garrison and the Delta was secured. Ashurbanipal

returned like lightning and recovered the Delta.
Tanutamon fled to South following his defeat in Middle
Egypt. Thebes was sacked and set on fire by the
Assyrian soldiery. Ashurbanipal returned laiden with
booty dragging countless unfortunate prisoners of war.

Egypt was for the moment laid low with her cities
ruined and the temples desecrated and stripped of all
their splendour and riches. But within a decade
Psamatic, who had been appointed viceroy by Ashur¬
banipal, led a revolt, freed Egypt from the Assyrian
yoke and assumed the Double Crown of Egypt as its
rightful pharaoh. He was the founder of a new dynasty,
tire 26th.

Defeats abroad and want of sound finances com¬

pelled the Egyptian leaders in politics to reflect on the
past. Lack of money did not permit the rulers even
to indulge in the usual pastime of building temples.
A return to the past and, as such, to a state of speculative
inactivity became the norm. It is usual with degene¬
rate nations to seek to revive the dead glory of the
bygone ages and thus to cover the inability to improve
the immediate present. It was, however, an attempt
at a mere artificial revivification of an old Egypt long
passed away, and the effect of the renovation was only
to intensify the old age of Egypt, who had but painted
her wrinkled face with unreal aids to youth. In
fact the revivalist movement which aimed at producing
the pre-Empire days had begun during the Ethiopian
domination. It started as a fashion of protest against
the outmoded and vulgarized culture of the Empire,
for the imperial tradition had not, after all, served
Egypt who had fallen a prey to the adventures of west
Asian militarists. In the bitterness of thraldom the
Egyptians turned from the Empire towards the simple
old days of the Pyramid-Builders for inspiration.
Names and titles of that period returned and were
assumed with great patronage and pride, and when
 EGYPT 35
Psamatik I regained independence for Egypt this archa-
istic crusade was even officially adopted by the state.
The renovation naturally was not the harbinger of real
renaissance but only ushered in a period of empty vaunt.
It must, however, be said that this revivalism and more
than that, the combining of the crowns certainly
brought in a prosperity never known since the days
of the 20th Dynasty.

Psamatik Vs son Necho (609-593 b. g.) showed

some energy in raising the prestige of Egypt by seeking
to re-establish her lost empire in western Asia. He
pushed his arms across Palestine and seized the whole
°f. Syria. Tnis was effected with the help of the rebel
princes, of Assyria. But this was the last flicker of a
fast dying flame. Soon the Babylonian ruler moved
and at Carchemish where the great prince of Baby¬
lonia, Nebuchadnezzar, completely routed him dis¬
banding fully the hosts of Necho. The beaten divisions
of the Pharaoh fled to Egypt abandoning all the con¬
quests of the last five years. Nebuchadnezzar hotly
pursued the beaten army right down to the borders
of Egypt and halted only on hearing the death of
his father. Necho. on his return gave up all hope of
regaining land or influence west of the Euphrates and
settled down to maturing his plans of internal develop¬
ment the most important of which was to dig a canal
for joining the Nile with the Red Sea.

Necho.’s successor Psamatik II (593-588 b. c.) was

too occupied in Nubia to think of Asia. But his successor
mistaking the non-interference of Nebuchadnezzar
in western Asia for imbecility, determined to make a
bid for empire in Asia. He appeared in Palestine
and Phoenicia and captured Sidon and Tyre. Nebu¬
chadnezzar, struck by the insolence of the Pharaoh,
moved westward like lightning. While his armies
operated in the South, he himself appeared before
Ribla but the Pharaoh hastened back to Egypt by sea.
Piece by piece the Babylonian conqueror subjugated the
36 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Egyptian possessions in Asia. The foreign predilec¬

tions had made the Egyptian king so hopeful to the
people that they were even prepared to dethrone him.
The dethronement, however, could not be effected
although one of the nobles called Amasis managed to
get control over the actual government of the country.
The Pharaoh attacked him but was himself defeated
and slain and Amasis assumed the royal power. There
is evidence to show that Nebuchadnezzar entered
Egypt and pushed as far South as the First Cataract.

While Egypt had been endeavouring to assume the

rosy colur of youth and put on false pretences of reju¬
venation, Babylonia and Persia, and a little earlier
Assyria, were exulting in the glory of real youth.
After Assyria Chaldaea with her capital at Babylon,
and, last of all, Persia made a bid for power in the
western world and the glory of the Medes and Persians
seemed to have come to stay. This was a new power,
the Aryan, appeared on earth which was now
successfully combating for hegemony everywhere. In
India the Aryans had long closed the urban civilization
of Indus Valley and had erected their own rural
structure on its debris. In Greece too centuries ago
the Dorian Aryans had crushed the Cretan culture and
established their own city-states. Last of all came
the Medes who established themselves in the high¬
lands of Iran and from there swooped down the plains
of Mesopotamia. This was the Aryan power now
rising to measure swords with the Simitic and Hametic
rulers in the western world. The sun of the Simitic
and Hametic power had set and the dawn of the Iranian
Aryans was breaking in the east.

When Rurush conquered Babylonia, Amasis the

Pharaoh never disputed his claim for he knew too well
that Egypt could not possibly resist the nascent Persia.
Even otherwise Egypt had become inert. When Kam-
bujiya prepared to put through the Achaemenid plan
of conquering Egypt, the latter lay fascinated in a
 EGYPT 37

state of coma unable to defend herself and as though

waiting to submit to her new master. No resistance
whatever was offered except by a few Greek hirelings.
A small engagement was fought at Pelusium, when
Psamatik III gave battle to the Persian monarch. Some
of the Egyptians went over to the Persian side, a great
number were massacred and the rest fled with the king
to Memphis. Memphis was taken and the deposed
Pharaoh was carried to Asia where he was later put to
death. Kambujiya never repeated the mistake of the
Assyrian conquerors by contemptuously declining
to accept the Egyptian throne, sceptre and the gods
but appropriated them all and became a full-fledged
Pharaoh. Kambujiya proceeded next to reduce Nubia
and Napata where independent rulers had been ruling
ever since Tanutamon had retired from Egypt. The
expedition of Kambujiya could not prosper although
the Nubian kingdom was considerably shaken by the
violent contact. The Persian conquest of Egypt came
about in 525 B. c.

Kambujiya hastened home to put down a revolt

leaving the charge of Egypt to his Satrap Aryandes.
But the king died on the way and Darius ascended
the throne of Persia. During the upheaval in Persia
the Satrap Aryandes had revolted and assumed the
royal dignity. Darius entered Egypt in 517 B. c., and
the Satrap submitted at once to his lord. Darius also
ascended the Egyptian throne and was accepted like
Kambujiya by the conquered people as their Pharaoh.
His rule in Egypt was marked by peaceful activity
and important monuments were erected which do credit
to his regime. The enlightened Persian rule came to
an end following the smash at Issus (333 B. c.) of the
host of Darius III by Alexander the Mecedonian,
when he marched on Egypt in 332 b. g.

Egypt first formed a province of the vast empire

of Alexander the Great*and later, when the Mecedonian
conqueror died and his empire was partitioned, the
38 THE ANCIENT WORLD

land of the Nile fell to the share of Ptolemy who estab¬

lished an independent Greek kingdom in Egypt. But
the Ptolemies were wise enough to become completely
Egyptianized except in name. They accepted the
religion and social habits of the land, married their
own sisters in the Egyptian manner and their names
were recorded in the sacred writings within cartouches.
In the first century B. c. Egypt passed from the hands
of the romantic queen Cleopatra to those of Octavius
Caesar and became a province of the Roman Empire.
Egypt 5 who had made history and dictated the destiny
of man for well over thirty-five centuries, now ceased
to be free.

2. Civilization

Egyptian civilization was one of the earliest human

achievements. The first beginnings arose during
the Neolithic period when Egypt was passing out of
barbarism into civilization. Like all Neolithic peoples
Egyptians too began to cover the marches of civiliza¬
tion through handicrafts. Pottery fashioned by hand
and coloured was frequently of the most exquisite
form. Reed mats were plaited and coarse cloth was
woven, while the flint implements had no parallel in
finish anywhere.

But it is not this aspect of Egypt’s civilization which

arrests the notice of the historian. It is indeed the
outlook on life which shaped most of the peculiar trends
of the culture of the Nile. This outlook was rather
gloomy and was responsible for all the countless necro-
poles and imposing pyramids . Take away the pyramids
from the count and much of what remains will cease
to be of effective interest. The pyramids are the
key to the dark mysteries of that land for they con¬
tained within them besides the untold riches of millen¬
niums the embalmed mummies and the hieroglyphics,
both remarkable achievements nof antiquity and both
incidents of the ingenuity and power of priestcraft.
 EGYPT 39

The pyramids are imposing structures. Nothing

more imposing in antiquity or since is known. They
are peculiar to the land of the Nile for they are not
temples, not mere tombs either. Tombs of Ur too
have attracted interest but they lack the architectural
marvel of the Egyptian superstructure and the preser-
vatory chemicals that gave such endless life to dead
bodies in Egypt. Nor can the Ziggurats—temple
structures of solid masonry-—of Babylonia compare
with the pyramids with their secluded chambers.
Egypt does not lack in temples. They are galore
and indeed unparalleled specimens of that kind
which were erected with such devotion, zeal and
fortitude and were endowed with such lavish wealth
by generations of kings which again meant such power
for the Pharaoh and his priests.

The pyramids bring to our knowledge the very

details of life along the banks of the Nile, human glory
and miser}'-, love and hatred, legend and history, sciences
and arts. They are symbolic of the Lower World,
the abode of the dead, where god Osiris held his dismal
charge rewarding the souls or condemning them accord¬
ing to their deserts. But souls could not be admitted
to the shades unless their erstwhile bodies, their tem¬
poral abode in this world have been secured against
decay. Without them the souls would wander beyond
rest and have no peace. The longer the corpses stay
undamaged the surer would the comfort of the souls
be. And so human genius racked its brain and strove
to explore the objects and the elements around it
and beyond the reach of its eye and ultimately accom¬
plished the unimaginable. Man discovered the
preservative chemicals, the magic balm, that would
secure the dead body against decay for thousands
and thousands of years. Mummies are known as
old as eight thousand years , not preserved under the
unassailable vaults of .the pyramids but in ordinary
stone cases buried under common earth.
40 THE ANCIENT WORLD

How was it done? Nobody can properly tell

and yet the guesses have not been unfruitful. As soon
as man was dead his body was attended by a surgeon
and priest, both being the same individual, and by
an assistant to aid the operation. By a bold incision
the rotting properties within the chest and the intestines
were taken out and the inside was re-filled with cedar-
tree pitch and myrrh and cassia. Then for a period of
ten weeks the body was soaked in a solution of natron
brought from the desert of Libya. Now the mummy
was ready to be wrapped in yards and yards of
linen, to be placed in a pretty painted wooden coffin
(which was of gold in cases of the king or the rich),
and finally to be removed to its final rest in the western
desert, among the necropoles of the western hills or in
the chamber of a mighty pyramid. It was called a
mummy because it was filled with hnumiai’ or pitch.
The soul ‘went west’ for that was the abode of the dead.

The assistant who made the operation was the

lowest of the lowly for no common man in Egypt would
accept to do violence to a dead body. And he was
chosen with care for the responsibility was great. It
was found that to some the dead flesh was no less allur¬
ing than that alive, and many a time a wretch succumb¬
ed to hateful carnality and attempted to violate the
body of an attractive girl which had been delivered
to his charge for the process of embalming. The
practice of leaving the body to such indiscriminate
care was discontinued by a royal decree.

The journey of the soul was long and the repose of

the body indeed eternal and interminable. The body
had to be provided with all the amenities that contem¬
poraneous civilization could afford. All kinds of eat¬
ables were interred along with the coffin in the royal
chamber of the pyramid and stone effigies of officials
and servants, symbolic of the living, were placed by
the dead. Furniture o'f an exceptionally brilliant kind
was stored along with innumerable other items of the
 EGYPT 41

human menu and attire. The array of these effects

was so alluring that it is no wonder that it incited theft
and burglary and there are numerous incidents on
record describing how robbers broke into the secluded
chamber and carried the mass of golden riches so
lavishly stored there. In order to prevent this kind of
robbery in antiquity or rather to save the royal mum¬
mies from desecration they were removed many a time
to convenient necropoles where they could .be better
guarded. Sometimes we read of most ingenious mea¬
sures taken to make the mummies immune from the
cupidity of man, the most important of these being, for
instance, the deceitful labelling of names thus sending
the desecrators on the wrong scent. These tombs
disclose the wealth in gold and silver which the pharaohs
amassed through their military exploits abroad and
internal exactions at home. The temples and the
pyramids were the chief favourites ol this hoarded
wealth. The coffin of Tutenkhamen can be instanced
as a case in point. Besides a coffin of solid gold, the
inner chamber, cotaining the coffin had walls plated
with thick sheets of gold that struck the explorers dumb.

The temples at Memphis, Thebes, Kamak, Luxor

and at numerous other sites leave the visitor gaping at
their size, glory and architectonic temper. Whereas
the pyramids are solid masses of masonry, stupendous
delights of their builders, the temples are ornate struc¬
tures giving us glimpses into the distant past where
little man set against the forces of nature could achieve as
much. The walls of the pyramids as also those of the
temples bear records for the benefit of the posterity and
while the former relate the deeds of the dead the latter
recount the exploits of the living. »

This brings us to the sacred writings, called hierogly¬

phics technically, which were, besides the discovery
of the preservatory chemicals, the other wonder of that
anceint world. CoevaLwith the most ancient writings
of India, China and Sumer, perhaps even anterior to
42 THE ANCIENT WORLD

them all in point of time, the art of writing was pro¬

bably the discover}7 of the man of the Nile valley. What
riches, what endless details, of life lived, of powers
shattered, of gains stolen and of life yoked to efforts
do these undecaying undying pictures on walls present !
For thirty centuries the secret of writing went on concen¬
trating power in the priest, the most tormenting inter¬
mediary between the alive and the dead. The human
was so very small and the divine so extremely severe
that the interceding priest naturally came to be looked
upon as a saviour. For long periods of time he kept
the secret of writing, indeed of power, to himself until
the same reached the form what the Egyptologists call
the Demotic in which most of the later records are
inscribed. In course of time when trade by land and
commerce by sea, and, ever more than these, human
affairs on the affectionate and romantic side developed,
the art of writing was shared by the more fortunate of
the lay men. Such records and those others depicting
incidents of diplomatic relations and genealogical
tables of the various Dynasties are preserved on strips of
papyrus reed, the earliest type of paper utilized by man.

The gods of the Egyptian -world like any other,

save the Palestinian, were numerous. Each village
and locality had its tutelary deity. The earliest per¬
haps were the spirits in the trees and in the stones and
the Nile, and those who were partly human, partly
animal. The most important was, of course, Osiris, the
god of the Lower World. His wife was Isis and his son
Horns, the sun-god with falcon; and another sun-god
was Ra, perhaps a divinity introduced from the Semitic
world into the Egyptian pantheon. Ptah, the “Ope¬
ner”, was anotjier such foreign entity that added to the
crowd of gods of Egypt. Set was an evil sacred animal-
god. Amen, first the patron god of the kings of Thebes
later became the king of gods, and great temples were
dedicated to him at Kamak. Akhenaten suppressing
the worship of numerous gods, established that of one
god—Aten, the sun-disk. For the first time in history
 EGYPT 43

was the oneness of God realized. The idea was much

in advance of the age and was suppressed. Hathor
was perhaps the most important goddess with the head
of an ass. To these the pharaoh added his own weight
by installing his images in temples and getting them
worshipped after his death.

The yield in grains from the land was considerable

looking to the narrow strip of the land. Two crops
were harvested, one after another, after the. flood
of the river had receded enriching the soil .with inches
of fertile mud. A system of canals for irrigation also
came incidentally to be maintained. Incidentally again
the science of Geometry developed from an attempt
at keeping and re-marking the boundaries of the hold¬
ings in land. The floods again indirectly became
the cause of maintaining a calender, perhaps the ear¬
liest in history.

But how did the people themselves live—those

builders of the great pyramids who brought tons of
weight of stone from the western mountains and lifted
thousands of tons of weight on their bare bones aloft
into the sky, raised the crops, fought and won battles
for their kings, braved the dangers of the sea and the
desert to acquire gold for their lord ? They were paupers
amidst plenty. They rose as the streak of red appeared
on the horizon of the desert and went out to till their
fields and went to bed as the light died behind the
western hills. Between the twilights they toiled and
plodded across the day without hope or fulfilment,
without chances of recompense and died as uncared
as they had lived. The pictures of man that have been
preserved in the hieroglyphics give him 3 bare strip of
cloth across the loin which is certainly not much for
one who worked the elements and. raised the wealth
of the land. Osiris was as severe with him after death
as Horus had been in life, for his journey across the
gloom was gloomier still, in the absence of the funerary
articles so abjectiy denied while living.
 CHAPTER H

MESOPOTAMIA

1. Sumer

Geography

Mesopotamia is the ‘land lying between the two

rivers5, Euphrates and Tigris. It is now wholly co¬
vered by the kingdom of el-Iraq. We can divide
this country into two parts, the lower South and the
upper North. Roughly the lower South would be
Babylonia (the plain of Shinar) and the upper North
the uplands of Assyria lying mostly to the east oi the
Tigris.

Above the combined courses of the Euphrates and

Bhatt-el-Hayy (the Snake River), an arm of the Tigris,
Sabylonia proper begins. To the south-west of this
dead-flat alluvial plain liel^the Arabian Desert and to
the north-east the mountain-barrier. Except for a
little gypsum near the Persian Gulf, the plain is com¬
pletely devoid of stone; there is not a pebble on its face.
Between the rivers, along their courses and where
canals have been dug from them the soil is exceedingly
fertile. Its summer and winter crops of wheat, corn,
barley, spelt and sesame are plenty. But in summer
the south wind is scorching, although it is not without
advantages for it ripens the dates. Beyond the reach
of the rivers and their canals the land is drab covered
with yellow-grey sand over which the mirage dances
and blazes. Beyond the crops every other necessity
of life was imported by the ancient Babylonians. They
got, for example, their stone from Assyria and Arabia,
their timber from Lebanon and the Amanas, their
gold, silver and lead from Asia .Minor and their copper
from Arabia and Persia.
 MESOPOTAMIA 45

Above Baghdad the rocky uplands begin. East of

the Tigris stretches Assyria right up to the spurs of the
mountains of Kurdistan. Four rivers water the land
of Assyria and make it one of the pleasantest countries
in the world. Wheat and barley grow in abundance
and grapes, olives and apricots are in plenty. In the
abence of extreme heat dates cannot be grown.

The Sumerians

The main Semitic empires arose in Mesopotamia

between the two waters. The Babylonians and the
Assyrians both were builders of empires. ^ But what
may seem strange is the fact that their Semitic culture
grew out of non-Semitic foundations. The earliest
civilized inhabitants ot southern Babylonia^ were the
Sumerians, a non-Semitic people. To their habitat
they gave the name of' Sumer. The Sumerians inven¬
ted the cuneiform script which was universally used
by the Semite Babylonians and Assyrians and by the
Aryan Hittites and Mitannis and many others. The
language, however, could not remain the same and
developed into an agglutinative tongue.

The Sumerians, however, were not the original

settlers of the land but were new-comers during those
remote and indistinct centuries. . It. is because of this
that their gods bear Semitic looks incidental to the local
influence. We are not aware of the stages of develop¬
ment of their civilization for when we fixst^hear of them
in the fourth millennium b. c., they are in a state of
Minerva bom in panoply, already settled in popiflous
cities under a' highly organized government. They
use metals and a complicated system of writing.

Their culture and non-Semitic nationality^ ex¬

tended to the east over Elam. We are not sure, if the
Elamites also were Sumerian but they were non-Semitic,
without doubt. Differing completely in their ethnic
type and language from the Semites, Aryans, or others,
46 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Sumerians resembled the Dravidians most in both. A

cognate culture flourished contemporaneously in the
Indus Valley and was perhaps an elder collateral. Seals
originating from that site or at least imitated from
Indian motifs have been found in one of the layers of the
Sumerian civilization and it is quite possible that some
people migrated from the original habitat through
Baluchistan and Southern Persia. It may be pointed
out that both in Baluchistan and Southern Persia the
Dravidian type has been noted. In Baluchistan there
is even today a patch of population speaking Brahui,
a. Dravidian dialect. The Brahuis may be the des¬
cendants of the remnants of those that marched through
that land. There is one difficulty in accepting this
view as final for in that case the Sumerian script should
have some affinity with the writing on the seals of
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa and should even give
some clue to the latter’s decipherment which has baffled
all attempts so far. Besides, it can be said that the
two scripts look so different and that the Indian writ¬
ing has the appearance of a picture script, although
it may equally be argued that it is possible that the
Sumerian writing too originally may have been pic-
tographic but in course of time it developed into the
hieratic form and the exigency of the clime and the
materials of writing used changed it to the ‘cuneiform’
owing to its being written with a square-ended stylus
on soft clay.

Other alternative theories suggested would make

Sumerians residents of the Caspian Coast or of Iran.
There is no doubt about the fact that their language
resembles Turkish in many incidents of construction.
Tne problem of the origin of the Sumerians must as
a matter of fact remain undecided for the moment
for want of conclusive evidence. We cannot at this
stage again decide . whether the cities of southern
Babylonia were built by the Sumerians themselves
or by their Neolithic predeces sors. We must not forget,
however, that in northern Babylonia too cities existed
 MESOPOTAMIA. 47

simultaneously with those of southern Babylonia. It

is usually believed that the Sumerians were the city
builders and the Semites of the north also had with
their help covered the stages of civilization and built
their own cities.

The civilization of Babylonia was originally of

the urban type and the monumental finds in the
excavations disclose the existence at that early age of a
number of cities in Babylonia, both in the south and
the north. Ur was the most important of them. Eridu
Uruk, Nippur, and Shurupp ak were other Sumerian
settlements. The cities were generally warring among
themselves. We are not sure whether the Sumerian
cities ever combined together against the Semitic cities
of the north under one king. Perhaps they did some
times. We do read in Sumerian legends of very an¬
cient semi-divine rulers of ancient Babylonia to whom
fabulously long years of reign have been ascribed.

The Deluge

A most important legend coming from the Sumerian

times relates the story of the Deluge which has formed
part of the mythological traditions of almost all the
ancient peoples of the world. The Deluge covered
perhaps the whole of Babylonia reaching as far as
the highlands of the North. The recent excavations
have uncovered traces of an extensive flood and rushing
water over a vast area of the region. Although it may
not be sane to look for the Noah’s Ark on the up¬
lands of Armenia and Assyria, perhaps it will not be
credulous to accep t the authenticity of the legend.
After all, the tradition was so powerful as to find its
way to the mass of legends of all ancient peoples and
has indeed to be looked some where for its origin. The
greatest possibility for the occurrence of the Deluge
is in this region as indicated by the excavations. The
Indian version of the story is related in the Satapalha
Brahmana which cannot be placed anterior to the 8th
48 THE ANCIENT WORLD

century b. c. which is far later than either the occurrence

of the Deluge itself sometime about 3200 B. c. or
than the first reference to it by Nur-Ninsubur in about
the year 1984 b. c.

In that case the recording of the Indian version

would fall about twenty-five centuries later which
means that it has been lifted from an alien source. This
view finds further support from the fact that when
closing the narration Manu wishes to perform a
thanks-giving sacrifice, he asks for an Assyrian priest
(Asura-JBrahmana) to officiate at the rites. Certainly
this points to the source from where the story was lifted
or received. It is interesting that the Sumerian docu¬
ment relating the great event was preserved in the
Assyrian cuneiform in the library of the great
Assyrian emperor Ashurbanipal. Without doubt the
narrator of the Brahmana could not have had the chance
of deriving his knowledge of the event from the Sume¬
rian source but only from the Assyrian with which
he was contemporaneous. It will not be out of place
here to give the Sumerian version of the legend.

Shuruppak, one of the cities of ancient Babylonia,

was the traditional home of Ziusuddu, the Babylonian
Noah, who, with his family, was alone supposed to
have survived its destruction by water. The Sumerians
believed that the Flood came just before the beginning
of written history and did damage over an enormous
area and, in particular, destroyed Shuruppak. The
Flood which damaged both Uruk and Shuruppak
occurred at the end of the Jemdet-Nasr period and
may have been the catastrophe referred to in the
following account supposed to have been given to one
of his descendants (Gilgamesh) by Ziusuddu himself.

“I open unto thee a secret matter, and unto thee

even will reveal counsels of the gods. Shuruppak,
a city which thyself knowest, which is set on the bank
of Euphrates—that city was waxed old; and the gods
 MESOPOTAMIA 49

within it, great gods—their heart moved them to bring

about a deluge...

The Brighteyed Lord, the god Enki, was in converse

with them, but he repeated their words, to a reed-
hut: ‘Reed-hut, reed-hut! Wall, wall! Hear, O reed-
hut! Consider, O wall!’

‘Man of Shuruppak, son of Ubardudu, pull down

the house, fashion a boat, abandon goods, seek after
life! Hate property and save life alive! Bring up all
seed of life into the midst of the boat.5 55

Ziusuddu obeyed, built his ark and entered it

with his family taking all seed of life, and set the boat
afloat. In the meanwhile a terrible storm broke out
and the terrified people saw among the dark clouds the
gods themselves brandishing torches.

“Brother could not distinguish his brother. Folk

could not be seen from the heavens. The very gods
feared the deluge. They scurried away. They went up
to the heaven of the god An. The gods were cowering
like dogs, huddling together on the threshold. The
goddess Inanna cried like a woman in labour. Sweet
of voice grieved the lady of the gods: ‘Let the day
turn to clay because I spoke evil in the assembly of
gods! How did I speak evil in the assembly of gods,
commanded a hurly-burly for the destruction of my
folk! Do I then give birth to my own folk, that as
the spawn of fish they should fill the sea5 ? 55

Six days and seven nights followed, bitter nights

and bitter days. The storm raged and waters heaved
and boiled, and Ziusuddu, afloat on the waters, wept
bitterly over the destruction of the race. Every¬
thing lay under the rushing torrents except the moun¬
tain peaks on one of which the ark finally grounded.
The hero goes on narrating his tale of woe:
4
50 THE ANCIENT WORLD

“At the seventh day’s coming I brought out and

released a dove. The dove went off. She wandered
about but alighting place there was none and she
returned. I brought out and released a raven. The
raven went off and saw the abatement of the waters.
She fed wading and dabbing; did not return. I
brought out and sacrificed a sacrifice unto the four
winds. I made a drink-offering on the high-place of the
mountain; set form seven and seven flagons; strewed
below them cane, cedar and myrtle. The gods snuffed
the savour, the gods snuffed the sweet savour! The
gods gathered together like hies about the master of
the sacrifice! A: last the Divine Lady (i. e. Inanna)
at her coming, lifted up the great necklace that the
gcd An had made according to her desire. £Ye, the
gods, even as I forget not the sapphires of my neck,
so indeed will I remember these days and not forget
them forever. Let the gods'come to the sacrifice;
but let not Enlil come to the sacrifice because he would
not be advised, but brought about the deluge and
numbered my folk for destruction.’ At last the god
Enlil, at Lis coming, beheld tne ship. Enlil was angry.”
He got into a frenzy over the escape of a mortal while
Enin tried to reason with him thus:

“Thou chief of geds, thou champion, why, wouldst

thou not be advised but wouldst bring about a deluge ?
On the sinner lay his sin, on the trespasser lay his
trespass! Be merciful, that he be not utterly cut off,
clement that he be not altogether confounded. Rather
than that thou shouldst bring about a deluge, let a
lion come and diminish the folk. Rather than that
thou shouldst bring about a deluge, let a hyaena come
and diminish• the folk...”

The pleadings of Enki bore fruit and god Enlil

saw reason and calmed down. Ziusuddu narrates:

“Enlil came up to the midst of the ship. He took

my hand and brought me out, me even. He brought
 MESOPOTAMIA — 51

out my wife and caused her to kneel beside me. He

touched our foreheads and, standing between us,
blessed us: ‘Formerly, Ziusuddu was human. But
now, Ziusuddu and his wife shall assuredly be like
unto us gods. Ziusuddu and his wife shall dwell afar
at the mouth of the Rivers.’55

The Flood which destroyed Uruk and Shurunpak

about 3200 b. g. represents the end of the Jemdet-
Nasr period. It is important that at the two cities the
last remains of that period are separated from those
of the following historical period by a silt deposit,
nearly five feet thick ■ at Uruk, which undoubtedly
warrants the consequences of a deluge.

The Cities

One of the Sumerian legends refers to an early

king to have reigned from Kuth over the entire countrv.
It says that the land was overrun by a strange people
bearing bodies of birds and faces of ravens. They
came from the northern mountains. For three years
their raids continued, in the fourth they were routed
by the king.

The most outstanding legend of the times is con¬

tained in the famous Epic of Gilgamesh. Perhaps it
is the eailiest known book of the ancient world. It
records the exploits of a very early king, Gilgamesh,
(a descendant of Ziusuddu to whom the latter had
narrated the woeful tale of the Deluge) of Uruk (Erech).
During his time, it is told in the legend, Uruk was
besieged for three years and was reduced to terrible
straits although it is not clear whether Gilgamesh him¬
self was the besieged or the liberator. Later he ruled
like-a tyrant and the gods had to send Enki-du,
half beast, half man, to destroy him. Enki-du was,
however, captivated by the wiles of a woman who
took him to the court where he made friends with
Gilgamesh. Both together are related to have per-
52 THE ANCIENT WORLD

formed deeds of valour and to have taken out an ex¬

pedition against a demon whom they destroyed and
whose castle they took. The stories preserve the in¬
dependent state of the cities.
Every city had its own god whose high-priest was
called Patesi. Patesi was the vicegerent of the gods
on earth and ruled the city. Sometimes when several
cities were subjugated and brought under a single
government, the victorious Patesi took the title of Lugal
which meant a king.

The most ancient dynasty of the Sumerians ruled

at Ur. One of its kings was A-anni-padda whose
monuments have been brought to light by recent ex¬
cavations. Utug was the king of Kish. Kings _ of
Kish after Utug were Semites. The last of the Semites
of Kish w'as subdued by Enshakushanna, a Sumerian
king of Uruk. Soon Uruk and Ur both came to be
ruled by the same Sumerian king. Another Sumerian
ruler was Lugal-da-lu of Adab whose statue has been
found. Opis was another city where a Sumerian
dynasty ruled. The city which rose to incomparable
importance was Lagash where Ur-nina ruled. Ur-
nina dug canals, and built granaries and store-houses.
Statues of this king, of his son and wife, and of his gods
have been unearthed. Some of the most ancient
relics of Sumerian art like the copper lions and bulls
and gold weapons and ornaments of Ur come from
this period and date from the time of A-anni-padda.

Eannadu the grandson of king Ur-nina, conquered

Umma and Kish. It was about this time that Lagash
defeated Opis. A remarkable state of Eannadu brings
out in a splendid manner his war and conquest of the
cities. The monument is called popularly the Vulture-
Stele and bears an inscription to that effect. The
war evidently had been severe and bloody. Battle-axes are
much in evidence with body-armour, solid phalanxes
of six men in a row. Soldiers put on rectangular
 MESOPOTAMIA 53

bucklers, reaching their feet and stood in the front

behind whom were those in the rear who used their
long spears with great effect. Eannadu carried his
victorious aims to Elam where he inflicted a great
slaughter on the enemy’s forces. Uruk and Ur also
fell to his might. His successor Entemena was more
a man of peace and a patron of religion.

The last king of Lagash, Urukagina, was the

usurper and a great reformer in the interest of the
common man. Before him Lagash had terrorized
the cities of Sumer and appropriated huge amounts
of exactions which were usually shared by high officials
of state and the priests. Urukagina abolished the
various undue taxes and cut down considerably the
needs, the privileges and the revenue of the priests and
officials. He did not mind even if his ordinances
affected his own purse. He promulgated new laws
regarding divorce and it was his proud declaration
that “the strong man did no harm to the widow and
the orphan.” He was thus a great benefactor of the
weak and the oppressed. The result was that by his
favour of the poor and the powerless he made the high-
ups his enemy. Umma in the meanwhile had become
independent and strong and was ruled by the powerful
Lugalzaggisi who resolved to take advantage of the
weakness of his old enemy. He attacked suddenly
and ended the reign of Urukagina and put an end to
the domination of Lagash.

Lugalzaggisi thus became the chief ruler in Baby¬

lonia and he shifted his capital to Uruk where he styled
himself as the king of the land of Sumer. Kish and
Opis were next conquered and what followed was
unprecedented in the annals of the time ; for he carried
his arms right down to the coast of the Mediterranean
across Syria subduing all the territory between Baby¬
lonia and the sea. Writes the king in his panegyric,
“From the rising of the sun unto the setting of the
same has Enlil granted him dominion.” This was
54 rHE ANCIENT WORLD

the first time Syria had come under the sway of the
east. One result of this temporary occupation of that
land was the spread of the Sumerian culture in that
region of which the outstanding feature was the cunei¬
form writing. As for the people, they had long before
been Semitized.

The Semites

Lugalziggisi ruled for twenty-five years and. the

great conqueror was deposed by Sharrukin of Akkad
and Kish who founded his own dynasty. The Semitic
sun had now appeared on the horizon and was moving
fuse towards the crest of the sky. Sharrukin was the
first Semitic king to leave monuments of importance.
From his inscriptions it is evident that after conquer¬
ing Uruk and Ur he led Lugalziggisi in chains
through the gate of Enlil and Nippur. We learn that
he subdued also the coast of the Mediterranean, Lebanon,
the region of .Taurus, eastern Syria, the Syrian coast,
and northern Syria, and carried his arms eastward
across Elam to Persia. Towards the close of his reign
a general revolt broke out and Babylon was des troyed.
His son restored the empire after the confusion and
reconquered Elam. Marrishtusu, the third in the line,
was a powerful prince and left us some important docu¬
ments. But the greatest ruler of the family was un¬
questionably Sharrukin, more popularly called ‘‘Sargon
of Agade.” Apart from becoming the greatest con¬
queror of the times Sargon was accepted by the Baby¬
lonians as a great hero and numerous legends and
traditions have grown around his name. One of
these traditions makes him a foundling brought up by
a water-carrier. He was the emperor of all Western
Asia and became the model for the later rulers to
imitate and emulate. Sargon ruled sometime about
2800 b. c.

Soon after there followed the Semitic chiefs, Naram-

Sin and Sharagali-sharri of Akkad. Naram-Sin was
 MESOPOTAMIA 55

the grandfather of the latter prince and ruled sometime

about 2750 b. c. He conquered Lulubu and the
land as far as the northern Mesopotamia. Eastern
Arabia too was brought under the empire and he rightly
styled himself as the “King of the Four Quarters of
the World.” From other sources also it is evident that
both Naram-Sin and his grandson Saragali-sharri in¬
herited the empire ofSargon. The stela, commemorat-
ing Nar am- Sin’s subjugation of Sat uni, king of Lulubu,
is a splendid piece and is reckoned among the triumphs
of ancient Babylonian art which reached its apogee m
this relief. It depicts with exceptional vigour Naram-
Sin’s march with his officers on his enemy Satuni of
the northern uplands and details the figures to an
unprecedented degree in the relief.

Sharagali-sharri was fallowed by anarchy which

was brought to an end by Dudu who restored peace
in the land. The family, however, could not endure
long and shortly after his son’s reign Uruk fell to the
might of the mountaineers of Guti, the hills of the Zagros.
The Guti dynasty ruled for 125 years and was followed
at Uruk by a Sumerian prince and the land ultimately
passed on to the Third Dynasty of Ur. Next followed
Ur-Nammu. The second king of the new dynasty
of Ur assumed a new title, that of the “King of Sumer
and Akkad.’ ’ This was a Sumerian dynasty that
had been set up at Ur. The kings of the dynasty
endeavoured to outdo the Semite rulers Naram-Sin
and the great Sargon and their reaction against them
was such that they sacked the shrines of the Semitic
gods and carried off their temple-treasures. This
was more true of Shulgi, the son of Ur-Nammu, than of
any other.

This dynasty of Ur was put an end to by the king

of Elam who conquered Ur and carried its ruler,
the third successor of Shulgi, off to his capital. The
end of the dynasty came sometime about 2357 b. c.
The Elamite conqueror also sacked Uruk and carried
56 THE ANCIENT WORLD

away its goddess Nana to Susa. The Sumerian rule

of Ur was followed by the two Semitic dynasties ruling
one after the other. Among the kings following two
were important. Of these one was Ur-Enurta or
Ur-Ninurta and Rim-Sin; the latter belonged to a
family of rulers that had come from Elam and was
the contemporary and rival ol the great Babylonian
emperor Hammurabi.

2. Babylon

The city of Babylon had hitherto been an insigni¬

ficant factor in the history of Akkad. It lay exposed
to attacks from the Western Desert and when fortune
smiled on the Amorite princes they did not fail to make
a debut on the Babylonian stage. Who the new con¬
querors were it is difficult to say, but they were foreign
Semites beyond doubt. They made Babylon the chief
city of the land and raised the humble Marduk to the
status of the king of gods.

After the rule of a few kings of the dynasty Ham¬

murabi succeeded to the throne and soon proved
his might among the princes. He gave to his kingdom
the status of an empire and he came to be reckoned as
one of the greatest kings of all times. He had inherited
the whole of the ancient Akkad but southern Baby¬
lonia still lay open to the aggression of the Elamite con¬
querors. He wrested from the powerful Elamite lord
of Larsam both Uruk and Isin. But soon Rim-Sin
reasserted himself and Hammurabi was not able to
register any more conquests in that direction. Later he
became restive again and subjugated a large part of
Mesopotamia. He made Shitullum, to the north of
Akkad, and Ashur, further north, which later became
the seat of power of the Assyrian empire, his tributary
states.

The tussle between Rim-Sin and Hammurabi

was great. It was natural too for both were neighbours
 MESOPOTAMIA 57

and powerful and ambitious. One ruled southern

Babylonia down to the coast of the Persian Gull and
the other controlled an empire reaching to Armenia
and Palestine although his capital lay within easy
attack from the south.

Until a few years back Elam had been a , weak state

generally obeying the commands of the kings of Sumer-
and Akkad but now it had become powerful and its
rulers often made inroads on both of these kingdoms
occasionally despoiling their temples and carrying
their kings captives. If a Hebrew tradition can be
believed, right at this time Chedorlaomer (perhaps
Kudur-lagamar) imposed his will upon the rival kings
of Babylonia and communicated across them with
the Hittites.

Butin his thirty -five years (c 2094 b. c.) Hammurabi

bid for power and challenged the Elamites everywhere.
His generals Siniddinum and Inuksliamar took Ur
and Larsam and invaded Emutbalim (in Elam) and
overran it. Elam, however, remained out of his
power but the Babylonian monarch annexed the entire
territory in Southern Babylonia upto the borders of
Elam.

Hammurabi’s letters and despatches are uncommon

specimens of ancient political dealings, but what is
still more important is his Code, the first human planned
code of law. It is inscribed on a stele discovered at
Susa and has made Hammurabi’s name familiar to the
modern world as of no other king of antiquity is. It
is true that much of the Code is based on Sumerian
laws, yet its scientific recast and classification make
the Babylonian emperor rightly a great lawgiver.

Hammurabi was an extraordinary organizer of

empire and government. It was mainly through
him that Babylon became the undisputed metropolis
of ancient Mesopotamia. For about a millennium
58 THE ANCIENT WORLD

and. a half the city kept on arousing the cupidity of

all the monarchs of the ancient world.

But once the strong hand of Hammurabi was re¬

moved from the scene the kingdom again became
vulnerable. His son had to face the trouble which
kept on coming from Southrn Babylonia and from
the coast. The coast became independent where
a new dynasty took root. Elam, however, was recon¬
quered by the fourth successor of Hammurabi.

It was about this time that the inroads of the

Kashshu or Kassites, an Indo-European nation, began
and their tribes started pressing from Media through
the Zagros towards the fertility and wealth of Babylonia.
About the same time occurred the first onslaughts of
an exceptionally vigorous Aryan nation that came
from beyond the Taurus in Anatolia. They were
the terrible ‘Goyyim’ of Asia Minor, the formidable
Khattis with whose popular name, the Hittites, the
lay readers are more familiar. They came down
suddenly, unexpectedly, irresistibly. During the reign
of Samsu-ditana, Mursil I (Murshilish), the king of
Khatti, appeared (cl926 b. c.) before Babylon, storm¬
ed and sacked it, putting an end to the empire of
Hammurabi and to the 1st Dynasty of that great city.
Death and destruction trailed the route of the fierce
Hittites who vanished as soon as they had appeared.
The Kassites took this opportunity and their leader,
Gandash, at once captured Babylonia (Kar-Duniyash)
and took the throne thus founding the Kassite dynasty,
which flourished for six centuries.

3. Kassites and Mitannians

Very little is known about the Kassite kings. We

have only a string of names and there are unbridgeable
voids between the names. Occasionally the curtain
is drawn, a king appears, hacks and cuts, and is lost
in the folds again. Agum III became important
 MESOPOTAMIA 59

as he took over the last fastness of the kingdom of the

Sea-land. Already about 1710 b. c. his uncle Ulam-
buriash had overthrown the kingdom, which had
been the last piece of land held by the Sumerians. They
had been broken and thrown down from power by
the Semites and yet they had gone on sticking to insig¬
nificant principalities and during their last phase of
existence they had even carved out a coastal kingdom.
This kingdom, despite the numerous thrusts and parries,
had held on and the Babylonian kings had to abandon
their hope to conquer them. The Kassites, who took
Babylon, could not reduce this kingdom and for three
centuries since their coming to the crest in Babylo¬
nian affairs, the Sumerians defied them successfully.
Now- the kingdom disappeared from the face of earth
and with it the last vestiges of that non-Semitic civi'
lization which had taught the whole of Western Asia
all it was worth. Nothing remained except their
script. Their gods were appropriated by the neigh¬
bours and their language vanished, and ultimately
they themselves as a nation.
The Kassites were Aryan barbarians who cared
little for the fine arts. We have few monuments
ascribed to them. Temple-building and like activi¬
ties were completely at a standstill during their regime.
Literature received no stimulus and there is positive
paucity of records. Scribes were in no demand, and
arts were neglected. It was a dull period devoid of
activities, of war or peace. There were Indo-European
elements in their language and their names were
Aryan. Their chief god was Suryash, Indian Surya,
another was Maruttash, Vedic Marut, and their word
for god was bugash, Slav bogu, and Vedic bhaga. The Indo-
Aryans were perhaps already settled in India, the Medes
and Persians held the Armenian heights and the eastern
uplands, the Hittites were holding sway over Asia
Minor, and had now conquered Babylonia.
It was about this time that another powerful Aryan
tribe (perhaps belonging to the stock similar to the
60 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Kassites),theMitannians, were founding their kingdom

of Mitanni in the north between the Euphrates and
Tigris. The names of the Mitannian princes too are
Aryan, for example, Saushshatar, Artatama, Shutarna,
Dushratta. Likewise their gods are also Aryan and
of Indian Vedic origin, viz. Varuna, Indra, Nasatyau.
The Mitannians had become masters of both Semites
and Hittites in Northern Syria, which remained tri¬
butary to them till the Egyptian conquest in the 16th *
century. Assyria also for a time in the beginning
played a feudatory role to them.

Babylonian Culture

The culture of Babylonia started taking shape in

the South in the settlements of the Sumerians. Sume¬
rians were a non-Semitic people who gave to the whole
of Babylonia or for that matter to the entire Asian
west several incidents of their culture, the most impor¬
tant of them being the mode of writing called the cunei¬
form. Later, as the Sumerians lost in political in¬
fluence and the Semites gained supremacy in that sphere,
the former culture declined and a systematic Semi-
tization started until the whole of the west from the
coast of the Persian Gulf to that of the Mediterranean
Sea had become completely Semitic in look as well
as in spirit.

The Sumerian language, as already pointed out,

was agglutinative. Their numerous records on baked
clay furnish us with exceedingly fascinating pieces of
literature. Numerous traditions and legends have
been found preserved in that literature, two of them
being the story of the Deluge and the Epic of Gilgamesh.

The pantheon of the Sumerian gods was fairly

crowded for every city had its own tutelary deity.
The gods had their temples and great riches were
amassed in them. Patesis were their priests who
concentrated at a time both religious and political
 MESOPOTAMIA 61

power. Endless revenues were their charge. Tem¬

ples were solid structures and were later called
ziggurat. The Sumerian and Babylonian gods got
so mixed up that it has become difficult today to dis¬
tinguish the former from the latter*

Usually Enki (the earth god), Enzu (the moon-

god), Enlil (the supreme god), Utu (the sun-god),
Ana, (the sky-god), Inanna (mother-goddess) are
supposed to be Sumerian deities. Enlil was the god
who had brought about the great Flood, Enki
had calmed him down, and Inanna had shamed
him for his lust of destruction. It is generally supposed
that gods and goddesses without consorts are Sumerian
in origin and attempts have been made to separate
the Sumerian and the Babylonian gods. Some, for
example, suggest that gods Ea, Sin or Nannar, Ningirsu,
and such others were pre-Sumerian. The Semitic
Bel (or Baal) perhaps emerged from Sumerian Enlil,
as did Shamash from Utu. Marduk, the supreme
Semitic god of Babylon, was certainly Sumerian in
origin, unlike Ramman or Adad, the thunder-god,
who was Semitic. Among the Semitic goddesses were
Belit, the consort of Bel, Sarpanitum of Marduk, Laz of
Nergal. Anunitum is perhaps of Semitic origin and
Ishtar of Syrian or Canaanite. She was served by
eunuch-priests.

Thus we find that the religion of both the Sumerians

and the Semites was pantheistic and that throughout
that region and beyond, indeed from the Indus to the
Mediterranean and from the Baltic Sea to the Nile,
idolatry was the norm, and animal sacrifices the order.
Only the Aryans were greatly non-idolatrous but
pantheistic all the same. One is struck with the com¬
mon affinities among the functions of the gods and
among the numerous legends. We have already allu¬
ded to the great legends of the Deluge and Gilgamesh.
One of the most fascinating is the legend of Etana and
the Eagle. The Eagle carried Etana to the heavens
62 THE ANCIENT WORLD

and towards the sun and then fell down to the earth.
This has such a resemblance with the Greek legend of
Icarus and with the Indian Sampati. Likewise part
of the legend dealing with the war of Eagle with the
Serpent is so similar to the Indian Garuda legends,
of the offsprings of Vinata and Kadru.

By the time Hammurabi had ascended the throne

the Sumerian writing had been developed, the bow
and arrow had made their appearance and the horse
also had been introduced by Aryan horsemen. The
city-states had been united within a single kingdom.
Trade and commerce flourished, crops were raised
with the help of an irrigational system of canals. Money-
lending prospered and astronomy and astrology were
cultivated. Taxes were paid in kind, mainly in com.
Prices were paid in grain and although weights and
measures were current currency proper was wanting.
Barter was in use although big prices were computed in
shekel-weights of silver. Free labourers were
worse than slaves for they got only food and no protec¬
tion from the employer. Slave was protected from
the master by law. The judges, appointed by the king,
went about on circuit meting out irrevocable justice.
Land mostly belonged to the temples and the king.

The Code of Hammurabi inscribed on a stela, on

the top of which the figure of the king is shown receiving
the laws from the sun-god Shamash, is a most remark¬
able document throwing a flood of light on the social
and legal aspects of life. To a great extent law was
equitable. In the Sumerian times the wife had no
right of divorce but Hammurabi modified the law in
favour, of the woman. The divorcing husband had
to maintain her and her children, besides returning
her marriage portion. She had the custody of the
children also. Under the Sumerian laws man was
more important than woman unlike the conditions
in Egypt where she was the ‘lady of the house’ and
more important than man. But in Babylonia women
 MESOPOTAMIA 63

could own property, whether in houses or slaves, and

could personally plead in the courts. Votaresses or
vestals enjoyed unusual privileges. Religious prostitutes
were a prominent feature of the Babylonian religion.
The long robe was in fashion. The Sumerians cut
their hair while the Semites grew their hair and beard.

Babylonians were greatly litigious. Sale or lease

of land and other items of property were the main
causes of litigation. Deeds were always drawn up in
the valid legal form and were attested duly by witnesses
and ultimately impressed with the respective seals of
the parties or, in their absence, with their nail marks.
Cylinder-seals were rolled over the clay tablets. They
were made of various metals and stones. They always
bore some mythological scenes or figures and were
the very triumphs of the glyptic art. Some seals were
received from the Indus valley also as those bearing
the figure of an elephant prove. Bull was sacred.

No description of the culture of Babylonia can be

complete without a reference to the tombs of Ur. The
excavated tombs have disclosed startling facts of life
and death. In this regard the ‘Royal Cemetery’
with its fabulous treasures of gold and human victims
of sacrifice may be alluded to. Like the Egyptians,
the early Sumerians provided their dead with every
earthly necessity, from food and drink to chariots,
thrones and instruments of music. The material
excavated from some 2,000 graves discloses the extra¬
ordinary culture of the early dynastic period of Ur
wherein splendid metal-work figured to a great _ extent.
Oppressive was the look of the ‘death-pits’ which con¬
tained numerous skeletons of man-servants and maid¬
servants who had been made to accompany their masters
and mistresses in death as they had done in life.

From the graves were obtained “gold bandlets for

the forehead, bracelets and big earrings of gold, silver
or copper, necklaces of gold, silver, cornelian and
64 THE ANCIENT WO&LD

lapis heads, copper and silver axe-heads of the finest

workmanship and superb spearheads, some leaf-shaped
and others square in section, which display the great
skill in casting. Little conical vanity-cases of metal,
with forceps, pick and ear-cleaner attached, are as
modern in conception as in execution*5. These were
the riches^ discovered in the private graves but they
were nothing compared to what was obtained in the
Meath-pits’. Their unbelievable contents were multi¬
tudes of human and animal sacrifices and rich furnish¬
ings were disposed about the floor of a great pit, at
one end ot which was a chamber of brick or stone
containing the remains of the royal or sacred personage
in whose honour so many lives and so much treasure
had to be committed to the dust. Qne of the tombs
had the body of a woman with an elaborate head¬
dress of gold holding in her hands an exquisite fluted
gold tumbler. Four manservants were killed and
their corpses placed by that of their mistress. Three
sheep lay slaughtered out of the closed door of the
chamber. The tomb-shaft contained several floors,
the three uppermost layers having one human sacrifice
apiece. The topmost layer further yielded a wooden
box containing two gold-bladed daggers with hilts of
lapis-lazuli studded with gold and cylinder-seal of
shell carved and inscribed with the name of King Meska-
lamdugOther tombs were still richer, both in wealth
of precious metals and sacrificed humans—one contain-
lng as many as 74 victims. Mention may be made here
of the glorious drinking vessels, wine-strainers and
toilet accessories in chased gold, the extraordinary
gola and silver headdresses and the harps adorned
with great animals’ heads in gold and lapis from the
grave of Lady Shubad, the silver boat and the superb
fragments of a copper shield with figures of lions in
repousse belonging to a certain Abargi, and the famous
standard—an extraordinary object of wood, inlaid
on two sides with scenes of a battle and a feast in poly¬
chrome mosaic. This habitat of the dead yielded in
staggering profusion precious objects like four-wheeled
 MESOPOTAMIA 65

wagons, each drawn by three oxen, splendid stone

vessels, golden daggers, spears and axes of electrum
(gold-silver alloy), lovely miniature animals of gold,
soldiers’ helmets of copper, curious inlaid gaming-
boards, and beads and ornaments of every description.
What endless riches the dwellers of these rich Baby¬
lonian cities could command in those times prior to
2500 b. c. and what aids to beauty their ladies could
handle! But what capacity to kill and cupidity to
possess servants on the part of the masters and
mistresses who had their corps of men and women to
serve them in life and who must again have them dead
to guard their repose!

4. Hittites

Hittites, the Biblical Heth, were generally called

Khatti. The Egyptians called them Kheta and the
Semites Goyyim, ‘the nations’. They were perhaps an
Indo-European people living in the snows of Taurus
in Asia Minor. Since the Mesopotamian name of
their land was Muskki, they came to be called Mushkaya.
To the Mesopotamian Semites they were formidable
barbarians with scant culture who descended on their
northern cities from behind the snow only to rob and
slay. Their inroads were terrible and devastating.
We have already referred to their calamitous invasion
of Babylon about 1925 b. g. About the beginning of
the 2nd millennium B. c. parts of Northern Syria were
colonized and settlements formed where Hittite princes
ruled side by side with local dynasts and Aryan barons
from Mitanni. They had their own culture and a
peculiar hieroglyphic system of writing and for some¬
time even resisted the Semite influence but ultimately
succumbed to it. The excavations at Carchemish
and other sites have yielded material which give an in¬
sight into their civilization. The cuneiform writing
penetrated beyond the Taurus and was used in the
royal chancery at Boghaz Kyoi. Such records also
5
66 THE ANCIENT WORLD

filled the imperial archives during the heyday of the

Khatti Empire.

It is also possible that the Hittites were Anatolian

nationals and non-Aryans originally and assumed the
Aryan characteristics of their worship only later. They
were doubtless a white people from whom, it is said
the ‘white Syrians’ are descended. Their tongue had
little common with the Indo-European and the names
of their kings-—Shubbiluliuma, Mursil, Muwatalli or
Mutallu, Khattusil, Dudhalia, Arnuanda, Pudukhipa
(queen), Muni-Dan (queen) —generally were Anato¬
lian although a few of these do sound like the
Aryan.

Among their deities one universally worshipped

was the mother-goddess Ma (‘Mother’). Attis was
the sun-god. For these there were temples owning
great extents .of land mostly profitting the priests, the
Galli, who had to be eunuchs and who kept wandering
in the country. Besides, Mithra (Vedic Mitra), the
sun-god, and Men (Iranian Mao), the moon-god,
were worshipped too and later perhaps Indra and
Varuna of the Vedic pantheon also made their way
into the Anatolian religion. These, we know from the
famous Boghaz Kyoi inscription, were also the deities
of the Aryan nobles of Mitanni. The Baghaz Kyoi
inscription is very important for another reason be¬
cause it has been pointed out by some as an evidence
of the eastern Aryan migration bearing on the Indo-
Aryans of the Rigvedic period. The main difficulty
in its acceptance is the nature of the gods themselves
for they are Vedic Indian names and we know that
their names and worship developed in the Punjab and
were peculiar to the land. Nowhere else, except in
Iran, were they known and worshipped and it may
not be improbable that the gods travelled from India
and were propagated in Asia Minor and Mesopo¬
tamia at a later date.
 MESOPOTAMIA 67

History

The earliest monarchs among the Hittites, knovm to

us, were Khattusil I, Mursil I, Khantil, Khuzzias,
Telibinus, and Khattusil II, lather of the great con¬
queror Shubbiluliuma. It was the records of the last
named that were found at Boghaz Kyoi. He was the
first king to use the cuneiform writing. Boghaz Kyoi
represents the remains of the capital city of the Hittites
called Khatti after the people and forming the inmost
layer of the Hittite spider.

The city stood on the slope of a hill surrounded by

a solid wall of polygonal masonry superimposed by
towers and pierced at a few places by gates. In the
citadel on the rock called Buyuk Kale, within the walls,
numerous archives were preserved. It was a fastness-
city 3,000 feet above the sea in an upland where snow
lies throughout the winter, and the summer is bright
and invigorating. This was the seat of the Hittite
empire and the refuge of its shock-dealing princes.
How the Hittites grew in power is a story of great
cunning and boldness, calculation and courage, intrigue
and conquest.

The end of the reign of Pharaoh Amenhetep ,111

threw his Asian empire into confusion. North Sy¬
rian princes were uncertain whether their allegiance
was due to Egypt or to Mitanni. It opened the way
to the conquests of the energetic Khatti ruler Shubbi¬
luliuma. But he knew that a direct bid for power
that end would lead to crossing swords at once with
both Egypt and Mitanni. He preferred to have re¬
course to intrigue and incited a revolt of the Hittite
and Amorite princes in Lebanon. A curious compli¬
cation was the result. Letters and despatches followed
between Egyptian lords in that part and their master
at home and fealty was pledged and broken by local
princes. Egypt was deceived and Abdashirta and his
son Aziru, the Amorite leaders, conducted this cam-
68 THE ANCIENT WORLD

paign of war, diplomacy and lies with incredible craft

and crowning success. These intrigues had the support
of Shubbiluliuma.

Now it was time for the Hittite monarch to act.

The Mitanni were in a deplorable state due to their
internal disaffection. Dushratta had two brothers one
of whom, Artashumara, succeeded their father Shutarna
but was murdered. Dushratta ascended the throne
while his other brother, Artatama, his son Shutarna
and grandson Itakama lived as semi-independent dy¬
nasts in Naharin intriguing against him with the Hittite
king. At one turn of events when matters became
easy for him, he accused Dushratta of breaking a former
treaty, crossed the Euphrates forthwith, and plundered
the northern frontiers of Mitanni. He was sure of assis¬
tance from the new Assyrian state which was always
looking for an opportunity to push the intruding Aryan
Mitannians from their seat. Dushratta fretted and
fumed but Shubbiluliuma, not minding him though
avoiding contact for reason of his defeat in a former
engagement, crossed the Euphrates in force into
Naharin, subjugating lands tributary to the Mitanni
ruler on the way. He broke all opposition, plundered
the country, and carried princes captives to Khatti
where he declared: “From the mountain Niblani,
from the Euphrates have I made them my territory.”

The revolt continued. Letters and cross-letters

followed and slowly and steadily Abdashirta and his
son Aziru annexed one fortress after another. It was
about this time that Amenhetep III died and was
followed by his non-aggressive philosopher son Amen¬
hetep IV. Representations after representations were
made by the kings of Babylonia and Mitanni but the
peaceful Pharaoh would not move. Aziru crowded
the Egyptian officials out from the sphere of his influence
and conquests, and after he had killed the Egyptian royal
representative Ribadda and the ruler of Beirut, he was
summoned to Egypt. He went thither and having
 MESOPOTAMIA 69

made a diplomatic pledge he returned to break it at

home by assuming the sceptre. Shubbiluliuma was
offended. He had considered Aziru his vassal but the
latter’s visit to Egypt and return as an Egyptian sub¬
king provoked the Hittite to an attack. One of his
records shows that he did attack Aziru and compelled
him to swear allegiance to him and to obey his com¬
mands. The whole of Syria and Phoenicia was lost to
Egypt.

Dushratta at this stage was murdered by his own

son who could not, however, gain the throne for it was
seized by the late king’s exiled brother and rival Arta¬
tama and the latter’s son Shutarna. “The land of
Mitanni was entirely destroyed, and the Assyrians and
the people of Alshe divided it between them.” Thus
Ashur-uballit appropriated at once the portion of the
Mitanni kingdom nearest to him and compelled Shutarna
to restore the gold and silver door which Saushshatar,
the father of Artatama I, had carried off from Ashur
and had set it up in his palace at Washuganni his
capital.

Shubbiluliuma now appeared upon the scene.

He says in his epigraph that it was the utter desola¬
tion of Mitanni that brought him to help the people
of the palace to whom he sent corn and sheep.
Mattiuaza, the unnatural son of Dushratta, after being
driven by Artatama and his son had taken refuge at
Khatti and was now the protege of its king. To him
the king gave his daughter in marriage and, for her
sake, now the Mitanni kingdom. He enterred
Mitanni, drove out the Assyrians and the men of Alshe,
and Artatama and Shutarna, and placed Mattiuaza
on the throne of Dushratta as his son-in-law and
vassal.

Thus Shubbiluliuma’s patience and sagacity had

been proved to his advantage. He in his old age
was now the master of the whole of Western Asia in-
70 THE ANCIENT WORLD

eluding Palestine where Jerusalem had already been

captured after the defeat of Aziru. Before his death
the great king of Khatti concluded a treaty with the
Pharaoh which left him in complete possession of
Naharin and Amurru. The stone bearing the record
of the treaty was set in ail edifice that the king built.
Shubbiluliuma died in peace about 1345 b. c.

On the death of the great king his son Arnuanda

II ruled for a very short time after which the crown
passed to the latter’s younger brother Mursil II. It
was a fairly extensive dominion which he was called
upon to lord. It extended from the Phrygian moun¬
tains and the Black Sea to the Carmel and Galilee in
the south, and to the northern frontier of Assyria and
the mountains of Armenia in the east. Mursil avoided
to come in touch with Egypt. Egypt had revived
by the advent of a new dynasty. Seti I, the Pharaoh,
occupied the uncontested Palestine and proceeded
to reassert his claims over the north. He entered
Galilee and the Hittites met him there on the field to
no disadvantage of Egypt. Set occupied Phoenicia,
where no resistance whatever was offered, and return¬
ed to the Delta. After some time Mursil showed signs
of invading Phoenicia. Seti returned, advanced
from Phoenicia, entered the Orontes valley and invaded
Kadesh overthrowing a Hittite army. Mursil never
moved south while the prestige of Egypt was restored.
Palestine and rich Phoenicia returned to Egyptian
control.

Seti gave up the idea of going North, but the proud

and impetuous Rameses II was uncontrollable, and
despite the two former treaties resolved to recover the
lost conquests of Thothmes III. Mursil advanced
to check him with a great confederate host. A sharp
battle was fought in which the mobility of the Egyptian
army and the youthful impetuosity and valour of
Rameses himself got the better of the bulk and numerical
superiority of the Hittite forces and beat it beyond
 MESOPOTAMIA 71

repair. In the rout that followed several of the fore¬

most Hittite leaders fell, slain by the sword or drowned
in the river, before Mursil’s eyes. He stood watching
on the other bank of the river. The flower of the
Hittite army including Mursil’s own brother perished..

For the Egyptians it was a great victory and at

once, on the return of the victor, sculptors and scribes
set to adorn temple-reliefs with a well-earned panegy¬
ric. For Mursil the disaster was too great to bear
and he soon died crushed by its weight. He was
succeeded by his son Mutallu (or Muwatalli) and
the new king determined on a vigorous offensive against
Egypt in order to retrieve the fallen fortune of his
family. He suddenly appeared into Galilee and the
whole of Palestine went over to the Hittites, Phoenicia
alone, remaining faithful to Egypt. Rameses at once
rode his chariot and reconquered the whole of Palestine
right up to Dapur in Syria, which was taken after a
siege. Rameses followed up his victory with a quick
march into Naharin where for a whole century no
Egyptian army had been seen. Katna and Tunip fell,
Arvad submitted (c 1290 b. c.), and the fourth
successor of Aziru abandoning his allegiance to Khatti,
declared himself for Egypt. At long lost. Mutallu
recovered both Naharin and Amarru and died about
1285 b. c. He was succeeded by his younger brother
Khattusil III.

Khattusil was not so uncompromising as his brother

and at once moved for peace with Egypt after restoring
Put-akhi, the rebel successor of Aziru, who had been
taken prisoner by Mursil, to Egypt’s tutelage. Both
the parties were exhausted and peace was,welcome
to them both. A very honourable treaty was signed
with elaborate clauses followed by an exchange of
congratulatory and affectionate letters between the
consorts of the two rulers. We have already referred
duly to the contents of the treaty in the Egyptian
context.
72 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Khattusil affirmed this treaty after several years

with the marriage of his daughter to Rameses and he
took the princess himself to distant Egypt. Rameses
recompensed it by doing him and his nobles great
honour and by sending one his most venerated deities,
Khonsu of Thebes, to the Hittite court. The god
was later sent back to Thebes with numerous precious
gifts. Khattusil died a very old man and was succeeded
by his son Dudhalia about 1255 b. c.

Not much is known either about him or about

his son and successor Arnuanda III except that his
mother, the widow of Khattusil, Pudukhipa, was very
powerful and held supreme power during her son’s
early years. She was mentioned in the documents
with Dudhalia as co-regent. Rameses also address¬
ed a personal letter to her. This shows the honour
in which the queen and queen-mother were held and
the important role which they played in the Hittite
state. Tawashi, Dudhalia’s queen and Arnuanda’s
mother, is likewise mentioned in the records and so
also Muni-Dan, ‘the Great Queen’ of Arnuanda, who
was at the same time his sister. Perhaps this custom
of marrying sister came to be imitated following the
friendship with the pharaohs in the usage of Egypt.
Arnuanda was perhaps the last powerful ruler of
the Hittite line. The fortunes of the Hittites were on
the decline while those of the Assyrians were on the
ascendant. The Anatolian rulers were not strong
enough to protect their eastern possessions and
not a finger was raised when the Assyrian monarch
Shalmaneser insolently marched into Syria or when,
during Dudhalia’s time, his son Tukulti-Enurta ravaged
the eastern provinces or tributary kingdoms of the
Hittites. Truly the Hittite sun had set.

5. Assyria and Babylonia

Although Naharin and Mitanni formed part of

the Hittite empire the Khatti kings never attempted
 MESOPOTAMIA. 73

to conquer Assyria. It was good for the Hittites to

keep their hands off the realm for the attempt would
have proved too costly against the tried valour of the
Assyrian soldiery. Babylonia had passed under the
tutelage of Assyria since Kurigalzu had been placed
on the throne of Babylon by his Assyrian grandfather.
The young prince had, however, developed great
power and was fast bringing distinction to his new
house. He had already warred with the Elamites,
captured their king, sacked the capital, Susa, and
brought great spoil back home. Slowly he endea¬
voured to get out of control of the Assyrian monarchs
and at least was able to loosen their grip on him.
Adad-nirari, however, turned out an ambitious ruler
and asserted his right of suzerainty over Babylonia.
A pitched engagement followed and the old Babylonian
beat the Assyrian forces in the field and compelled his
cousin to respect his frontiers which he drew afresh.
After his death Adad-nirari attacked his successor to
retrieve his prestige but the old frontiers, any way,
were reaffirmed.

Adad-nirari was succeeded by a very energetic

son, Shalmaneser I. His ambition could not restrain
him to keep to the old frontiers and he resolved to
extend his domain. He ascended the Tigris right
up to its source and entered the valley of the Euphrates
compelling North Syrian and the adjacent territories
to pay tribute. Later he conquered Mitanni after
defeating the Hittite sub-king and slaughtering his
combined Hittite and Syrian forces ‘like sheep.5

The Hittite monarch Khattusil at once opened

friendly relations with Assyria’s Babylonian enemy
Kadashman-turgu and later compelled the Babylonian
officials to give the throne to his son Kadashman-
Enlil after the king’s death. The death of Kadashman-
turgu can be dated to about 1284 b. c. which would
place the chronology of Shalmaneser I also within
the reach of understanding.
74 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Kadashman-Enlil II could not remain on the throne

for long and six years after his accession he was brought
to an end either by murder at home, where a party
had arisen that preferred the collateral Assyrian con¬
trol to the Hittite tutelage, or by Shalmaneser in
battle.

Kashliliashu, the third successor of Kadashman-

Enlil II, was strongly anti-Assyrian, whom the ener¬
getic son of Shalmaneser, Tukulti-Enurta I, defeated
and deposed, thus expanding the dominions of Assyria.
He took the throne himself and ruled over both the
kingdoms as a single state for seven years from about
1248 to about 1241 b. c. This was done in the face
of the Hittites, the Babylonian ally, which set seal
to the. Khatti influence in that direction. At the
same time Assyria ascended a status of equality with
Khatti. ^

But the Babylonians could not stand this subjuga¬

tion and soon became restive. They revolted vigo¬
rously and brought the rule of Tukulti-Enurta to an
abrupt close. On the throne of Babylonia they placed
Adad-shum-usur, son of the deposed king. Tukulti-
Enurta suffered in this manner in Babylonia, at home
a more cruel fate awaited him at the hands of his un¬
natural son. Ashur-nasir-pal, his son, assisted by
Assyrian nobles revolted against the authority of
Tulcul ti-Enurta, deposed him, “besieged him in a
house in the city of Kar-Tukultienurta, and cut him
down with the sword.”

Tukulti-Ashur succeeded Ashur-nasir-pal I after his

very brief rule in Assyria. We know nothing about
him beyond the fact that he restored the image of
Marduk, six years after it had been carried off, to Baby¬
lon as this sacrilege had been supposed to be the cause
of the Assyrian misfortune. Then there followed
the reigns of numerous rulers fighting sometimes among
themselves, sometimes with the kings of Babylonia.
 MESOPOTAMIA 75

Ultimately Enlil-kudur-usur of Assyria and Adad-

shum-usur of Babylon closed in combat and both
fell fighting each other (c 1211 b. c.). Babylonia
was the victor.

Melishipak II ascended the throne of Babylon and

followed up the victory of his father with an invasion
of Assyria. He perhaps conquered the country and
put it under the control of his son, Marduk-apal-
iddina, who had fought by the side of his father and
shared his victory. Father and son ruled respectively
for fifteen and thirteen years, one after the other. We
hear of an Assyrian king after years, only when Ashur-
dan defeats Ilbaba -shum-iddina, the successor of
Marduk-apal-iddina (c. 1183 b. c.) and restores the
Assyrian kingdom to its old limits adding to it part
of Babylonian territory.

The Kassite dynasty came to an end after its last

king Enlil-nadin-akhe died or was murdered about
1180 b. c. A new dynasty, native of Babylonia now,
took charge of the affairs of the land and for a time
peace prevailed between the two nations.

Assyria had been in a bad way for some time due

to the press of danger from the west. Anatolians
had been ousted from their own land beyond the Taurus
by new European tribes and were in their turn pressing
hard against the western provinces of Assyria which
they soon appropriated, thus putting an end to the
conquests of Tukulti-Enurta. This happened about
the time when the Assyrian monarchs had been sup¬
planted by the Babylonian dynasty.

A few generations later Assyria revived and during

the rule of Ashur-rish-ishi expeditions were under¬
taken against the northern tribes and war was
declared on Babylonia. The new dynasty of Babylon
had set on its throne an energetic king, Nebuchad¬
nezzar I. He had waged a successful war against
 76 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Elam but Assyria made matters hot for him. In

■North-western Mesopotamia, in the valley of Euphrates
nfaI. m°uth of the Khabur, where the marches
ot the Hittite empire had met those of Babylonia for
centuries, the conflict opened. The armies of Baby-
loma and Assyria met and fought an engagement in
which the Babylonians were worsted with considerable
loss. Nebuchadnezzar was not present. This defeat
however, compelled him to cede most of the territory
m the valley of Upper Euphrates to Assyria. Over
this western part Babylon had exercised a nominal
control in the absence of the effective supremacy of
either Egypt or the Hittites.

,, 4s|y?a1 [Link] ?ot permit even this nominal

control of Babylonia to last any longer. In fact during
the next reign i.e. in the reign of Tiglath-pileser L
a bid for world-power was made by her. Tiglath-
pneser moved with vigour against Babylonia. ' The
ntter withdrew leaving all her western possessions
to the Assyrian conqueror. Twice he reduced her to
Rstate of vassalage and took for himself the sobriquet
mg of Sumer and Akkad. Tiglath-pileser proved
his metal in the north as well, for he crowded the
new Anatolian settlers out of the Upper Euphrates
we^ey>peXlhe subdued Shubari, overran Nahrin,
west of Euphrates, conquered the Hittite principality
of Musn nearer home, and finally penetrated beyond
Taurus, the unknown land of the Hittites. There
thC drty and «™ed its site
tlkL and 7^ r0y,al "ty of Kibshuna was likewise
tahen and destroyed. He carried his arms right up
tcHhe coast of the Black Sea, a rare mark of distino-

6. The Assyrian Empire

to th^taft? tble- e/ents narrated above Assyria sank

to the state ot a third rate power following the depreda¬
tions of Aramaean invaders. Much of her territory
 MESOPOTAMIA 77

was gone and the blank of a certury followed. The

veil was lifted by Tiglath-pileser II, a contemporary
of Solomon and of Shishak, but of him also we know
only from an inscription of his grandson, Adad-nirari
II. Adad-nirari, who died in the year 889 B. c.,
left a prosperous kingdom to his son Tukulti-Enurta II.

This latter was an exceptionally energetic king

and showed signs of a great conqueror in making early
through his successful northern campaigns, but his
career was terminated by death in 884 b. c. Before
passing on to subsequent events a fact of world im¬
portance must be mentioned. From the time of
Adad-nirari II the list of the limmi or eponymous
magistracies of the years came to be kept without
omission till the close of the Assyrian empire. With
the help of this list the exact dates of most of the
chief events in Assyrian history can be fixed with¬
out the possibility of error. With Adad-nirari II
we touch upon the sheet-anchor of Assyrian chro¬
nology.

Ashur-nasir-pal

Tukulti -Enurta II was succeeded by his son Ashur-

nasir-pal II, who ruled from 884 to 859 b. c. Ashur-
nasir-pal was one of the greatest conquerors of ancient
times. Assyria under him became the arbiter of the
destiny of nations. An unprecedented zeal of military
activities sprang forth and the conquests of Tiglath-
pileser were restored in no time. This monarch was
ruthless and cruel and to his resisters he was absolutely
unsparing and unrelenting. He exulted in torturing
his conquered enemies. His usual method of treating
the vanquished was to burn their city and to cut off
the hands and ears and to put out the eyes of all grown
up men. Then they were piled up to die a death
of torture and starvation. All children, boys and
girls, were burnt alive at the stake, and the conquered
chiefs were carried off to Assyria to be flayed alive.
78 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Provinces were depopulated, sometimes the inhabi¬

tants carried to other provinces and thus popula¬
tion, where not exterminated by ruthless massacre
and inhuman tortures, was exchanged in order to
annihilate the chances of rebellion. The standards
of inhumanity set by Ashur-nasir-pal were maintained
by subsequent Assyrian conquerors also throughout
the history of the land although no instances of the
burning of children are on record. This was a pecu¬
liar pleasure of this ruler who was a monster even in
those days of monstrous cruelty. ,

The army had its corps of standing troops but

usually during the war time all able-bodied men were
mobilized. It was mostly in the bowmen that the
strength of the Assyrian army lay. The infantry
with its long arrows put the charioteers completely
out of action and carried the field. Chariots were
becoming outmoded. _ Assyrians were the originators
of military engineering. Their main contribution
to the military science was the siegecraft. The com¬
mander-in-chief of Assyrian forces was called turtan.

. Ashur-nasir-pal first advanced against the moun¬

tain tribes of the east and north. He worked havoc
with his sword and fire through Southern Armenia
to Commagene and Cilicia. The conqueror pressed
along the river with lightning speed. Two Aramaean
states were overthrown and destroyed. Sukhi, despite
Babylonian support, was ruined, and the southern
Hittite kingdom with its capital at Carchemish sub¬
dued (876 B. c.). Then the conqueror crossed the
Euphrates, marched through Northern Syria to the
Orontes, crossed it descending down to the sea and
thus entering the Lebanon, and received the submission
of the Phoenician cities. The Syrian king of Damascus
was paralysed by the swiftness of the Assyrian opera¬
tions. Ashur-nasir-pal then turned back to the
Euphrates and completed the circle by marching
through the upper valley of the Tigris back to where
 MESOPOTAMIA 79

he had begun. And the devastation was so thorough,

the ruin so complete, the overthrow of kingdoms
so sudden that no opposition or resistance could be
possible anywhere, and the route of the conquering
armies—a trail of burning villages, a sea of massacred
humanity.

Ashur-nasir-pal was also an uncommon organizer

of state. He organized it on a military footing and
moved his capital from the ancient Ashur to Kalkhi-
(Galah) which had been founded by Shalmaneser I
but had . lain abandoned for centuries. From that
barrack-like town he ruled his empire.

. There he built his palaces and temples. And

in tnat regard the great militarist was exceptionally
brilliant. He was an uncommon builder. He em¬
ployed sculptors and architects to erect his temples
and palaces who had ho parallels anywhere in that
world and his buildings became at once the models
and the despair of subsequent emulators in the neigh¬
bouring states. He died in 859 B. c., a feared man,
and after a dazzling rule for twenty-five years left
his extensive empire to his worthy son Shalmaneser III,
equally successful in his military campaigns and in
the organization and administration of the state.

Shalmaneser III

Shalmaneser began by intimidating the conquered

states so that the change of masters might not give
them hopes? of freedom. After completely destroying
and suppressing the tributary kingdoms he moved'
south to strike terror and to subdue principalities.

A great battle was fought in 853 b. c. at KarW

where Ahab of Israel, Irkhuleni of Hamath and
ISenhadad II of Damascus confederated and led their
combined hosts to give battle to the Assyrian emperor,
oenhadad was the most formidable of the enemies
 80 THE ANCIENT WORLD

that the Assyrians had thus far met. The battL

was indecisive although the Assyrians claimed a vie
tory. But they too retreated immediately and Ben
hadad was left undisturbed in the possession of hi;
realm. The Syrian losses were great and the allie:
, dispersed carrying considerable rancour against on<
another which set the background for a war among
them. Five years later Shalmaneser returned tc
wreak vengeance on Damascus. He was again
balked by the fierce resistance of the Syrian monarch.
Three years later in 845 b. c. Shalmaneser, furious at his
failure, put a hundred and twenty thousand men into
the field and yet he could not break the resistance
°r , e redoubtable Syrian. The dogged persistence
ot the Assyrian invader was met with redoubled vigour
and Shalmaneser had to abandon his plan of subduing
Syria for the moment. He instead consolidated his
power in Northern Syria and completed the submis¬
sion of the Phoenician cities (842 b c)

. I*1 that year Benhadad II was murdered. It was

time for Shaimeneser to act. Both Syria and Israel
were weakened by war and their new kings were not
settled firmly. Shalmaneser marched south in the
£?r?/eS' Hazael, the successor of Benhadad, met
him on the slope of Hermon, was defeated and driven
back to Damascus. The territory was ravaged by the
Assyrians aithough the capital defied them and could
^a new kinS of Judah, sent rich
presents and this incident, construed as a show of
frailty was commemorated on an obelisk of black stone,
set m the royal palace at Galah.

Shalmaneser when foiled in Syria sought his com-

SfT, ?Vn • C ?irectlon of Taurus. Subjection
PilS-t tabes area was firmly established and
Cilicia was perfectly conquered. But the greater re-
had^ cpame. Babylonia In the interim there
turmoil in Babylonia. Chal-
daean tribes took possession of Babylon for a time and
 MESOPOTAMIA 81

were followed, first by an Elamite usurper, and then,

by a native dynasty whose two kings were later defeated
by Adad-nirari II. Later, Babylonia became friendly
to Assyria except for a momentary enmity in which
she had helped Sukhi which was conquered by Ashur-
nasir-pal. The Babylonian contemporary of Shal¬
maneser, Marduk-zakir-shum, worried by the revolt
of his brother, called in the aid of the Assyrian emperor .
Shalmaneser invaded Babylonia, defeated the rebels
in two engagements, drove out the Chaldaeans, and
reduced the intimidated Babylonian to the status of a
vassal. _ This assured the Babylonians their commer¬
cial gains while the Assyrians achieved their suze¬
rainty over Babylonia. Henceforth only ambitious
princes of the land sometimes rose against the Assy¬
rian supremacy, but the great bulk of the merchants
of Babylon were always a bulwark of support to
Assyria.

Shalmaneser had accomplished a lot by now and

wanted to be relieved from leading forces to battle¬
fields. He left therefore his command to his turtan,
Ashur-dayan. Shamshi-Adad, a younger son, was made
the crown-prince. In 827 b. c. Ashurdaninpal, the
elder brother, revolted against his father and brother,
and carried with him the greater part of the kingdom
including Nineveh and Assur. But the Capital, Calah,
with its military headquarters, remained faithful to
Shalmaneser and Shamshi-Adad. Ashurdaninpal held
on. But on the death of his father in 824 b.g.
Shamshi-Adad V ascended the throne of Assyria. The
civil war terminated two years later. During this
fime both Hamath and Babylonia had revolted.
Shamshi-Adad at once invaded the latter and crushed
the Babylonian monarch Marduk-balatsu-ikbi in the
battle of Dur-Papsukal, thus disbanding the confe¬
deracy of the Babylonians with the Elamite and Chal-
daean hirelings. After inflicting this disaster on
Babylonia Shamshi-Adad died in 811 b.g.
6
82 the ancient world

Decline of Assyria

Adad-nirari III, son of Shamshi-Adad, too returned

to Syria after subduing the tribes of. the North.
Benhadad III, son of Hazael, was compelled to pay
tribute to Assyria for the first time. Jehoahaz, king
of Israel, broke loose from Syria and paid tribute to
Adad-nirari. Hamath and Phoenician cities resumed
their payments of the annuity. The records say that
the Assyrian monarch was able to exact tribute even
from Edom and Palestine.

Jehoash of Israel emerged successful in the political

confusion of Palestine and turned against Syria. He
recovered the entire territory of Israel east of the
Jordan and his son Jeroboan turned out to be so
vigorous that he even took Damascus and Hamath.
The Assyrians were slowly losing ground.

About the same time an important kingdom of

Urartu (Ararat), where the Ararat Mountain is situat¬
ed, was rising into prominence. The kingdom was
called Khaldia after the chief god Khaldis of the people
of Urartu. The tribe was very warlike and lived in
the highlands of Armenia towards the Caucasus and
the Assyrian monarchs had to undertake repeated
expeditions to keep their restive leaders to their own
bounds. Babylonian culture had spread among , them
and later the princes of the tribe came to use the cunei¬
form writing. Their restive character gave the western
and southern enemies of Assyria some relief as no
more could the Assyrian armies keep long on puni¬
tive expeditions for the fear of their formidable up¬
land neighbours.

In the meanwhile Assyria plunged into a civil war.

A number of cities revolted following the total solar
eclipse of 763 b.c. which was accepted as an ill-omen
and a signal for change. The centre of the revolt was
Assur, the old capital, and the king was murdered.
 MESOPOTAMIA sa

Internecine war and pestilence ravaged the land.

At last in 758 Adad-nirari IV, the successor of Ashur-
dan, succeeded in suppressing the revolt. Simultaneously
with Assur, Babylonia also revolted against the autho¬
rity of Assyria and Nabu-shum-ishkun restored the
old kingdom. When he died in 748 b.c. and his son
Nabunasir (Nabonassar) succeeded him a new era,
that of expansion, started in Babylonia. The affairs
of Assyria, however, went from bad to worse and in
746, following the revolt of Calah, the Assyrian general
Pulu ascended the throne of Assyria and the old dy¬
nasty came to an end.

Revival; Tiglath-pileser

Pulu took the name of Assyria’s greatest warrior

Tiglath-pileser (745-727 b.c.). The name of Tig¬
lath-pileser III, therefore, was one of great promise
suggestive of renewed glory and revived empire. And
the implied promise came true. New blood infused
new life and the west and south readily submitted.

He entered the northern part of Babylonia not

at all meaning to deposed its king but only to intimi¬
date the land into dependence. Now thus secur¬
ing Assyria against Babylonia and the Aramaean
hordes, Tiglath-pileser marched against Syria. The
chief of Syria, getting alarmed, confederated _with the
king of Urartu, Sarduris III, who marched down the
Euphrates to attack the flank of the Assyrian army.
Tiglath-pileser wheeled round and struck Sarduris,
completely defeating him. After a few engagements
the West submitted.

Azaria, the overlord of the dependencies of Israel,

was perhaps the main instigator of the resistance in
Southern Syria. In a couple of years (739-38) Tiglath-
pileser, campaigning in the Armenian mountains,
beat the enemy and broke the confederacy as also
the dream of Azaria of re-creating a Solomonic empire.
84 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Kullani, Hamath, Samal fell one after another and

Damascus, Tyre and part of Israel paid tribute to the
invader. Azaria died and was succeeded by Jotham.

Then the conqueror appeared in the north and

campaigning across Media reached the foot of Dema-
vena, and through Urartu, Lake Van on whose
shore Turushpa, capital of Sarduris, lay. He could
not take the citadel but certainly made his power felt.
In the meanwhile he received an appeal from Judah,
now threatened by its old dependencies in Southern
Syria and Israel, which he answered by appearing
in Syria after the destruction of Urartu. He mar¬
ched down to the hitherto unconquered Philistia,
not conquered even during the days of Solomon.
Hanun of Gaza fled to Egypt. A statue of Tiglath-
pileser was set up in his palace and sacrifices were
offered to Ashur in his temples, while all the gods and
the royal treasure were carried off to Assyria. Israel
submitted and all the land east of the Jordan, Galilee
and Naphtali with a number of towns were annexed
by the conqueror. Hard was the lot of Damascus.
The city was taken, its king killed, territory annexed
and its people carried captive to Kir. Tyre sent loads
of riches and, Ammon, Moab, and Edom accepted
the Assyrian tutelage. Lands right up to the frontiers
of Egypt—Philistia, the whole of Palestine and Syria
north of Galilee and east of the Jordan, with the ex¬
ception of Phoenicia—were annexed and governors
appointed over them. About half the population
in each state was carried into captivity making place
for captives from Armenia and elsewhere.

Babylonia had given no trouble but its own dis¬

turbed state gave Tiglath-pileser an opportunity to
annex the state. Following internal political disaffec¬
tion, a Chaldaean chief had taken possession of the
country and the merchants asked for Assyrian help.
In 731 the conqueror entered Babylonia and subdued
the entire country down to the shore of the Persian
 MESOPOTAMIA 85

Gulf by the year 728 and took its crown for himself.
He died in the following year.

During the reign of Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.c.),

his successor, Egypt showed great unrest. Important
changes had taken place in Egyptian politics and the
pharaoh Piankhi had appointed his son Shabaka the
regent and commander-in-chief of the North. The
Assyrian annexation of Palestine was resented and
the young Egyptian prince, not knowing the Assyrian
power and ruthlessness, sought to try conclusions with
the latter. As a result and relying on Egyptian
support Tyre and Israel refused to pay the annual
tribute to Assyria. Shalmaneser struck quickly at
the rebels and Tyre submitted forthwith; the land of
Israel was overrun and laid waste. Egypt did not
interfere. Hoshea, the king of Israel, was blinded
and his entire country annexed. Shortly before this
Shalmaneser was murdered and Sargon ascended the
throne of Assyria.

Sargon (722-705 b. c.)

Sargon, the new emperor, had to forget the West

for the moment as events nearer home had to be his
first concern and they were fairly important as the
Aramaean and Chaldaean tribes had made another
bid for power. The Chaldaean chief Marduk-pal-
iddina, supported by the Elamite king Khumbanigash,
who had got jealous of the Assyrian power and its
encroachments on his rear, entered Mesopotamia in
721 and laid siege to the fortress of Dur-ilu, on the
Lower Tigris. Sargon who proceeded to its relief was
beaten by the Elamites before its walls and was com¬
pelled to beat a retreat. Marduk-pal-iddina ascended
the throne of Babylon.

Taking advantage of the Assyrian reverse the West

revolted with the support of Shabaka. Leaving the
affairs of Babylonia where they were, Sargon hastened
86 THE ANCIENT WORLD

west, defeated the leader of Damascus at Karkar and

the combined Philistines and Egyptians on their country’s
border, exacting tribute from Egypt and Arabian king¬
doms. Israel he punished by carrying into captivity
the very flower of the nation, twenty-seven thousand
two hundred and ninety, and settled them in Gozan
and distant Media, filling their place by a mixed horde
of Syrian and Babylonian prisoners, who together
with the remnant of Israel formed the laterly Samaritans.

Now Sargon turned to the north-west leaving Baby¬

lonia free with its new master. The tribes of the west
had turned restive with the support of Rusas of Urartu
and Mita of-Mushki. This Mita was perhaps the lord
of the Phrygians who had extended their domain up to
the Taurus and mingled with the Anatolian Hittites.
He is supposed by some to have been the mythical
Midas at whose touch all things turned to gold. A
small state of Mannai between Armenia and Media
had been created by Tiglath-pileser IV largely com¬
posed of deported tribes from Western Asia. Its rulers
swayed between Rusas and Sargon during the long
years of unrest. Rusas deposed the ruler for he sub¬
mitted to Sargon and set up the Median prince Daiukku
as king of Mannai. Sargon deposed him and deported
him to Hamath (715) and, following his reverses, Rusas
killed himself in despair. Midas likewise had incited
the Hittite princes to revolt. Garchemish, the seat
of Hittite kingdom, was annexed in 717. The Hittite
rulers in the mountains were next subdued. No con¬
clusions could be tried with Midas for he was too far
away although the Assyrian governor of Cilicia report¬
ed successes (715) on the western frontier against him.

In the meanwhile Shabaka had become king in

Egypt and his instigation started bearing fruit in the
shape of revolt in the South and West. In 715 Ashdod
revolted but its leader was captured and sent to Assyria
in chains. Judah likewise rebelled and submitted.
Now after settling accounts that end and not at all in-
 MESOPOTAMIA. 87

tending to enter the unknown land of the Nile,. Sargon

turned to Babylonia, drove its Chaldaean king into*
Chaldaea, and took the throne of Babylon for him¬
self in 709. Then after subjugating his original home
along the sea he exchanged its population with that
of Samaria and the Hittites of Kommagene. At his
impel ial feast that followed the conqueror received
among others the gift-bearing ambassadors from
Midas, now desirous of peace, and tributes from the
seven kings of the island of Cyprus who had accepted
the over lordship of Assyria as early as 715.. Now
except for a few disaffections the empire was quiet and
' territories directly under Assyrian control were being
governed by Assyrian officials. Thus the dominions
of Sargon extended from Cilicia to the Persian Gulf.

Sargon was one of the greatest builders of the Assy¬

rian dynasty. He built numerous temples and palaces
at Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad) to a little north of
Nineveh. The excavations of Khorsabad have brought
to light brilliant pieces of architecture and sculpture and
a whole corridor full of reliefs running round a central
ziggurat-temple. Sargon had come to believe in a
number of gods as against his predecessors, who were
the adorers of a single all-powerful god Ashur, and he
installed their images in the new temples he built for
them. In his own new palaces he could not live for
more than two years for he died in 705 b.c. leaving
his extensive possessions to his son Sin-akhi-irba, better
known to us as Sennacherib.

Sennacherib (705-—681 B. c.)

Sennacherib was neither shrewd not farseeing like

his father. He pursued his campaigns with vanity
and they were chronicled and inscribed on clay cylin¬
ders and deposited in the royal library, a custom closely
followed by his successors.
The Median conquests of Sargonfell away and Mar-
duk-pal-iddina, with Elamite help, fell again, a third
88 THE ANCIENT WORLD

time, on Babylon. Sennacherib expelled him by de¬

feating his Elamite supporters and set up a native
Babylonian of the old royal house, thus abandoning his
own claims to Babylonia which had been ruled by two
of his predecessors as its kings. Then the king had to
turn to _ west for revolts had broken out there on the
instigation of Egypt. Luli of Sidon had imposed his
authority oyer all Phoenicia and Hezekiah of Judah
over Philistia. In Ashkelon and Ekron kings had been
deposed. Sennacherib drove Luli across the sea and
Phoenicia submitted. Philistia was likewise subdued
with a strong hand. Shabaka sent an army to the help
of the Palestinians when the Assyrian monarch moved
towards the borders of Egypt but the latter beat the
Egyptian forces at Eltekeh. All arrangements in the
land were now made as Sennacherib wanted. The
whole territory was ravaged and more than two hund¬
red thousand people were taken as spoils. Soon the
monarch returned home. The siege of Jerusalem was
continued by his officials while the king Hezekiah held
out heroically within. Then a compromise was accept¬
ed and the Assyrians raised the siege. Hezekiah
foolishly admitted ambassadors from the Babylonian
pretender Marduk-pal-iddina for which the Prophet
Isaiah rebuked him. Sennacherib, this time deter¬
mined to put an end to the pretender, hounded him
out of Babylonia and from his original home in Bit-
Yakin, and forced him to take refuge in the Elamite
territory while he placed his own son Ashur-nadin-
shum on the throne of Babylon after deposing his pup¬
pet-king Bel-ibni. In 693 b.c. Sennacherib fitted
out a flotilla and embarked On it with his army down
the course of Euphrates and reached the sea. The
Elamite coast was ravaged and the fugitive Chaldaeans
with their gods and Elamite prisoners were sent captives
in hundreds to Assyria. This was to catch Marduk-
pal-iddina who disappeared from the scene, whether
dead or alive we do not know. Furious at this spolia¬
tion of his coastal territory the Elamite king at once
invaded Babylonia and captured both Sippar and
 MESOPOTAMIA 89

Sennacherib’s son, its ruler, and carried the latter home

setting up his own nominee on the throne of Babylon.
Sennacherib at once moved into Babylonia and carried
this Elamite nominee off to Assyria. He then attacked
Elam but to no purpose. In the meanwhile the Baby¬
lonians set up their own king and when Sennacherib
returned, they bribed the new Elamite king Umman-
minanu and summoned his help, and he came. A
great battle was fought at Khaluli on the Tigris and
most glowing tributes were paid to the Assyrian mo¬
narch’s prowess and victory was claimed in his records
for him. But, in fact, the field lay with the Elamites
and the Assyrians had to withdraw to Assyria although
the Elamite general was killed in the battle and the
son of Sennacherib freed. The Babylonian king also
could not be touched.

Sennacherib awaited the death of the Elamite

Umman-minanu and, after it had occurred, he appeared
before Babylon, captured and burnt down the city and
carried its king and god Marduk to Assyria. Its popu¬
lation too was expelled. During the last eight years
of his reign we hear of no military expeditions but of
one against the Arabs. The king’s chronicles do not
record the event; it is given by his son’s chroniclers.

Sennacherib too, like his father, was a great builder

and built numerous palaces and temples at Nineveh.
Nineveh had become a mighty capital. He says in his
inscription that he did everything to beautify Nineveh
which his forefathers had neglected. He straightened
its roads, built plantations and a proper wall. About
the labour utilized he writes in his own inscription :
“The people of Ghaldaea, the Aramaeans, the Mannai,
the men of Kue and Cilicia, the Phoenicians and Tyrians
who had not submitted to my yoke, I carried away,
and I set them to forced labour, and they made bricks.”
The double walls ran round double the area of the city
and were pierced by fifteen gates, each bearing a distinct
name, as did the walls themselves, and beautiful gardens
90 THE ANCIENT WORLD

were laid outside the habitat within the walls which

were watered by numerous aqueducts constructed from
springs in the hills north ol Nineveh. The king had
vouched that he would make of Nineveh a better city
than Babylon. Certainly he was able to prove his
boast as he had laid the ancient city waste and there
was none to compare its glory with one he had built
and beautified.

But his end also came early after this and that too
a violent one. The Bible puts it clearly : “And it came
to pass, as he was worshipping in the house of Nisroch
his god, that Adrammelech and Sharezer his sons smote
him with the sword: and they escaped into the land of
Armenia. And Esarhaddon his son reigned in his
stead.” He was praying when he was thus murdered.
The god heard his prayer but the weight of justice com¬
pelled him to decree his favour elsewhere and to lay
hands on the real culprit.

Esarhaddon (681—669 b.c.)

Esarhaddon (Ashur-akh-iddina) was the youngest

of Sennacherib’s four sons and came to the throne in
681 b.c. after the murder of his father. He was
away in the provinces when his father met his violent
death and he hastened home on getting the news to cap¬
ture the throne and avenge Sennacherib. Six weeks
later he had expelled the parricides from Nineveh,
pursued and beat them, although he could not get
them for they fled to the king of Urartu. Esarhaddon
ascended the ancestral throne formally in 680 b. c.

The first act of the king was to make amends to

one of his father’s grave wrongs. He re-built Babylon
which his father had razed to the ground. Within
three years the city was rehabilitated. The Chaldaeans
were thus chased away and the people won over. The
result was that when the ex-Chaldaean king’s son tried
to revolt he was beaten back and the Elamite king.
 MESOPOTAMIA 91

who invaded Babylonia and took Sippar, was likewise

thrown out by the hostile mob. A wise man, very
unlike his father, had come to rule the people and his
statesmanship bore fruit. He was left free to strike
against the tribes of the North and to mature his
plan to conquer Egypt. The Kimmerians and the
Treres were pressing from the north-west and the
northern tribes became restive. Set in motion, the
Mannai, the Medes and the Scythians invaded Assyria.
But Esarhaddon beat them back by sowing seeds of
dissension among them. This was done by marrying an
Assyrian princess to Bartatua, a Scythian chieftain,
and setting him against Spaka, the king of that tribe.

Now Esarhaddon was free to settle accounts with

Egypt. Due to the latter’s intrigues the west had
stirred. During his punitive expedition the king demo¬
lished the walls of Sidon (677) and beheaded its king.
The Gilician king met the same fate. Phoenicia sub¬
mitted. Ten kings of Cyprus paid homage and Pales¬
tine sent assurances of loyalty. Across Palestine Esar¬
haddon marched into Egypt little knowing that Egyp¬
tians differed from the Assyrians in language, race,
religion, in everything, that to the commonest Egyp¬
tian the rule of a Hyksos would be hateful, that even
though conquered, Egypt could not be held by mere
sword, and that the only way to hold her was to sit on
her throne and accept her gods as did the Persians,
Kambujiya and Darius, who both conquered and held
her. In 671 Esarhaddon conquered Egypt. The
Pharaoh fled the field of battle, after defeat. and the
Assyrian monarch followed up his victory by investing
Memphis, the inhabitants of which city had paid with
life for their gallant resistance. Esarhaddon returned
to Assyria setting up stelae of victory on the way.. The
Pharaoh Tirhakah at once returned to Memphis and
massacred the Assyrian garrisons. Esarhaddon moved
back but was taken ill and died on the way (669). He
had already made a will that on his death his elder son,
Ashurbanipal, should rule at Nineveh, and that the
92 the ancient world

younger one, Shamash-shum-ukin, should hold Babylon

under the control of his elder brother. Matters were
settled as decreed.

Ashurbanipal (669—626)

Ashurbanipal was a great conqueror and the last

great ruler of a most powerful family of kings. He
ruled for about half a century and his reign was full
2F ev2?ts* pls *£st act was to return to Egypt to punish
the Pharaoh. He defeated that king at Karbanit,
occupied Memphis without a blow and sailed up¬
stream to Thebes. The story is told elsewhere, in the
nftwi °f^EsT?t’u® t0 how he dealt with the princes
• tiiat land- On his return all his conquest was undone
in Egypt and he undertook a punitive expedition in
person. He reached Thebes mercilessly suppressing
oppositmn and destroying and burning the cities on the
y. Thebes met the same cruel fate and all its
glory was gone. While on his way back home Ashur¬
banipal completely subjugated Phoenicia and received
an embassy from far-off Lydia across the seas. Assy¬
rian prestige had reached its apogee. ■

Elam appears next on Ashurbanipal’s list of con¬

quests. Elam had invaded Babylonia and thus had
fiT? rASSyr^n monarch an opportunity to make
an end of it. The eponym-lists break off about this
time and our information about the course of events
becomes somewhat defective after the year 666 b c
lhe Elamite king was marching on Nineveh but on
the approach of the Assyrian army he retreated to
the mountains pursued by Ashurbanipal’s forces. He
was driven back to Susa and at Tulliz on the river Ula
a pitched battle was fought in which the Elamite king
mTl klKCd ■ phe territory was diminished
and given to Ashurbanipal’s nominee. The event was
commemorated on a frieze.

rt,-1* an imP°rtant event happened which, if

thmgs had been successfully organized, would have
 MESOPOTAMIA 93

become a danger of great force. It was the rebel¬

lion of Shamash-shum-ukin, the brother-king of Ashur¬
banipal, who had the charge of Babylonia. He or¬
ganized a big conspiracy with the rulers of Elam
and those of Palestine and Phoenicia. Fortunately
for his brother the matter leaked out and the revolt
had to be attempted before the plans were mature.
The conspiracy aimed at making the king of Babylonia
the master of both the states. He rebelled, and so
did the king of Elam. The Ghaldaeans appeared
with Merodach-baladan’s grandson as their leader
and took Ur and Uruk. The Elamite king was
murdered in his camp by his own son. Ashurbanipal
moved into Babylonia with a formidable army, bloc¬
kaded Sippar, Kuth and Babylon. Shamash-shum-
ukin set fire to his palace and perished in the flames
for he knew that otherwise, when apprehended, his
fate would be still worse. Ashurbanipal placed a
nobleman Kandalanu on the Babylonian throne and
marched into Elam. Susa was captured and com¬
pletely destroyed and the statue of the goddess Nina,
which had been carried to Elam 1635 years back,
was restored to its temple at Uruk. The Ghaldaean
chief committed suicide and the king of Elam was
carried captive. Elam disappeared from history.

Next the emperor turned to his western rebels.

The Arabs were the first to encounter. But before
the Assyrian army could achieve much they joined
hands with others and the entire country from Edom
to Damascus was in revolt. But the leader of the Arabs,
Uaite, was defeated and carried captive to Nineveh
where he and his wife were extremely ill-treated. Most
of the rebel kings met the same fate. About the same
time the Kimmerian hordes moved eastwards across
the Taurus and were defeated by the Assyrian army
in Syria. They retreated northward. The king
of Lydia sent an embassy to Ashurbanipal to congra¬
tulate him on this event. In 635 b. c. Ashurbanipal
celebrated a triumph at Nineveh during which he
94 THE ANCIENT WORLD

drove his chariot to the temple of Ishtax to the yoke of

which were harnessed the kings who had been defeated
and brought as captives. The king of Egypt was
conspicuous by his absence for during the Assyrian
civil war when the garrisons were withdrawn from
Egypt, he had become independent.

The great conqueror died in 626. He had ruled

long and his years were crowded with events from the
beginning to end. True that he was feared as long as
he lived but he left the affairs of the country in a sad state.

The Fall of Nineveh

Ashurbanipal left the state of Assyria impoverished

and. weak following his costly campaigns, mainly
against Elam. The northern tribes had been extremely
restive even while the monarch was alive and the
Scythians had overrun Syria. And now after Elam
had been removed the younger tribes of Iran like¬
wise became restive. In the north the Scythians,
the Mannai and the Kimmerians combined and took
the mixed name of Umman-manda and confederated
with the Medes under their king Uvakhshatra and
got ready to strike. The Scythians under their youth¬
ful leader Madyes, son of Bartatua, was laying the
country waste. He had ravaged all the lands
upto the borders of Egypt and had been bought off
with rich bribes by Psamatik the Pharaoh. The
Scythians indeed struck terror in western Asia through
their depredations and even drove the Kimmerians
out of the field. Maydes, the Scyth, was murdered
by Uvakhshatra the Mede.

Babylonia broke away from Assyria and soon after

Ashurbanipal’s death established its free authority
under an energetic local chief Nabu-pal-usur (Nabo-
polassar). The successors of Ashurbanipal were weak¬
lings. Nabu-pal-usur and Uvakhshatra entered into
a treaty against Assyria and in 612 b. c. together they
 MESOPOTAMIA 95

descended on the shrunken kingdom. In that year,

after a terrible siege, Nineveh was destroyed and the
last Assyrian king Sin-shar-ishkun perished in the
flames of his burning palace with his courtiers
and slaves. And thus ended the story of a city that
had decreed the death and destruction of endless towns
in course of its own existence, and of a dynasty the
like of which the history of man has never known.
No country ever produced a succession of conquerors
at once so powerful, so ambitious, so ruthless and so
many. But its end was of a piece with its character.

Assyrian Civilization.

The empire was a military organization and its

emperors were sworn militarists. Strength of its
armies was its passion, enslavement of nations its
ambition. The hardy farmers of the Assyrian up¬
lands were welded into a nation of ruthless fighters
and the state was organized on a footing of constant
warfare. The military science was developed to an
extent no former state organization in history had
reached and the art of laying siege was perfected.
The horse and the bowmen played their role as never
before. Resistance was crushed with relentless cruelty.
Flaring alive and burning at stake of the war victims,
mainly the chiefs, who were yoked to triumphal cha¬
riots, became common. The storming of a city meant,
on its capitulation, a ruthless sack, putting the citi¬
zens to sword, even children not spared sometimes,
razing it completely to the ground, carrying away
its gods, depopulating entire districts and provinces,
rehabilitating them \tith alien peoples being some of
those characteristics which are reminiscent today of
the Assyrians. Their ruthlessness, strength of body
and organization of military state left such indelible
impressions that literatures of nations are replete with
references to them. Even the distant Indian literature
was affected by the memory and the word Asura,
formed albeit from asavah, pranah, i. e. vitals, came
96 THE ANCIENT WORLD

to signify a demon. From the Rigveda down to the

classics Asura denoted power and ruthless strength.
t Even Kalidasa refers indirectly to the cruel warfare
of the Assyrians, the Asuras, by his advocating the
ways of the ‘righteous conqueror’ (dharmavijayi), who
took away the sovereignty from the vanquished but
not his state (sriyam jahara na tu medinim) as against the
Asura kind of warfare wherein the conqueror brought
annihilation to the population and uprooted violently
the state (utkhaya tarasa).

The Assyrian conquerors sought to crush nations

through their unexampled mercilessness and yet there
were rebellions year after year; the chiefs and the
people knew the unrelenting fate awaiting them
following capture and yet they revolted; the cities
were conscious of the slaughter that would ensue on
their capitulation, all the same, they closed their gates
to the inhuman invader and faced the inevitable
holocaust. It was because violence and militarism
can never crush peoples and nations. They have
their repercussions rebounding on themselves as it
happened in Assyria. Nations rose, suffered yet
balked the barbarians, and turned the blazes of fire
that the latter had made for others to themselves,
and the flames gutted their palaces and licked clean
their monuments of victory and motifs of art. Dis¬
tant nations and their chroniclers wondered, as do
we now sometimes, at the fate of Nineveh. But no,
Nineveh went down amid the curses of the nations
and was forgotten like a story told, an argument long
forgotten, for its glory was written on the tide of water
and it was washed away when the waves rolled. So
one should not wonder at the fate of Nineveh. The
contemporary prophet Nahum never did. Instead, he
blazed forth in splendid poetry the inevitable doom:
“Woe to the bloody city. Behold, I am against thee,
saith the Lord of Hosts, and I will discover thy skirts
upon thy face, and I will show the nations thy naked¬
ness and the kingdoms thy shame. And I will cast
 MESOPOTAMIA 97

abominable filth upon thee, and make thee vile, and

and set thee as a gazing-stock. And it shall come to
pass, that all they that look upon thee shall flee from
thee , and say, Nineveh is laid waste; who will bemoan
her ? Behold, thy people in the midst of thee are
women, the gates of thy land shall be set wide open
unto thine enemies: the fire shall devour thy walls.
Thy shepherds slumber, O King of Assyria; thy nobles
shall dwell in the dust; thy people is scattered upon
the mountains, and no man gathereth them.
There is no healing of they hurt; thy wound is grievous;
all that hear the grief of thee shall clap their hands
over thee, for upon whom hath not thy wickedness
passed continually ?”

Assyrians had no literature except what they were

able tomorrow from subject-nations like the Palestinians,
Sumerians and Babylonians. But they were great
conservators of ancient literature. They learnt from
the Sumerians and their successors, the Babylonians,
the art of cuneiform writing and collected hundreds
of thousands of the bricks that bore ancient literature
and even made fresh copies of them. Ashurbanipal
himself was a superb collector and his library and
archives have preserved treasures of ancient literature
in the absence of which much of our knowledge of the
ancient Middle and Near East would have been lost
to us. Another kind of important literature that
Assyrian kings _ have left to us is extensive, though
boastful, chronicles of their campaigns. A third and
very exceptional class of writing is the limmi, the
eponymous magistracies which record the dates of
contemporary events so accurately that they have
become the sheet-anchor of the contemporary Middle
East chronology.

The Assyrians borrowed their gods too, mostly

from the Babylonians, except a few of whom the most
important god was Ashur. He was their supreme
national deity. Ashur was their hero and god, Ashur
:■ 7
98 THE ANCIENT WORLD

was the name of their old capital, as also that of the

Assyrian people. But as the rulers came in touch
with other peoples they created a regular pantheon
of the divinities they borrowed from others, chiefly the
Babylonians. Ea, Baal, Nesroch, Nebu, Shamash,
Sin, Nergal, Ishtar, all came to be honoured.

But one aspect of genius that the Assyrians deve¬

loped was their love for art. Who their artists were,
or from where they came, we do not know, but th
commissions they executed, the reliefs they traced
and the motifs they carved were indeed the wonders
of their age and set models to the arts of subsequent
nations. Their palaces were feats of contemporary
architecture and the tracings along their walls and the
reliefs had no parallel. Their lion-figures, carved
steeds, and frieze decorations created examples for
the contemporary world to follow. Their bulls and
lions journeying through the splendid specimens of
like and subsequent sculptures ultimately set the
originals for the Asokan monuments in India. The
hunting scenes on the walls of Ashurbanipal’s palace,
chiefly the figure of the arrow-struck lioness, have no
parallels in liveliness and vigour. The remains laid
bare at Khorsabad and elsewhere in Iraq by the spade
of the archaeologist, now mostly stored in the museums
of Europe, leave the visitor gaping in dumbfounded
wonder.

In look the Assyrians were tall and hardy, robust

and full of muscles, as can be seen in the tracings on the
walls of temples and corridors and of palaces. They
wore long cloaks and grew their hair and beard long.
They believed in astrology and in the divine oracles
which the kings tried before every campaign.
 CHAPTER HI

PALESTINE

Land and its People

We have said so much about Palestine, its numerous

states and cities, a constant prey to the cupidity and
aggression of the Egyptian, Babylonian, Hittite and
Assyrian monarchs. It will be better to have an idea
of the land itself which was the meeting place of all
the powers of the neighbourhood. It was the ‘Holy
Land5 where the great and fearless Prophets of the
Old Testament, preached fire, which again was the
‘Promised Land5.

_ Looking at the map of Palestine we find a moun¬

tainous strip of country stretching along the Medi¬
terranean coast enclosed by Egypt, Arabia, Syria and
Phoenicia. In the north lay Syria and Phoenicia,
both lying almost parallel to each other, Syria to the
east and Phoenicia to the west, between Syria and
the sea covering roughly the modem state of Lebabon.
Poenicia was full of rich coastal cities and, as the
mistress of the sea, came, in course of time, to found
prosperous and powerful colonies along the Mediter¬
ranean. Its wealth attracted conquerors audits towns
became constant cockpits for the neighbouring powers.
To the east of Palestine lay the desert of Arabia where
the nomad tribes moved about restlessly. Egypt lay
to the south and its borders ran along the borders of
the holy land. To the west of Palestine lay the land¬
locked sea.

y The midland had numerous settlements, numerous

tribes and numerous kingdoms. Gilead lay to the
south of the Yarmuk river, in the north-east, and to
its west and south-west stretched the territory of
Israel, west of the Jordan; due south of Gilead was
100 ■ THE ANCIENT WORLD

situated the kingdom of Ammon along whose southern

borders ran the marches of Moab. Judah lay next
to Israel and to its south. The kingdom of Edom,
lying in the extreme south, was pressed between
Arabia and Egypt. Philistia ran along the sea_ and
its borders in the north ended where the Phoenician
borders began.

This was the unfortunate land of the Jews and

the Israelites where Abraham led his flock, the Petrarchs
cast their longing eyes and where_ Moses wandered
back from Egypt to find the ‘Promised Land to settle
his people down there. The ever-moving sons of Is¬
rael, hounded out of one place crowded out of another,
object of hatred and incalculable wrong and subjected
to persistent persecutions across countries, across
time, have again found their home and have
built up their state round Zion where their Judges
once judged by the Laws, Solomon ruled with wisdom,
and the Prophets preached their fury and Christ his
love.

About the middle of the 14th century b. c. all

the great states of Egypt, Babylon, Khatti and Assy-
ria. became paralysed which was a signal for the
rise of new and independent states in Palestine and
Syria. Tribal movements were astir and head¬
ing towards this middle land. The Aramaeans moved
about this time from the bank of the mid Euph¬
rates and settled down in Syria in the land of Ubi with
its capital at Damascus, thus absorbing the Amorites
and Hittites in course of time. To the South of the
Aramaeans and across the Yarmuk river were the
Hebrews already settled. Their original home had
been Harron in Mesopotamia. They were Semitic
like the Aramaeans and seemed to have been of Arabian
extraction. They were perhaps already astir about
the time of Hammurabi. One of the earliest move¬
ments had been led by Abraham whose exact time
cannot be stated although some scholars have read
 PALESTINE 101

in the Biblical texts the possibility of his having been

a contemporary of the great Babylonian lawgiver
Hammurabi.

It is possible that the ancestors of the Hebrews

moved out of Ur under Abraham about 2000 b. c.,
entered Canaan and left it soon after, reaching Egypt
sometime about 1800. It is possible also that the
Hyksos were part of the great movement who, after
taking Egypt, settled the jews there as their state func¬
tionaries and tax-collectors. The rule of the Hyksos
became so intolerable, because of their oppressive
ways and because of the Egyptian love for independence,
that the people of Egypt rose in revolt and expelled
the foreign rulers. The Jews too were foreigners
who had so identified themselves with the Hyksos
and made themselves so hated through their tyran¬
nical methods of exactions that the Egyptians made a
bid to annihilate them. But their leader, Moses, led
them, out of the country and, wandering across the
Arabian desert and the slopes of the Sinai under ex¬
tremely severe conditions of every character, they
entered Palestine. Moses himself died on the way
but his followers under Aaron reached the Promised
Land which they made their final abode. The Ara¬
maeans and the Israelites, having originated from
the. same spot and being closely akin in stock, coalesced
easily and from the first. They absorbed in course of
time the Canaanite and Amorite inhabitants of the
land too who were Semites like them.

The Philistines entered Palestine a little later and set¬

tled down south of Phoenicia along the sea. They were
uncircumcised Aegean invaders from Crete and were
never sought to be absorbed by the Semites to whom
they were so alien in everything. The Phoenicians
in the north and out of Palestine were Semites but
they looked down upon the Aramaeans of Syria and
the Israelites of Palestine because they were so back¬
ward in civilization. They themselves were rich
102 THE ANCIENT WORLD

merchants and masters of the sea, and traded all along

the Mediterranean coasts and with distant countries.
They soon established big colonies into which the
wealth of the nations and the world flowed. Among
these Carthage, with which the Romans fought for
a couple of centuries through their historic Punic wars
a duel unto death and which ultimately met its des¬
truction at their hands, was the greatest. It was
founded about the close of the ninth century; Utika
and Gades were much older; and Tharshish was the
oldest, busy with commerce as early as Hiram I and
Solomon in the 10th century B. c.

Hebrew Conquest of Palestine and the Philistines

The position of the Hebrew settlement in Palestine

may now tentatively be stated thus. About the time
of Hammurabi Abraham left Harron in Mesopotamia
with his tribes, crossed the Euphrates, defeated the
Five Rings of Syria and settled down in southern
Canaan. About 1800 the tribes entered Egypt with
the Hyksos and remained there for about five centuries.
About 1300 b. c. the Exodus began and Moses
and Aaron led the Israelites from Egypt wandering
across the desert for about three decades. About
the middle of the 13th century Aaron led his people
into the ‘Promised Land ,’ the home of their ancestors,
perhaps by way of Jericho.

From the Biblical account it would seem that the

main body of the tribe crossed the Jordan and entered
Canaan near the city of Jericho. Jericho and Ai
were taken after a fight. The Israelites pushed fur¬
ther into the hill-country and occupied Bethel and
Shiloh. Then they moved southwest under Joshua
into the Shephelah where the Canaanite kings of
Lachish and Gezer were defeated and Lachish, Gezer
and Ekron were occupied. After this there followed
troubles within the Israelite camp which,_ however,
were settled and a reconciliation ended their quarrels
 PALESTINE 103
for the present. The invaders were now in possession
of two enclaves of hill-territory—Mount Ephraim
in the north and Judah in the south, Jerusalem still
lying as a Ganaanite wedge between them. The
Ganaanite princes, however, combined to throw them
out of the plains where they were powerless before the
enemy’s chariots.

At this stage a new power entered the land. The

Philistines with their broad swords and huge spears
made their appearance and carried everything before
them. Don and Asher, two trading tribes who had
settled down on the sea-coast were thrown down and
driven into the hills from wherever they had been
in the plains. They took the deities of the Cana-
anites away from them and enslaved their inhabitants.
They had established their own state in Canaan about
1100 b. c. comprising mainly of the five settlements
of Ashdod, Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron.
Each one of these was ruled by a seren with his nobles.
They took counsel together under the leadership of
the seren of Ashdod who also commanded the forces
during war. In these cities and in others the Phili¬
stines had their theatres in which huge crowds of
spectators could assemble to watch the theatre or gladia¬
torial combats. The Biblical account of Samson
gives the numbers of men and women assembled in
the theatre of Gaza as three thousand to watch Samson
make sport.

This Philistine culture was the product of a foreign

military garrison and soon gave way to the Semitic
civilization taking over the Ganaanite gods and manner
of worship and by the time of David the Philistines
had started speaking the Canaanite tongue.

But since their impact on the Israelites was great

which threw them into confusion, the latter were com¬
pelled to retreat into their hill-fastnesses of the up¬
lands. There they were attacked by the Arab tribes.
104 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Midianites particularly 'reduced them to extreme

straits, taking away all the produce of the earth. Two
Israelite leaders, Gidean and Jerubbaal, are particu¬
larly recorded as having given reprisals to the Midianite
raiders.

The kingdom of Edom, between the Dead Sea and

the Gulf of Akaba, perhaps of the Aramaean origin,
was fast developing into a powerful state. It had
inflicted a severe defeat upon the Midianites in the
territory of Moab during the reign of Hadad I. Moab,
Ammon and Edon made a common cause against the
Israelites and off and on attacked their territory.

A kingship had begun taking shape among the

Israelites ana Abimelech, son of Jerubbaal, seems to
have attemptea to rule part of Israel definitely as a
king. The result was a revolt and civil war. Shechem,
the city of the tyrant, was burnt and he was killed at
Thebez.

The Philistine invasion had come about 1080 B.c.

The victory over the Israelites in the battle of Eben-
ha-ezer was complete. It annihilated the Israelite
army and the sacred ark of Yahweh was captured.
The resistance was broken. Garrisons were placed
at numerous places to guard against the risings of
Israelites. For half a century the grip of Philistine
over Israelites was secure.

Samuel, the prophet, who hated all those who

worshipped other gods than Yahweh, could not excuse
the Philistines for the insult they had done to the Israeli-
tish sanctuary even after they had restored the ark.
He nurtured a religious revolt with Saul as its leader.
Saul’s kingdom of Israel was the result. Samuel,
however, had never wished to establish an independent
kingship. His idea was to make of Saul a great leader
who would be subservient to him after war. But
Saul could not play the second fiddle to Samuel. The
 PALESTINE 105

differences between them went on widening and^rjter

Samuel’s death his followers were put to the swbj^L
David, a young rival of Saul, at once secured the support
of the infuriated priests and with their help he cap¬
tured. the Israelite throne. David ruled at his fastness
of Jerusalem.

But before we come to the reign of David, the

story of Saul’s revolt must be told. The Philistines
had forbidden the working in metals so that -arms
might not be available to the Israelites but Saul and
Jonathan his son managed to get them for their men.
Saul’s first expedition was led against the Ammonite
prince Nahash, and after defeating the latter and secur¬
ing his people’s allegiance, he now crossed the Jordan
and fell upon the garrison at Geba. The garrison was
confused and the Philistines were badly beaten at
the great battle of Michmash. Saul next moved
against the Amalekites, defeated and took their
king prisoner whom Samuel sacrificed with his own
hands.

The Philistines in the meanwhile were not sitting

idle and were attacking the Israelites and were being
attacked by them. Continuous warfare became the
order of the day during the entire length of the reign
of Saul. During this war David, the son of Jesse
of Bethlehem in Judah, distinguished himself to an
exceptional degree. He became so popular with the
army and the people that Saul gave him his own daugh¬
ter.

Saul, however, soon found out that David was

intriguing with Samuel against him and he became
so furious that his son-in-law had to flee the kingdom.
David then started making war on the Philistines on
his own account. Saul in the meanwhile continued
to harass him through his pursuits and David was
compelled to come to peace with the Philistines
and to accept a fief under their king of Gath. This
106 THE ANCIENT WORLD

king' canvassed with the Philistine chiefs to take David

on the expedition against Saul but they refused to put
faith in him or to receive his aid. So David could
not take part In the great battle of Mount Gilboa
in which both Saul and his son Jonathan were killed.

Henceforth two kings started ruling over the

Israelites both under the tutelage of the Philistines.
Ishbaal, son of Saul, ruled at Mahanaim, while David
ruled at Hebron in the south. David, however, soon
deposed Ishbaal and took over the whole kingdom
ofrSaul. This act was supported by Samuel and the
priests and accepted by the majority of the people.
A little later Ashbaal was murdered and David became
the undisputed ■ Lord of Israel. ‘ He soon moved from
.Hebron to the impregnable" fortress of Jerusalem
after capturing it with great cunning.: The Philis¬
tines could not bear this coup of David quietly moving
to his new seat from where he could always defy them.
They .sent an expedition against him but It failed miser¬
ably for David beat them twice at Baal-perazim and
in jhe valley of Rephaim. At both the places the
Philistines were thoroughly routed. Even their gods
were captured.

David followed up. his successes by declaring

an all-out war on Philistia and opening operations
against Gath. Gath was the kingdom that had given
David, when he had fled from Saul, asylum and
a fief, and the same was now fighting for life. Fight¬
ing In such a situation is always severe and in the
battles that followed quarters were neither given'nor
sought. Ulitmately David captured Gath and fell
upon Ashdod, the centre of the Philistine power. The
city was taken and almost all resistance broken . David
soon took over the dependencies of Gath and the dimen¬
sions of Israel touched limits not thitherto known.
The^ Philistine mercenaries flocked to Jerusalem to take
service with the victorious king who employed them
in the corps of his bodyguards.
 PALESTINE 107

The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

David organized his kingdom on a military footing.

Military officers enjoyed greater privileges than the
civil servants. The Israelite state was far more
military in charater than either Egypt or Babylonia.
David very diplomatically subordinated the priests also
to himself. He himself appointed them and naturally
they felt responsible to him. And since he appointed
to the office of priests mostly his sons and relatives,
they always secured his interest first.

David’s next move was to organize revenge on

those that had been his enemies and he spared no¬
body. Thus the ancient enemy of Israel Moab was
overthrown and two-thirds of her inhabitants were
slaughtered despite the fact that the kingdom. had
given asylum to his parents when he was in hiding
to evade Saul’s anger. Ammon’s turn came next.
So knowing its lot the kingdom entered into an alliance
with the Aramaean tribes against Israel. The allies,
however, were utterly defeated and later David mas¬
sacred the citizens of the capital of Ammon after taking
it. This angered the Aramaean king of Zobah and
he sent his general with a big army against David
but the latter defeated the enemy severely. Syrians
then moved against him and he beat them and annexed
Damascus, the capital of Syria. This raised David’s
prestige in the eyes of distant rulers and the kings
of Hamath and Tyre sought his friendship and became
his ally.

After settling thus the affairs in the north David

turned south. Edom was invaded and overthrown
and a general massacre of its people ordered and
carried out. The king of Edom was killed in the
battle and his son fled to Egypt where the Pharaoh
gave him a pension till David’s death. Edom was
annexed as far as the sea. Thus within a short time
David made Israel an extensive and powerful
108 THE ANCIENT WORLD

kingdom. He, however, could not live in peace in his

5w T beCa-US? ?fT1the. karem-intrigues. He had to
flee the capital following the rebellion of Absalom.
S°in- A(J°nyah att;empted to wrest the crown
which the king had sought to reserve for his son Solo¬
mon. Solomon therefore was at once consecrated
and associated with his father in the affairs of the
state.

.Jpn, tke death of his father Solomon succeeded

without a struggle. All those who had supported
the cause of his rival were either put to death or removed
from the way through exile.

Solomon was magnificent and tyrannical. The

simple ways of his father were abandoned by him.
He was now one of the greatest kings of the age and
received tributes from far and near. To the common
S' *. was also exceedingly wise. He was a man
ot great culture and an uncommon aesthete. He built
a great temple at Jerusalem, the first building of impor-
er?CSh, ^sraek and its splendour sat deep in the common-
SS S£d' • f. Jews came to consider him the wisest
and the^ mightiest and the most magnificent of all
lulers of all times. He made wealth by commerce
and maintained it. His kingdom lay on the highway
between Egypt and Mesopotamia and between Arabia
of wealth
aW hL
?eresult was a downpour
Pharaoh gave him his daughter and
g with, her Gaza in dowry which was a great
centre of trade. Solomon’s wisdom lay, besides other
ways, m diplomatically keeping Israel out of war.

The marriage-alliance with Egypt secured Deace

on the souses, border while giLishiiTwith Tc
JE t ,.Jre’ tke rr^ost powerful Phoenician prince
opened h* way to the rich Mediterranean cities of
ned T^SSt Wlt^ 1116 hf-1? of Hirarn of Tyre he equip-
Wd Sfn L-aVal Tledltl?n &om Ezion-geber to the
phxr and brought back the famous cargoes
 PALESTINE 109

of the wealth of India (ivory, apes, and peacocks)

described with such detail in the Book of Kings. Thus
trade even with distant India was fairly brisk. He
is supposed to have exchanged the Galilaean towns
to Hiram for his cedar and gold.

His reign became the theme of popular romance.

Balkis, the queen of Sheba, is supposed to have gone
to Jerusalem to see the wise and magnificent king.
At last the'king’s unrealistic living bore fruit. Both
Edom and Syria broke away from Solomon’s kingdom
and became independent. David’s days were gone.
Hadad III, who had taken refuge in Egypt and married
an Egyptian princess returned and won back the in¬
dependence of his lost kingdom. So also did Rezon
of Syria his kingdom. After the death of Solomon
the kingdom split again into two natural states of
Judah and Israel.

Solomon died about 930 b. g. after a rule of about

45 years and was succeeded by his son Rehoboam
who turned out to be good for nothing. Soon the
northern part of the kingdom (Israel) was seized by
Jeroboam, son of Nebat. Religious reaction against
the idolatrous tendency of Solomqjj. had contributed to
the success of this revolt, blit as soon as Jeroboam
secured the throne he did not hesitate to offer public
sacrifices to the bull-images at Dan and Bethel. Since
then for about two centuries the Prophets waged con¬
stant war against the iconic trends of the royal court
and the majority of the population. The result was
the intrepid splendid prophetic literature of the Old
Testament the like of which is not to be found in
any literature of the world. Yahweh was the sole
god the prophets adored.

Judah remained simple and isolated in the hills,

almost wholly aniconic. In the fifth year of his reign
(c. 925 b.c.) Rehoboam was attacked by Shishak
(Sheshenk I) of Egypt and Jerusalem was captured
no THE ANCIENT WORLD

and sacked.

The Philistines acknowledged Egyptian supre¬

macy to save themselves from the Israelite enmity
and aggression. This supremacy was never challenged
by either David or Solomon.

With the battle of Karkar (853 B.c.) in which

Shalmaneser II defeated the confederate forces of
Syria, Hamath, and Israel, history of the kingdoms of
Syria and Palestine merged into that of Assyria and
Babylonia. The role of the two kingdoms of Judah
and Israel was rather a secondary one after now, and
sack and surrender and depopulation were their lot.
And yet then prophets, whether, bound or free, thun¬
dered against the tall and the mighty and called upon
the elements to destroy the haters of Yahweh. They
were terrible monotheists and with Akhenaten the
first to preach the dominion of one god, and of the
chances of the poor against the rich which note wai
carried on and consummated in the promise by Christ
of the ‘Kingdom of Paradise5 on earth.
 CHAPTER TV

BABYLONIA AND PERSIA

1. Babylonia

Assyria had been a curse fallen on Babylonia. The

military state had completely paralysed her. Once
the iron grip of Assyria was removed, Babylonia again
rose to eminence. Her energetic king Nebopolassar
at once moved north and occupied most of the territory
of Assyria, as the Medes annexed the lands north and
east of Tigris.

Pharaoh Necho (609-593), finding Assyria thus

fallen and Babylonia pre-occupied, smashed the forces
of Josiah at Megiddo and seized the whole of Palestine
and Syria. The heir to the lands of Assyria was Baby¬
lonia and Egypt’s boldness could not be swallowed by
her. At Garchemish the die was cast and Nebuchad¬
nezzar, son of Nabopolassar, smote the forces of the
Nile and compelled them to withdraw within the
borders of Egypt. The prince had to halt his hot
pursuit and hasten home for the news had come of
his father’s death. He returned to Babylon and secured
his throne and was acknowledged ruler of the entire
territory between Babylonia and Egypt. Josiah alone
kept on fanning the fanaticism of Judah where the
king, the people and the priests all combined to defy
the conqueror. The prophet Jeremiah warned them
and counselled moderation but the new king of Judah
Jeconiah, as persistent in his defiance as his father,
kept the field. Nebuchadnezzar captured him and
Jerusalem both and carried him with numerous in¬
habitants into captivity. The great king got busy
building the splendid temples and planting wonderful
gardens in his capital.
112 THE ANCIENT WORLD

In the meanwhile Egypt decided to try conclusions

with him on the issue of the Asiatic possessions. The
Phoenician towns at once accepted Egypt’s hegemony
and, encouraged by them, king Zedekiah of Judah
rose against Babylon and refused to pay tribute to her.
Nebuchadnezzar crossed the Euphrates and descended
on North Syria (587 b.c.) and from there sent out a force
to take Jerusalem. A siege was laid, and the Pharoah,
who had retreated wisely before the redoubtable
Babylonian to Egypt, advanced to relieve the city
of Judah. He had to beat a retreat again and Jeru¬
salem fell. The king was carried captive with his
two sons who were slain before his eyes by the orders
of Nebuchadnezzar and his own eyes were later put
out. Most of the population was likewise carried
captive. The miserable remnant murdered the Baby¬
lonian governor and migrated to Egypt with the pro¬
phet Jeremiah. There they were properly settled.

Sidon made peace and Tyre acknowledged the

Babylonian suzerainty after a long siege. It has
been supposed that Nebuchadnezzar pushed up against
the Pharaoh deep into the land of Nile and reached the
First Cataract. During his old age, any way, the great
conqueror got mad and died in 562 b.c. He was
a great builder and built the temples of E-sagila at
Babylon and E-zida at Borsippa. Then he built the
great wall of Babylon which his father had planned.
A double massive wall now ran round the vast city
and between the two and overlooking them a running
fastness was erected. The great wall was further
surrounded by other walls and ditches. Besides these
temples and walls the ancient city was beautified by
broad streets and pretty secular buildings. The city
assumed her real stature and became the proverbial
Babylon in splendour and glory.

Nebuchadnezzar was followed on the throne of

Babylon by common-place undistinguished monarchs
and with a boy Nabopolassar’s Chaldaean dynasty
 BABYLONIA AND PERSIA 113

terminated in 556 B. c. The priests then selected a

merchant Nabunaid (Nabonidus) king of Babylon.
Naboriidus was given more to a life of peace than to
that of the soldier and like the princes of Nabopolassar’s
family he too was a builder. He was an archaeo¬
logist and collected ancient records. He is supposed
to have discovered a foundation-stone of Naram-sin
and that discovery he commemorated with great zeal.
He built the sun-temple, E-babbar, and the temple of
Anunitum, E-ulmash, at Sippar. He was succeeded
by his ill-famed unlucky son Belshazzar to warn whom
the writing on the wall is supposed to have appeared.
The Persians, the Iranian Aryans, had become by then
all-powerful and Babylon faced its doom at their hands
‘while Belshazzar feasted’. The king fared as did his city.

2. Persia

The Beginnings

The Medes and the Persians belonged to the same

Aryan or Indo-European race. They both seem to
have separated somewhere in the Armenian mountains
having come originally perhaps from the main Aryan
knot in Southern Russia. The Medes were the wes¬
tern branch who made their appearance early in Assy¬
rian politics and moved, like their Aryan ancestors the
Mitannians and the Kassites, towards the west. The
Persians in the meanwhile were making their way into
south-eastern Iran, the vicinity of Elam. When they
got there is not so easy to say but since one of their
earliest kings Kurush defeated the Medes and annexed
their kingdom about 550 b. g. or slightly later, their
first appearance in Iran cannot be placed too far back.
It is possible that their earliest wave entered Iran a
few centuries earlier than Kurush’s date.

The Medes were supreme in the confederation

which along with the Babylonians broke the power
of Assyria and destroyed Nineveh. King Kyaxares
8
114 THE ANCIENT WORLD

(Uvakhshatra) of the Medes was succeeded after his

death by his son Astyages, who was defeated and deposed
(550 b. c.) by Kurush II, the Persian. After this the
kingdom of the Medes came to an end and formed
part of the growing kingdom of the Persians.

The Persian kingdom of Anshan, of which Kurush

(Cyrus) and Darayavaush (Darius) both were kings,
was founded by Chishpish, son of Hakhamanish or
Achaimenes. The founder of the dynasty ruled some¬
time about the last quarter of the seventh century b. c.
After Chishpish there seems to have run two lines of
succession, two collateral branches of rulers, as Darius’s
own expression, duvitapamam, would show. In one
branch Chishpish was succeeded by Kurush I, followed
by Kambujiya I (Cambyses), Kurush II the Great
(Cyrus), and Kambujiya II. = In the other Chishpish
was followed by Ariyaramna (Ariaramnes), Arshama
(Arsames), Vishtaspa (Hystaspes) and Darayavaush
(Darius I). The last named came to lord the territories
of both the branches of rulers when they became merged
into a single state, Darayavaush counting his pedigree
consecutively right from Hakhamanish through all the
succeeding steps of the other branch as well and calling
himself the ninth.

Chishpish seized Elam perhaps during the con¬

fusion following the conquest of Ashurbanipal. Slowly
the entire country passed into the hands of the Persians,
who took over the ancient towns of the Medes, Ekba-
tana and Susa. After the deposition of their king
Astyages the Medes accepted Kurush naturally and he
too made no distinction between the Medes and the
Persians and perfectly welded them into a single people.

It is said that it was about this time that Zoroaster

made his appearance. Amuch earlier date, even earlier
than 1000 b.c., is sometimes suggested for this great
prophet, but accepting the saner view, he may with
ample reason be placed in the 6th century B.c..
 BABYLONIA AND PERSIA 115
In that century all Asia seems .to have been cast in a
religious ferment. Great religious movements under
great thinkers and popular leaders sprang up and
thoughts fairly revolutionary and opposed to the ancient
and the [Link] their appearance. It was at
this time that iviahavira and Buddha lived and preached
in India; it was now that Confucius. and Lao Tzu
elaborated their ideas in China; and it was about
then that the prophets in Palestine disgorged
their angry words of fire. _ No wonder that the spirit
of the times took shape in Iran also and Zoroaster
appeared with his militant ethics. There is an impor¬
tant tradition that fixes his birth to 599 B.c. He is
supposed to have commenced his teaching in his for¬
tieth^ year in Khorasan. There at Kishmar, in the
district of Turshiz, in order to commemorate the conver¬
sion to his new faith of King Vishtaspa (Gushtasp),
father of Darius I, he planted the famous cypress tree
which was said to have lived until a. d. 861, when the
Caliph el-Mutawakkil had it felled and taken to
Samarra on the Tigris, to be utilized in the construction
of his palace. Darayavaush, the son of the first royal
convert to Zoroastrianism, seems to have been a devout
Zoroastrian, as is particularly suggested by his
campaign against flies’, perhaps the lies of the Magian
form of worship, in his Behistun inscription.

Of the old Aryan gods of the north-west area of the

Mitannians, viz. Indra, Varuna, and the Nasatya-
twins, only Varuna had been retained in the Zoroas¬
trian religion, the rest were not only not worshipped
but had come to signify demonaic powers right opposed
to the divine. In the Avesta Indra and the Asvins
(Nasatya-twins) have become evil demons. They may
even have formed, along with the Magian gods, the ‘lies’
of Darayavaush. Herodotus describes the peculiar
Zoroastrian custom of exposing the bodies of the dead
to birds and dogs before burial. It is obvious therefore
that the times were favourable to the spread of the new
cult and that Darius I, the son of the first convert to
116 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Zoroastrianism, turned out to be a most devout Zoroas-

trianist. It has been rightly suggested that Daraya-
vaush received his great fervour and inspiration from
his nn compromising master and that, the rise of his
vast dominions was incidental to the zeal infused into the
conqueror by his extraordinary contemporary.

The Empire

The deposition of Astyages gave Croesus of Lydia

the signal to move eastward. He consulted the ora¬
cles of Greece and crossed the Halys and seized Cappa¬
docia. Kurush II too moved westward in the
autumn of 547 B.c. and fought the indecisive battle of
Pteria. Croesus retreated supplicating help from
Sparta, Egypt, and Babylonia where Nabonidus was
ruling. But Kurush gave him no time and before
succour could be received from anywhere Kurush
advanced in winter and fell upon him, annihilating his
forces and taking Croesus prisoner. He was taken to
Persia where, it is said, he lived like a noble at the
Persian Court.

In those short engagements the Europeans saw that

the Orientals were superior to them in warfare, particu¬
larly in the methods of siege which they had learnt from
the Assyrians. They had brought science into the field.
The subjugation of the Ionian Greeks and Teians was
so swift and thorough that they even thought of leaving
their country and migrating wholesale to Sardinia.
Indeed, the helplessness proved beyond hope. . Next
followed the submission of the Milesians, of Caria and
Lycia. Lycians resisted the invader smartly but all
opposition proved futile before the Persians and the
Persian general Harpagos completed his conquest in
no time.

Kurush then turned to Babylonia. Its southern

part had already been taken and a Persian governor
posted at Uruk. Now the final blow came in 539 B. c.
 BABYLONIA AND PERSIA 117

when Gaubaruva, the Persian satrap of Assyria and

Gutium, defeated the Babylonians at Opis. Belshaz¬
zar commanded the Babylonians. He was perhaps
killed and Nabonidus fled from Sippar to Borsippa
where he died. The citadel of Babylon held on for
sometime more. It was stormed in the presence of
Kurush and fell to his sword. He entered Babylon in
triumph and was welcomed by the priests and people
as their deliverer. The Babylonian monarchy came
to an end.

Nabonidus had made himself hateful to the priests

who had resented his antiquarian zeal for collecting
the gods from all over the country and they applauded
Kurush, who, in usual accordance with the Persian
tolerance of the religions of the subject races, sent back
the images to their shrines.

Phoenician cities too readily submitted and so did

Palestine where Kurush permitted the establishment of
a Jewish community at Jerusalem. Kurush then con¬
quered the Sakas of the east and thus extended his do¬
minions over the region beyond the Jaxartes. Then
he died leaving his crown to his son Kambuj iya.

Egypt and Persia

Amasis the pharaoh of Egypt did not oppose Per¬

sia as long as he lived. Persia was moving along her
course of conquest as planned by her great rulers and
the subjugation of Egypt was their next step. Egypt
lay palsy-stricken and her deserting mercenaries could
not save her from the disciplined Persian forces who
came to conquer the country. A short engagement
was fought at Pelusium where Psamatic III, son of
Amasis, was defeated. He fled to Memphis. Kam¬
buj iya II followed him there, took Memphis, deposed
the pharaoh and sent him to Persia, and himself ascen¬
ded the throne. This was the first time a foreigner
had sat on the Egyptian throne, a thousand years after
 118 the ancient world

the hated Hyksoses. The secret of holding Egypt lav

xr Slt5m.§ m its throne and in accepting its gods
Kambujiya did both by getting formally consecrated
and by offering sacrifices publicly to Egyptian godSd
He assumed even the Egyptian name which was given
to him by Egyptian officials. After accepting the sub¬
mission. of Gyrene, the vassal of Egypt, he sent an
expedition to conquer the distant Carthage which
however, perished m the desert. He had already
TtLIT n faL aS lnd Hved for someth
restore NubiaNt°o\he PI°Ckeeded to capture Napata and
lestore Nubia to Egypt, but the barren region of the
Second Cataract proved too severe for his forces that
rfEgvOtnead> ascribed This disasters to the sorceries
AeSSs 1 fd™ amo^.outraging the people and
that ^.ea?wblle news eame from Persia
that the false Smerdis had rebelled and Kambuiiya
Aryandes^0me leavin^ the cfaarSe of Egypt to Satrlp

Bardiya (Smerdis), the brother of Kambuiiya had

Ee^tSeC£ny by,tim before to S, on
W. Now the nobles of the court, hearing of the
kmg s disasters in Egypt, placed a false Bardiyf on the
Persian throne, and the people accepted him for they ‘
had no .knowledge of the murder of the real BardiyZ
Kambujiya was crossing Syria with Darius, son of Hvs-
SiEri „When he sVddenIy died< Darius, howeverj
?omed bv the body of the king and was wel-
thTfat^Lif n°bleS Ww knew truth. Gaumata,
di^Ba,rdiya’s a ¥a§ian and had assumed royal
aEKini m a castle of N*sara. Darius
throng dnf tL x?d was. himself raised to the
ruling in Pa Kambujiya, his own father,
tohisSs?nP hia and HyrCania’ tendering his allegiance

j J^g tbe double at home Satrap Aryandes

caiSUS to become independent in Egypt. He had
earned the Persian arms to Cyrene and Benghazi.
 BABYLONIA. AND PERSIA 119

Darius came to Egypt in 517 B. c. to complete the

conquest of Egypt which his predecessor had begun.
As a first step he executed Aryandes and then set to
reconciling the outraged and wronged Egyptians with
various measures of peace. He took the crown with an
Egyptian name and accepted the Egyptian gods. He
built the famous temple of Hibis in el-Khargah where
he also constructed subterranean conduits for irrigation^

Darayavaush I

Darayavaush I (Darius) had ascended the throne of

Persia but matters did not prove easy and he had to
exert himself first to suppress and win opposition. There
came up considerable opposition and Babylonia, Elam,
Armenia, Media, Egypt, even the home province of Pars
at once revolted against his authority. But it must
be said to the credit of the great genius of Darius that he
did not swerve from the danger but brought each of
the provinces back to the empire and settled accounts
with everyone of his enemies.

Babylonia rose first under a certain Nebuchad¬

nezzar III. Two engagements and a siege operation
carried the capital and the usurper was apprehended
and slain. A little later the city revolted again under
a certain Aratha but was soon brought under control
and disaffection rooted out of the land. Next followed
Elam where a Persian had styled himself an Elamite
prince and donned the Elamite name of Ummanish.
His insurrection was easily put down and the Elamites
disappeared from history. A Mede called Fravartish
declared himself Khshathrita, a scion of the family
of Kyaxares, and essayed to restore the old Median
kingdom. He was caught and brutally executed. In
the home province Vahyazdata held out long and the
king had to bring all his resources to bear him down.
Egypt too was brought to book, as we have seen, and its
satrap Aryandes beheaded. This stupendous task was
accomplished within the first few years of his reign and
120 the ancient world

his victories over his provinces and enemies well deserv¬

ed mention. They were recorded on a rock-cliff
overhanging the main route from Mesopotamia into
Persia through the Zagros, in an inscription on the face
ol which Darius was represented with the conquered
rebels lying bound. This is the famous Behistun mscrip-
f™ was first copied by Sir Henry Rawlinson in
7 at great risk of his life. It was written in Persian,
ousian, and Babylonian cuneiform and afforded the
clue from which the cuneiform writing was deciphered
and the treasures of the tells and archives laid bare to
Wlth th? ?mous Rosetta Stone, which made
d^e decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics possible,,
the Behistun epigraphs furnish us with a key to the
understanding of the entire Middle East history.

c ^est now drew the attention of the great king.

Samos was conquered by his generals in 516. The
bakas oi the steppes, chiefly under their leader Skunka,
a een giving considerable trouble to the northern
frontiers of the empire, and Darius, determined to
put an end to their raids, decided to find them in their
own habitats of southern Russia. He resolved to
take an expedition into Europe and arrived at Bospho¬
rus where he summoned the Ionian tyrants to meet
the royal army with their own. They came with an
Athenian despot, a fleet was fashioned, and the army
sailed along the course of the Danube and for the first
time an Asian expedition entered Europe proper. The
whf L??SClf pufsued .fruitlessly the Scythian prince
evading him and ultimately put his efforts
to naught The emperor returned to Persia while
ofM?ceedonTabdUed &nd received the allegiance

About this time Athens declared her fidelity to the

emocratic principles of Solon and proclaimed a war
T.»rSkantSf Frrst -?e compromised with Persia in a
ways. But soon the final break came follow-
g the Ioman revolt and the burning and sack of Sardis
 BABYLONIA AND PERSIA 121

when she threw in her lot with her kin against the
tyrant of the orient. Darius ordered her destruction
and the first expedition in 492 b. g. was the result.
Proceeding under Marduniya by land and sea and
through Thrace it was wrecked by a storm off Mt.
Athos and the Persian fleet was destroyed. Then
followed a second expedition under Datis and Arta-
pherne with Hippias helping them. Eretria soon
fell to the advancing army and it sent a shudder through
Athens. Help was sought of Sparta and the great
Olympian runner ran his maddest to carry the news
of the impending danger to that premier city of Greece.
But the Lacedaemonians arrived too late for the
Athenians had already fought and vanquished the
enemy. Great numbers of the enemy lay dead on the
field of battle. The Spartans congratulated the con¬
querors and went away as they had come without
striking a blow. The Persian army had landed by the
coast of Marathon, an open sea-plain, where_ one of
the greatest and most decisive battles of mankind had
been fought. The army of the greatest empire of the
age was pitted against the patriotism of the little city
of Athens and of her friend Plataea. And when the
Athenians closed in combat the enemy was struck by
the resistance and shaken by the attack. They charged
the great foe at a run and dispersed the Persians, who
taken by panic, rushed to their ships and sailed off
with those on the board. Those who could not reach
the ships were massacred on the field. Six thousand is
stated to have been the number of the invaders dead
as against one hundred and ninety-two. This was a
great event for Athens, and Greece, and for Europe
and the world, but for Iran it was not perhaps so much
an event of importance. After all, at the fag end of
the extensive empire a few generals had lost a ^battle
in which a few soldiers of the vast Persian militia had
been killed. All the sapie, Darius prepared to attack
Athens again and annihilate the daresome city. But
about the same time Egypt revolted under Khabhash
(486 b. c.) and drew the attention of the emperor in
 122 THE ANCIENT WORLD

that direction. Right when Darius was ready to proceed

on his punitive expedition to Egypt, he died in 485
b. c. and for the moment both Egypt and Athens were
spared the fate they later met.

Darayavaush was a great king, great as a conqueror

and great as an organizer and administrator of empire.
For the administration of the empire the vast dominions
were divided into satrapies or provinces, twenty-one
(including Thrace) in number. Each satrapy was the
charge of a satrap (Kshatrapa) who was a civil poli¬
tical officer assisted in his-work by a general who looked
after the military matters and a secretary. All the
three were independent in their respective spheres.
One of the satrapies, the twentieth, was India from
wherp weights of gold dust were received by the
imperial exchequer. Goins were in circulation and
they were of a fixed standard imitating the Lydian and
other Greek models. The gold coin ‘daric’ bore the
emperor’s name and was the last word on the art of
exquisite coining. It bore the device of the running
Persian archer.

Travelling_ commissioners were the very ‘eyes and

ears’ of the king. Many of the provinces and king¬
doms were left to the charge of local leaders and kings.
This kind of local autonomy coupled with the centraliz¬
ed power in the hands of a benevolent despot was
unique and worked most perfectly. Darius left the
peoples and races completely free in matters of
religious belief and modes of worship. His policy of
tolerance was much ahead of time and gained the confi¬
dence of the most alien of his subjects. The system
endured tiil the end of the empire in the third quarter
of the 4th century b. c. It developed out of the Assy¬
rian arrangement of provinces but was totally different
m the spirit and in the result. The appointment of
j-SVl1 satraP to ^ charge of a province made all the
difference and freed the population from the ruth¬
lessness of the Assyrian military governors. The em-
 BABYLONIA AND PERSIA 123

pire was one of the most extensive absolutely unprece¬

dented in that age. It was as extensive as the Egyptian
during the tallest conquerors of Egypt with Asia up
to the Pamirs and the Caspian, Arabia, Asia Minor,
Ioina and several islands, part of extreme south-eastern
Europe and the Russian-steppes added to it. From the
Danube to the Jaxartes and from the Caspian and south
Russian steppes to the borders of Nubia in Africa ran
the marches of the empire of Darius the Great, at once
the model and terror to the tyrants of the west.

Persia and Greece

Khshayarsha (Xerxes) next came to the throne.

But his first duty lay towards Egypt and he_ took
measures to put down the revolt of Khabbash. Baby¬
lon too had shown signs of unrest and had to be put in.
its place. Freed from these affairs, Xerxes proceeded
to teach a lesson to Athens and to avenge his father s
privation on the field of Marathon. The march of
the enormous host began in 480 B.c.

In the meanwhile the approaching danger brought

all the Greeks together excepting a few who had al¬
ready submitted to the yoke of Persia. A congress
banned all civil wars and exhorted all the Greeks to
combine to resist the Persians who had massed men
on an unprecedented scale.

Xerxes crossed the Dardanelles by a bridge, of

boats. Along the coast moved a huge fleet carrying
supplies. The Persian monarch himself was leading
his enormous hosts. This time the Spartans were
not slow and fourteen hundred of their men, steel
cast into human flesh, under Leonidas stood waiting
to do their job at the narrow pass of Thermopylae,
a mountainous district leading from Thessaly into the
southern provinces. The Greeks intended to send
reinforcements before the Persians arrived. But the
Persians arrived a little too soon and the little lorce
124 THE ANCIENT WORLD

of the Spartans was faced with annihilation. Some

of the Greeks, who were not Spartans, seeing the futility
of* the resistance decided to retreat, but Leonidas
said: “Retreat if you wish to, but as for me and
my Spartans, we have been sent to hold the pass, and
here we will remain.” Not a man moved.

Then began a battle which will be remembered

while the world lasts. For two days armours clanged,
swords whipped and spears smote, but the enemy
could not get the better of the little band of men that
held him at that historic spot. On the evening of
the second day the traitor Ephialtes guided a force
of Persians through the hills and the brave Leonidas
was attacked in the rear. Leonidas at once dismissed
all his allies save four hundred Thebans and seven
hundred Thespians, and with his three hundred Spar¬
tans prepared for the worst. Getting desperate, he
sallied forth with his fourteen hundred and fell upon
the mass of men. When night came Leonidas and his
faithful patriots lay dead under the corpses of their
enemies. Every man of the fourteen hundred was
killed. The pass lay open unguarded and the Per¬
sians entered Thebes and Athens. Thebes submit¬
ted to Persians and accepted their terms. The Athe¬
nian garrison was thrown from the rocks of the Acro¬
polis and the city was burned. All seemed lost and
the Athenians fled to the island of Salamis and on
board the ships which Themistokles had prevailed
upon Athens to build in the teeth of opposition. On
the 20th of September of the year 480 Themistokles
forced the Persian fleet to give battle in the bay of
Salamis and destroyed it. Xerxes was watching the
fray from his golden throne on the slopes of Aigaleos.
With growing horror the omnipotent sovereign saw
the disaster and, getting frantic, rent his robes and de¬
parted hastily from the scene. Greece was saved.

Xerxes retreated to Susa with one half of his army

leaving the other half behind under Marduniya.
 BABYLONIA AND PERSIA 125

The Spartans now emerged from the safe shelter of

the wall which they had built across the Isthmus fof
Corinth and marched under their leader Pausamas
against the Persian general. About one hundred
thousand men attacked the enemy near Plataea and
routed the Persian hosts.

After this war Persia sank into a confusion of do¬

mestic troubles. Xerxes himself was murdered in
465 which was a grave signal for revolts. Rebellions
broke out in Egypt, Syria and Media.

And yet the empire of Darius held on for a century

and a quarter. Intrigues and disaffections shook the
ioints of the vast realm. Darius III was the last ruler
of the family who had seen the falling off of the
provinces and who now witnessed the ruin of his empire.
Alexander the Macedonian first beat him at Issus m 355
b. c. and again at Arbela two years after. Darius hed
the field and escaped north towards the country of the
Medes. He was pursued, was overtaken at dawn, dying
in his chariot, murdered by his own people.

Alexander had already captured Babylon, Susa

and Persepolis. At the last named city, the. capital of
the empire, an event happened which shamed the valour
of the Greeks. In the midst of a drinking bout madden¬
ed by nocturnal carousals and vicious romping,
the conqueror rose at the incitement offered by the
courtesan Thais, his pretty keep, snatched a torch
from one of the attendants and set fire to the greaL
palace of Darius, the king of kings. The city burned
as Athens had burnt a century and a quarter before.
And perhaps that was the purpose of this arson. A
recompense of queer sanity!

Nothing remained of the palace that Darius built

or of the extensive domains of the Persians that was
stretching across the Middle East from end to end.
The immense empire tottered to a fall and was lost
in its own ruins.
126 THE ANCIENT WORLD

But the empire did not die without leaving its

traces behind. Alexander thought of it as a model
and Chandragupta Maurya followed its despotism
in his own plan of building an empire, the shortcomings
of the Persian organization set right by his . great
minister Chanakya. Another and a more distinct
influence left behind was of the Persepolitan archi¬
tect and sculptor. The Asokan monuments breathe
the execution and finish of the Persian pattern, its
polish and shine, which India never knew before,
never followed after. No wonder too, for the contact
between the two countries had been close. Indian
mercenaries had fought the Greeks and shared the
defeat of Xerxes and the Punjab had formed the Twenti¬
eth Satrapy of the empire of Darius the Great. His
voice, though calmed by love and urged by human
welfare, set the tone of Asokan edicts, the first to be
inscribed in India.
 CHAPTER V

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

The Beginnings

Prior to the invasion of the Classical Greeks there

vegetated towns and cities in the islands and along the
coast of the Aegean Sea. Archaeological excavations
in some of them have laid bare the traces of a civili¬
zation of the bronze age, greatly developed, urban,
and coeval with the cultures of Egypt and Sumer.. The
main centres of this civilization were Knossos in the
island of Crete, Mycenae on the mainland of Greece
and Troy in Asia Minor. In all of these places build¬
ings and palaces have been found. The earliest centre
of this culture is supposed to have been Knossos where
palaces fitted with running water, bathrooms, banquet-
halls with beautiful frescoes, and winding staircases
have been discovered. Since the civilization arose
in the island of Crete it is sometimes called Cretan cul¬
ture, as also Minoan after the appellation of its kings
who were called Minos as the Egyptian kings were
called Pharaoh. Some people call it even Mycenaean
after the name of the ancient and ruined city of My¬
cenae in the peninsula of southern Greece.

The makers of this great Aegean civilization, which

had its beginnings in the fourth millennium B. c. and
which met a violent end about the middle of the second
millennium B. c., were southerners. In fact the
civilization developed out of the Neolithic and those
who were the builders of the Neolithic culture of
Crete and traded’ in that early age with Egypt have
been connected in blood and language with the Bas¬
ques to the west and the Berbers and Egyptians to the
east. Perhaps originally they came from Egypt as is
suggested from their dress of a simple waistcloth so
128 THE ANCIENT WORLD

common with the ancient Egyptians. They had no¬

thing to do with the white races of Europe and are
supposed to have arrived in the island of Crete from
north Africa while they were still using stone implements.
They were conversant with the use of bronze as well
as copper and among them the use of the alloy soon
superceded that of the pure metal. We know that the
Egyptians used copper alone until the advent of the
Middle Kingdom when bronze also came to be used.
The alloy, however, came to the knowledge of the Egyp¬
tians much later. The art of alloying copper with
tin seems to have come to Babylonia, Greece and Egypt
from the east where tin was available and was known.
We know that the people of the Indus Valley civili¬
zation made use of this alloy. The early use of metal
contributed greatly to the speedy growth of the Aegean
civilization which wears such a halo of artistic splen¬
dour.

It developed its own art of writing also. Like the

script of the Indus Valley this too remains to be deci¬
phered. This want of decipherment does not permit
us to be sure of the strata in time and the knowledge of
Cretan history naturally remains imperfect.

But the remains of the monuments of Crete, Troy

and Mycenae have thrown such light on the contem¬
porary times that it has been possible to form an idea
of the various stages of development of that civilization.
The credit of the excavations and of the classification
of these stages in relation to the periods of time goes
to Sir Arthur Evans. He has been able to construct
a chronological plan of three successive periods, each
of which again is further divided into three sub-periods,
viz. the Early Minoan Period, the Middle Minoan
Period and the Late Minoan Period, each of these
having its own First, Second and Third sub-periods.

These periods and sub-periods have been formed

as a result of very careful study of the monuments of
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 129
prehistoric Crete and Greece and of Egypt. These
have been synchronized with corresponding periods
of Egypt which in sequence of time stand on a more
solid footing. For example, in Sir Arthur Evan’s
view, the end of the Old Kingdom in Egypt corresponds
to the First Early Minoan period, the Middle Minoan
to the Middle Kingdom, and the First and Second
Late Minoan periods to the Eighteenth Dynasty; the
Third Late Minoan period likewise was perhaps contem¬
porary with Rameses III (C. 1200 B. c.) of Egypt.
As the result of this effective synchronism a working
basis has been found for the chronology of the Minoan
civilization. Its end came about 1400 b. c. or a
little later when the Achaian Greeks and earthquakes
combined to destroy this marvellous civilization which
had enjoyed the amenities of comparatively much
modern times.

The Pre-Kingdom Stage

The Early and Middle Minoan periods were using

metal in a considerable measure. Bronze came to
be used very early, then followed copper. Short daggers
and long swords came to be forged from these metals.
The Aegean population seems to have been almost as
well equipped in the implements of war as the Baby¬
lonians were. Metals, ordinary and precious, replaced
the clay material for making vases. Wares of silver,
electron and gold have been unearthed in the exca¬
vations and are clear evidence of the material amenities
of the times. Earthenware also came to be modelled
after the metallic pattern. The ceramic art had
reached a high stage of development. Crete was
the first among the Aegean islands to paint wares.
The next great stride in its development was taken
during the Second Early Minoan period. Numerous
patterns of vases now made their appearance. Beak¬
ed jugs and curved lines, which soon developed into
regular spirals, are in evidence. These gave rise in the
next Early Minoan period to the spiral decoration and
9
130 THE ANCIENT WORLD

the field is suddenly flooded with an unprecedented

variety of receptacles.

This is the period of the Second City of Troy also,

later famous for its war with the Greek tribes of the
Indo-European race. Incidents of the same stage of
culture as of the Third Early Minoan age turn, up in
Troy of Asia Minor. There also articles of precious
metals have been found in a considerable quantity. Gold
pins and chains and gold and silver vases, unearthed
there, have justified the name of Priam s Treasure
given to the Trojan hoards by archaeologists. _ In
the field of pottery the Trojans, without doubt, retained
their black style and the pattern of the “owl-headed ”
vases.
Likewise the islands between Troy and Crete have
afforded specimens of the same civilization and pottery
and artistic pieces of the Cretan type. There too
tombs of like type have been discovered. Idols in
human form are as common in the Cretan graves as in the
tombs of these islands resembling those of the pre-
dynastic Egyptian graves.

Characteristic of the last Early Minoan period is

the marked progress in carving stone. Stone flowers
and sea-urchins are the usual motifs. Steatite and
white marble are the usual material from which these
pieces are fashioned. Spiral decoration very generally
appears on them. On gold of Troy and the stone pieces
of the islands it seems to precede the like design on
pottery. This had its origin in the Babylonian metal¬
working which was copied by the Trojan goldsmiths.
The same figured later on stone work and pottery.
Egypt also adopted the same pattern in course of time.

The mastery in designing and finishing exquisite

pieces of pottery was the result of two inventions of
far-reaching importance in the history of art. These
were the baking-furnace and the potter’s wheel. They
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION • 131
were accomplished in the east, may be in Elam, per-
naps m the Indus Valley, prior to 4000 b. c They
reached Crete and Troy about the Third Early Minoan
period. J

The seal-stones belonging to the same period bear

some remarkable signs related to a hieroglyphic system
of writing. Thus a mode of writing was fast coming
into existence. Its figures were impressed on clay
tablets by means of a stylus in the Babylonian manner.
It has been assumed that a considerable Egyptian in¬
fluence was cast on the development of this script.

Architecture also was taking shape in this age.

Most of the stone houses built prior to the Minoan
palace at Knossos belonged to this period. It was
irom this stage that the excellent palatial buildings,
h3,11s and stall cases were ultimately to develop and
pronounce the last word on contemporary residential
architecture. .

The Kingdom of Knossos

The kingdom of Minos had its capital at Knossos

on the northern coast of Crete. During the Middle
Minoan period greater part of the island came to be
ruled by Minos and soon the whole of Crete, the neigh¬
bouring islands and seas formed part of his kingdom.
Phaistos and the palace of Agia Triada also are suppos¬
ed to have been built by a Knossian king. Phaistos
appears as a colony in legend.

The palace of Knossos was built on the remains

of the Neolithic age. The site is close to the modem
city of Candia, on the north coast of the island. The
palace has been revealed by the excavations of Sir
Arthur Evans and Dr. Mackenzie. Its grand western
entrance and “Stepped Theatrial Area” at Phaistos
translated into stone a fine and spacious architectural
conception and epitomized the tremendous powers of
 THE ANCIENT WORLD
132
their builders. A portion of hill was levelled before
the palaces could be built which shows that the kings
who built them had great resources at their command.
As in the north at Knossos so also in the south at Phais-
tos palaces rose almost simultaneously. Close to
Phaistos, a little later, a palace was built of which the
remains preserved are known as Agia _ Triada,. from
the little church which stands on the site. 1 his site
had been inhabited from very early _ days perhaps
from the Early Minoan period, Agia Triada, the palace
itself originating from the Late Minoan period.

The Late Minoan period saw great alterations

made in the Knossian palace which had already been
remodelled at the end of the Middle Minoan period.
The recent excavations have brought to view_ its ex¬
traordinary complex of halls, staircases, and cham¬
bers descending a slope, with outlying buildings like
the “Royal Villa” below it to the north and the West¬
ern House ” higher up the hill to the west—a pheno¬
menal growth of Cretan civilization during the short
few centuries. This palace is extremely modern m
look and execution with its elaborate system of sani¬
tary drainage. It is more modern than any Greek
building of the classical period and before it the palaces
of the Egyptian Pharaohs were but elaborate hovels
of painted mud. It was surpassed only by the splen¬
dour of the painted palaces of Ashurbampal at Nineveh,
but while their coldness was weird and forbidding
that at Knossos rang with teeming life. The frescoes
on the walls of the palace at Knossos disclose a crowd¬
ed court, a big band of retainers, both men And
women, surrounding the king and enjoying themselves.
The paintings are often stiff and crude, even conven¬
tional, but indeed very powerful in design. In the
frescoes of the palace-corridors women appear as often
as men and take free part in the daliances. Women s
part in life seems to have been easy and great. They
seem to have moved about on equal terms with men.
They perhaps even controlled the life at the palace
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 133
and in the society. No nation of the ancient world
gave such freedom and equality to women as did the
culture of Crete.

The frescoes represent women as white and men

as red in colour after the Egyptian convention. The
Minoan courtiers were clean-shaved and wore
their hair as long and as elaborately dressed
as did the women. Many a time, specially in the
bull-fights in which both take equal and free part,
the boys are not distiguishable from the girls except
from the colour, for both have the same flying hair,
indeed the same length. Besides the bull-fights,
which of course are numerous, ladies of the Minoan
court are depicted sitting at the windows of the palace
quite unveiled. Their dress defy the old times and
they wear quite the modern breath. They wear
a decollete, with bare necks and arms, the breasts
covered apparently with gold or silver guards making
out their outline, waists pinched in, and, below, ample
skirts with parallel rows of flounces, resembling nothing
so much as the crinolines of the mid-nineteenth century.
Women of earlier centuries wear skirts with high ruff¬
like collars and horned head-dresses which may or may
not be their hair. The coiffeur of the ladies of the
Late Minoan period have knots and side-curls of the
eighteenth century England. They wear tiaras or fillets.

Men put on a very simple dress: a waist-cloth

under, a short kilt above, together giving the impres¬
sion of a bathing suit. But these dresses, unlike the
Egyptian ones, bore bright colours ornamented with
spiral and other designs. As in Egypt, the upper
part of men’s bodies were generally left bare. They
occasionally wore a conical cap. Men sometimes
coiled up their hair on the crown, but ordinarily left
them hanging loose down the back to the waist or
below it, sometimes in plaits or curls. Like the Hittites
of later times, the men of Knossos wore putteed sandals
or high boots.
134 THE ANCIENT WORLD

The Minoans seem to have been rather poor in

defensive weapons. They wore no armour during
fights but carried a shield. A leather helmet,
reaching down to the end of the cheeks, however, was
worn in wars and gladiatorial combats. A straight
thin sword was their chief weapon of offence. It was
often ornamented with designs in inlaid metals.

The Minoans were perhaps a brunette race, much

like the modern Italians. Their skin was red, their
hair was dark brown to black, their features were
‘Caucasian5.

Inscriptions, unlike the Egyptian and the Assy¬

rian, do not appear on the walls along the paintings,
but figure almost exclusively on tablets of which great
stores were found at Knossos and elsewhere. These
tablets are supposed to be inventories and accounts
of objects although they have not been read as yet.
The seal-impressions give some idea about the chariot
which was in use at this stage of about the 15th century
B. c. On one of these there occurs the figure of a
war-horse, rather a small variety, very possibly recently
introduced from Egypt.

Life lived was rather gay and inaustere, un¬

trammelled by religious rigours. The gods, how¬
ever, were known, and a mother goddess bearing
serpents seems to have been universally honoured.
There were perhaps numerous minor deities of woods
and streams and stones and of the ocean, huntress-
goddesses, and sun-warriors. Dryads, Satyrs, and
Fauns, Naiads and Nereids and Old Men of the Sea,
who have been formed depicted on many a Minoan
seal-intaglio. The funerary rites were perhaps in¬
fluenced by the Egyptian. The dead were usually
placed in pottery coffins.

Besides the frescoes on walls and paintings on the

vases, which give us an idea of the free riotous life
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 135

of their makers, the magazines and chambers of

the palaces and towns have yielded enormons arti¬
cles of art. We have already mentioned the rich
colours which have preserved a lot of the teeming
life we have spoken about. Now we may refer to a
few other branches of artistic pursuit. Stone sculp¬
tures in the round or in high relief are few and far
between, almost nil as compared to the countless num¬
bers of the east and the south. Among the finest
pieces of small sculpture in the world are the two
steatite vases of the First Late Minoan period from
Agia Triada, on one of which we see a procession of
drunken roistering peasants bearing agricultural im¬
plements, and on the other the reception or dismissal
of a warrior with his followers by a king or prince.
The first is a master-piece of relief, while the second
is full of Greek reticence and sense of proportion.

The period that followed was one of positive de¬

cadence. The highest culture of the Cretan palaces
was already lived before the Greeks, the earliest among
the classical waves, appeared.

The Later Times

In course of time the Cretans overreached them¬

selves. They built up almost an empire on the neigh¬
bouring islands, seas and their coastal lands. The
nation slowly exhausted itself. The southern and
central Grece, earlier the neighbourhood of Troy,
were colonized. Numerous towns including My¬
cenae became the centres of the Minoan culture.
Their pottery, their metal articles, their buildings
and monuments were inspired and influenced by the
Cretan models. For a time the greater part of Greece
and numerous spots in Asia Minor had colonies of
Minoan settlers. This meant work and exhaustion.
Although it meant considerable revenue too in the
shape of tributes from the colonies on the main land
and from the islands to the mother country including
136 THE ANCIENT WORLD

human victims, an inhuman annuity, for the sacri¬

fices to the bull-deity, the burden proved too heavy
and the shoulders fell away. The spine broke down
and what remained of the living mass was consumed
by the fires set ablaze by the invaders.

Who were these invaders? From where did they

come? When did they come?

It is difficult to answer any of these or similar ques¬

tions. Who were these invaders? Much specula¬
tion has been occasioned in answer to this query.
Perhaps the original Greeks, perhaps the Achaians,
perhaps the later advents like the Dorians, even per¬
haps the Hittites or other warlike inhabitants of Ana¬
tolia. We are not quite sure which of the Indo-Euro¬
pean Aryans were the cause of the destruction of the
Cretan palaces and of the Minoan culture, not even
about the time when they entered Greece. It has
been suggested that even if they came they settled
down very early almost with the Minoan settlers
from whom they learnt and whom they destroyed.
It has been doubted if the Achaians were pure Aryans
and not a mixed race representing both Mycenaeans
and Aryans 0r even Hittites. Pelops, the founder
of the house of Agamemnon itself, it has been speculated,
might have been a Hittite. It is possible that the
Homeric Greeks who applauded their forefathers as
Achaians might have made the Mycenaeans them¬
selves that honoured breed and rejoiced at being
their offspring. Whoever it was, the race that bore
the Cretans down was singularly fitted for the task of
destruction and left no bricks sticking together.

If they did not rise from the land they destroyed,

they perhaps came from north of Thessaly, from Thessa¬
ly itself, which, however, was not their original habitat.
Perhaps they came from the mid-reaches of the Danube,
or from beyond them, from southern Russia or from
the coasts of the Black Sea. Any of these could be
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 137

their original home. They came down, wave after

wave, deluged the great cities of Greece, breathed
the free air of their rural settlements round the Cretan
colonies and Grecian towns which they besieged and
invested. Then they crossed the seas, swooped down
the rich islands, and finally reached the luxury-loving
coast of the great island of Crete, the cradle of the
Minoan civilization that had forestalled our age by
millenniums in look and amenities. Life there had
not known the green of decay; it had held the red
vitals in its palm which it was now compelled to stretch
forth. Luxuries of centuries were stored in the palaces
of Knossos and of Phaistos, and they all were consigned
to flames and to scorched debris, and they lay there
until Sir Arthur Evans dug them up.

The Invasions and the End

A series of invasions followed. Perhaps the first

to come were the Achaians. Next came the Boeo¬
tians who themselves, were followed by the Thessalians.
The Thessalian or Thesprotian invasion, which probably
occurred about the thirteenth century B. c., was
a tremendous one and engendered far-reaching effects.
This brought for the first time great numbers of iron¬
using Aryans into Greece. The Achaians of Thessaly,
who had already infiltrated southward and formed the
mixed population of Ionia, were rooted out and scat¬
tered. A portion of them conquered the south
and the rest crossed the sea to the Phrygian coast.
The Trojan war may have been an incident of this
racial movement, thus occasioning the possibility of
the Achaians having been the conquerors of Troy
rather than the Peloponnesians. Likewise the Boeo¬
tian and Achaian invasions of the south uprooted the
Minyae, Pelasgians, and Ionians. While ^ Minyae
pressed on to Lemnos, the Pelasgi and Ionians con¬
centrated in Attica, and the sourthem Achaians moved
into the Peloponnese, a mixed body of Peloponnesians
(Arcadians and Laconians), Kythnians and other
138 THE ANCIENT WORLD

lonians took ship across the sea and appeared in Cyp¬

rus and gave their dialect to the island. With this
same succession of invasions and the resulting mig¬
rations must be associated the great wandering of
the Philistines and their allies, perhaps from Crete,
themselves driven out probably by Achaians. This
horde overran Palestine and were stopped on the
borders of Egypt by Raineses III. They were later
absorbed in the Semitic population after a short spell
of independent colonization of Canaan and the eas¬
tern mainland of the Mediterranean. The traditional
date of the Trojan War according to the Parian Chro¬
nicle is 1194-1184 b. c. and it accords admirably with
the known date of the war of Raineses III with the
Philistines, about 1196 B. c. These restless move¬
ments and migratory wars of the tribes all along the
south-eastern Europe and south-western Asia are
reflected in the Egyptian records. “The isles were
restless:” they say, “disturbed among themselves.”

Usually the introduction of iron in Greece is as¬

cribed to the Thesprotian invasion. The invaders
came ultimately from the region of Danube where
iron was in use. Their easy victory over the Achaians,
who had originally lived in Thessaly and learnt the
use of metal from the Aegeans, was incidental to the
use of iron which became universal when the up¬
rooted Achaians moved to the south and diffused their
knowledge of the new metal there. The new metal
reached even the north coast of Crete and we know
from the discovery at Mouliana that for a time both
bronze and iron were used side by side, while the
old Aegean culture was disappearing. The invasion
threw the entire civilization and the cities into con¬
fusion. The ancient Minoan cities had no defences
and were soon abandoned and their population fled
to fastnesses in the hills. Pirates infested the seas
and their coasts and life everywhere in that region
became insecure. It was about this time that the
Phoenician traders made their first appearance on
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 139

the Greek seas, and as the Homeric poems assert,

trafficked with the Aegeans and stole them to be sold
as slaves in Sidon and Tyre.

The Homeric Poems

At this time numerous lays of the Achaians and

other tribes were sung. They were a mass of floating
literature depicting life in the foregone centuries.
A Chian poet, called Homeros (popularly Homer)
welded in the ninth century b. c. into a magnificent
whole the lays and poems by earlier poets which des¬
cribed the great event of the Achaian colonization
of Aeolis, viz. the siege of the Phrygian city of Troy
by Agamemnon, King of Argos, and the great quarrel
between him and his ally Achilleus, King of the Thes¬
salian Myrmidones. The great epict was the famous
Illiad. Probably the invaders came from Argos in
Thessaly and were the natural enemies of Troy rather
than from Argos in the Peloponnese although there
was nothing to impede the poets from appropriating
the glories of Mycenae near Argos in the Peloponnese
by making the chief of the latter the leader of all the
Greek forces arrayed against the Trojans.

The world of the great epic is that of Greece of a

few centuries prior to the tenth. Anachronistic inci¬
dents are not wanting in the Illiad but the general
life depicted in the poem belonged to the epoch bet¬
ween the 13th and 10th centuries. Homer lived
perhaps in the ninth century B. c. but he concentrat¬
ed on an older society and the earliest events of his
narration may very well visualize the conditions im¬
mediately following the migration. This is to say that
the Homeric culture is the culture of the Achaians
of the twelfth or eleventh century b. c. when bronze is
the usual metal although iron is not unknown and is
occasionally used. Both the Illiad and the older parts
of the Odyssey show that the classical Greece had not
dawned as yet although its foundations were being laid.
140 THE ANCIENT WORLD

It was about this time, between the twelfth and

eleventh centuries, that a great event took place which
set the stage for the coming new life in Greece and
of a sudden created the circumstances which brought
about the birth of the new culture. It was the invasion
of the Dorian Aryans. This brought to southern
Greece an unmixed population of the Aryans. The
Dorians came from Illyria whom the Thesprotians
had set into motion. With the Thesprotians hard on
their heels they pressed forward and colonized Greece.
The Peloponnese was conquered and Laconia became
the main Dorian state. It enslaved the Achaian and
the Aegean populations and ruled with a rod of iron
from the village which the Dorians built by the older
Achaian capital, Lacedaemon. By the tenth century
b. c. the kingdoms of Sparta and Argive had been
established. The Dorians were soon in Crete and
among the neighbouring islands completing the task
of destruction that had begun centuries before. The
Ionians had already moved eastward and had colo¬
nized Ionia.

It was now from there, from the east, that light

came. In the courts of Acolis and Ionia the rem¬
nants of the old Aegean culture had taken refuge and
there the Homeric poets of Asia received the patron¬
age for the lays they conserved and composed. There
the weak yet great Aegean culture mingled with the
cruder elements of the Aryan Greek civilization and
proclaimed the dawn of the Greek renaissance. The
new Greek civilization arose in Ionia. Ionia gave
Greece her coined money and letters, art and litera¬
ture, receiving them partly from the east, transmit¬
ting the same to the west, and partly from the Aegean
culture which was strong enough in that part to lend
its yam to the new fabric.
 CHAPTER VI

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Until very recently it was supposed that the his¬

tory of India began with the advent of its earliest
makers, the Aryans, sometime about the fifteenth
century B. c. Only a few centuries earlier they had
started migrating in various directions from their
central knot in Southern Russia. It was natural
therefore that scholars should look for the beginnings
of Indian history in the light of the data furnished
by their traditions and literary records, chiefly the
Rigoeda, which disclose a world of about the middle
of the second millennium B. c. But in 1922 a gifted
Indian archaeologist, R. D. Banerji, lighted upon
certain objects, which when traced to their origin,
disclosed the remains of a new civilization and pushed
of a sudden the history of India by a couple of thousand
years. Its character at once became of a piece with
the culture of Sumer and linked it with the coeval
civilizations of Babylonia, Egypt and Crete.

Ever since the close of the first World _War pecu¬

liar antiquities had begun coming to light in the pro¬
vince of Sindh. These were seals with a perforated
hump at the back and a face bearing life-like reliefs
of animals topped with a seemingly pictographic writ¬
ing hitherto unknown in India. No efforts, however,
had been made to study and understand them until
years after when Mr. Banerji’s exacavations made
their treatment urgent. He was excavating the base
of a stupa at a place called Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana
district of Sindh when traces of the vast remains of
an ancient city lying buried under the solid structure
became evident. ..... .

A few other sites too were explored bringing to

our knowledge numerous mounds which, when opened.
 142 THE ANCIENT WORLD

proved the existence of a riparian civilization W

dead, vegetating m the basin of the Indus. Remains
were likewise discovered at numerous places in the
.S’ndh “d Baluchistan. Rvdns o1 towns
long buried under ground, where teeming life hS
once buzzed, started echoing with tint sound nf
the spade and the noise of labour, and an Indus Valiev
tSTl10 rr S^ran? • up- .mto the records of histor/
That the life m this civilization had been urban wa*
rf°™Dead“ ‘an^H °f ‘Mound
.rictofS Pinjab weSfd bat

Buildings

T ,It: already been mentioned above that the

*atUSt 17 ctvili2ation was urban in charaSeJ anS
that the remains unearthed were of towns Two
towns of considerable dimensions, MohentoX-o and
anda£?atbha-Ve y“1ded enormous material for study
nd for the invariable conclusion that they were e-Z
J &nnfd‘ ,The cities of the Indus Valley
ere the first planned towns of history. In fact real
planning of towns is a recent incident in archkecture

be JX ?lfand 3?f,W're/'irIy [Link]’ somewhere

iATln, oc, i'if ^ certain cases runninsr
as long as half a mile. They cut each other at riSf

sSie0Hl?dSe5fC*e

bo*e ^'s&ft&r&x
strde?d and bated in fire, this? Z-bS
both sun-dried
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 143

used for the foundations and the terraces and the

burnt ones utilized for the rest of the structure. Bricks
were laid in mud or in both mud and gypsum mortar.
Most of the houses had the usual living rooms, a bath¬
room, a stairway leading to the upper storey, and a
well. At Harappa workmen’s quarters have also
been found. They are generally of two rooms and
a courtyard. The courtyard was the basic feature
of the house planning, and was usually paved with
bricks laid flat. It was surrounded with rooms and
chambers opening into it. The most important
feature of the city planning was its mode of conservancy.
Every house contained a drain to carry off the dirty
water. These individual drains, both vertical and
horizontal, were connected with the street drains
which collected into a main one finally flowing out
into the river. Public wells were constructed between
two houses in the street which, besides, contained
its soakpits, manholes, dust-bins and rubbish chutes.
Nowhere was a house permitted to encroach on the
public street or lane. At Harappa a huge building,
styled as the Great Granary, measures 169 feet by 135
feet. .At Mohenjo-daro a pillared hall, 80 feet square,
containing long corridors and benches, suggests the
notion of a public assembly.

But the most important building of Mohenjo-daro

is a vast hydropathic establishment, popularly called
the Great Bath. The actual bathing space measured
39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep. The
surrounding building with verandahs on all sides
covered an area of 180 feet by 108 feet. Flights of
steps on both sides led to the surface of the water. The
floor of the bath was paved with bricks laid in gypsum
mortar with an inch of damp proof bitumen. A round
well filled the tank and a vaulted culvert, 6 feet 6 inches
high, emptied it. A hammam or hot air bath was
attached to the Great Bath which shows that the prin¬
ciple of hypocaustic arrangement was understood
and utilized by the people of Mohenjo-daro.
 144 THE ANCIENT WORLD

®v*dent from above that the habi¬

tats of the Indus . Valley had reached a high water¬
mark of civilization and people were living under
a remarkably advanced system of town planning and
sanitation, where municipal laws were kept and lived.
Their streets were broad and methods of conservancy
perfect. Public baths were in use which must have
engendered m the people the repose and activities
of a corporate city life.

Social and Economic Aspects

The remains permits us to form a fair estimate

of the people s habits and dealings, both social and
economic. The population, of which four ethnic
units Proto-Australoid, Mediterranean, Alpine and
Mongolian—-have been discovered, was evidently cos¬
mopolitan, and the people acquired their wealth through
rural occupations as well as commercial exploits.

It is evident that the climate of the place during

those remote millenniums was mild and the soil yielded
crops in numerous grains. The very existence of
big cities proves the availability of food in ample
quantity. In fact a riverain settlement presupposes
cultivation of the land and raising of the crops. There
was copious rainfall and the presence of a great river
besides the Mihran which dried up in the 14th century
a. d., must. have made the problem of irrigation
easy of solution. Specimens of both wheat and barley
have been found which shows that these grains were
cultivated besides other cereals.

Food and Dress

The menu of the Indus people included both

vegetarian and animal diet. The cereals were perhaps
the staple food although fruits and vegetables too were
eaten. Stones of dates have been discovered which
show that they were either grown or were picked from
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 145

wild vegetation. The existence of the cattle almost

settles the possibility of milk being included in
the dietary. It can be gathered from the burnt
shells and bones and the offerings to the dead that
the people had among their items of food pork, beef,
mutton, poultry, fish and the flesh of acquatic animals.

From the large finds of spindle-whorls it would

appear that, spinning was a universal habit and was
freely practised. Those of the rich were made of
faience while of the poor of shell and pottery. Cotton,
which struck admiration among the Greeks behold-
ing the cotton-clad mercenaries of Xerxes two thousand
years later, was the lighter textile of the Indus people.
A piece of cotton was found adhering to a silver vase
which shows the present day coarser Indian variety
of the khadi with its typical convoluted structure.
Wool was the warmer textile and was naturally used
during the cold season. The existence of herds of
sheep warrants its ample provision.

The cosmopolitan character of the population nece¬

ssitated a cosmopolitan variety of dress. A statue
represents a male figure wearing a long shawl, drawn
over the left shoulder and under the right so as to
leave the right arm bare. A robe specimen suggests
the chint wear. A number of images are nudes, which,
however, must not be interpreted that people went
about naked.. The lower garment was usually the
dhoti or a loin-cloth.

An endless variety of ornaments is in evidence

which shows that people were fairlv fond of them.
The common ornaments for both men and women
were necklaces, earrings, bracelets and anklets, and
girdles of beads. They naturally had their rich and
poor varieties.. Gold, silver, ivory, faience, lapis-lazuli,
jasper, carnelian, agate and like stones provided
material for the ornaments of the rich while copper,
bone, shell and clay served the poor.
10
146 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Stones and Metals

Stone was perhaps rare but not altogether difficult

to procure. We find it used for door-sockets, saddle
querns and mullers, statues and statuettes, and for
cult obj ects. Metals known and utilized were gold,
silver, copper, tin and lead. Bronze, an alloy of copper
(nine parts) and tin (one part), was one of the earliest
metals put to use by the [Link] people for it
has been found among the lowermost layers of the
civilization. The art of alloying presupposes the art
of melting metals. Iron has not been found and,
it being one of the late discoveries among metals,
was not known.

Weapons

Stone weapons and implements were being used

side by side with the metal ones although the latter
were fast replacing the former. The weapons of war
and chase were now usually made of copper and bronze..
Among the weapons of war the most prominent were
maces, axes, daggers, spears, bows, and. arrows, and
slings. These were generally made of metal, i.e.
copper and bronze. Maces made of alabaster, sand
and limestone, have been found. The pear-shaped
mace was very common. We are not sure if the de¬
fensive weapons like the helmet, shield or the armour
were in use; but a kind bf scale armour made of thin
domed pieces of copper perforated with two minute
holes has been found.

Weights and Measures

Weights of an infinite variety have come to light.

They range from the heaviest, which had to be lifted
with a rope, to the smallest used by jewellers. The
most common are cubical in shape. It is believed
that they are of a greater accuracy than those found
in Elam and Mesopotamia.
 INBUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 147

A slip of shell has been taken by Dr. Mackay to

be part of a linear measure. In Egypt the decimal
linear measure had been in use since the 4th Dynasty,,
and in Sumer both the decimal and the sexagesimal
systems were used. So also in Elam a purely decimal
system was in vogue. We are not sure if the Indus
Valley also used a decimal system in measurement
although groups of five seeming to bear special marks
would appear to point to that direction. The steel¬
yard was, however, not known; but both the foot and
cubit systems seem to have been current.

Household Articles

An innumerable variety of articles used in the

household is on record. They are made of various
materials like clay, stone, shell, faience, ivory and
metal. Copper and bronze are the usual favourites
and seem to have mostly replaced stone as the mate¬
rial for household implements. Earthenwares are
by far the most numerous. Cake-moulds, beakers,
bowls, goblets, dishes, basins, pans, saucers, jars, vases
are usually made of clay. Besides these there were
needles, saws, sickles, knives, chisels, etc. These were
made of bronze or copper and sometimes of ivory.
Then there were in use numerous receptacles of toilet
and cosmetics. The well known ‘vanity case,5 found
at Harappa, contained besides other objects piercer,
ear-scoop, and tweezers, and bears testimoney to the
use of such toilet artices as have been enearthed at
Ur and Kish. The endless aids to beauty for ex¬
ample, collyrium, face-paint with their applying knobs
had their cases made of metal, shell or ivory. Mirrors
and combs and razors were known and were in use.
Lamps of copper, shell and clay have been found.

Games and Toys

Marbles, balls and dice have turned up in a large

number to suggest that they were the favourite games
148 THE ANCIENT WORLD

of the people. Marbles were found in the Sumerian

excavations also whereas the dice was the hot favo¬
urite of the laterly Aryans. Dice were both cubic
and tabular in shape.

Toys of a large variety mostly fashioned out of

clay have been formed. The clay-cart, which became
later so popular as to suggest the title as well as theme
for the famous play Mrichchhakatika by Sudraka, was
the usual model. Rams yoked to wheels are as count¬
less in number then as later in Sunga times. Besides,
there were fashioned terracotta figurines of men, wo¬
men, animals, and other toys and play-things like
the rattle. Sometimes there turn up models of birds
with stock legs, animals climbing up a pole, and
figures with moveable arms. Glay bulls with a nodding
head, worked by fibre thread, make for much fun.

Animals

A good number of animals, both tamed and wild,

were known. Bones of several of these have been
recovered. Bull, sheep, pig, buffalo, camel and ele¬
phant were known to the Indus Valley people who
formed the population of the earlier epochs, for the
bones of these have been found in corresponding
layers. The carcasses of the horse and the dog have
been recovered from the top levels. Besides these
numerous other animals known to the people, but
perhaps not domesticated, were those depicted on
the seals, viz. rhinoceros, bison, crocodile, monkey,
tiger, bear, deer, hare, and the like.

Art

Of a piece with the character of the rest of the

contemporary world, the Indus Valley showed remark¬
able energy and ingenuity in carving and casting im¬
ages and in turning out pieces of art. Statues of stone
carved in the round and statuettes of steatite are rare
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 149-

specimens of the plastic art. They are such faithful

illusions of their living originals that they defy all
attempts at finding close parallels in coeval civiliza¬
tions. The dancing stone figure from Harappa is
an ingeniously carved model that typifies rhythm
in an arrested spin. The bronze image of the wiry
girl from Mohenjo-daro is a rare specimen of wrought
metal and has no parallel in the ancient world. Its
natural poise, standing akimbo in frank abandon,
breathes of a harmony that has been seldom achieved
in metallurgic art.

But by far the most impressive is the hoard of the

seals and sealings which spell the pride of the cera-
mical arts. Embossed tenderly and cast out of wonder-
moulds these seals reveal to the eye the noblest that
could be achieved in the art of moulding figures.
Animal figures in massive or delicate humour have
been delineated with unfailing skill and severe
faithfulness. The bull, the crocodile, the tiger of
the seals can be compared only with their live originals
for man’s hand has not shaped, whether in the past or
present, anything that would stand comparison with
these pieces. The bull particularly is a model of
pent up force and cannot be matched to anything
similar either in the ancient or the modem world.

The images and seals furnish us also with a few

cult objects. Numerous terracottas of the mother
goddess, who was an object of adoration all across the
ancient world, were the precious yield of the exca¬
vations but indeed none more precious than the bust
of the yogi in the attitude of meditation with his eyes
fixed on the tip of his nose, and the seal of the horned
god, Pasupati, the lord of the animal world, surrounded
by his flock.

Art of Writing
The Valley of the Indus has been particularly
deficient in yielding epigraphical records. When
150 THE ANCIENT WORLD

we compare it with the enormous crop of cuneiform

tablets of ancient Babylonia, preserving long epics and
great narratives, or of the Hittite diplomatic correspon¬
dence, of the panegyrical Assyrian records or the re¬
port of the eponymous magistracies, or of the extensive
inscriptions in the Ramesseum or on the exteriors
of the Egyptian temples or again with the hierogly¬
phics of the pyramids or the sarcophagi, indeed our
disappointment knows no bounds. The Indus field looks
singularly barren. Yet however, we know that the
art of writing was known to the Indus people. The
seals are topped with a line or lines of writing which
is suggested to have been written from right to left,
or at places in the boustrophedon style i.e. written from
right to left and then from left to right. Unfortuna¬
tely the Indus script, like the Minoan, remains
undeciphered as yet, although numerous attempts
at its decipherment have been made. It is, however,
supposed to belong to the proto-Elamite and hiero¬
glyphic order, and its characters (some four hundred
signs have been classified) have a pictographic look.
When finally deciphered, the script is bound to throw
a flood of light on the life and beliefs of the people
of the Indus Valley. It has been sought to be re¬
lated to the Brahmi and enthusiasts have not been
wanting who have essayed to connect it to the proto-
Brahmi script. But their ingenuity has failed to
achieve anything and the remotest possibility of that
kind has for the moment been discredited.

Religion and the Disposal of the Dead

The extensive remains of the civilization have

thus far failed to yield positive proofs in the form of
temples or priestcraft. But, as already pointed out,
there is no dearth of iconic objects which may stand
for cult articles. Numerous terracottas that have
come to light betoken of the Nature Mother or the
Mother Goddess whose worship was in vogue in all
the lands between Persia and the Aegean coasts. In
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 151

India it was from her worship that the laterly Sakta

cult developed. Besides these icons, numerous re¬
presentations of the phallic emblems—the linga and
the yoni—have been unearthed, which prove the evolu¬
tion of the mother cult during those and the succeed¬
ing centuries. The three-faced homed figure of a
male sitting in the Yogi attitude of meditation and
surrounded by numerous animals on the face of a seal
is suggested to be the proto-type of Siva in his Pasupati
form. This undoubtedly would prove the hoary anti¬
quity of the Saiva religion and of the remarkable con¬
tinuity of the Indian culture.
Apart from these suggestions about the prevalence
of iconic Mother and Saiva worship we have ample
evidence of the people practising zoolatry and tree-
worship. Tree-worship has come down to our days
in some form or other but animal worship has mostly
died out except in cases like the adoration of the Nandi,
Siva’s bull, the monkey-god Hanuman and serpent
.gods and goddesses.
Three methods of the disposal of the dead seem to
have been in practice, namely, outright burial, burial
after exposing the body ,to birds and beasts, and burial
after cremation. No traces of a cemetery have been
found at Mohenjo-daro although one on level ground
has come to light at Harappa. Funerary urns with
offerings have been discovered but never human victims
of sacrifice to keep company with the dead in the
manner of the tombs at Ur. Nor either did the Indus
people hoard gold and precious stones and objects of
use in the present world in the manner of the Egyp¬
tian dynasts or that of the common rich to the nega¬
tion of the same for the living poor. The historian
records this with ample relief.
Date and the Authors of the Indus Valley Culture

When did this great civilization flourish ? Who

were the authors of this riparian culture?- How long
152 THE ANCIENT WORLD

did it last ? How did it meet its end? These are

some of the questions which naturally face the expert
and lay reader alike. But these are not easy to answer.
And yet an . attempt will be made in the following
paragraphs to answer them as best as can be done
under the present state of our knowledge.

Usually following the conclusion of Sir John Mar¬

shall a date between 3250 B. c. and 2750 B. c. is given.
But although the two dates fall within the range of
truth , certainly they cannot be accepted as conclusive.
JN either the former date can claim to be the starting
point of the Indus Valley civilization nor the latter
one can be supposed to terminate it. They do, how¬
ever, particularly the former, indicate its epochs with-
out marking the outer limits of the age. How have
these dates themselves been realized? The excava¬
tions at Mohenjo-daro have been classified among
five strata or layers of civilization, namely, three of the
later period, three of the Intermediate and one of the
Barly period. The earliest is not quite the earliest
because the subsoil is merged under water and can
never be excavated. It has been suggested that since
.habitats under flood conditions are as quickly rehabi¬
litated as they are deserted, a century alone for a single
layer, m all five centuries, can be given for the duration
ol a single epoch. Now, from the priority of this civi¬
lization to the Aryan,^ and from a comparison with
the excavated civilizations of Elam and Sumer where
m. the latter place (Tell Asmar), seals of the Indus
origin have been recovered, the culture of their origin
i.e._ the Indus Valley civilization, has to be dated to
earlier than 1900 b. c. and 2600 B. c., these dates
indicating the layers of their finds at Kish, Eshnunna
and Ur. If tentatively the date has to be put some¬
where about 2750 B. c. (with the help of independent
local element), giving a hundred years to each stratum,
m all five hundred years, according to Sir John’s com¬
putation, 3250 B. c. is reached. This, however, even
under his reckoning does not warrant the beginning.
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION m
which, nevertheless, cannot be far removed from the
beginning, of the civilization. The beginnings must
concede a few centuries more for its growth and evolu¬
tion, in case its authors did not come from outside and
were autochthons who developed their living from
the Neolithic and Palaeolithic origin.

Firstly, five hundred years alone could not be

enough to cover the marches of such a great civiliza¬
tion howsoever homogenous and unvarying its incidents
might have been. So there is no need to suppose
that it ended only five hundred years after its beginning,
wherever it may be placed. Secondly, the seal-finds
in Babylonia indicate the two ranges of say, 2700
b. c. and 1900 b. c. This would easily and without
effort stretch the narrow five centuries to at least eight
centuries which would mean that on other sites, if not
on the banks of the Indus, the civilization kept on
vegetating till later, possibly much later than 1900
b. c., may be till the 15th century b. g. if, or even
if not, it was destroyed by the Aryans, if it was at all
destroyed by them, as certain incidents of its violent
termination suggest. Roughly the civilization may
be supposed to have originated sometime in the fourth
millennium B. c. and to have been destroyed in the
second millennium b. g.

It is difficult to say as to how this riparian civili¬

zation met its end. Change of the course of the river,
great flood, earthquake, invasion, any of these could
be the cause of its end. In one of the rooms of a build¬
ing at Mohenjo-daro mutilated bodies have been
found and on the strength of this it has been conjectured
that they fell a prey to violent attack. They perhaps
first fought and resisted, then took shelter and finally
were annihilated in the cellar where they had taken
shelter. The invaders may have been the conquering
Aryans who in the beginning of the 2nd millennium
B. c. made themselves the scare of the settled civilizations
in the Near and the Middle East. If Mohenjo-daro-
154 THE ANCIENT WORLD

was deserted due to inundation or was destroyed by

earthquake, other sites at Harappa in the southern
Punjab, Jhukhar-daro and Ganhu-daro in Upper
Sindh, and at Nal in the Kelat State (Baluchistan)
might have continued to flourish until finally devasted
by the Aryans.

That the Aryans were for certain not the makers

of the Indus Valley Civilization is settled by the inci¬
dents of great contrast between the culture of the
Rigvedic Aryans and that of the Indus people. The
whole structure of the Rigvedic life was rural and the
Aryans lived in villages of thatched huts of mud,
whereas the Indus people were urban and lived in po¬
pulous cities in brick-built commodious houses under
a system of perfect conservancy. Theirs was a com¬
plex urban living aided by vast hydropathic establish¬
ments and a hypocaustic system of heating. It was
perhaps to these Indus towns built of bricks that the
Aryan priests referred when they prayed to Indra to
destroy the enemy’s forts of metal. The people of the
Indus had almost no weapons of defence while the
Rigvedic people had several. In the Indus Valley
it was the bull who was the object of adoration while
with the Aryans it was the cow. The horse and the
[Link] were the constant companions of the Aryan war¬
rior while in the Indus Valley civilization they are
almost totally missing. Only the uppermost layers
have disclosed remains of the horse and the dog. The
Indus Valley worship was iconic and phallic worship
was one of its main features whereas the Aryan religion
was aniconic and among the Aryans Sisnadevah, phallic-
worshippers, was a term of reproach. These divergent
characters of the two civilizations completely exclude
the possibility of the one having developed from the
other or of the Aryans having been the authors of the
Indus Valley civilization.

Likewise the priority of the Rigvedic culture to

ttie Indus Valley civilization is also precluded. The
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 155

unbroken continuity of the Indian civilization from

the Rigvedic times makes it impossible for a heteroge¬
nous Culture like the Indus Valley’s to have formed
a link in the lineal chain. Besides, the Indus Valley
civilization was coeval with the Middle East cultures
and of a piece with them whereas the Aryan was a
late comer.

But the Rigvedic Aryans seem to have known the

people of the Indus Valley although as enemies. It
is perhaps to them that they referred in their hymns
as Dasas and Dasyus and dubbed with such opprobrious
epithets as krisnah, black-skinned, anasah, pug-nosed,
adevayu, godless, ayajvan, devoid of rites, mridhravachah>
jargon-talkers.

The only other people who now can be credited

with having created this wonderful civilization were
the Dravidians, who were either autochthons or in
their own turn immigrants from outside. If they came
from outside the possible habitat may have been Elam
or Sumer where amidst the Semitic peoples a non-
Semite race had lived and developed a culture which
it bequeathed to the neighbouring Semites who exter¬
minated it. Or if the Dravidians were original jinhabi-
tants of Sindh and the adjoining districts and part of
theni migrated to Elam and ancient Sumer, they
would have found the distance not very trying for a
whole belt of their habitat across Baluchistan lay along
the way. The Brahmi speaking population might
prove a migration either way or the remnant of another
basic site of that civilization like Nal in the state of
Kelat in Baluchistan. The fact of priority in the date
of the two settlements of Sumer and Indus Valley
will also enter in the answer to the question. Although
at one stage it was Mohenjo-daro and Harappa which
influenced the Sumerian culture, it will not be possible
to settle, the problem of priority. Even if it were
settled, it can always be possible to hold in the absence
of conclusive evidence that the two civilizations were
156 THE ANCIENT WORLD

totally independent although there was a free com¬

merce of ideas between the two. Whatever the truth
be, the chances of the Dravidians building that glorious
civilization are the most likely.
 CHAPTER VH

CHINA

Beginnings

We know the effect of the inventions of paper,

press, and gun-powder over the history of mankind.
The history of the people to whose credit these inven¬
tions go must be very fascinating and it is the same
that we are going to narrate in the following pages
in as succinct a manner as possible.

Within the scope of our survey the history of the

Chinese people has not only to be very brief but, indeed,
has to close where that of the most people begins.
This is because the history of that ancient land is so
coherent and consecutive that unless we cut its narra¬
tion drastically its entire run will have to be related.
It has, for example, no termination in the manner
of Egypt, Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, or Elam; it does
not even warrant a hiatus in the manner of Indian
history after the Indus Valley epoch which affords
both space and time for the historian to breathe be¬
fore he can plunge again into the current of history
which follows the advent of the Indo-Aryans and
rims coherently until the Muslim invasion.

It is obvious therefore that the range of this treat¬

ment has to be limited arbitrarily and its bounds, at
least on the outer side, have to be consequently unnatu¬
rally fixed. The following survey therefore essays to
marshal into array the events of Chinese history from
the earliest times, as far as they can be ascertained, to
the fall of the famous Chou Dynasty in 249 b. c.
158 THE ANCIENT WORLD

The People

The Chinese civilization also, like other ancient

civilizations of the world, was riparian and arose and
developed in the basin of the great Hwang-ho, the
life-giving Yellow River. The name of the Yellow
River in China has been mentioned for millenniums
with considerable fear as it is associated with the
havoc of devastating floods, which have dislodged
millions from their original homes and compelled
them to move north and south in search of food in
course of the eventual famine. All the same, it has
been the birth-place and cradle of a. great civilization
the coherence and continuity of which has been pecu¬
liar to the land of China. That continuity has not
terminated even to-day, at a distance of some five
thousand years since its traditional history is supposed
to have begun.

True, that the north and the north-west of China

have always had restive nomads and that the world
has recieved its destructive pests and perils frorn that
direction, once inhabited by the Yueh-chi, Hiung-
nu, and the Mongols, the Chinese of the Hwang-ho
basin have normally been a settled people. In the
absence of a fixed settlement it could not have been
possible for them to have built up the great culture
of their land. There is no doubt about the fact that
like all other peoples of the world the Chinese also
have had to suffer a free mixing of alien blood inci¬
dental to constant movements of ethnic units, yet they
have always retained their basic Mongoloid features:,
and yellow colour. This fact amply discredits the
numerous suggestions of their having been originally
a brunette people. Various original homes have
been suggested for the main Chinese stock, namely
India, Sumer, Egypt, Persia. The records and tradi¬
tions of the Chinese people also are completely silent
and do not give any indication of their immigration
into China from outside. In fact the anthropological
 CHINA 159

data appear to contradict the idea of any connexion

with Indians, Babylonians, Egyptians or Assyrians.
The earliest Chinese hieroglyphics ascribed tradi¬
tionally to the Shang dynasty (second millennium
b. c.) confirm the Mongol character of the nation
that invented them by the decided obliquity of the
human eye wherever it appears in an ideograph. With¬
out accepting the possibility of a purity of blood, it
can be said that the central stock of the Chinese people
that created the civilization of the Hwang-ho was
autochthon.

History

Like the traditions of other nations those of the

Chinese people also are far from trustworthy and since
no date prior to 776 B. c. is reliable, we have to depend
on these traditions separating, wherever possible, the
grain from the chaff. It is unfortunate that though
the European nations were so deeply interested in
trading with China, they did little to explore and
excavate the promising site's in that country. As
natural with all legends of mythology, the Chinese
too express in terms of millions of years the happen¬
ings of their past and give their ancient kings appel¬
lations of semi-divine beings. They style them as
“Heavenly emperors,” “Terrestrial emperors,” “Human
emperors,” “Nest-builders,” and the like.

According to the Chinese their first historical

emperor Fu-hi lived and ruled in the years 2852-2738
b. c. He is supposed to have been a supernatural
being, half human half fish, who brought order out
of social chaos. He created a family life in a state
where “children knew only their mothers and not
their fathers” by instituting the marital laws. He
is supposed to have taught his people to hunt, to fish,
to domesticate animals and to construct and play on
musical instruments. He also gave the form of hiero¬
glyphics to the vague system of writing, which had
160 THE ANCIENT WORLD

been hitherto in vogue. Certainly the _ ascription

is too varied and too great to be accomplished by a
human being, but it, all the same, is important inasmuch
as the Chinese people accepted these as social pheno¬
mena achieved and developed by human agency.
They even hinted at the matriarchal beginning of so¬
ciety and at the creation of the institution of marriage
from which all relationship springs up.

Likewise the next logical step is suggested by as¬

cribing the introduction of agricultural life to the
Emperor Shon-nung, supposed to have lived in the
twenty-eighth century B. c. It is in the fitness of
things that his name should have borne the implication
of the “Divine Labourer.” With the third Historical
emperor Huang-ti, the “Yellow emperor,” Ssi-ma
Tsien begins his history. The first two emperors have
been referred to in much earlier texts. The original
empire had been a narrow strip of land along the
Yellow river and around the present city of Si-an-fu.
Huang-ti is related to have extended the bounds of
this domain to more honourable dimensions. Nume¬
rous cultural innovations are ascribed to this emperor
whose rule is said to have commenced in 2704 b. c.
according to one authority and in 2491 according
to another. He was perhaps the first emperor to engage
in war against the Hiung-nu, the ancestors of the Huns,
who occupied the northern frontiers of his empire.

Hsia Dynasty (c. 1994-c. 1523 b. c.)

According to traditinal accounts, the first Chinese

dynasty was Hsia, founded about 1994 b. c. by
Yu the Great, who was noted for the control of the
floods. The emperor is supposed to have cast nine
large bronze tripods upon which were engraved the
descriptions of the nine regions of his realm among
which he is said to have divided his empire. His
exploits are recorded in a section of the Shu Ching
(.Document *of History) known as Tribute to Yu.
 CHINA 161

Shang Dynasty (c. 1523-c. 1027 B. c.)

The Hsia dynasty was succeeded by the Shang which

wished its capital at Anyang sometime between
1500 and 1200 b. c. The name of the dynasty also they
changed from Shang to Yin. The ancient capital Any¬
ang stood in the northern part of the Honan province.
Recent archaeological excavations in those parts have
brought a few interesting facts to light. They have dis¬
closed that the Chinese of the Shang-Yin period were
not merely industrious agriculturists but also builders of
walled cities and towns. They had become masters of
the arts of melting and casting metals. They had deve¬
loped the bronze industry and were making bronze
cermonial vessels of exquisite workmanship. Like¬
wise they had developed the ceramic and decorative
arts and discovered the use of glaze. Their language
with a pretty pictographic script had already become
well-developed. Inscriptions on the unearthed arti-
crafts reveal that during that period the foundation
was laid for much of the later development of Chinese
culture, and a scanty literature was produced. A
few specimens in the forum of odes and declarations
are found in the Shih Ching {Book of Songs) and the
ohu Ching (,Document of History).

. The Shang-Yin dynasty too like the Hsia met

its end through the reckless vice and cruelty of a
tyrant (Chou-sin with his queen Ta-ki). China even
m these early days maintained her position as a civiliz¬
ed nation by keeping at bay the predatory tribes of
her frontiers. Of these the most persistent were the
ancestors of the Hiung-nu, or Huns, settled along
the northern and western marches. To fight them,
to make pacts and compromises with them, and to
befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the
imperial territories, had been the role of a palatinate
on the western. frontier, the duchy of Chou, while
the court of China with its emperor gave itself up to
effeminate luxury. Chou-sin’s evil practices had
11
 THE ANCIENT WORLD
162

aroused the indignation of the palatine, subsequently

known as Won-wang, who in vain remonstrated with
the emperor’s criminal treatment of his subjects. Th„
strength and integrity of Won-wang’s character had
made him the corner-stone of that important epoch;
and his name is one of the best known both in his¬
tory and in literature. The courage with which he
spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege lord
caused the emperor to imprison him, his great popu¬
larity alone saving his life. During his incarceration,
extending over three years, he compiled the 1-king,
or “Canon of Changes”, supposed to be the oldest
book of Chinese literature, and certainly the one most
extensively studied by the nation. Won-wang’s son,
Wu-wang, avenged his father and the many victims
of Chou-sin’s cruelty. Under his leadership the people
rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of
his allies, “men of the west”, possibly the ancestors
of the Huns, overthrew the Shang dynasty after
a decisive battle, whereupon Chou-sin committed
suicide by setting fire to his palace and perishing in
its flames. He turned to ashes with the luxury that
surrounded him which he denied to those who would
enjoy them after him.

Chou Dynasty {c 1027—c 249 b. c.)

The fortunes of the Chou dynasty were intimately

connected first with the region west of the present
city of Sian, in Shensi province, and next with the
environs of the city of Loyang, in Honan. It was
started gloriously by the wise statesmanship of King
Wen, King Wu, and the Duke of Chou, who originated
the state machinery. King Wu established schools
for the education of the nations’ youth, and sent his
own son and heir to one of these schools to be educated
like the son of a common labourer. Thus he laid the
foundation of that democratic principle which has
been characteristic of the system of education and
the subsequent promotion to high offices among the
 CHINA
163
Chinese. It was this freedom which marker! th*

S.°colcem“d
unconcerned with the°fpower
““ pe°fIe who> lived
that was, “^times
their
san? theT7f ^ Cr0<med their artless ’ prayers and
^eir fearless1 songs of daily action. One such
has been preserved to this day. SUCn

When the sun rises, I toil;

When the sun sets, I rest;
I dig well for water;
I till fields for food.
What has the power of the ruler to do with me ?

As pointed out above, Wu-wang, the first emnernr

of the new dynasty, named after his duchy of Chou
lidatin/th?? frontier, was greatly assisted^ conso-
lidatmg the empire by his brother, Chou-hung ie
Dube of Chou. As the loyal prime-minSfer of
Wu-wang and his successor the duke of Chou laid
dvnS^ndaf-T k°f the government institutions of the
dynasty which became the prototype of most of the
characteristic features in Chinese public and soil
ife down to recent times. The brothers and adherents
of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which
m the sequel grew into as many states. China thus
developed into a confederation inasmuch as a number
of independent states, each having its own sovereign
were united under one liege lord, the emperor? 3
rJgnedfi?Xen’ w hi§h‘Priest of the nation
reigned m the name of Heaven. The emperor re-
pr^entTi thC jatl°? m sacrificing and praying to
?od-r'Th? rd€ °f lie sacrifice was mSstSed
In a recent description* relating to the performance
f sacrifice by much later emperors the incidents of the
angust ceremony are brought out. The reference
is recent and yet it preserves the features of the sacS

be ommofpriacZ *° qUO" *ie SamC here wiU

*The author’s Letters From China.

 THE ANCIENT WORLD
164
“The emperor left his palace in . the forbidden
city in a jade palanquin borne by sixteen earners.
The imperial cortege was a kaleidoscopic feast , of
colour. Mounted eunuchs in gorgeous robes carried
paraphernalia for the sacrifice. Escorts of the. Leo¬
pard^ Tail Guards. Grooms m Imperial liveries of
maroon satin. Standard-bearers m velvet-trimmed
uniforms with triangular dragon flags. . Guant horse¬
men with bows and arrows leading pomes with yellow
saddle-cloths. Absolute silence prevailed. In that
deathlike hush did the Imperial procession move on
unseen. None would be permitted to cast a look on
the moving royalty. Shutters would go up on the
windows all along the line of march and the ^de streets
would be closed off with blue curtains, while all the
people would be ordered indoors. Thus encircled by
a triple belt of solitude, under a roof of gorgeously
glazed emerald tile, with no sound to break the solemn
stillness, save the quiet murmuring of cypress trees
‘rooted on earth but pointing towards heaven —the
emperor priest waited in silence the coming of that
mystic hour before the dawn, which was to assemb e
round him the spirit of his ancestors. He stood there
alone, thinking, longing, pondering,, praying, resolv¬
ing, with nothing to guide him. but his own conscience
and the hush of the long cold night! He was expected
for the last two days to have endeavoured^ to with¬
draw his attention from every external object and
turn it steadily within in the great effort to purge away
every evil and weakness of the heart, to be able to
hold it up clean and strong before the Spirit of Heaven,
that his blessing should not be withheld from the sub¬
jects of His son. This sacrifice m the Temple of Heaven
was held during every solstice, summer and winter.

The time marked out for the sacrifice was seven

quarters of an hour before sunrise while the blackness
of night still clung to the chill morning air. Ihen the
Sacred Tablets were borne in procession.
 CHINA 165

Then solemnly would the priest address the gather¬

ing, _ ‘Ye musicians and dancers, Ye choristers and
officiating attendants, all perform your duty.5 Then
would follow the Hymn of Peace, the cardinal point
in China’s culture, like, indeed, India’s own.

After the Hymn of Peace, amid the roll of drums,

the wail of wind instruments, the resonance of bills
and sonorous tones, the emperor ascended the topmost
terrace, where the Spirit of God of the Universe
gazed down on him. He finished the ceremony by
kneeling eighty-one times. A painstaking adoration!’5

Likewise the emperor’s relations with his vassals

and government officials, and those of the heads of the
vassal states with their subjects as well a.s of the people
among themselves were regulated by the most rigid
ceremonial. The dress to be worn, the speeches to be
made, and the postures to be assumed on all possible
occasions, whether at court or in private life, were
subject to regulations. The duke of Chou, or who¬
ever may have been the creator of this system, showed
deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that im¬
mutability of government which in the sequel became
a Chinese characteristic, on the physical and moral
immutability of individuals by depriving them of all
spontaneous action in public and private life. Ori¬
ginally and nominally the emperor’s power as the
ruler over his vassals, who again ruled in his name,
was unquestionable; and the first few generations
of the dynasty saw no decline of the original strength
of central power. A certain loyalty based on the
traditional ancestral worship counteracted the desire
to revolt. The rightful heir to the throne was respon¬
sible to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs.
“We have to do as our ancestors did”, the people
argued ; “and since they obeyed the ancestors of our
present sovereign, we have to be loyal to him.” In¬
terference to this time-honoured belief would have
amounted to a rupture, as it were, in the nation’s
 THE ANCIENT WORLD
166

religious relations, and as long as the people looked

upon the emperor as the Son of Heaven, his moral
power would outweigh strong armies sent against him
in rebellion. The time came soon enough when central
power depended merely on this spontaneous loyalty.

Not all the successors of Wu-wang, however, pro¬

fited by the lessons given them by past history. The
empire became weaker as it gained in extent for
the centre could not hold the distant provinces, ihe
power of the centre declined as the vassals grew stronger
in capacity and undue weakness hastened this decline.
Located centrally, surrounded by vassal states, the
empire remained stunted while the sub-lords added
to their territory and prestige on the frontiers. Many
of the vassal states were thus coming up to the front
and many a time challenged the authority of the em¬
peror. All the same, quite a few of the thirty-five
sovereigns of the dynasty proved illustrious and accom¬
plished deeds of valour. Mu-wang of the 10th cen¬
tury B. c. sallied out of the frontiers and engaged
successfully against the Dog Barbarians, the ancestors
of the Hiung-nu race. The Books of Odes, a contem¬
poraneous poem, gives a good account of the warfare
of one of the emperors of the dynasty—Suan-wang
(827-782 B. c.)—against the Tangutans and the Huns.
The same book of verse recounts in a poem the evils
of the lewd emperor Yu-wang. Among the signs
of divine displeasure against the ill-deeds of the em¬
peror is mentioned an eclipse of the sun which had
recently occurred, the date and month being clearly
stated. This date corresponds exactly with August
29, 776 B. c. and astronomers have calculated^ that
precisely on that date an eclipse of the sun was visible
in North China. This, of course, cannot be a mere
accident and since the date falls into the sixth year
of Yu-wang’s reign, the coincidence is bound to increase
confidence in that part of Chinese history. This date
naturally has become the sheet-anchor of Chinese
chronology.'
 CHINA 167

The Chou dynasty maintained its prestige and

integrity for about three centuries. It has left to
posterity certain significant legacies. A few may be
mentioned : the germ of a well-worked out system of
government, which served as a model for succeeding
dynasties; some fundamental economic and social
institutions and basic rules of propriety, which were
later embodied in the Chou Li (The Rites of Chou) and
Ti Li {Ceremonial Customs); cultural relics, mostly bronze
vessels, which reveal in part the literature, art, life,
and customs of its time of prosperity; a body of litera¬
ture now found in the Skih Ching, Shu Ching, and Ti
Ching {Book of Changes). Despite occasional oppression
there prevailed during the Chou times a sense of
freedom not always precedented in human history.
Said the Duke of Shao to Lin Wang (878-842 B. c.),
the 10th king of the Chou dynasty:

£CIt is more dangerous to shut the people’s mouths

than to block the waters of a river. To block the
progress of a river means to force it to expand and
thus do more harm than if it has been allowed to take
its natural course.

The Son of Heaven knows how to govern when

all officials and scholars are free to make verses, the
blind bards to sing their ballads, the historians to
keep their records, the ministers of music to
give their advice, the hundred artisans and all people
to speak of anything_”

Indeed the soul of the Chinese people found a

readier and fuller utterance in odes and ballads.
They sang them with the accompaniments of flute or
string instruments. Their singing has been a power¬
ful influence for good and their voice could not be
silenced. The advice of the Duke of Shao, quoted
above, brings out the spirit and the sense of free¬
dom with which the verses of the times were per¬
meated.
168 THE ANCIENT WORLD

Since the seventh century b. c. the power of the

Chous began to decline speedily. The emperor’s posi¬
tion was reduced to a mere titular state and the hege¬
mony in the empire fell in turn to one of the five
major states for which reason the period came to be
called one of the “Five Leaders.” The state of Tsi
(North Shan-tung) achieved great economic successes
through the advice of its prime-minister, the philoso¬
pher Kuan-tzi, and began overshadowing. the rest.
Other states attained leadership by success in warfare.
Among these leaders was duke Mu of Tsin (659 b. c.),
a state on the west considered barbaric due to the
Hunnic influence over its politics and population.
These states kept on warring among themselves with¬
out referring to the emperor and the chiefs of some
even went to the extent of styling themselves as king.
The state of Tsin, however, proved most powerful
among them; and it was this that destiny favoured
in course of time and made supreme over China.

Contending States

The period of this general struggle is called that

of “The Contending States ” by Chinese historians.
The period is indeed full of romance. Examples of
heroism, cowardice, diplomatic skill and philosophical
equanimity which fill the pages of its history have
become the subject of elegant literature in prose and
poetry. The political development of the Chou dynasty
is the exact counterpart of that of its cultural life as
reflected in the contemporaneous literature. The
orthodox conservative spirit which reflects the official
views of the emperor and his royal partisans is repre¬
sented by the name Confucius (551-479 b. c.). The
great sage had collected old traditions and formulated
the moral principles which had been dormant in the
Chinese nation for centuries. His doctrines tended
to support the maintenance of the central power ; so
did those of other members of his school, especially
Mencius. Filial love showed itself as obedience to the
 CHINA 169

parents in the family and as loyalty to the emperor

and his government in public life. It was the highest
virtue, according to the Gonfucian school. The history
of the nation as taught in the Shu-king was in its early
part merely an illustration of Confucianist ideas about
good and bad government. Confucianism was do¬
minant during the early centuries of the Chou dynasty,
whose lucky star began to wane when doctrines opposed
to it got the upper hand. The philosophical schools
built up on the doctrines of Lao-tzu had in the course
of generations become antagonist, and found favour
with those who did not endorse that loyalty to the
emperor demanded by Mencius; so had other thinkers,
some of whom had preached morals which were
bound to break up all social relations like the philoso¬
pher of egotism, Yang Ghu, according to Mencius,
disloyalty personified and the very reverse of his ideal,
the duke of Chou. The egotism recommended by
Yang Ghu to the individual had begun to be prac¬
tised on a large scale by the contending states, their
governments and sovereigns, some of whom had long
discarded Confucian rites under the influence of Tatar
neighbours. It appears that the anti-Gonfucian spirit
which paved the way towards the final extinction of
Wu-wang’s dynasty received its chief nourishment
from the Tatar element in the population of the nor¬
thern and western boundary states. Among these
the Tsin was the most prominent. Having placed
itself in the possession of the territories of nearly all
of the remaining states, Tsin made war against the
last shadow emperor, Nan-Wang, who had attempted
to form an alliance against the powerful usurper, with
the result that the western part of the Chou dominion
was lost to the aggressor.

Mention may be made here of the outstanding

philosophers of the times. They were the following:
Lao Tzu, “the Old Fellow,” who showed mankind
the “Way and Its Power” in his great prose-poem The
Lao-Tzu Tao-teh Ching; and taught men®to requite
170 THE ANCIENT WORLD

injury with goodness. Confucius (551-478 B. c.),

Lao Tzu’s junior contemporary, who unveiled the
light of reason , speaking not as a seer but as a teacher,
and who devoted himself to what is fundamental,
holding that well-being is its own reward. In his
teachings he did not express belief in a future life.
Some of his sayings and doings were put down in The
Confucian Analects (.Lun Yu), The great Learning [Ta
Hsueh), and the Ching Tung, which is variously known
as “The Doctrine of the Mean,” “The Conduct of
Life,” and “Central Harmony.” Mo Tzu (500-
420 b. c.), the great altruist, has been described as
an “Apostle of Universal Love, a Spartan with pacific
convictions, a Stoic without the Stoic’s fatalism, a
Utilitarian with a religious mentality, a Socialist be¬
lieving in an autocracy of virtue.” His teachings
were recorded in a work bearing his name. Mencius
(Meng Tzu, c 372-289 B. c.) was a follower of Con¬
fucius and a severe critic of Mo Tzu,. a “mentor of
princes,” and a champion of the principles of demo¬
cracy, who declared that in a nation the people are
the most important and the head of the state is the
least important of all. He believed in the essential
goodness of man and affirmed that the function of
education is to lead people to become aware of their
goodness and endeavour to be good for something.
Like Lao Tzu, Mo Tzu, and other humanitarians,
he denounced war but preached the right of revolu¬
tion even in the face of the feudal lords. His work,
The Meng Tzu, along with the Confucian Analects,
the Great Learning, and the Chung Tung formed the Four
Books, which every school boy in old China was re¬
quired to study. Hsun Tzu (Hsun Ching, c 298-238
B. c.), was the realist and “moulder of ancient Con¬
fucianism,” who preached that man is essentially bad,
though he is the noblest in all creation. He thought,
however, that the evil in man could be mended by
education. Both a poet and philosopher, he would
like to see man harmonize his raw instincts by music
and by the performance of ceremonial acts, which
 CHINA 171

would make poetry of daily living. He put his ideas

into beautiful literary form as is evident from the book
that bears his name.

Other political thinkers were Shang Yang (d. 330

B. c.), the “totalitarian,” founder of the Legalist
School of political thought, who as “guest minister”
of the feudal state of China, encouraged the people
to open up virgin lands for cultivation, and made
new laws and enforced them with severity. He punish¬
ed even the crown prince, who happened to have vio¬
lated one of the new laws. One of his great admirers
was Han Fei (d. 233 b. c.), a disciple of Hsun Tzu
and a devoted student of the Legalist School of poli¬
tical thought. Han Fei laid stress on the necessity
of being true to the truth of things. In politics he
emphasized the importance of the “undeviating ad¬
ministration of the law” and the need for statecraft
on the part of the sovereign. His writings and those
of Shang Yang are among the most important mile¬
stones of political thought and literature.

The great thinkers and writers mentioned above

lived mostly in the Yellow River valley. In the Yangtse
River region there appeared contemporaneously a
number of lyric poets, who invented a new. form of
poetry and introduced a wealth of new material in the
folklore and folksongs of the inhabitants of. the
districts watered by the great Yangtse and its tribu¬
taries. The new form of poetry was. called Fu (prose-
poem). It differed from the Shih in the. Shih Ching
in that it was usually a long poem consisting of from
200 to 400 lines of unequal length or irregular metre,
that it was highly allusive and allegorical, and in that
it was meant to be recited and not sung.

Among the poets of the Yangtse River region,

the best known was Chu Yuan (c. 328-285 B. c.).
For a time he served as minister of the lord, of the feudal
state of Chu. The incompetence of his liege lord and
172 THE ANCIENT WORLD

the intrigues and corruptions of the courtiers drove him

to such utter despair that at last he drowned himself
in the Milo River. His drowning is commemorated
annually throughout China on the “Dragon Boat
Festival Day.” His short poem, The Soldiers’ Dirge,
and his long poem. The Li Sao (An Elegy on Encountering
Sorrows), are the extraordinary possessions of the
Chinese poetry.

Chuang Chou, the eloquent follower of Lao Tzu,

died in 275 B. c. He hated the formalism _ of the
privileged men and undertook to expose their hypo-
cricy. In scathing terms he spoke boldly, laying bare
the weakness of mankind and discounting civiliza¬
tion and its arts, tie so flayed the followers of Con¬
fucius and Mo Tzu that the scholars of his day were
quite unable to refute his criticisms. In colourful
anecdotes and simple parables he gently spoke, leading
men to self-examination and to quest for. spiritual
freedom and a new life. His work is entitled The
Chuang Tzu. His sense of humour and illuminating
wit, the sweep of his imagination, his underlying earnest¬
ness and devotion to truth, and his inimitable, charm¬
ing style of writing are admirable.

The Last Phase

Nan-Wang died in 256 b. c. and a relative whom

he had appointed regent was captured in 249 b. c.,
when the king of Tsin put an end to this last remnant
of the once glorious Chou dynasty by annexing its.
territory. The king had already secured [Link]
of the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have
been cast by the emperor Yu as representing the
nine divisions of his empire and since preserved in the
treasuries of all the various emperors as a symbol of
Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-
Wang had forfeited the right to call himself “Son of
Heaven.” Another prerogative was the offering of
sacrifice to<JShang-ti, the Supreme Ruler, or God,
 CHINA 173

with whom only the emperor was suppose to com¬

municate. The king of Tsin had performed the cere-
money as early as 253 b. c.

By 220 b. c. the lord of Tsin had overthrown all-his

warring rivals. He founded the Chinese Empire and
styled himself Shih Huang Ti (“The First Emperor”).
His name was connected with the construction of the
Great Wall and the destruction of numerous literary
documents. Because of his “ burning of books” and
“burying alive” of a number of Confucian scholars,
his name has been defamed. He was himself the
product of confusion, which he brought to order, and
when he died China was again cast into confusion.

This is but an extremely short survey of the Chinese

history. It does little justice to the land or to its
people. The vast land supported, as it does now,
the greatest unit of human population, and the great
deeds of China in the domain of peace and culture will
always be a subject of extensive study and enduring
treatment. All the same, the little period of our survey
furnishes the historian with no mean achievements,
and the same should do for the present. In fact no
country evinces the possibilities of China, of China
that followed the period of the Chous and of one
that is or is yet to be. Its dragon has cast its coils
and the opium-eating giant is on his legs. A new
dawn has broken and life, dove in hand, rides the
morn.
 CHAPTER Vin

RETROSPECT

In the preceding pages we have given the history

of the peoples of Asia, of great empires, and of mighty
men of arms. They have passed out of sight but the
vision remains, a vision soaked in blood, of fame written
on the tide of water, of little men moving mountains.
Empires arose, extended, decayed. They were built
and destroyed. Man built them, man destroyed
them. Man perished as he built, perished as he des¬
troyed. And yet he alone is the residue, standing
amidst the ruins like a Colossus, trowel in hand.

He was the elemental unit, the basic factor, in

the building of empires, egged on and whipped to
action. Empires develop their own nature. Exer¬
tion and exhaustion is their inevitable lot. Within
they totalize, without they aggress, subjugate, enslave.
One may be more or less ruthless than another but
their traits are the same: their constituents do not
essentially differ. They appropriate heterogeneous ele¬
ments which break asunder when the central knot
that holds them together loosens, and they dis¬
member. A congeries of nations is held by artificial
force. Clashing interests interacting on one another
are assembled together and held by an unreal cord
and the sockets open up and tenons fly apart when
the fibres wither and the cord snaps. Diverse peoples,
curious tongues, multiform beliefs and modes of wor¬
ship, multitudes of men compelled to work for others,
all are huddled together in an inorganic whole;
all get at loggerheads with one another and together
they work the ruin. The Egpyptians, the Babylonians,
the Persians, and the Assyrians, the most unrelenting
of them all, walked the same end, met the same fate.
 RETROSPECT 175

As early as the fifth century a. d., the Indian

chronicler probed into the nature of empires, realized
their cruel void and condemned their achievement.
“I have given this history; 55 the historian of the Visnu
Purana sums up wrathfully the ego and the consequent
doom of empires, “the existence of these kings will
in future become a matter of debate and doubt as
the very existence of Rama and other august kings has
become today a matter of doubt and speculation. Em¬
perors become mere legends in the current of time—the
Emperors who thought and think ‘India is mine’. Fie
on Empires! Fie on the Empire of Emperor Raghava!”
Empires went down the inevitable way to ruin, but
what the little men built remained. Civilization and cul¬
ture were what they built and they endure down to this
day, even as the pyramids do, as the Great Wall does,
and will live beyond decay, beyond time, as the pyramids
and the Great Wall will not do. The achievements
of bygone epochs are never lost but are assimilated
and carried on by subsequent ages down to eternity.
For history is a continuous and universal process.
The history of writing, of coinage, of banking , of sail¬
ing, of arts, fine and commercial, of knowledge, dis¬
coveries and inventions, points but to one coherent
and continuous process of its noble burden of accu¬
mulated achievements borne down the passage of time.
India lived (kingless and peaceful Mohenjo-daro!), and
so did China for they breathed across the empires, inspite
of them, and stored the humane values and cultural
gains in order to live by them. The mighty voice of
Buddha and Asoka, of Akhenaten and Zoroaster, and
of the wise men of China echoes and re-echoes in space,
and the intrepid challenge of the Jewish Prophets^ to
the mightiest of the mighty is mellowed by the calling
love of one bom in the stables of Bethlehem which
gave battle to the imperial palace of the Palatine Hill
of Rome and stilled the warcry of the legions.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Cambridge History —Vol. 1; The Historians'* History

of the World, Vol. 1; The Ancient History of the Near East by H. R.
Hall; Buried Empires by Patrick Garleton; Mohenjo-daro and the
Indus Civilization, 3 vols. by Sir John Marshall; The Indus Civiliza¬
tion by E. J. H. Mackay; The Indus Civilization by K. N. Dikshit;
Excavations at Harappa, 2 vols. by M. S, Vats; Discoveries of
Crete by Burrows; Oldest Civilization of Greece by H. R. Hall;
History of Palestine and Syria by Olmstead; The Ancient Egyptians
by Elliot Smith; Egypt and Western Asia by King and Hall;
Royal Tombs by Petrie; Seven Tablets of Creation by King; History
of Sumer and Akkad by King; Early History of Assyria by S. Smith;
The Hittites by Garstang; The old Testament\ Passing of the Empires
by Maspero; Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great by King
and Thompson ; History of Persia by Sykes; A Short History of
the Chinese People by L. G. Goodrich; The Ancient History of
China by Friedrich Hirth; The Chinese, Their History and Culture
by K. S. Latourette.
 INDEX

A ; Amenhetep, 10, 18,19, 20, 21,

i 22, 23, 67, 68
Aahmes, 14 | Ammon, 100, 104, 107
A-anni-padda, 52 | Amurru, 70, 71
Aaron, 101, 102 | An, 49, 50
Abargi, 64 | Ana, 60
Abdasliirta, 67, 68 I Anatolia, ‘58
Abimelech, 104' | Anslian, 114
Abraham, 100, 101, 102 ; Ann, 3
Absalom, 108 : Am uni turn,, 61, 113 _
Abusir, 8 j Apep, 13
Abydos, 6, 25 i Apis-bull, 5
Achilleus, 139 ! Arabia, 3, 55, 99, 100, 108, 123
Acolis, 140 Arabs, 89, 93, 103
Acropolis, 124 Ararat Mountain, 82
Adab, 52 Arbela, 125
Adad, 61 Ariyaramna (Ariaramanes), 114
Adad-nirari, 73, 77,81, 82, 83 Arigive, 140
Adad-shum-usur, 74, 75 Argos, 139
Adonijah, 108 Armenia, 47, 57, 70, 78, "82
Adrammelecli, 90 84,90,119
Aegean Sea, ,127 Arnuanda, 66, 70, 72
Aeolis, 139 Arshama. (Arsames), 114
Africa, 3, 123, 128.. Artapherne, 121V
Agade, 54 Artashumara, 68
Agamemnon, 139 [Link], 19, 60, 68, 69
Agia Triada, 131, 132, 135 .Arvad, 71
Agum, 58 Aryandes, 37, 116, 119
Ahab, 79 Aryans, 36, 113, 136, 137, 140,
Ai, 24, 102. | 141, 148, 153, 154
Aigaleos, 124 |. Ashdod, 86, 103,'' 106
Akaba, 104 j Asher, ,103
AMienaten, 21, 22, 23,. 24, '42. ! Ashkelon, 88, 103
110,175 I Ashur, 56, 79, 84, 97
Akhetaten, 23 . ! Ashur-akh-iddina, 90
Akkad, 54, 55, 56, 57, 76 ! Ashurbanipal, 32, 33, 34, 48,
Alexander, 21, 29, 37, 125, 126 | 91-94, 97, 93,114, 132
Alshe, 69 Ashur dan, 83
Amanas, 44 Ashurdaninpal, 81
Amanus Mountains, 14 Ashur-dayan, 81
Amasis, 36, 117 Ashur-nadin-shum, 88
Amen, 15, 23, 24,42 Ashur-nasir-pal,. 74, 77-79, 81
Amenemhat, 10, 11 Ashur-iishrishir75'■
. 12
178 INDEX

Ashur-uballit, 69 Bartatua, 91, 94

Asia, 14, 15, 16, 20, 24, 33, 35, Basques, 127
36, 69, 86, 115, 123, 138, 174 Behis tun, 115, 120
Asia Minor5 19, 26, 44, 58, 59, Beirut, 68
65, 66, 108, 123, 127, 130, 135 Bel (Baal), 61
Asoka,175 Bel-ibni, 88
Assur, 81, 82, 83 Belgium, 1
Assyria, 25, 31, 33, 35, 36, 44, Betit, 61
45, 47, 60, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, Belshazzar, 113, 117
77, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, Benghazi, 118
89,91,94,96,97, 100, 110, Benhadad, 79, 80,82
111, 113, 117 Bethel, 102, 109
Asura, 95, 96; Asura-Brahmana, Bethlehem, 105, 175
48 Bhatt-el-Hayy, 44
Astyages, 116 Bible, 90
Asvins, 115 Bit-yakin, 88
Ata, 5 Black Sea, 70, 76, 136
[Link] 42 Boghaz Kyoi, 19, 26, 65, 66,67
Athens, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124 Bokkhoris, 32
Attica, 137 Boknrenef, 32
Attis, 66 Borsippa, 112, 117
Azaria, 83, 84 Bosphorus, 120
Aziru, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71 Bralimi, 46, 150, 155
British, 17
B Bubastis, 11, 12, 30
Buddhaj22,115^ 175
Baal, 98 Buyuk Kale, 67
Baal-perazim, 106
Babylon, 25, 3 , 54, 56, 57, G
58, 59, 61, 65, 73, 74, 75, 76,
80, 81, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93,
100, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, Cairo, 6
123,125 Calah, 80, 81, 83
Babylonia, 14, 31, 36, 39, 44, i Caliph el-Mutawakkil, 115
45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 56 , 57, 58, ! Candia, 131
59, 60, 62, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75, Canaan, 101, 102, 103, 138
76, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, Canhu-daro, 154
89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 107, 110, Cappadocia, 116
111, 116, 119, 128, 141, 150, Carchemish, 35, 78, 86, 111
153, 157, Caria, 116
Baghdad, 12, 45 Carmel, 16, 70
Balkis, 109 Carthage, 102, 118
Baltic Sea, 61 Caspian Coast, 46, 123
Baluchistan, 46, 142, 154, 155 Caucasus, 82
Banerji, R.D., 141 Chaldaea, 36, 87, 89
Baneteren (Binothris or Biophis), Chanakya, 126 ■■
5 Chandragupta Maurya, 126
Bardiya, 18 r ■ Ghedorlaomer, 5-7
 iHdex 179

China, 41, 115, 157, 158, 159, Dravidians, 46, 155, 156
161, 163, 165, 166, 170, 171, Dudhalia, 66, 72
172, 173, 175 Dudu, 55
Chishpish, 114 Dur-ilu, 85
Chon, 157, 161, 162, 163, 165, Dur-Papsukal, 81
167, 168, 169, 172, 173 Dur-Sharrukin, 87
Chou-hung, 163 Dushratta, 19, 60, 68, 69
Chou-sin, 161, 162 i
Christ,, 21, 100, 110 | E
Chu, 171
Chuang Chov, 172 Ea, 61, 98
Chu Yuan, 171 Eannadu, 52, 53
Cilicia, 78,80,86, 87, 89 E-babbar, 113
Cleopatra, 38 Eben-ha-ezer, 104
Commagene, 78 Edom, 82, 84, 100, 104, 107,.
Confucius, 22, 115, 168, 170, 109
172. | Egypt, 1, 3,4, 5,6,9, 10,11, 12,
Corinth, 125 i 13, 14, 15, 19, 22, 24-40, 42,
Crete, 12, 16, 101, 127, 128,129,1 62, 67-72, 76, 84,85, 86, 88,
131, 133, 137, 138, 140, 141, j 91, 92, 94, 99-102, 107-109,
157 | 111, 112, 116-119, 121-123,
Croesus, 116 j 125, 127, 129, 130, 133, 134,
Cyprus, 87, 91, 138 I 138, 141, 147, 157, 158
Cyrene, 118 Egyptologists, 42
Ekbatana, 114
D Ekron, 88, 102, 103
Elam, 45, 53-58,76, 89,92-94,
Dadfra, 8 113, 114, 119, 131, 146, 147,
Dahshur, 7 152, 155, 157
Damascus, 14, 31, 78, 79, 80, Elephantine, 9
82, 84, 86, 93, 100, 107 el-Khargah, 119
Dan, 109 Eltekeh, 88
Danube, 120, 123, 136, 138 Emutbalim, 57
Dapur, 71 England, 133
Dardanelles, 123 Enki, 49, 50, 61
Darius' (Darayavaush), 37, 91, Enki-du, 51
114, 115, 116, 118, 119, Enlil, 50, 53, 54, 61
120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, Enlil-kudur-usur, 75
Datis, 121 Enlil-nadin-akhe, 75
David, 103, 105, 106, 106, 107, Enshakushanna, 52
109, 110 Entemena, 53
Dead Sea, 104 ■ Enzu, 61
Deluge, 47, 48, 51, 60, 61 , Ephialtes, 124
Demavena, 84 Erech, 51
Demotic, 42 Eretria, 121
Der el-Bahri, 10 Eridu, 47
Diodorus, 6, 8 E-sagila, 112
Don, 103 . Esarhaddon, 32„ 33, 90, 91
180 INDEX

Esdraelon, 16 Halys, 116

Eshnunna, 152 Hamath, 31,79,81-83, 107, 110
Etana, 61 Hammumat, 10
E-ulmash, 113 Hammurabi, 56-58, 62, 100
Euphrates, 14, 15, 16, 19, 35,44, 101, 102
48, 60, 68, 73, 76, 78, 112 Han-Fei, 171
Europe, 98, 120, 121, 128, 138 Hanuman, 151
Evans, Sir Arthur, 128, 129, Hanun, 84
131, 137 Ha-pi, 1
E-zida, 112 Harappa, 46,142,143,147,149,
Ezion-geber, 108 151,- 154, 155
F Harpagos, 116
Harron, 100, 102
Fayyum, 10 ,
Hathor, 10 43
Fravartish, 119 Hatshepsut, 15
Fu-hi, 159 Hawara, 11
Hazael, 80, 82
G Hebron, 106
Gades, 102 Hebrew, 57, 102
Galilee, 70, 71, 84 Hebrews, 1, 100, 101
Galli, 66 Heliopolis, 11
Gandash, 58 Henu, 10
Garuda, 62 Herakleopolis, 9, 11
Gath, 103, 105, 106 Herihor, 28
Gaubaruva, 117 Hermon, 80
Gaumata, 118 Herodotus, 6, 8, 115
Gaza, 31, 84, 103, 108 Heth, 65
Geba, 105 Hezekiah, 88
German, 17 Hibis, 119
Gezer, 102 Hippias, 121
Gidean, 104 Hiram, 102, 108, 109
Gilead, 99 Hittites, 14, 20, 24, 25, 27, 57-
Gilgamesh, 48, 51, 60, 61 60, 65-67, 70-73, 76, 86, 100,
Gilukhipa, 19 133 136
Giza, 5, 6, 8 Hiung-nu, 158, 160, 161, 166
Goyyim, 58, 65 Homer (Homeros), |139
Gozan, 86 Honan, 161, 162
Great Wall, 173, 175 Horemheb, 24
Greece, 36, 116, 121, 124, Horus, 320, 42, 43
127-29, 135-40 Hoshea, 85
Gustashp, 115 Hsia, 160, 161
Guti, 55 Hsun Ching, 170
Gutium, 117 HsunTzu,170171
Huns, 160, 161, 162, 166
H Huang-ti, 160
Hwang-ho, 158, 159
Hadad, 104, 109 Hyksos, % 11-14, 91, 101, 102,
Hakhamanish, 114 118
 INDEX 181'

Hyrcania, 118 Jonathan, 105, 106

Hystaspes, 118 Jordan, 82,84,99,102,1105
Josiah, 111
I Jotham, 84
Judah, 80, 84, 86, 88, 100, 103,
Icarus, 62 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112
I-king, 162
Ilbaba-shum-iddina, 75 K
Illiad, 139
Illyria, 140 Kadashman-Enlil, 73, 74
Inanna, 49, 50, 61 Kashman-turgu, 73
India, 17, 21, 36, 41, 66, 98, Kadesh, 15, 16, 70
109, 115, 122, 126, 141, 151, Kadru, 62
158, 175 Kakau, 5
Indo-Aryans, 157 Kalidasa, 96
Indra, 60, 66, 115 Kalkhi (Galah), 79
Indus, 36,46,61, 128, 131, 141, Kambujiya (Gambyses), 36, 37
142, 144, 146-155, 157 91,114,117,118
Ionia, 123, 137, 140 Kames, 13
Iran, 46 66, 94, 113, 115, 121 Kamit, 1
Iraq, 12, 44, 98 Kandalanu, 93 . *
Xrkhuleni, 79 Karbanit, 92
Isaiah, 88 Kar-Duniyash, 58
Ishbaal, 106 Karkar, 30, 31, 79, 86, 110
Ishtar, 12, 61, 94, 98 Karnak, 11, 15, 24, 25, 30, 41
Isin, 56 42
Israel, 31,79,80,82, 86,99,100, Kar-Tukultienurta, 74
104, 106, 107, 109, 110 Kashllliashii, 74
Itakama, 68 Kashshu, 58
Kassites, 14, 16, 58, 59, 60, 113
j ' Katna, 71..
Kelap, 154,155'
Jaxartes 117, 123; Khabbash, 121, 123
Jeconiah, 111 Khabur, 76
Jehoahaz, 82 Khafra, 7, 8
Jehoash, 82 Khaldia, 82
Jehova, 21 Khaldis, 82
Jehu, 80 Khantil, 67
Jemdet-Nasr, 48, 51 Khasekhem, 5, 6
Jeremiah, 111, 112 Khasekhemui, 6 '
Jericho, 102 Khati, 9
Jeroboam, 82, 109 Khatti, 20, 56, 58, 65-72, 100
Jerubbaal, 104 • Khattusil, 26, 27,66,67, 71, 72,
Jerusalem, 70,88, 103, 105, 106, 73
108, 109,111,112,117 Kheta,26,65
Jesse, 105 Khonsu, 72
Jews, 101, 108 Khorasan, 115
Jhukai’-daro, 154 Khorsabad, 87, 98
182 index

Kshathrita, 119 Lydia, 92,93, 116

Khshayarsha, 123
Khufu, 7, 8 M
Khumbanigash, 85
Khunusa, 76 Ma, 66
Khuzzias, 67 Maa-ab-Ra, 13
Kibshuna, 76 Maat, 20
Kimmerians, 91, .93 Macedonia, 120
Kir, 84 Mackay, 147
Kish, 52-54, 147, 152 Mackenzie, 131
Kishmar, 115 Mahanaim, 106
Knossos, 12, 127, 131-34, 137 Mahavira, 115
Kommagene, 87 Manetho, 12
Koptos, 11, 13 Mannai, 86, 89, 91, 94
Kuan-tzi, 168 Manu, 48
Kudur-lagamar, 57 Marathon, 121, 123
Kue, 89 Marduk, 56, 61, 89
Kullani, 84 Marduk-apaliddina, 75
Kurdistan, 45 Marduk-balatsu-ikbi, 18
Kurigalzu, 73 Marduk-paHcldina, 85, 87, 88
Kurwh (Cyrus), 36, 113, 114, Marduk-zakir-shum, 81
114, 116, 117 Marduniya, 121, 124
Ruth, 51, 93 Marrishtusu, 54
Kyaxares, 113, 119 Marshall, Sir John, 152
Marut, 59
L Maruttash, 59
Mattiuaza, 69
Lacedaemon, 140 Mayades, 94, 59, 91
Lachish, 102 Mede (Medes), 36, 59, 91, 94,
Laconia, 140 111, 113, 114, 119, 125
Lagash, 52, 53 Media, 58, 84, 86, 119, 125
Lao Tzu, 22, 115, 169,170, 172 Mediterranean, 28,153, 54, 60,
Larkana, 141 61,99, 102, 108, 138
Larsam, 56, 57 Medum, 7
Laz, 61 Megiddo, 15, 111
Lebanon, 14, 19, 44, 54, 67, 78, Melishipak, 75
99 Memphis, 4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 17,
Lemnos, 137 31, 33, 37, 41, 91, 92, 117
Leomidas, 123, 124 Men (Mao), 66
Libya, 28,40 Mena, 4, 5
Lin Wang, 167 Mencius, 168, 169, 170
Lugal, 52 ■Meneptah, 27
Lugal-da-lu, 52 Menes, 4
Lugalzaggisi, 53, 54 MengTzu, 170
Luli, 88 Menkaura, 7, 8
Lulubu, 55 Merira Pepi, 9
Luxor, 20, 24, 41 Merodachj-baladan, 93
Lycia, 116 *■ . Meskalamdug, 64
 INDEX 183

Mesopotamia, 38, 44, 45, 55, 56, Nabunasir (Nabonassar), 83

57, 66, 76, 85, 100, 102, 108, Nabu-pal-usur, 94
120, 146 Nabu-shum-ishkun, 83
Mesr, 1 Naharin, 16, 68, 70, 11, 72, 76
Michmash, 10 I Nahash, 105
Midas, 86, 87 Nahum, 96
Mihran, 144 Nal, 154, 155/
Milo” River, 172 Nana, 56
Min,*'13 Nandi, 151
Minerva, 45 Nannar, 61
Minos, 131 : Nan-wang, 169, 172
Minyae, 137 Napata, 20, 31, 37, 118
Misphragmouthosis, 13 Naphtali, 84
Mita, 86 Naram-Sin, 54, 55, 113 -
Mitanni, 19, 20, 45, 65, 69, 72, Nasatyau, 60,115
73 | Nebat, 109
Mitannians, 58, 60, 68 j Neb-hapet-Ra, 9, 10
Mitannis, 14, 16, 19 Nebpehtira (Aahmes), 13, 14
Mithra, 66 Nebu, 98
Mitra, 66 Nebuchadnezzar, 35, 36, 75, 76,
Mitraheni, 4 111, 112, 119 v
Mizrain, 1 Nebunaid (Nabonidus), ■ 113,116
Moab, 84, 100, 104, 107 117
Mohenjo-daro, 46, 141-43, 149, Necho, 35, 111
151-53, 155, 175 ; Nekara Khian, 13
Moiris, 10 Ne-maat-Hap, 6
Monf (Tel-el-Monf), 4 Nefarpa, 6
Mongols,^158 Neferarikara, 8
Montgomery, 142 Nefertari, 26
Moses, 100/101,102 Nefretiti, 23
Mo Tzu, 170, 172 Nergal, 61, 98
Mouji-ana, 138 Neuser-Ra, 8
Mount Athos, 121 ■ Niblani, 68
Mount Ephraim, 103 Nile, 1-6, 9, 19, 27, 35, 38, 39,
Mount Gilboa, 106 42, 61, 87, 111, 112
Mu, 168 Nina, 93
Muhammad, 21 Nineveh, 81, 87, 89-92, 94-97,
Muni-Dan, 66 ,72 113, 132
Musri, 76 Ningirsu, 61
Musur, 32 Nippur, 47, 54
Mutallu, 66, 71 Nisara, 118,
Mu-wang, 166 Misroch, 90, 98
Muwatalli, 66, 71 Noah, 47 ■
Mycenae, 127, 128,139 Nubia, 31, 20, 35, 37, 128
N 123
Nub-kheper-Ra, 13
JNfabopolassar, 94, 111-113 Nur-Ninsubur, 48
184 INDEX

o Punjab, 66, 126, 142, 154

Purit, 2, 3, 10
Octavius Caesar, 38 Put-Akhi, 71
Odyssey, 139
Old Testament, 99, 109 R
Gphir, 108
Opis, 52,53, 117 Ra, 42
Orontes, 16, 70, 78 Raghava, 175
Osiris, 39, 42, 43 Rama, 175
Osorkon, 30 Rarneses, 24-29, 70,-72, 219, 1
Ramesseum, 25, 26, 150
P Ramman, 61
Raphia, 31
Paletine Hill, 175 Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 120
Palestine, 10, 11, 12, 14, 22, 24,Red Sea, 2, 10, 35
27, 28, 31, 32/35, 57, 70, 71, Rehoboam, 109
82, 84, 85, ,93, 99, 100, 101, Rekhmara, 18
102, 110, 115, 117,138 Rephaim, 106
Pamirs, 123 Rezon, 109
Pars,, 119 Ribadda, 68
Pai4iia, 118 Ribla, 35
Pasupati, 151 Rigveda, 96, 141
Patesi, 52, 60 Rim-Sin, 56
Pansanias, 125 Rome, 17, 175
Pelasgi, 137 Romans, 17, 29
Peloponnese, 137, 139, 140 Rosetta Stone, 120
Pelusium, 37, 117 Russia, 113, 120, 136, 141
Per-pega, 31
Persepolis, 125 S
Persia, 36, 37, 44, 46, 54, 113,
116, 117, 119, 120, 123, 125, Sahal, 9
150,158 Sahura, 8 .v,*.
Persian Gulf, 44, 60 84, 87, Sakas, 117, 120 _ •
Phaistos, 131, 132, 137 Sakkara, 6, 8,
Philistia, 84, 88, 100, 106 Salamis, 124
Phoenicia, 16, 35,69, 70, 71, 84, Samal, 84
88, 91,92, 93, 99, 101, 108 Samaria, 16, 31, 87
Piankhi, 31, 85 1 Samarra, 115
Plataea, 121, 125 Samos, 120
Priam, 130 Sampati, 62
Psamatic, 34, 35, 37, 117 Samson, 103
Psusennes, 30 Samuel, 104, 105, 106
Ptah, 5,42 Sa-Nckht, 6
Pteria, 116 Sankara, 21
Ptolemy, 5, 38 Sankhkara Mentulietep, 10 .
Pudukhipa, 26, 27, 66, 72 Sardinia, 116
Pulu, 83 Sardis,, 120
Punic Wars? 102 Sarduries? 83, 84
S argon, 31, 32, 54, 55, 85, 86, Shitullum, 56 •
87 Shon-nung, 160
Sarpanitum, 61 Shubad, 63
Satapatha Brahmana, 47, 48 Shubari 76
Satuni, 55 Shubbiluliuma, 66-70
Saul, 104, 105, 106,107 Shu Ghing, 160
Saushshatar, 60, 69 Shulgi, 55
Scyth, 94 Shuruppak, 47-49, 51
Scythians, 91, 94 Shutarna, 19, 60, 68, 69
Sed, 30 Sian, 162
Sekenenra, 13 Si-an-fu, 160
Semsu, 5 Sidon, 35,88, 91, 112, 139
Sem-Ti, 5 Sin, 61, 98
Send (Senedi), 5 Sinai, 8, 9, 101
Seneferu, 7, 8, Sin-akhi-irba, 87
Sennacherib, 32, 87-89 Sindh, 141, 142, 159,155
Senserenra Khian, 12 Siniddinum, 57
Senusert, 11 Sin-shar-ishkun, 95
Set, 3, 42 Sippar, 88, 91,93, 113, 117
Seti, 24, 27, 70 Siut, 30
Setnekht, 27 Siva, 151
Shabaka, 31, 32, 85, 86 Skunka, 120
Shalmaneser, 30, 31, 72-74 79- Smenkhkara, 23
81,85,110 Smerdis, 118
Shamash, 61, 98 Solon, 120
Shamash-shum-ukin, 92, 93 Solomon, 30, 77, 84, 100, 102,
Shamshi-Adad, 81, 82 108-110
Shang, 159, 161, 162 Somaliland, 10
Shang-ti, 172 Spaka, 91
Shang-Yang, 171 Sparta, 116,121,140
Shang-Yi, 161 Ssi-ma Tsien, 160
Shan-tung, 168 Suan-wang, 166
Shao, 167 : Sudraka, 148
Sharagali-sharri, 54,55 " Suez, 9
Sharezer, 90 Sukhi, 78, 81
Sharoh, 16 Sunga, 148
Sharrukin, 54 Sumer, 41, 42, 45, 53, 55, 57,
Sheba, 109 * 76, 127, Ml, 147, 152, 155,
Shechem, 104 157, 158
Shemsu-Hor,3
Shensi, 162 Surya, 59,
Suryash, 59
Shephelah, 102
Susa, 56, 57, 73, 92, 114, 124,
Shepseskaf, 8
Sheshenk, 29, 30, 109 125
Shih Huang-ti, 173 Syria, 14, 30, 35, 53, 54, 60, 65,
Shiloh, 102 69, 71,72, 78, 80, 82,84, 93,
Shinar, 44 94,99, 100,102,107, 109,1110,,
Shlshak, 25,29, 30, 77, 109 112, 118, 125
13
186 INDEX

T Tulliz, 92
Tunip, 71
Tadukhipa, 19 Turshiz, 115
Ta Hsueh, 170 Turtan, 78
Tahutia, 16 Turushpa, 84
Ta-kl, 161 Tutenkhamen, 23, 24, 41
Tangutans, 166 Tyre, 35, 84, 85, 107, 108, 112,
Tanis, 30 139
Tanutamon, 33, 34, 37
Taurus, 16, 20, 27, 54, 58,65, U
75, 76, 80, 86 Uah-ankh, 9
Tefa-ba, 9 Uahkara, 32
Tefnakht, 30, 31, 32 Uaite, 93
Telibinus, 67 Ubardudu, 49
Tell Asmar, 152 Ubi, 100
Tell el-Amarna, 14, 18, 19, 23 Ula, 92 /'
Teni, 4 Ulamburiash, 59
Teta (Athothis, Atu), 5 Umma, 52, 53
Te-Umman, 92 Ummanish, 119
Tharshis, 102 Umman-manda, 94
Thebes, 9, 10, 12, 24, 30,33, Umman-minanu, 89"
34,40,42,72, 92,104, 118, 124 Unas, 8
Themistokles, 124 Ur, 8, 39, 47, 52, 55, 57, 63, 93,
Thermopylae, 123 101, 147, 151, 152
Thessaly, 136,137,138, 139 Urartu, 82-84, 86, 90
Thinis, 4 Ur-Enurta (Ur-Ninurta), 56
TTliiS 4 Ur-Nammu, 55
Thothmes, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, Ur-nina, 52
20, 27, 70 Uruk, 47, 48, 51, 56, 93, 116
Thrace, 120, 121, 122 Urukagina, 53
Thutii, 16 Useref, 8
Tiglath-pileser, 76, 77, 83, 84 Utika, 102
86 Utu, 61 ■■
Tigris, 44, 45, 60, 73, 78, 85, Utug, 52
111, 115 Uvakhshatra, 94, 114
Tii, 21,22
Tirhakah, 33, 91 V
Tjate, 17 Vahyazdata, 119
Tjeser, 6, 7 Van, 84
Treres 91 Varuna, 60, 66, 115
Troy, 22, 127, 128, 130, 131, Vinata, 62
135, 137, 139 Vishtaspa (Hystapes), 114, .115
Tsi, 168 Visnu Purana> 175
Tsin, 168, 169, 172, 173
Tughlak, 21 ” W
Tukulti-Ashur, 74
TuEilti-Enurta, 72, 74, 75, 77 Washuganni, 69
Wen, 162 Yi-Ching, 167
Won-wang, 162 Yin, 161
Wu3 162 Yu, 160, 172
Wu-wang, 162,163, 166, 169 Yu-wang, 166
X
Z'
Xerxes, 123-126, 145
Zagros, 55, 58, 120
Y ■ Zawiyet el-Aryan, 6
Zede&iah, 112
Yahweh, 104, 109, 110 Ziggurat, 39
Yang Chu, 169 Zion, 100
Yangtse, 171 Ziusuddu, 48-51
Yarmuk, 99, 100 Zobah,107
Yehan, 15 Zoroaster (Zarathusthra), 22,
Yellow River, 158, 160, 171 114,115,175