THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

STUDY GUIDE

FUNCTIONS
• Ingestion – consumption of food, oral cavity
• Digestion - the breakdown of large organic molecules into smaller molecules
that can be absorbed (mechanical and chemical means)
• Absorption - movement of molecules out of the digestive tract and into the
blood or lymphatic system.
• Elimination - removal of undigested material, such as fiber from food, plus
other waste products from the body as feces.

DIGESTIVE TRACT
• Alimentary canal
• tube extending from the mouth to the anus (where food passes)
• ALIMENTARY TRACT
• Oral cavity, or mouth (tongue and teethm, salivary glands)
• Pharynx, or throat
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
• Large intestine (cecum, colon: ascending, transverse, descending,
sigmoid, rectum, and anal canal
• Anus
ACCESSORY ORGANS
• glands located outside the GI tract

LAYERS
Four layers
Mucosa
Innermost, moist membrane that lines the cavity (lumen)of the organ consisting of
• Mucous Epithelium
– Surface epithelium
• Lamina Propria
– Small amount of connective tissue
• Muscularis Mucosa
– Small smooth muscle layer
Submucos
– Just beneath the mucosa
– Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and lymphatics
– Submucosal Plexus or Meissner plexus
• network of nerve cells
• extend to cells in epithelial intestinal glands, stimulating their
secretion

Muscularis externa
– smooth muscle
• Inner circular layer
• Outer longitudinal layer
– Myenteric Plexus or Auerbach plexus
• controls the motility of the intestinal tract
• Between the two muscle layers

Serosa
– outermost layer of the wall contains fluid-producing cells
– Peritoneum
Peritoneum
– Visceral: Covers organs
• outermost layer that is continuous with the innermost layer
– Parietal: Covers interior surface of body wall
• innermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity

Retroperitoneal Space
Certain organs covered by peritoneum on only one surface
considered behind the peritoneum (lie against abdominal wall)
Organs in Retroperitoneal space
Suprarenal (adrenal) glands, Aorta/Inferior Vena Cava, Duodenum (second and third
segments), Pancreas, Ureters, Colon (ascending and descending only), Kidneys,
Esophagus, Rectum
Mesenteries
– Generally refers to serous membranes attached to the abdominal organs
– also applied specifically to the mesentery associated with small intestine,
sometimes called the mesentery proper
– two layers of peritoneum with thin layer of loose connective tissue in
between
– Routes by which vessels and nerves pass from body wall to organs

Mesenteries
• The mesenteries of parts of the colon
• Transverse Mesocolon
• Sigmoid Mesocolon
• Mesoappendix
• Lesser Omentum
• Greater Omentum
• omental bursa
• “fatty apron”
– Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal
organs
• Has lymph nodules containing macrophages
DIGESTIVE REGULATION
• Mostly controlled by reflexes via the parasympathetic division
• Chemical and mechanical receptors are located in organ walls that trigger
reflexes
• Stimuli include
– Stretch of the organ
– pH of the contents
– Presence of breakdown products
• Reflexes include
– Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions
– Smooth muscle activity

NERVOUS REGULATION
• Local: Enteric Nervous System
– Types of neurons: sensory, motor, interneurons
– Coordinates peristalsis and regulates local reflexes
• General: coordination with the CNS
– May initiate reflexes because of sight, smell, or taste of food.
– Parasympathetic primarily (through vagus nerve).
– Sympathetic input inhibits muscle contraction, secretion, and decrease
of blood flow to the digestive tract.

CHEMICAL REGULATION
• Production of hormones
– Gastrin – stimulate secretion of acid in stomach
– Secretin – produced by duodenum to regulate acid
– Production of paracrine chemicals like histamine
– Help local reflexes in ENS control the conditions of the internal
environment of the digestive tract such as pH levels
ALIMENTARY CANAL
• Continuous, coiled, hollow, muscular tube and in the Ventral cavity
• Open at both ends. Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine,
Large intestine, Anus

MOUTH -Oral cavity

– Mucous membrane-lined cavity
– Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening
– Orbicularis oris muscle and connective tissue
– Cheeks—form the lateral walls
– buccinator muscle and buccal fat pad
– Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
– Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
– Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate
– Fauces — opening into the pharynx
– Vestibule—space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally
– Oral cavity proper—area contained by the teeth
– Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull, and
by the lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
– Intrinsic muscles - Flattens, elevates tongue
– Extrinsic muscles - Protrusion and retraction
– Tonsils Palatine – posterior end, Lingual – base of tongue
Teeth
– Involved in mastication and speech
– Two sets
– Primary, deciduous, milk: Lost during childhood (20)
– Permanent or secondary: Adult (32)
– Types: Incisors, canines, premolars and molars
Parts of Teeth
• Anatomic crown: enamel-covered part of tooth; clinical crown is section of
tooth above gum line
• Neck: enameled part of tooth below gum line
• Enamel: outermost layer of anatomical crown. Non-living; acellular. Protective.
• Dentin: living, cellular, calcified tissue. In the root, dentin is covered by cellular
bone-like structure that helps hold tooth in the socket.
• Pulp cavity filled with blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
• Periodontal ligaments: hold tooth in socket.
• Gingiva: dense, fibrous C.T. covered by stratified squamous epithelium.
SALIVARY GLANDS
Three Pairs:
• Parotid: largest. Serous
• Submandibular: mixed, but more serous than mucous.
• Sublingual: smallest. Mixed, but primarily mucous.
• Lingual glands. Small, coiled tubular glands on surface of tongue.\
• Compound alveolar salivary glands. Produce saliva
• Prevents bacterial infection (lysozyme)
• Lubrication (mucin)
• Contains salivary amylase that breaks down starch into disaccharides maltose
and isomaltose (gives starch sweet taste in mouth).
• Helps to form bolus for swallowing
• Parasympathetic input causes salivary production

Ingestion: —getting food into the mouth

– Normal route of ingestion: through the oral cavity.
Mastication (chewing) of food
– Mechanical digestion
– Mixing masticated food with saliva
– Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
– Allows for the sense of taste (papillae)
Chewing:
– incisors and canines bite or cut off food
– molar-type teeth grind food
Muscles involved: masseter, temporalis, medial and lateral pterygoids.
– Elevate mandible (close jaw) -temporalis, masseter, medial pterygoids
– Depress mandible (open jaw) - lateral pterygoids
– Protraction and lateral and medial excursion - pterygoids and
masseter
– Retraction (moves structure back to anatomical position)- temporalis
Mastication reflex:
– medulla oblongata, but descending pathways from cerebrum provide
conscious control.
– Controls basic movements involved in chewing
PHARYNX
Nasopharynx—not part of the digestive system
1. Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity
2. Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx and connected to the esophagus
• Serves as a passageway for air and food
• Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
– Longitudinal inner layer
– Circular outer layer
• Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)

ESOPHAGUS
• Gullet
– About 10 in (25cm) long
– Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
– Conducts food by peristalsis
– Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the
pharynx)
– Passes through esophageal hiatus (opening) of diaphragm and ends
at stomach
– Hiatal hernia: widening of hiatus (causes ulcers, acid reflux)
– Sphincters
– Upper. Striated
– Lower. Smooth
– Mucosa is moist stratified squamous epithelium. Produces thick layer of
mucus.
SWALLOWING:
• moves liquids or a soft mass of food and liquid, called a bolus, from the oral
cavity into the esophagus.
• Three phases: Voluntary, Pharyngeal, Esophageal
1. Voluntary - bolus of food moved by tongue from oral cavity to pharynx.
2. Pharyngeal Reflex - Controlled by swallowing center in medulla
oblongata.
Soft palate elevates, upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, elevated
pharynx opens the esophagus, food pushed into esophagus by
pharyngeal constrictors’ successive contraction from superior to inferior.
Epiglottis is tipped posteriorly due to pressure of the bolus,
Larynx elevated to prevent food from passing into larynx.
3. Esophageal Reflex
Stretching of esophagus causes enteric NS to initiate peristalsis of
muscles in the esophagus.

STOMACH
• C-shaped organ, Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
• Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
• Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter (valve)
• External regions
• Lesser curvature - concave medial surface
• Greater curvature - convex lateral surface
• Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
• Lesser omentum and Greater omentum
 1. Cardiac region—near the heart
2. Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region
3. Body—midportion
4. Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end
5. Openings
6. Gastroesophageal (cardiac): to esophagus
7. Pyloric: to duodenum

• Temporary storage tank for food

• Site of food breakdown
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins
• Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine

STOMACH MUCOSA - Surface Mucus (Mucosa) is simple columnar epithelium

Gastric pits: openings for gastric glands. Lined with simple columnar epithelium
• Mucous neck cells—produce a sticky alkaline mucus
• Gastric glands—situated in gastric pits and secrete gastric juice
• Chief cells—produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
• Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
 • Enteroendocrine cells—produce gastrin
• Enterochromaffin-like cells: secretes histamine that stimulates acid secretion
• Gastrin-containing cells: secrete gastrin (a hormone that stimulates acid secretion)
• Somatostatin-containing cells: secrete somatostatin that inhibits gastrin and insulin
secretion
• Chyme: ingested food plus stomach secretions
• Mucus: surface and neck mucous cells
Viscous and alkaline
Protects from acidic chyme and enzyme pepsin
Irritation of stomach mucosa causes greater mucus
• Intrinsic factor: parietal cells.
Binds with vitamin B12 and helps it to be absorbed in the ileum.
B12 necessary for DNA synthesis and RBC production (lack of B12 absorption leads
to pernicious anemia)
• HCl: parietal cells
Kills bacteria (found in ingested food)
Stops carbohydrate digestion by inactivating salivary amylase
Denatures proteins
Helps convert pepsinogen to pepsin (optimal activity at pH 3 or less)
• Pepsinogen: packaged in zymogen granules released by exocytosis. Pepsin
catalyzes breaking of covalent bonds in proteins (breaks them into smaller peptide
chains)
CEPHALIC PHASE
1. The taste or smell of food, tactile sensations of food in the mouth, or thoughts
of food stimulate medulla oblongata.
2. Parasympathetic action potentials are carried by the vagus nerves to the stomach,
where enteric plexus neurons are activated.
3. Parietal and Chief cells (HCl and pepsin) and stimulate the secretion of the hormone
gastrin and histamine.
4. Gastrin and histamine stimulate further secretion of HCl and pepsin.
GASTRIC PHASE
1. Distention of the stomach → parasympathetic reflex → vagus nerve the
medulla oblongata.
2. Medulla oblongata stimulates further secretions of the stomach.
3. Distention also stimulates local reflexes that amplify stomach secretions.
INTESTINAL PHASE
• Chyme in the duodenum with a pH less than 2 or containing lipids inhibits
gastric secretions by 3 mechanisms
1. Sensory input to the medulla from the duodenum inhibits the motor input from
the medulla to the stomach. Stops secretion of pepsin and HCl.
2. Local reflexes inhibit gastric secretion
3. Secretin, and cholecystokinin produced by the duodenum decrease gastric
secretions in the stomach.

MOVEMENT IN STOMACH
1. Stomach Filling
– As food enters → rugae flatten and stomach volume increases up to 20-
fold
– mediated by medulla oblongata (reflex)
– Both esophageal and pyloric sphincters are closed.
2. Mixing of Stomach Contents
– mixing waves about every 20 seconds
– Combination of mixing waves (80%) and peristaltic waves (20%)
– more solid material near the center of the stomach is pushed superiorly
toward the cardiac part for further digestion
– Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower stomach
3. Stomach Emptying
– The pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (30 mL at a time)
within 1½–2½ hours after ingestion [pyloric pump]
– The stomach empties in 3-4 hours
– In an empty stomach, peristaltic contractions that approach tetanic
contractions can occur for about 2–3 minutes, increased by low glucose
levels
– hunger pangs: 12-24 hours after a meal
REGULATION OF STOMACH EMPTYING
• If the stomach empties too fast, the efficiency of digestion and absorption is
reduced, and acidic gastric contents dumped into the duodenum may damage
its lining.
• However, if the rate of emptying is too slow, the highly acidic contents of the
stomach may damage the stomach wall and reduce the rate at which nutrients
are digested and absorbed.
Propulsion—moving foods from one region of the digestive system to another
24-36 hours oral end to anal end
a) Swallowing (Deglutition)
b) Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that
squeezes food along the GI tract
c) Mass movements—contractions that move material in the distal parts
of the large intestine to the anus.
• Slow, powerful contractions
Mixing
a) Segmental Contractions—moving materials back and forth to aid with
mixing in the small intestine

SMALL INTESTINE
• Site of greatest amount of digestion and absorption of nutrients and water
• Divisions
– Duodenum- first 25 cm beyond the pyloric sphincter.
– Jejunum- 2.5 m
– Ileum- 3.5 m. Peyer’s patches or lymph nodules

Structural Modifications
• Increase surface area 600 fold
1. Plicae circulares (circular folds)
2. Villi that contain capillaries and lacteals. Folds of the mucosa
3. Microvilli: folds of cell membranes of absorptive cells
Cells of the Mucosa
1. Absorptive cells - cells with microvilli, produce digestive enzymes and absorb
digested food
2. Goblet cells - produce protective mucus
3. Endocrine cells - produce regulatory hormones (Secretin, and cholecystokinin)
4. Granular cells (paneth cells) - may help protect from bacteria (contain lysozymes)

Intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn): tubular glands in mucosa at bases of villi

[secrete sucrase ,maltase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and pepsin (endopeptidases and
exopeptidases)]
Duodenal glands (Brunner’s glands): tubular mucous glands of the submucosa.
Open into intestinal glands [produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion (containing
bicarbonate)]

JEJUNUM AND ILEUM

• Gradual decrease in diameter, thickness of intestinal wall, number of circular
fold, and number of villi the farther away from the stomach
• Major site of nutrient absorption
1. Peyer’s patches: lymphatic nodules numerous in mucosa and submucosa
2. Ileocecal junction: where ileum meets large intestine.
– Ileocecal sphincter (ring of smooth muscle)
– ileocecal valve (one-way valve)
• Fluid primarily composed of water, electrolytes and mucus.
• Mucus: Protects against digestive enzymes and stomach acids
• Digestive enzymes: bound to the membranes of the absorptive cells
– Disaccharidases: Break down disaccharides to monosaccharides
– Peptidases: Hydrolyze peptide bonds
– Nucleases: Break down nucleic acids
– Duodenal glands
– Stimulated by vagus nerve, secretin, chemical or tactile irritation of
duodenal mucosa

• Mixing and propulsion over short distances

• Segmental contractions mix
• Peristalsis propels
• Ileocecal sphincter remains slightly contracted until peristaltic waves reach it; it
relaxes, allowing chyme to move into cecum
• Cecal distention causes local reflex and ileocecal valve constricts
– Prevents more chyme from entering cecum
– Increases digestion and absorption in small intestine by slowing
progress of chyme
– Prevents backflow

LARGE INTESTINE
• Larger in diameter, but shorter in length, than the small intestine
• Frames the internal abdomen
• Extends from ileocecal junction to anus
• Consists of cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
• Movements sluggish (18-24 hours); chyme converted to feces
• Absorption of water and salts, secretion of mucus, extensive action of
microorganisms are involved in the formation of feces.
• 1500 mL chyme enter the cecum, 90% of volume reabsorbed yielding 80-150
mL of feces
1. Cecum—saclike first part of the large intestine
• Appendix
– Blind sac with accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes
inflamed (appendicitis)
– Hangs from the cecum

2. Colon
– Ascending—travels up right side of abdomen
– Transverse—travels across the abdominal cavity
– Descending—travels down the left side
– Sigmoid—enters the pelvis

2. Colon
– Muscular layers: Circular muscle layer complete but longitudinal
incomplete (which forms three bands called teniae coli).
• Contractions of teniae form pouches called haustra.
• Small fat-filled pouches called epiploic appendages at outer
surface of colon
– Mucosa has numerous straight tubular glands called crypts.
– Goblet cells
• produce alkaline mucus which lubricates the passage of feces
• predominate, but there are also absorptive and granular cells
as in the small intestine
3. Rectum
- Straight muscular tube, thick muscular tunic
- Relatively thicker than the rest of GI tract
4. Anal canal
-Internal anal sphincter (smooth muscle)
-External anal sphincter (skeletal muscle)
Hemorrhoids: Vein enlargement or inflammation
SECRETIONS
• Mucus provides protection
– Parasympathetic stimulation increases rate of goblet cell secretion
• Pumps: bacteria produce acid and the following remove acid from the epithelial
cells that line the large intestine
– Exchange of bicarbonate ions for chloride ions
– Exchange of sodium ions for hydrogen ions
• Bacterial actions produce gases (flatus) from particular kinds of carbohydrates
found in legumes and in artificial sugars like sorbitol
• Bacteria produce vitamin K which is then absorbed
• Feces consists of water, undigested food (cellulose), microorganisms,
sloughed-off epithelial cells
MOVEMENTS
• Mass movements (strong contractions)
– Common after meals
– Integrated by the enteric plexus
• Local reflexes instigated by the presence of food in the stomach and
duodenum which promote peristalsis of the small and large intestines
– Gastrocolic: initiated by stomach
– Duodenocolic: initiated by duodenum
• Defecation
– Defecation reflex: distension of the rectal wall by feces
– Parasympathetic stimulation
– Usually accompanied by voluntary movements to expel feces.
Abdominal cavity pressure caused by inspiration and by contraction of
muscles of abdominal wall.
Secretion: lubricate, liquefy, digest
– Mucus: secreted along entire digestive tract, lubricates food and lining,
coats lining and protects from mechanical digestion, from acid and from
digestive enzymes.
– Water: liquefaction makes food easier to digest and absorb
– Bile: emulsifies fats
– Enzymes: chemical digestion
Digestion
– Breakdown of food molecules for absorption into circulation
• Mechanical: breaks large food particles to small
• Chemical: breaking of covalent bonds by digestive enzymes

Food breakdown as chemical digestion

– Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks
– Each major food group uses different enzymes
• Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
• Proteins are broken to amino acids
• Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
Absorption and transport
– Means by which molecules are moved out of digestive tract and into
circulation for distribution throughout body
– End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph
– Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or lymph capillaries
– Diffusion or Transport across the intestinal wall (facilitated diffusion;
requires proteins)
Defecation
– Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of
feces
ACCESORY ORGANS
LIVER
• Largest gland in the body
• Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
• Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by
the falciform ligament
– Major: Left and right
– Minor: Caudate and quadrate
• Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct
• Porta (Gate): on inferior surface.
– Where vessels, ducts, nerves, exit/enter liver
– Hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic nerve plexus enter
– Lymphatic vessels, two hepatic ducts exit
– Ducts
– Right and left hepatics (which transport bile out of liver)
• unite to form
– Common hepatic duct
– Cystic: from gallbladder
– Common bile: union of cystic duct and common hepatic duct (common
bile joins the pancreatic duct at the hepatopancreatic ampulla; ampulla
empties into duodenum at major duodenum papilla)

• Hepatic cords: radiate out from central vein. Composed of hepatocytes

• Hepatic sinusoids: between cords, lined with endothelial cells and hepatic
phagocytic (Kupffer) cells
• Bile canaliculus: between cells within cords

• Functions of the Hepatocyte

Bile production
Storage
Interconversion of nutrients
Detoxification
Phagocytosis
Synthesis of blood components
 1. Bile production: 600-1000 mL/day. Bile salts, bilirubin (bile pigment that results from
breakdown of hemoglobin), cholesterol, fats, fat-soluble hormones, lecithin
– Neutralizes and dilutes stomach acid (neutralizes chyme so that pancreatic
enzymes can function)
– Bile salts emulsify fats. Most are reabsorbed in the ileum. (90% bile salts
reabsorbed in the ileum & carried back to liver)
– Secretin (from the duodenum) stimulates bile secretions, increasing water and
bicarbonate ion content of the bile
2. Storage
– Glycogen, fat, vitamins (A, B12, D, E, and K), copper and iron. Hepatic portal
blood comes to liver from small intestine (nutrients are stored and secreted
back into circulation when needed)
3. Synthesis
– Blood proteins: Albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, clotting factors (liver
produces its own new compounds)
4. Nutrient Interconversion (Processing)
– Amino acids to energy producing compounds
– Hydroxylation of vitamin D
1. Vitamin D then travels to kidney where it is hydroxylated again into its
active form
– Hepatocytes also transform substances that cannot be used by most cells into
usable substances.

5. Detoxification
– Hepatocytes remove ammonia (byproduct of amino acid metabolism) which is
toxic & not readily removed by kidneys. Hepatocytes convert it to urea which
is less toxic and easily eliminated by kidneys.
6. Phagocytosis
– Kupffer cells phagocytize worn-out and dying red and white blood cells, some
bacteria
GALLBLADDER
• Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
• Bile arrives constantly from liver is stored and concentrated
• Stimulated by cholecystokinin (from the intestine) and vagal stimulation
• Bile exits through cystic duct then into common bile duct
• When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the
gallbladder
• When digestion of fatty food is occurring, bile is introduced into the duodenum from
the gallbladder
 • Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol which can cause blockages
– Can block cystic duct
– If gallstone moves far down the duct, it can block pancreatic duct, resulting in
pancreatitis.
– Can occur because of drastic dieting

PANCREAS
• Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
• Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum
• Both endocrine and exocrine
• Head, body and tail
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme coming from stomach
• Endocrine: pancreatic islets. Produce insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin
• Exocrine: groups acini (grape-like cluster) form lobules separated by septa.
• Intercalated ducts lead to intralobular ducts lead to interlobular ducts lead to the
pancreatic duct.
• Pancreatic duct joins common bile duct and enters duodenum at the
hepatopancreatic ampulla controlled by the hepatopancreatic ampullar sphincter
• Aqueous. Produced by columnar epithelium lining smaller ducts.
• Na+, K+, HCO3-, water.
• Bicarbonate lowers pH inhibiting pepsin and providing proper pH for enzymes
• Enzymatic portion: (digestion of carbohydrates)
• Trypsinogen → TRYPSIN (proteolytic enzyme)
• Chymotrypsinogen → chymotrypsin (proteolytic enzyme)
• Procarboxypeptidase → carboxypeptidase (proteolytic enzyme)
• Pancreatic amylase → continues digestion of starch.
• Pancreatic lipases → lipid digesting enzyme
• Deoxyribonucleases and ribonucleases → reduce DNA & RNA to their
nucleotide
• Interaction of duodenal and pancreatic enzymes
• Enterokinase is a proteolytic enzyme from the duodenal mucosa and it
activates trypsinogen to trypsin.
• Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin.
• Trypsin activates procarboxypeptidase to carboxypeptidase.
Prepared by:

Albert Christian C. Borbon, RMT, MD, Member PSAi

FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY!