GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF

COMPUTING, Module-1
Dr. Biju V.G.
February 28, 2025

Contents
1 Computer Hardware 5
1.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Control Unit (CU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Working of the CPU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Memory 7
2.1 Types of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Memory Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Cache Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.3 Main Memory (RAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.4 Secondary Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.5 Tertiary and Offline Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Memory Access Times and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Benefits of Memory Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Motherboard 11
3.1 Key Components of a Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Motherboard Form Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Importance of the Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4 Popular manufacturers of the motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4 Computer Peripherals 13
4.1 I/O Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 Input-Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5 Storage Devices 14
5.1 Hard Disk Drive (HDD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.1.1 Structure of an HDD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.1.2 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.1.3 Writing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.1.4 Reading Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.5 Data Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

5.1.6 Key Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1.7 Storage Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.8 Cost Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.9 Durability and Longevity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.10 Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.11 Types of HDDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.12 Advantages of HDDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.1.13 Disadvantages of HDDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.1.14 HDD vs. SSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.1.15 Applications of HDDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.1.16 Future of HDDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2 SSD Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.1 Key Components of SSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.2 How SSDs Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.3 Advantages of SSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2.4 Disadvantages of SSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.5 Common Use Cases for SSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.3 Optical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.3.1 Components of an Optical Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3.2 Types of Optical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3.3 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3.4 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3.6 HDD Vs SSD Vs Optical Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

6 Communication and device management 24

6.1 I/O Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 Components of I/O Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3 Techniques for I/O Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7 Device Management 25

8 Interfacing cards 26
8.1 Types of Interfacing Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.1.1 Network Interface Cards (NICs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.1.2 Graphics Cards (GPUs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.1.3 Sound Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.1.4 Storage Interface Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.1.5 USB Interface Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.1.6 FireWire (IEEE 1394) Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.1.7 TV Tuner Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.8 Bluetooth Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

9 Buses 28
9.1 Types of Buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.1.1 Data Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.1.2 Address Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.1.3 Control Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.2 How a Bus Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.3 Bus Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

10 Firmware 30
10.1 Types of Firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
10.1.1 Boot Firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.1.2 System Firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.1.3 Application Firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.1.4 Device-Specific Firmware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.2 Firmware vs. Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.3 Examples of Firmware in Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

11 Boot process 32
11.1 Steps in the Boot Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.1.1 Power On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.1.2 POST (Power-On Self Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.1.3 BIOS/UEFI Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.1.4 Bootloader Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.1.5 Loading the Operating System Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11.1.6 Kernel Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11.1.7 System Services (init Process or Windows Session Manager) . . . . . . . . 33
11.1.8 Login and User Space Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11.1.9 Running User Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11.2 Summary of Key Boot Process Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

syllabus

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

1 Computer Hardware
Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system.
These include the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, in-
put/output (I/O) devices, and various interface components that ensure the sys-
tem operates effectively.

1.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU), often referred to as the ”brain” of the com-
puter, is a crucial component responsible for executing instructions from pro-
grams. It performs the arithmetic, logical, control, and input/output (I/O) oper-
ations as specified by the instructions. The CPU’s performance greatly influences
the overall speed and efficiency of a computer.
The CPU is generally divided into three main components:

1.1.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

ˆ Functionality: The ALU performs arithmetic operations (e.g., addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (e.g., AND, OR,
NOT).
ˆ Significance: It handles all the calculations and logical decisions within the
CPU.
ˆ Example: If a program requires calculating 5 + 3, the ALU performs the
addition and returns the result.

1.1.2 Control Unit (CU)

ˆ Functionality: The CU coordinates the CPU’s operations by interpreting

instructions, directing the ALU, and managing data flow between the CPU,
memory, and input/output devices.
ˆ Processes:

1. Fetch: Retrieves the instruction from memory.

2. Decode: Interprets the instruction.
3. Execute: Directs the appropriate action based on the instruction.
ˆ Significance: Synchronizes the functioning of all computer components.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

1.1.3 Registers

ˆ Functionality: Registers are small, high-speed storage locations within the

CPU that temporarily hold data, instructions, or results.
ˆ Types:

– Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being exe-

cuted.
– Program Counter (PC): Tracks the next instruction to be executed.
– Accumulator (ACC): Stores intermediate results from the ALU.
– General-Purpose Registers: Temporarily hold data for various op-
erations.
ˆ Significance: Enables quick data access and processing.

Figure 1: Block Diagram of a CPU

1.2 Working of the CPU

The CPU operates in four primary steps:
1. Fetch: The CU retrieves the next instruction from memory.
2. Decode: The instruction is interpreted into executable signals.

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3. Execute: The ALU performs the required operation, and the result is stored.
4. Store: The result is written back to memory or a register for further use.
Figure 2 shows the block diagram of a computer system. The directed lines
represent the flow of data and signals between the components.

Figure 2: Block Diagram of a Computer System

In conclusion the CPU is the cornerstone of computing devices, enabling data

processing and efficient task execution. Its components include ALU, CU, and
registers along with advanced features. Understanding the CPU’s structure and
functionality provides insights into how computers operate and advance.

2 Memory
Memory is a critical component of any computer system, serving as a storage
medium for data and instructions that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) can
access. The design and organization of memory greatly influence a computer’s
performance. To optimize speed and efficiency, a memory hierarchy is imple-
mented, consisting of various types of memory with differing speeds, sizes, and
costs.

2.1 Types of Memory

Memory can be broadly classified into two categories:

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

1. Primary Memory: Directly accessible by the CPU, including:

ˆ Random Access Memory (RAM): Volatile memory used for tempo-
rary storage during program execution.
ˆ Read-Only Memory (ROM): Non-volatile memory storing essential
programs like the BIOS.
2. Secondary Memory: Non-volatile memory for long-term storage, such
as hard drives, solid-state drives, and optical discs. Figure 3 shows the
classification of primary and secondary memory.

Figure 3: Memory classification

2.2 Memory Hierarchy

The memory hierarchy organizes different types of memory in a system based on
speed, cost, and size. It aims to balance performance and cost-efficiency. The
levels in the hierarchy include:
The figure4 shows the memory hierarchy.

2.2.1 Registers

ˆ Definition: Small, high-speed storage within the CPU.

ˆ Characteristics: Extremely fast but very limited in size.
ˆ Purpose: Temporarily store instructions or data being processed.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

Figure 4: Memory hierarchy

2.2.2 Cache Memory

ˆ Definition: High-speed memory located close to the CPU.

ˆ Levels:

– L1 Cache: Smallest and fastest, located within the CPU core.

– L2 Cache: Larger and slower than L1, shared by cores or dedicated.
– L3 Cache: Largest and slowest, shared by all cores.
ˆ Purpose: Stores frequently accessed data to reduce delays caused by ac-
cessing main memory.

2.2.3 Main Memory (RAM)

ˆ Definition: Primary storage for active programs and data.

ˆ Characteristics: Larger than cache but slower and more affordable.

ˆ Purpose: Provides data to the CPU and acts as a buffer between cache and
secondary storage.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

2.2.4 Secondary Storage

ˆ Definition: Non-volatile storage for long-term data retention.

ˆ Examples: Hard drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical discs.

ˆ Characteristics: Larger in capacity but significantly slower than main

memory.
ˆ Purpose: Stores operating systems, applications, and user data.

2.2.5 Tertiary and Offline Storage

ˆ Definition: Removable or remote storage for archival purposes.

ˆ Examples: Magnetic tapes, external drives, and cloud storage.

ˆ Purpose: Used for backups, data archiving, and disaster recovery.

2.3 Memory Access Times and Performance

ˆ Registers: Nanoseconds (ns) range, fastest.

ˆ Cache Memory: Slightly slower than registers but faster than RAM.

ˆ Main Memory: Access times in the range of 10-100 ns.

ˆ Secondary Storage: Milliseconds (ms) range, significantly slower.

ˆ Tertiary Storage: Minutes or hours for retrieval in some cases.

2.4 Benefits of Memory Hierarchy

ˆ Cost-Effectiveness: Combines expensive high-speed memory with afford-
able large-capacity storage.
ˆ Performance Optimization: Reduces latency by keeping frequently ac-
cessed data in faster memory.
ˆ Scalability: Allows systems to handle varying workloads efficiently.

In conclusion the memory hierarchy is an essential design principle in mod-

ern computer systems, balancing speed, cost, and capacity. Understanding its
structure and functionality provides insights into optimizing computational per-
formance and efficient resource utilization.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

3 Motherboard
The motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer. It
serves as the backbone of the computer, connecting and allowing communica-
tion between all components, including the CPU, memory, storage devices, and
peripherals.

3.1 Key Components of a Motherboard

The motherboard includes several critical components that contribute to the func-
tionality and performance of the computer system:
ˆ CPU Socket: The CPU socket is where the central processing unit (CPU) is
installed. It ensures secure attachment and efficient communication between
the CPU and the motherboard.
ˆ Chipset: The chipset controls data flow between the CPU, memory, and
peripherals. It typically includes two parts:
– Northbridge: Handles communication between the CPU, RAM, and
graphics card.
– Southbridge: Manages connections to storage devices, I/O devices,
and other peripherals.
ˆ BIOS/UEFI Firmware: This firmware initializes hardware during the
boot process and provides an interface for system configuration.
ˆ Memory Slots: Slots for installing RAM modules. The number of slots
and supported types (e.g., DDR4, DDR5) vary by motherboard.
ˆ Expansion Slots: Used for installing additional cards, such as graphics
cards, sound cards, and network interface cards (NICs). Common types
include PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) slots.
ˆ Storage Interfaces: Connectors for storage devices, such as SATA (Serial
ATA) ports for HDDs and SSDs and M.2 slots for NVMe SSDs.
ˆ Power Connectors: Provide power to the motherboard and connected
components from the power supply unit (PSU).
ˆ I/O Ports: External connectors for peripherals, such as USB ports, HDMI
ports, Ethernet ports, and audio jacks.
The figure5 shows the layout of mother board in a PC.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

Figure 5: Mother Board

3.2 Motherboard Form Factors

Motherboards are available in various form factors, which determine their size,
layout, and compatibility with computer cases and components. Common form
factors include:
ˆ ATX (Advanced Technology Extended): The most common form fac-
tor, offering multiple expansion slots and ports.
ˆ Micro-ATX: A smaller version of ATX, with fewer expansion slots but more
compact.
ˆ Mini-ITX: A compact form factor suitable for small form factor (SFF) PCs.

ˆ Note:- Balanced technology extended(BTX), Socket technology extended(STX)

, Low-Profile EXtended (LPX), Information technology extended (ITX)

3.3 Importance of the Motherboard

The motherboard plays a crucial role in the functionality of a computer system
by:
ˆ Providing Connectivity: Acts as a central hub for all components to
communicate effectively.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

ˆ Enhancing Performance: Features like high-speed chipsets and support

for advanced technologies improve overall system performance.
ˆ Enabling Upgradability: Expansion slots and upgradeable components
allow users to enhance the system’s capabilities over time.

3.4 Popular manufacturers of the motherboard

ˆ ASUS
ˆ Intel
ˆ Gigabyte
ˆ MSI
ˆ ABIT

4 Computer Peripherals
Computer peripherals are external devices that are connected to a computer to
either provide input, retrieve output, or store data. They play a crucial role in
enhancing the functionality and usability of computer systems.

4.1 I/O Devices

Input and output devices allow users to interact with the computer. Examples
include:
ˆ Input Devices: Keyboard, mouse, scanner.
ˆ Output Devices: Monitor, printer, speakers.
Input/Output (I/O) devices are essential for user interaction with a computer
system. These devices facilitate data input, system interaction, and data output.

4.2 Input Devices

Input devices are used to send data or control signals to a computer system.
Examples include:
ˆ Keyboard: A primary device for entering text and commands.
ˆ Mouse: A pointing device used to interact with graphical user interfaces.
ˆ Scanner: Converts physical documents into digital format.
ˆ Microphone: Captures audio input for communication or recording.
ˆ Webcam: Captures video input for video calls or recordings.

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4.3 Output Devices

Output devices present data to the user. Examples include:
ˆ Monitor: Displays visual information to users.

ˆ Printer: Produces physical copies of digital documents.

ˆ Speakers: Output audio for entertainment or alerts.

ˆ Projectors: Display enlarged visual content for presentations.

4.4 Input-Output Devices

Some devices function as both input and output devices. Examples include:
ˆ Touchscreen: Allows both input via touch and output as a display.

ˆ External Storage Devices: Facilitate both data input and output.

ˆ Network Adapters: Enable data communication over networks.

5 Storage Devices
Storage devices are used to store data and programs. They can be categorized
into primary, secondary, and tertiary storage devices.

5.1 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a non-volatile storage device that uses magnetic
storage to store and retrieve digital information. It is one of the most common
storage mediums for computers, servers, and other devices due to its affordability
and high storage capacity.

5.1.1 Structure of an HDD

An HDD comprises the following key components:

ˆ Platters: Thin, circular disks coated with a magnetic material. Data is
stored in concentric circles called tracks, which are further divided into sec-
tors.
ˆ Read/Write Heads: Hover above the platter surfaces to read data by
detecting magnetic polarities and write data by altering the magnetization
of the surface.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

Figure 6: Hard Disk

Figure 7: Hard Disk Platter

ˆ Actuator Arm and Actuator Motor: The actuator arm holds the read/write
heads and moves them across the platters with precise positioning to access
specific data.
ˆ Spindle Motor: Spins the platters at constant speeds (e.g., 5400 RPM,
7200 RPM, or higher).

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

Figure 8: Hard Disk parts arrangement

Figure 9: Hard Disk Read/Write head

ˆ Controller Board: Manages data caching, error correction, and communi-

cation protocols between the computer and the HDD.
ˆ Enclosure: Protects sensitive components from dust and contaminants.

5.1.2 Working Principle

HDDs store data magnetically by encoding binary data (0s and 1s) as patterns
of magnetic fields on the platters.

5.1.3 Writing Data

1. Data is sent from the computer to the HDD controller.

2. The controller processes the data and directs the read/write head to the
appropriate platter and sector.

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3. The head alters the magnetic alignment of the platter surface to encode the
data.

5.1.4 Reading Data

1. The read/write head detects magnetic polarities on the platter.

2. These magnetic signals are converted into electrical signals and sent back to
the computer.

5.1.5 Data Access

ˆ The actuator arm positions the read/write heads over the required track.

ˆ The rotational motion of the platters ensures the desired sector passes under
the read/write head.

5.1.6 Key Features

5.1.7 Storage Capacity

HDDs offer a wide range of storage capacities, from a few hundred gigabytes (GB)
to tens of terabytes (TB).

5.1.8 Cost Efficiency

HDDs are more affordable per GB of storage compared to SSDs, making them an
economical choice for mass storage.

5.1.9 Durability and Longevity

While HDDs are durable under normal use, they are susceptible to physical dam-
age due to their moving parts.

5.1.10 Speed

HDDs are slower than solid-state drives (SSDs) in terms of data transfer rates
and access times because of their mechanical nature.

5.1.11 Types of HDDs

ˆ Desktop HDDs: Designed for personal computers with moderate storage

capacity and performance.
ˆ Enterprise HDDs: Built for servers and data centers, offering high relia-
bility, better performance, and longer lifespans.

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

ˆ Portable HDDs: External drives connected via USB or other interfaces for
convenient backup and portable data storage.
ˆ Hybrid HDDs (SSHDs): Combine traditional HDD storage with a small
amount of SSD storage to improve speed.

5.1.12 Advantages of HDDs

1. High storage capacity at a relatively low cost.

2. Cost-effective for mass storage applications.
3. Compatible with most modern and legacy systems.
4. Long lifespan under optimal conditions.

5.1.13 Disadvantages of HDDs

1. Slower speeds compared to SSDs.

2. Vulnerability to physical damage due to moving parts.
3. Higher power consumption.
4. Noise and heat generation during operation.

5.1.14 HDD vs. SSD

Feature HDD SSD

Speed Slower Much faster
Durability Susceptible to physical damage More durable (no moving parts)
Cost Lower cost per GB Higher cost per GB
Power Usage Higher Lower
Weight Heavier Lighter

Table 1: Comparison of HDD and SSD

5.1.15 Applications of HDDs

ˆ Personal Computing: Storing operating systems, applications, and per-

sonal files.
ˆ Enterprise Storage: Used in servers, data centers, and cloud storage for
large-scale data management.
ˆ Backup Solutions: Commonly used as external storage for backing up
critical data.
ˆ Media Storage: Ideal for storing large multimedia files, such as videos and
high-resolution images.

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5.1.16 Future of HDDs

While SSDs are gradually replacing HDDs in consumer-grade devices due to their
superior speed and durability, HDDs remain relevant for applications requiring
cost-effective, high-capacity storage. Advancements such as shingled magnetic
recording (SMR) and helium-filled drives are extending the relevance and lifespan
of HDDs in the storage market.

5.2 SSD Storage

Solid-State Drive (SSD) storage is a type of data storage device that uses NAND
flash memory (non-volatile memory) to store data persistently, even without
power. Unlike traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) that rely on spinning disks
and moving read/write heads, SSDs have no moving parts, making them faster,
more durable, and energy-efficient.

5.2.1 Key Components of SSDs

ˆ NAND Flash Memory: The primary storage medium where data is stored
in cells. These cells can be single-level (SLC), multi-level (MLC), triple-level
(TLC), or quad-level (QLC), based on how many bits are stored per cell.
More bits per cell reduce cost but affect speed, endurance, and reliability.
Figure 11 shows a floating gate transistor used in flash memory to store a
binary data.
ˆ Controller: The brain of the SSD, managing how data is read, written, and
erased. It includes features like error correction, wear leveling, and garbage
collection.
ˆ DRAM Cache: Temporary storage used to enhance speed by caching fre-
quently accessed data or metadata.

5.2.2 How SSDs Work

ˆ Writing Data: Data is written to pages within a block. If a block already

has data, it must first be erased before new data can be written.
ˆ Reading Data: The controller retrieves data stored in the cells.

ˆ Garbage Collection: Automatically reclaims space from blocks with in-

valid data to prepare them for reuse.
ˆ Wear Leveling: Distributes write/erase cycles evenly across cells to extend
the drive’s lifespan.

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Figure 10: Block Diagram of a Solid state hard disk

Figure 11: Floating Gate Transistor

5.2.3 Advantages of SSDs

ˆ Speed: Offers significantly faster read/write speeds compared to HDDs.

ˆ Durability: No moving parts make SSDs resistant to physical shocks and

vibrations.
ˆ Energy Efficiency: Consumes less power, improving battery life in laptops.

ˆ Noise-Free Operation: Completely silent due to the absence of spinning

disks or moving heads.
ˆ Compact Size: Ideal for slim devices like ultrabooks and tablets.

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5.2.4 Disadvantages of SSDs

ˆ Cost: More expensive per GB compared to HDDs, although prices have

decreased over time.
ˆ Limited Write Cycles: NAND cells have a finite number of program/erase
cycles. Modern SSDs mitigate this with wear leveling and advanced algo-
rithms.
ˆ Storage Capacity: Typically offers lower storage capacities compared to
HDDs at the same price point.

5.2.5 Common Use Cases for SSDs

ˆ Personal Use: Laptops, desktops, gaming systems for faster boot times
and quick data access.
ˆ Enterprise Use: Servers and data centers for high-speed data access and
reduced latency.
ˆ Creative Professionals: Video editing, 3D rendering, and high-resolution
image processing.
ˆ Embedded Systems: IoT devices, smart appliances, and industrial au-
tomation.

5.3 Optical Drives

Optical drives use a laser beam to read or write data. The surface of an optical
disc contains tiny pits and lands (flat areas), which encode data in binary form
(0s and 1s). Pits and lands do not directly represent 0s and 1s but are interpreted
based on transitions. A laser beam is directed onto the spinning disc. When the
laser hits a land, it reflects strongly into a sensor. When the laser hits a pit,
the light scatters, reducing reflection. Transitions (pit to land or land to pit)
represent binary ”1”, while no transition represents binary ”0”
Figure 12 shows the optical system used in CD and DVD for reading and
writing the data.

ˆ Reading Data: A low-powered laser beam scans the surface of the disc.
When the beam hits a pit, it reflects differently compared to when it hits
a land. A photodetector captures these reflections and converts them into
electrical signals, which are processed as digital data.
ˆ Writing Data: A high-powered laser beam alters the surface of the disc
to create pits. This process is common in writable or rewritable discs (e.g.,
CD-R, DVD-R, Blu-ray BD-R).

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5.3.1 Components of an Optical Drive

ˆ Laser Diode: Generates the laser beam to read or write data.

ˆ Lens System: Focuses the laser beam on the disc surface.
ˆ Spindle Motor: Rotates the disc at a high speed.
ˆ Tracking Mechanism: Moves the laser assembly precisely across the disc’s
surface.
ˆ Photodetector: Detects reflected light and converts it into electrical sig-
nals.

Figure 12: Optical system used in CD and DVD

5.3.2 Types of Optical Drives

ˆ CD Drive
– Capacity: Up to 700 MB.
– Use: Mostly used for music, small software programs, and basic data
storage.
– Formats: CD-ROM (Read-Only), CD-R (Recordable), CD-RW (Rewritable).
ˆ DVD Drive
– Capacity: Up to 4.7 GB for single-layer discs, 8.5 GB for dual-layer
discs.

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– Use: Movies, software, games, and larger data storage.

– Formats: DVD-ROM, DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-
RAM.
ˆ Blu-ray Drive

– Capacity: 25 GB for single-layer discs, 50 GB for dual-layer discs.

– Use: High-definition (HD) video, large-scale backups, gaming.
– Formats: BD-ROM, BD-R, BD-RE (Rewritable).

5.3.3 Advantages

ˆ Cost-Effective Storage: Optical discs are cheap and ideal for archiving.

ˆ Durability: Resistant to water, dust, and electromagnetic interference.

ˆ Portability: Lightweight and easy to carry.

5.3.4 Limitations

ˆ Lower Storage Capacity: Compared to USB drives, SSDs, and cloud

storage.
ˆ Slower Speeds: Reading and writing data is slower than modern alterna-
tives.
ˆ Fragility of Discs: Scratches or damage can make discs unreadable.

ˆ Obsolescence: Optical drives are becoming less common as digital down-

loads and streaming services dominate.

5.3.5 Applications

ˆ Entertainment: Watching movies or listening to music.

ˆ Software Distribution: Installing operating systems or software from discs.

ˆ Backup Storage: Archiving important documents or media files.

ˆ Gaming: Especially for older game consoles like PlayStation 3 or Xbox 360.

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5.3.6 HDD Vs SSD Vs Optical Drive

HDD (Hard Disk SSD (Solid State

Feature Optical Drive
Drive) Drive)
Moderate (100–200 Very Fast (500 MB/s
Speed Slow (1–30 MB/s)
MB/s) to several GB/s)
Limited (CD: 700MB,
Storage Capac- Large (500GB to Moderate to Large
DVD: 4.7–8.5GB, Blu-
ity 20TB+) (128GB to 8TB)
ray: 25–100GB)
Discs can get
Prone to mechanical More durable, no
Durability scratched, but drive is
failure moving parts
durable
More expensive than
Cost per GB Cheapest option Low per-disc cost
HDD
Power Con- Low (only when in
High Low, more efficient
sumption use)
Discs are portable,
Lightweight and com-
Portability Portable but fragile but drives are less
pact
common
Media playback, back-
Bulk storage, gaming, OS, high-performance
Usage ups, software installa-
media libraries computing, gaming
tion
Shorter due to me- Longer, limited by Discs degrade over
Lifespan
chanical wear write cycles time, drives last long

Table 2: Comparison of HDD, SSD, and Optical Drives

6 Communication and device management

I/O (Input/Output) communication and device management are crucial com-
ponents of an operating system (OS), ensuring smooth interaction between the
computer and its peripheral devices. It provides a detailed explanation of these
concepts.

6.1 I/O Communication

I/O communication refers to the exchange of data between the computer system
(CPU, memory) and its peripheral devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse, printers, hard
disks, network cards). The OS acts as an intermediary to manage this communi-
cation.

6.2 Components of I/O Communication

ˆ I/O Devices: The physical hardware (e.g., monitors, USB drives).

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ˆ Device Controllers: Hardware interfaces that connect devices to the com-

puter. Controllers perform low-level operations like sending or receiving
data.
ˆ I/O Ports: Logical communication channels used by the OS to access device
controllers.
ˆ Communication Protocols: Rules for data exchange (e.g., USB, SATA,
PCIe).

6.3 Techniques for I/O Communication

ˆ Programmed I/O (Polling):

– The CPU actively waits for the I/O device to become ready by contin-
uously checking its status.
– Suitable for simple devices but inefficient due to CPU idling.
ˆ Interrupt-Driven I/O:

– Devices send an interrupt signal to the CPU when ready to transfer data.
– More efficient as the CPU can perform other tasks while waiting for I/O.
ˆ Direct Memory Access (DMA):

– A specialized hardware mechanism allowing devices to transfer data di-

rectly to/from memory without CPU intervention.
– Reduces CPU workload and speeds up data transfer.
ˆ Memory-Mapped I/O:

– Certain memory addresses are assigned to device controllers, allowing the

CPU to interact with devices as though they were memory locations.
ˆ Port-Mapped I/O:

– Devices have dedicated I/O ports accessed using specific instructions

(e.g., in and out in assembly language).

7 Device Management
Device management refers to how the operating system manages hardware de-
vices to ensure efficient and secure operation. It involves the allocation of re-
sources, handling device drivers, and maintaining communication between the
CPU and devices. The main responsibilities of Device Management are Device

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Identification, Device Allocation, Device Scheduling, Error Handling and Device

Deallocation.
In conclusion, I/O communication and device management are critical to en-
suring that computer systems can efficiently interact with external devices. By
leveraging device drivers, communication protocols, and scheduling algorithms,
the OS provides a seamless interface between hardware and software.

8 Interfacing cards
Interfacing cards, also known as interface cards or expansion cards, are hard-
ware components that allow computers to connect with external devices or other
hardware components. These cards are typically inserted into expansion slots on
a computer’s motherboard and extend the system’s functionality. They enable
communication with peripherals such as printers, storage devices, displays, or
network equipment.

8.1 Types of Interfacing Cards

There are various types of interfacing cards that serve different functions. Below
are some common types:

8.1.1 Network Interface Cards (NICs)

Network Interface Cards enable computers to connect to networks (LANs, the

internet, etc.) for data exchange.

ˆ Ethernet NIC: Used for wired network connections.

ˆ Wireless NIC: Used for Wi-Fi or wireless network connections.

Protocols Supported: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.

Ports: RJ45 (Ethernet), Wireless Antennas (Wi-Fi).

8.1.2 Graphics Cards (GPUs)

Graphics cards are used to render images, video, and animations on a monitor.
They are crucial for high-end gaming, video editing, 3D modeling, and other
graphics-intensive tasks.

ˆ Integrated Graphics: Built into the motherboard or CPU.

ˆ Dedicated Graphics: A separate card with higher performance.

Ports: HDMI, DisplayPort, VGA, DVI.

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8.1.3 Sound Cards

Sound cards process audio signals, converting digital data into analog sound
waves. They are used to improve sound quality and provide additional audio
input/output options.

ˆ Integrated Sound: Built into the motherboard.

ˆ Dedicated Sound Cards: Provide higher audio quality and surround

sound support.

Ports: 3.5mm audio jacks, optical audio, MIDI ports.

8.1.4 Storage Interface Cards

Storage interface cards allow the connection between the computer and external
storage devices like hard drives, SSDs, and optical drives.

ˆ SATA Controllers: For connecting internal storage devices.

ˆ RAID Cards: Manage multiple storage drives for performance improve-

ment or redundancy.

Ports: SATA, SCSI, eSATA.

8.1.5 USB Interface Cards

These cards add additional USB ports to a system when the computer has limited
USB connectivity.

ˆ USB 2.0 Cards: Older, slower transfer rates.

ˆ USB 3.0/3.1 Cards: Faster data transfer rates.

Ports: USB-A, USB-C, USB 3.0.

8.1.6 FireWire (IEEE 1394) Cards

FireWire cards provide high-speed data transfer, especially in applications like

audio/video processing.

ˆ FireWire 400: Older version with lower data transfer speeds.

ˆ FireWire 800: Newer version with faster transfer rates.

Ports: FireWire 400, FireWire 800.

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8.1.7 TV Tuner Cards

TV tuner cards allow a computer to receive television signals, enabling it to

function as a TV receiver.

ˆ Analog TV Tuner Cards: Support for analog TV signals.

ˆ Digital TV Tuner Cards: Support for digital TV signals like DVB-T,

ATSC.

Ports: Antenna or cable input, USB connection.

8.1.8 Bluetooth Cards

Bluetooth interface cards provide Bluetooth connectivity, allowing wireless com-

munication with Bluetooth-enabled devices.

ˆ Integrated Bluetooth: Built into the motherboard.

ˆ Dedicated Bluetooth: A separate expansion card providing Bluetooth

functionality.

Ports: USB ports or internal headers for integration.

In conclusion, Interfacing cards are crucial components that extend the func-
tionality of a computer, enabling it to communicate with external devices or en-
hance specific tasks such as networking, graphics processing, and audio enhance-
ment. They are essential for building or upgrading computers to meet specific
needs.

9 Buses
A bus in computer architecture is a set of physical pathways used to transfer
data, addresses and control signals between various components of the system,
such as the processor (CPU), memory and peripheral devices. A bus is a collection
of electrical pathways that allow data to flow between various components of a
computer system. Buses are essential for communication between different parts
of a computer and play a crucial role in the overall performance of a system.

9.1 Types of Buses

Buses in a computer system can be divided into several types, based on their
function. These include:

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9.1.1 Data Bus

The data bus is responsible for transferring the actual data between the CPU,
memory, and peripheral devices. It is a bidirectional bus, meaning that data can
travel in both directions—either from the CPU to memory or from memory to
the CPU. The width of the data bus, typically measured in bits (e.g., 8, 16, 32,
or 64 bits), determines how much data can be transferred at once. A wider data
bus allows for faster data transfer, enhancing the system’s overall performance.

9.1.2 Address Bus

The address bus carries the address of the memory location or the I/O device
where data should be read from or written to. Unlike the data bus, the address
bus is unidirectional, meaning it transmits data in one direction only, from the
CPU to memory or peripherals. The size of the address bus (in bits) determines
how many memory locations the system can address. For example, a 32-bit
address bus can address 232 memory locations.

9.1.3 Control Bus

The control bus is responsible for sending control signals to manage the operations
of the CPU, memory, and other components. It provides signals such as:
ˆ Read/Write signal: Indicates whether data is being read from or written
to memory.
ˆ Clock signal: Synchronizes the system’s operations.

ˆ Interrupt signal: Notifies the CPU of events or requests from external

devices.
ˆ Reset signal: Resets the system or a device.

9.2 How a Bus Works

A bus cycle involves several steps to transfer data between components:
1. Address Phase: The CPU places the address of the memory location or
I/O device on the address bus.
2. Control Phase: The CPU sends control signals via the control bus, indi-
cating the type of operation (read/write).
3. Data Phase: Data is transferred across the data bus. If it’s a read opera-
tion, data flows from memory to the CPU. In a write operation, data flows
from the CPU to memory.

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9.3 Bus Standards

Various bus standards exist depending on the type of communication required:
ˆ PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): A high-speed bus stan-
dard for connecting peripherals such as sound cards and network cards.
ˆ USB (Universal Serial Bus): A serial bus standard for connecting exter-
nal devices like keyboards, mice, and printers.
ˆ SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment): A bus standard
for connecting storage devices like hard drives and SSDs.
ˆ PCIe (PCI Express): A high-speed bus standard for devices such as graph-
ics cards and SSDs.
ˆ IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics): An older standard used for con-
necting storage devices.
In conclusion, buses are fundamental components of computer systems, en-
abling communication between the CPU, memory, and peripheral devices. By
understanding the different types of buses, bus architectures, and how buses
function, it becomes clear how essential they are for efficient data transfer and
overall system performance. Advances in bus design and optimization continue
to improve computing speeds, handling greater amounts of data and devices with
minimal contention.

10 Firmware
Firmware refers to a specialized type of software that provides low-level control for
a device’s hardware. It is a set of instructions or programs that are permanently or
semi-permanently stored in a hardware device, such as a microcontroller, memory
chip, or any device with embedded systems. Unlike regular software that can
be installed, uninstalled, or updated by the user, firmware is often embedded
directly into the device’s read-only memory (ROM) or flash memory. It provides
the necessary instructions for the device to perform basic functions and interface
with other hardware components.

10.1 Types of Firmware

There are various forms of firmware, depending on the device and its purpose:

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GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING, Module-1 CE Munnar

10.1.1 Boot Firmware

This firmware is responsible for initializing hardware components when a device

powers up. It’s often stored in a read-only memory (ROM) chip and executes the
first tasks that prepare the device for operation.

10.1.2 System Firmware

This provides a more extensive set of functionalities, such as managing interac-

tions between the device’s hardware and its operating system (e.g., BIOS or UEFI
in computers).

10.1.3 Application Firmware

This type of firmware runs applications or services on embedded systems and

controls the device’s features, such as controlling a smart home device, camera,
or smartwatch.

10.1.4 Device-Specific Firmware

Found in specific devices like printers, network adapters, or consumer electronics.

It allows the device to function and communicate with other devices or systems.

10.2 Firmware vs. Software

ˆ Firmware is more closely tied to the hardware and provides low-level con-
trol, while software generally refers to applications that run on an operating
system and interact with the hardware indirectly.
ˆ Firmware typically doesn’t interact with the user directly but enables the
hardware to function correctly.
ˆ Software can be easily updated, while firmware updates tend to be more
complex, often requiring special procedures.

10.3 Examples of Firmware in Use

ˆ BIOS/UEFI in Computers: This firmware controls the basic functions
of a computer before the operating system starts.
ˆ Smartphone Firmware: This controls low-level features like screen touch
recognition, camera operation, and hardware integration.
ˆ Printer Firmware: Manages print jobs, ink levels, and communication
with the computer.

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ˆ Networking Devices (Routers, Switches): Firmware enables the device

to manage network traffic, security protocols, and other network features.

In conclusion, Firmware is a critical component in modern devices, enabling the

hardware to function efficiently. It is embedded into devices to provide low-level
control and is often more stable and secure than traditional software. However,
its limited flexibility and update process can present challenges, requiring users
to be cautious when performing firmware updates.

11 Boot process
The boot process refers to the sequence of steps a computer follows to load the
operating system (OS) into memory, starting from a powered-off state until the
system is ready for use. The process involves hardware initialization, loading the
OS kernel, and starting system services.

11.1 Steps in the Boot Process

11.1.1 Power On

When a computer is powered on, the power supply unit (PSU) provides power
to the motherboard, CPU, RAM, and other hardware components. The CPU
immediately takes control of the initial process.

11.1.2 POST (Power-On Self Test)

The system undergoes a self-test known as the POST, where the CPU checks
essential hardware components like the CPU, RAM, and storage devices to ensure
they are functioning correctly. If any issues are detected, an error message or beep
code is emitted.

11.1.3 BIOS/UEFI Initialization

After POST, the system searches for the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface). BIOS is the older standard,
while UEFI is a modern alternative offering advanced features like secure boot.
The BIOS/UEFI initializes hardware and manages the boot sequence by selecting
which device to boot from (e.g., hard drive, USB, CD/DVD, or network).

11.1.4 Bootloader Phase

The BIOS/UEFI looks for a bootloader stored on the selected boot device. In
legacy systems, the bootloader resides in the MBR (Master Boot Record), while
UEFI systems store it in the EFI partition. The bootloader is responsible for

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loading the operating system kernel into memory and passing control to the OS
kernel.

11.1.5 Loading the Operating System Kernel

The bootloader loads the operating system kernel (e.g., vmlinuz in Linux or
[Link] in Windows) into memory. After the kernel is loaded, it initializes
the system’s memory management, device drivers, and other essential infrastruc-
ture. The kernel takes control of the system and prepares it for full operation.

11.1.6 Kernel Initialization

Once the kernel is loaded, it sets up system services such as memory management
(paging, segmentation), the process scheduler, and mounts the root file system.
The kernel also initializes essential hardware drivers, allowing the OS to interact
with devices like the keyboard, mouse, display, and storage devices.

11.1.7 System Services (init Process or Windows Session Manager)

After kernel initialization, the init process (on Unix/Linux systems) or the Win-
dows Session Manager begins running. The init process is responsible for launch-
ing additional system services and background processes, such as network con-
figuration, system daemons(Programs that run in background), and user login
services.

11.1.8 Login and User Space Initialization

Once the essential system services are up and running, the user is presented with
a login prompt or login screen. After the user logs in, their environment (desktop,
preferences, etc.) is initialized.

11.1.9 Running User Applications

After the login process, the user can start running applications, and the system
is fully operational. At this stage, the OS manages resources like memory, CPU,
and storage, allowing the user to interact with the system and run programs.

11.2 Summary of Key Boot Process Stages

ˆ Power On: Initial power supply to the system.

ˆ POST: Hardware self-test to verify basic functionality.

ˆ BIOS/UEFI Initialization: Low-level hardware initialization and boot

device selection.

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ˆ Bootloader: Loads the OS kernel from the boot device.

ˆ Kernel Initialization: OS kernel is loaded and essential system infrastruc-

ture is set up.
ˆ System Services: Launching of critical system processes and user-space
services.
ˆ Login: User authentication and environment setup.

ˆ User Applications: System ready for user interaction with running appli-
cations.

In conclusion, the boot process is a crucial procedure that ensures a computer is

correctly initialized and ready for use. Each stage in the boot process is essential
to the proper functioning of the system, from hardware checks to loading the
operating system and user applications.

Dr. Biju V.G. Page 34 Associate Professor & Head, ECE