THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF CIVIL SOCIETY PROTEST IN THE USA DURING THE 1960S: ESSAY
BACKGROUND - ROSA PARKS AND MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT
In 1955 Rosa Parks, a civil rights activist, refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a bus,
ignoring the segregation laws of the time.
She was arrested and convicted of breaking segregation
In response, the Montgomery Improvement Association, under the leadership of Martin Luther King,
organized a boycott of the city’s bus service in 1956.
The boycott lasted a year with people either walking to work or sharing lifts.
White racists tried to crush the boycotts by setting churches in black communities on fire
Result:
The Bus company lost about 65% of its profits
In December 1956, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on buses was illegal and buses were
desegregated the next
The bus boycott revealed the power African Americans could have if they joined together
SIT-INS:
In January 1960, a group of 4 students sat down at a ‘whites only’ lunch counter in Greensboro
They were abused and attacked but they refused to move until they were served
Their action inspired others and the sit-ins spread to other Southern states and lasted for more than a
year.
Students also organized kneel-ins at churches, read-ins at public libraries, play-ins at city parks
Result:
The sit-ins showed that mass non-violent protest could be successful and brought national media
attention to the civil rights movement
In the summer of 1961 businesses in Greensboro desegregated
A few weeks later, six lunch counters in Nashville changed their policy on segregation and
desegregated their counters and started to serve anyone regardless of their colour.
Students from across the country became actively involved in the CRM
FREEDOM RIDES:
Although segregation on buses had been ruled unconstitutional, segregation was still practiced in the
Southern states
The Freedom Riders were organized In 1961 by the SNCC and CORE
Groups of white and black American civil rights activists travelled together across state lines from the
North to the South to protest segregation on buses and at bus terminals
Freedom Riders also tried to use “whites-only” restrooms and lunch counters at bus stations in
Alabama, South Carolina and other Southern states.
Many of the Riders were savagely attacked by groups of angry whites, who also set fire to buses.
The protests spread to train stations and airports.
Result:
They received a great deal of publicity, making Americans aware of segregation on public transport
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The failure of police to protect the protestors forced the Kennedy Administration to get involved and
the interstate bus system was desegregated in November 1961
MARCHES
Civil rights campaigners held protest marches to get support and publicity for their cause
BIRMINGHAM MARCH:
In April 1963 Martin Luther King and the SCLC embarked on a protest campaign in Birmingham,
Alabama to draw attention to ongoing segregation in the town.
Protestors were attacked with high pressure water hoses, tear gas, dogs and electric cattle prods.
Over a thousand marchers were arrested including Martin Luther King
King took a controversial decision to enlist school children to join the campaign - this became known
as the “Children’s Crusade” (May).
Commissioner of Public Safety, Bull Connor ordered high pressure hoses to be used against the
children
Over 500 children arrested and jailed.
Result:
News reports and photographs of police brutality were shown all over the USA.
President Kennedy went on television and declared that racial segregation had no place in America
Kennedy ordered the governor of Alabama to release the protestors and end segregation
Birmingham business leaders decided that the protest was bad for business and agreed to
desegregate facilities.
Birmingham campaign marked the change in the Civil Rights Movement from a protest movement to a
mass movement demanding fundamental change
WASHINGTON –LINCOLN MEMORIAL MARCH
Civil Rights Campaigners embarked on another march in August 1963 - “March for Jobs and
Freedom”
More than 250 000 attended the march
Martin Luther King delivered his “I have a dream “speech.
Result:
In response to the march, Kennedy proposed a law to end discrimination.
However, Kennedy was assassinated in the November of 1963 and Lyndon B Johnson signed the
Civil Rights Act on 2 July 1964.
The Civil Rights Act banned segregation based on race, colour, religion or national origin.
FREEDOM SUMMER
In 1964 black and white civil rights campaigners launched a voter registration drive in the South.
Thousands of activists drove through the Southern States encouraging African Americans to register
to vote
They also opened Freedom schools in Mississippi to address racial inequalities in Mississippi’s
education system.
The Freedom Schools taught basic literacy and black history, and emphasised black pride and
achievements.
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Hundreds of Freedom Summer workers were threatened, beaten and arrested, and six were
murdered.
Result:
As a result of their efforts 60 000 new voters were registered
The Freedom summer brought national attention to the subject of the lack of voting rights for African
Americans and led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965
SELMA MONTGOMERY MARCH:
In March 1965 Martin Luther King held a campaign in Selma, Alabama in an effort to register more
black voters in the South.
Protestors were attacked and a young black man died as a result of police brutality.
In response, a protest march was planned from Selma to Montgomery
The protestors were confronted by policy and attacked with batons, cattle prods and whips (became
known as Bloody Sunday).
A second attempt to march – they were once again confronted by state police and turned back
3rd attempt was successful – a crowd of about 25 000 (they were protected by federal troops)
Result:
The widespread publicity of the march gained support for the Civil Rights Movement and contributed
to the Voting Rights Act which was passed later that year (1965)
This Act removed all restrictions on black voters so that every American citizen had equal right to
vote.
The Civil Rights movement had achieved its aim of equality before the law
