Module – 01

Electric circuits
• Basic Terminology • Waveform Terminology
• Ohm’s Law • Pure R, Pure L, Pure C Circuits
• Resistors – Series & Parallel • RL, RC, RLC Circuits
• Voltage and Current Division Rule • 3-phase Circuits
• Kirchoff’s Laws
• Mesh Analysis
• Nodal Analysis
• Star-Delta Conversion

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 1

 Basic Terminology
• Electric Charge
• Fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience force in an electromagnetic
field
• Can be positive or negative depending on the number of electrons
• Denoted by symbol ‘q’ and measured in Coulombs (C)
• 1 Coulomb = Charge on 6.28 x 1018 electrons
• 1 q = 1.6 x 10-19 C

• Electric Potential
• The ability of the charged body to do work is electric potential
• The charged body has the capacity to do, by moving the other charges by either attraction
ot repulsion
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊)
• 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑞)
• Unit of electric potential is Joule/Coulomb
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 2
 Basic Terminology
• Potential Difference
• The difference in the potential of two charged bodies is potential difference
• Unit is Voltage = J/C
• Analogy: Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to
flow through the pipe

• Electric Current
• Rate of flow of charges through a predetermined area of conductor with respect to time
is electric current
• It is caused by drift of carriers to a particular direction
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑞)
• 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
• Unit is Ampere = C/s
• Analogy: Electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe
• Conventional current flows Dr.
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 Basic Terminology
• Power
• Rate of flow of electrical energy with respect to time is power
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊) 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
• 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = ×
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

• Unit is Watt = J/s

• Power = Voltage x Current

• Electrical Energy
• Capacity to do work
𝑡
• 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 𝑃. 𝑑𝑡
• Unit is Joule

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 4

 Basic Terminology
• Resistance
• Property of a material due to which the flow of electric current is opposed or restricted
• Resistance depends on following parameters:
• Length and Cross-sectional area of the material
• Nature of the material
• Temperature of the material
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 ×𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑙)
• 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑅) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
• Unit is Ohm (Ω)
• A material is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm, if it permits 1 ampere current to flow
through it when 1 volt is impressed across its terminals
• Conductance
• Inverse of resistance is conductance
• Unit is mho (℧) or Siemens (S)
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 5
 Basic Terminology
• Electric Network
• Interconnection of electrical elements that may or may not have a closed path

• Electric Circuit
• Interconnection of electrical elements but it must have at least one independent source
and one closed path
• Closed loop of electrical components that allows electrons to flow and provides a return
path for current
• all electric circuits are electric networks" but the converse need not be true.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 6

 Types of Network Elements
Based on Ability to deliver power
• Active Element
• Active elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active
elements have the capability of both delivering and absorbing power
• Examples: Voltage sources and Current sources

• Passive Elements
• Passive elements can not deliver power to other elements, however they can absorb
power. That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat, or store
energy in the form of either magnetic field or electric field
• Examples: Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 7
 Types of Network Elements
Based on Characteristic to obey the property of Linearity
• Linear Element
• Linear elements are elements that show linear relationship between voltage and
current
• Examples: Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors

• Non-Linear Elements
• Non-Linear elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage
and current
• Examples:Voltage sources and Current sources

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 8

 Types of Network Elements
Based on Direction of flow of current
• Unilateral Element
• Unilateral elements are those elements that allow current in only one direction.
Hence, they offer different resistances in both directions
Z1
• Examples: Diodes

Z2

• Bilateral Elements
• Bilateral elements are elements that allow current to flow in both directions. They
offer same resistance in either direction of current flow.
• Examples: Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors Z

Z
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 9
 Types of Network Elements
Based on Size of the element
• Lumped Element
• Element which is concentrated at a single point , and can be separated from the circuit
• Physical size of the element is smaller than the wavelength of applied voltage and current
• Voltage and current of elements are function of time alone
• Examples: Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors

• Distributed Elements
• Element which is distributed all along the circuit, and cannot be separated from the circuit
• Physical size is comparable to the wavelength of applied voltage and current
• Voltage and current of elements are function of both space and time
• Examples: Transmission line

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 10

 Ohm’s Law
• George Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between voltage and current.

• At constant temperature, the voltage across a conducting material is directly

proportional to the current flowing through the material
• Mathematically, 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 or 𝑉 = 𝑅. 𝐼
• Constant of proportionality is R, called resistance of the material

• Limitations of Ohm’s Law:

• Not applicable to non-metallic conductors, e.g. Silicon carbide
• Not applicable to non-linear devices like diode, transistor
• Not applicable if temperature changes
Graphical representation
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 11
 Ohm’s Law
An electric heater draws 8A from 250V supply. What is the power rating? Also, find the
resistance of the heater element.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 12

 Ohm’s Law
An electric heater draws 8A from 250V supply. What is the power rating? Also, find the
resistance of the heater element.

Solution:
Power rating, P = V x I = 8 x 250 = 2000W
Resistance, R = V/I = 250/8 = 31.25Ω

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 13

 Ohm’s Law
What will be the current drawn by a lamp rated at 250V, 40W, connected to a 230V supply

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 14

 Ohm’s Law
What will be the current drawn by a lamp rated at 250V, 40W, connected to a 230V supply

Solution:
Resistance of lamp, R = V2/P = 2502/40 = 1562.5Ω
Current, I = V/R = 230/1562.5 = 0.1472A

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 15

 Ohm’s Law
A battery has an emf of 12.8V and supplies a current of 3.24A. What is the resistance of the
circuit? How many coulombs leave the battery in 5 minutes?

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 16

 Ohm’s Law
A battery has an emf of 12.8V and supplies a current of 3.24A. What is the resistance of the
circuit? How many coulombs leave the battery in 5 minutes?

Solution:
Resistance, R = V/I = 12.8/3.24 = 3.95Ω
Charge flowing in 5 minutes = Current x time in seconds = 3.24 x 5 x 60 = 972C

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 17

 Kirchoff’s Laws
• Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

• The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed loop at any instant is equal to zero

• A loop is a path that terminates at the same node where it started from

• Mathematically, σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑉𝑁 = 0

VN is the nth element’s voltage in a loop, N is the number of elements in the loop

• KVL can also be expressed as “The algebraic sum of voltage sources is equal to the
algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop”

• Algebraic sum of voltages means the magnitude and direction of the voltages

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 18

 Kirchoff’s Laws
• Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) Example:

• According to the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, the algebraic sum of all these voltage is zero
• VS + (-V1) + (-V2) + (-V3) = 0
• VS - V1 - V2 - V3 = 0 or VS = V1 + V2 + V3

• KVL is law of conservation of energy

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 19

 Kirchoff’s Laws
• Find the current (I) and the voltage drop across 15Ω resistor

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 20

 Kirchoff’s Laws
• Find the current (I) and the voltage drop across 15Ω resistor

Solution
• Applying sign convention,
• As per KVL,
5V – V1 – V2 – 2V – V3 = 0
3V = V1 + V2 + V3 -----------> (1)
• According to Ohm’s Law, V1 = I.R1, V2 = I.R2, V3 = I.R3
• Substituting in (1), 3V = I(5) + I(10) + I(15)
• Solving for I, we get I = 0.1A

• Voltage across 15Ω resistor = I.R = I x 15Ω = 0.1A x 15Ω

• Solving,we get V15Ω = 1.5V
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 21
 Kirchoff’s Laws
• Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL):

• The algebraic sum of branch currents at a node at any instant of time is equal to zero

• A node is a point in the circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected.

• Mathematically, σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝐼𝑁 = 0

IN is the nth current at a node, N is the number of branches connected to node

• KVL can also be expressed as “The algebraic sum of currents flowing towards a junction
is equal to the sum of currents flowing away from the junction”

• Algebraic sum of voltages means the magnitude and direction of the voltages

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 22

 Kirchoff’s Laws
• Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KCL) Example:

• According to the Kirchhoff’s Current Law, the algebraic sum of all these current is zero
• I1 + I2 + I3 + (– I4) + (– I5) = 0
• I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0 or I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5

• KCL is law of conservation of charge

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 23

 Kirchoff’s Laws
• For the given circuit, find the current I6

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 24

 Kirchoff’s Laws
• For the given circuit, find the current I6

Solution:
• Applying KCL at node A, I1 + I4 = I2
Substituting and solving, we get I2 = 1A

• Applying KCL at node C, I2 + I5 = I3

Substituting and solving, we get I3 = -3A

• Applying KCL at node B, I3 + I6 = I1 ➔ I1 – I3 = I6

Substituting and solving, we get I6 = 5A

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 25

 Combination of Resistors
• Closed path followed a direct current is called a DC circuit.

• A DC circuit essentially consists of a source of DC power (e.g. battery, DC generator, etc.),

conductors to carry current and the load.

• The load for DC circuit is usually a resistance.

• In a DC circuits, load may be connected in series, parallel or a combination of series and

parallel.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 26

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Circuit in which resistors are connected end to end so that there is one path for the current
flow is called series circuit. The voltage source is connected across the free ends

• In the above circuit, there is only one closed path, so only one current flows through all the
elements. In other words, if current is same through all the resistors, the combination is
called series combination

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 27

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• To find equivalent resistance:

• Let V = applied voltage, I – Source current = Current through each element

V1, V2, V3 are the voltage across R1, R2, R3 respectively

• By Ohm’s Law, V1 = I.R1, V2 = I.R2, V3 = I.R3

• By Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, V = V1 + V2 + V3 = I.R1 + I.R2 + I.R3

= I.(R1 + R2 + R3) = [Link]

• Therefore, equivalent resistance (Req) = R1 + R2 + R3

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 28

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Concepts of Series Circuit:
• The current is same through all elements
• The voltage is distributed. The voltage across the resistor is directly proportional to the
current and resistance
• The equivalent resistance (RT) is greater than the greatest individual resistance of that
combination
• Voltage drops are additive
• Powers are additive
• The applied voltage is equal to the sum of different voltage drops

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 29

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Applications of Series Circuit:

• When variable voltage is given to the load, a variable resistor is connected in series with
the load. E.g.: Fan regulator is connected in series with the fan

• The series combination is used where many lamp of low voltages are to be operated on
the main supply. E.g.: Decoration lights

• When a load of low voltage is to be operated on a high voltage supply, a fixed value of
resistance is connected in series with the load

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 30

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Disadvantages of Series Circuit:

• If a break occurs at any point in the circuit, no current will flow and the entire circuit
becomes useless

• If 5 number of lamps, each rated 230V are to be connected in series circuit, then the
supply voltage must be 5 x 230 = 1150V. But, voltage available for lighting circuit in each
and every house is only 230V. Hence, series circuit is not practicable for lighting circuits

• Since electrical devices have different current ratings, they cannot be connected in
series for efficient operation

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 31

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Three resistors 30Ω, 25Ω and 45Ω are connected in series across 200V. Calculate (i)
Equivalent resistance, (ii) Current, (iii) Potential difference across each element

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 32

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Three resistors 30Ω, 25Ω and 45Ω are connected in series across 200V. Calculate (i)
Equivalent resistance, (ii) Current, (iii) Potential difference across each element

Solution:

• Equivalent resistance: Req = R1 + R2 + R3 = 30Ω + 25Ω + 45Ω = 100Ω

• Current, I = V/Req = 200V/100Ω = 2A

• Potential difference across each element, V = I.R

V30Ω = 2A x 30Ω = 60V;
V25Ω = 2A x 25Ω = 50V;
V45Ω = 2A x 45Ω = 90V

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 33

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Find the value of ‘R’ in the circuit diagram, given below

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 34

 Resistors in Series (Series Combination)
• Find the value of ‘R’ in the circuit diagram, given below

Solution:

• We know, I = V1/R1 = 100V/50Ω = 2A

• Similarly, V2 = I.R2 = 2A x 10Ω = 20V

• By KVL, V3 = V – V1 – V2 = 200V – 100V – 20V = 80V

• Again, R = V3/I = 80V/2A = 40Ω

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 35

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• Circuit in one end of all the resistors are joined to a common point and the other ends are
joined to another common point is said to be parallel combination.

• In the above circuit, when the voltage source is applied to the common points, the voltage
across each resistor will be same. Current in each resistor is different

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 36

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• To find equivalent resistance:

• Let V = applied voltage, which is same across all resistors V = V1 = V2 = V3, and
I1, I2, I3 are the current through R1, R2, R3 respectively

• By Ohm’s Law, I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2, I3 = V/R3

• By Kirchoff’s Current Law, I = I1 + I2 + I3 = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3

= V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 = V/Req

• Therefore, equivalent resistance (1/Req) = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 37

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• Concepts of Parallel Circuit:
• The voltage is same across all elements
• All elements will have individual currents, depends upon the resistance of element
• The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always lesser than the smallest of the
resistance
• Powers are additive
• Conductance are additive
• Branch currents are additive

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 38

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• Advantages of Parallel Circuit:
• The electrical appliances rated for the same voltage but difference powers can be
connected in parallel without affecting each other’s performance
• If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no effect on the other
branch circuits

• Applications of Parallel Circuit:

• All electrical appliances are connected in parallel. Each one of them can be controlled
individually with the help of separate switches
• Electrical wiring in Cinema halls, auditoriums, House wiring, etc.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 39

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• What resistance must be connected in parallel with 10Ω resistor to give an equivalent
resistance of 6Ω

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 40

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• What resistance must be connected in parallel with 10Ω resistor to give an equivalent
resistance of 6Ω

Solution:

• For parallel circuit, 1/Req = (1/R1) + (1/R2)

• (1/6Ω) = (1/10Ω) + (1/R)

• Solving, we get R = 15Ω

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 41

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• Three resistors 2Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω are connected in parallel. If the total current is 8A,
calculate (i) Equivalent resistance, (ii) Current through each resistor

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 42

 Resistors in Parallel (Parallel Combination)
• Three resistors 2Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω are connected in parallel. If the total current is 8A,
calculate (i) Equivalent resistance, (ii) Current through each resistor

Solution:

• Equivalent resistance: (1/Req) = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)

• Solving for Req, we get Req = 0.923Ω

• Voltage, V = I.R = 8 x 0.923 = 7.385V

• Current through each resistor is I = V/R

I1 = V/R1 = 7.385/2 = 3.69A
I2 = V/R2 = 7.385/3 = 2.46A
I = V/R3 = 7.385/4 = 1.84A
17-Jan-2025
3 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 43
 Resistors in Series – Parallel Combination
• A 15Ω resistor is connected in series with 3 parallel resistors of 2Ω, 5Ω and 10Ω. If the
current through the entire circuit is 8A, find current flowing through each resistor. Also,
calculate the supply voltage

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 44

 Resistors in Series – Parallel Combination
• A 15Ω resistor is connected in series with 3 parallel resistors of 2Ω, 5Ω and 10Ω. If the
current through the entire circuit is 8A, find current flowing through each resistor. Also,
calculate the supply voltage

Solution:

• Resistors 2Ω, 5Ω and 10Ω are in parallel;

Equivalent resistance, Rp = 1.25Ω

• Resistors 15Ω and 1.25Ω are in series; Equivalent resistance, Req = 16.25Ω

• Supply Voltage, V = [Link] = 8A x 16.25Ω = 130V

• Voltage across parallel combination is Vp = V2 = V5 = V10 = [Link] = 8A x 1.25Ω = 10V

• Voltage across 15Ω resistor is V15 = I.R = 8A x 15Ω = 120V

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 45
 Resistors in Series – Parallel Combination
• A 15Ω resistor is connected in series with 3 parallel resistors of 2Ω, 5Ω and 10Ω. If the
current through the entire circuit is 8A, find current flowing through each resistor. Also,
calculate the supply voltage

Solution:

• Voltage across parallel combination is

Vp = V2 = V5 = V10 = [Link] = 8A x 1.25Ω = 10V

• Voltage across 15Ω resistor is V15 = I.R = 8A x 15Ω = 120V

• Current through each resistor is I15 = 8A;

I2 = V2/R = 10/2 = 5A
I5 = V5/R = 10/5 = 2A
I10 = V10/R = 10/10 = 1A
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 46
 Resistors in Series – Parallel Combination
• Determine the value of R

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 47

 Resistors in Series – Parallel Combination
• Determine the value of R

Solution:

• Resistors 100Ω and 10Ω are connected in parallel

Equivalent resistance, (1/Rp1) = (1/R1) + (1/R2) = (1/100) + (1/10); Rp1 = 9.09Ω

• Voltage across Rp1, Vp1 = I x Rp1 = 2 x 9.09 = 18.18V

• Voltage across Rp2, Vp2 = V – Vp1 = 50 – 18.18; Vp2 = 31.818V = V80 = V40 = VR

• Current through 80Ω resistor; I80 = V80/R = 31.818/80 = 0.397A

• Current through 40Ω resistor; I40 = V40/R = 31.818/40 = 0.7954A

• Current through R resistor; IR = I – I80 – I40 = 2 – 0.397 – 0.7954 = 0.8075A

• Unknown resistor R = VR/IR = 31.818/0.8075 = 39.4Ω

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 48
 Current Division Principle
• When two or more elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that flows
through each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the current that is
entering the node.

• In this circuit, two resistors R1 and R2 are parallel.

Current flowing through then is I1 and I2
Voltage applied is VS, Current supplied is IS

• As per KCL, IS = I1 + I2
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑆 × 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑆 ×
• By Ohm’s Law, I1 = VS /R1, I2 = VS /R2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

• Substituting and Calculating for VS : IS = (VS /R1) + (VS /R2) and VS = IS{(R1R2)/(R1+R2)}

• Substituting VS in I1 = VS /R1, we get I1 = IS{R2/(R1+R2)}

• Substituting VS in I2 = VS /R2, we get

17-Jan-2025 I2 Prashant
Dr. Noel = IS{RRatchagar
1/(R1+R 2)}Prof. - ECE
- Asst. 49
 Current Division Principle
• Find current flowing through each resistors.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 50

 Current Division Principle
• Find current flowing through each resistors.

Solution:

• Equivalent resistance (1/Req) = (1/R1) + (1/R2); Req = 15Ω

• Total current by source, IT = V/Req; IT = 8A

• By Current Division Principle,

I1 = IT {R2/(R1+R2)} = 8{20/80} = 2A
I2 = IT {R1/(R1+R2)} = 8{60/80} = 6A

• Verification of KCL: At node, sum of incoming current (IT = 8A) must be equal to sum of
outgoing currents (I1 + I2 = 2A + 6A = 8A)
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 51
 Voltage Division Principle
• When two or more elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present across
each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is available
across that entire combination.

• In this circuit, VS is in series with two resistors R1 and R2.

Voltage across is then V1 and V2
Voltage applied is VS, Current supplied is IS

• As per KVL, VS = V1 + V2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑆 × 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑆 ×
• By Ohm’s Law, V1 = IS x R1, V2 = ISx R2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

• Substituting and Calculating for IS: VS = (IS x R1) + (IS x R2) and IS = VS{1/(R1+R2)}

• Substituting IS in V1 = IS x R1, we get V1 = VS{R1/(R1+R2)}

• Substituting IS in V2 = IS x R2, we Dr.

17-Jan-2025 getNoel
V2Prashant
= VS{R 2/(R-1Asst.
Ratchagar +R2Prof.
)} - ECE 52
 Voltage Division Principle
• Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor and the current flowing through the
circuit consisting of two resistors R1 = 20 Ω and R2 = 40 Ω. The supply voltage across the
series resistor is 12V.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 53

 Voltage Division Principle
• Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor and the current flowing through the circuit consisting of
two resistors R1 = 20 Ω and R2 = 40 Ω. The supply voltage across the series resistor is 12V.

Solution:

• Equivalent resistance Req = R1 + R2; Req = 60Ω

• Total current by source, IT = V/Req; IT = 0.2A

• By Voltage Division Principle,

V1 = VS {R1/(R1+R2)} = 12{20/60} = 4V
V2 = VS {R2/(R1+R2)} = 12{40/60} = 8V

• Verification of KVL: In loop, sum of voltage sources (VS = 12V) must be equal to sum of
voltage drop across resistors (V1 + V2 = 4V + 8V = 12V)

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 54

 Assessment Problems
• Determine the power consumed by the 20Ω resistor

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 55

 Assessment Problems
• Determine the power consumed by the 20Ω resistor

Solution 1:

• Resistors 20Ω and 40Ω are parallel; Req = 13.33Ω

• As per voltage division principle, Veq = V x {13.33/10+13.33)} = 114.27V = V20

• Power consumed P20 = V202/R = 114.272/20 = 652.8W

Solution 2:

• Resistors 10Ω is in series with 20Ω and 40Ω are parallel; Req = 23.33Ω

• Current supplied by source, I = V/Req = 200/23.33 = 8.572A

• As per current division principle, I20 = I x {40/20+40)} = 8.572 x {40/20+40)} = 5.714A

• Power consumed P20 = I202 x R =Dr.5.714

17-Jan-2025
2 x 20 = 652.99W
Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 56
 Assessment Problems
• A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising 20Ω and 48Ω. The
total power dissipated in the circuit is 1000W, and the applied voltage is 250V. Calculate R

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 57

 Assessment Problems
• A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising 20Ω and 48Ω. The total
power dissipated in the circuit is 1000W, and the applied voltage is 250V. Calculate R

Solution

• Equivalent resistance is Req = R + ((20 x 48)/(20 + 48)) = R + 14.12

• Power P = V2/Req; Req = V2/P = 2502/1000 = 62.5Ω

• Req = R + 14.12 = 62.5;

• R = 48.38Ω

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 58

 Mesh Analysis
• The method of loop or mesh currents is generally used in solving networks having some
degree of complexity. Such degree of complexity already begins for a network of three
meshes.

• It might even be convenient at times to use the method of loop or mesh currents for solving a
two-mesh circuit

• Mesh analysis is only applicable to the planar network. A planar network is a network that can
be drawn in a plane where none of its branches are crossing one another.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 59

 Mesh Analysis
• Procedure for Mesh current Analysis

• Check if the network is planar. If not, rearrange the network to make it planar

• Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction

• Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh current

• Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first and
then Ohm’s law

• Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 60

 Mesh Analysis
• Find the (i) voltage across all resistors, (ii) power delivered and consumed by each element
using Mesh analysis

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 61

 Mesh Analysis
• Find the (i) voltage across all resistors, (ii) power delivered and consumed by each element
using Mesh analysis

Step 1:
There are two meshes. The mesh currents I1 and I2
are considered in clockwise direction

Step 2:
The mesh current I1 flows through 20V voltage source and 5Ω resistor. Similarly, I2 flows
through 30Ω resistor and 80V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh currents flows
through 10Ω resistor since it is common to both meshes.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 62

 Mesh Analysis
Step 3: Write mesh equations and solve
For the first mesh,
20 − 5. 𝐼1 − 10(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
−15𝐼1 + 10𝐼2 = −20
For the second mesh,
−30. 𝐼2 + 80 − 10(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
10. 𝐼1 − 40𝐼2 = −80

Solve mesh equations

𝐼1 = 3.2𝐴
𝐼2 = 2.8𝐴

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 63

 Mesh Analysis
Step 4: Find current through each element
Current through 20V source = 3.2A
Current through 5Ω resistor = 3.2A
Current through 10Ω resistor = 0.4A
Current through 30Ω resistor = 2.8A
Current through 80V source = 2.8A

Step 5: Voltage across each element

Voltage across 5Ω resistor = 3.2 x 5 = 16V
Voltage across 10Ω resistor = 0.4 x 10 = 4V
Voltage across 30Ω resistor = 2.8 x 30 = 84V

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 64

 Mesh Analysis
Step 6: Power supplied/consumed by elements
Power supplied by 20V source = 3.2 x 20 = 64W
Power consumed by 5Ω resistor = 3.2 x 16 = 51.6W
Power consumed by 10Ω resistor = 0.4 x 4 = 1.6W
Power consumed by 30Ω resistor = 2.8 x 84 = 235.2W
Power supplied by 80V source = 2.8 x 80 = 224W

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 65

 Mesh Analysis
• In the given circuit, if 90V battery and 5A current source is used, find the current flowing
through all elements

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 66

 Mesh Analysis
• In the given circuit, if 90V battery and 5A current source is used, find the current flowing
through all elements

Step 1:
There are two meshes. The mesh currents I1 and I2
are considered in clockwise direction

Step 2:
The mesh current I1 flows through the voltage source and 90Ω resistor. Similarly, I2 flows
through 80Ω resistor and the current source. But, the difference of two mesh currents flows
through 6Ω resistor since it is common to both meshes.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 67

 Mesh Analysis
Step 3: Write mesh equations and solve
For the first mesh,
90 − 9. 𝐼1 − 6(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
−15𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 = −90
For the second mesh, since I2 is the current flowing through
the current source, I2 = value of current source
𝐼2 = −5𝐴

Solve mesh equations

𝐼1 = 4𝐴
𝐼2 = −5𝐴

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 68

 Mesh Analysis
Step 4: Find current through each element
Current through 9Ω resistor = 4A
Current through 6Ω resistor = 9A
Current through 8Ω resistor = -5A

Step 5: Voltage across each element

Voltage across 9Ω resistor = 4 x 9 = 36V
Voltage across 6Ω resistor = 9 x 6 = 54V
Voltage across 8Ω resistor = -5 x 8 = -40V

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 69

 Nodal Analysis
• This method is also known as the node-voltage method since the node voltages are with
respect to the ground

• There are two types of nodes in nodal analysis:

• Non-Reference Node: The node with a definite node voltage is a non-reference node.

• Reference Node: The node that acts as a reference point

to all the other nodes is known as the reference node.
Usually the reference node is the common ground.

• Nodal analysis is applicable to both planar and

non-planar networks

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 70

 Nodal Analysis
• Procedure for Nodal current Analysis

• Identify the number of nodes in the circuit.

• Select one of the nodes as reference node and it is assigned ground potential. All other
nodes are referred to as non-reference nodes and are assigned unknown voltages.

• Develop KCL equations at each non-reference nodes

• Solve the equations to find node voltages.

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 71

 Nodal Analysis
• Find the (i) voltage across all resistors, (ii) power delivered and consumed by each element
using Nodal analysis

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 72

 Nodal Analysis
• Find the (i) voltage across all resistors, (ii) power delivered and consumed by each element
using Nodal analysis VA VB VC

Step 1:
There are four nodes. The nodes VA, VB and VC are
non-reference nodes, and Vref are reference nodes. The Vref
nodes VA, VC and Vref are known nodes, VB is unknown node.

Step 2:
Current flowing through 5Ω, 30Ω and 10Ω resistors are R1, R2 and R3 respectively and current
through them is I1, I2 and I3. Writing KCL at the unknown node VB assuming current flow in
clockwise direction: I1 = I2 + I3

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 73

 Nodal Analysis
Step 3:
Writing KCL equation in terms of Ohm’s Law: VA VB VC
𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
= +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Known node voltages: VA = 20V, VC = -80V, Vref = 0V

Substituting and solving, we get: VB = 4V
Vref

Step 4:
Voltage across 5Ω resistor = VA – VB = 20 – 4 = 16V
Voltage across 10Ω resistor = VB – Vref = 4 – 0 = 4V
Voltage across 30Ω resistor = VB – VC = 4 – (– 80) = 84V

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 74

 Nodal Analysis
VA VB VC
Step 5: Current through each element:
Current through 5Ω resistor = 16/5 = 3.2A
Current through 10Ω resistor = 4/10 = 0.4A
Current through 30Ω resistor = 84/30 = 2.8A
Vref
Current through 20V source = Current through 5Ω resistor = 3.2A
Current through 80V source = Current through 30Ω resistor = 2.8A

Step 6: Power supplied/consumed by elements

Power supplied by 20V source = 3.2 x 20 = 64W
Power consumed by 5Ω resistor = 3.2 x 16 = 51.6W
Power consumed by 10Ω resistor = 0.4 x 4 = 1.6W
Power consumed by 30Ω resistor = 2.8 x 84 = 235.2W
Power supplied by 80V source = 2.8 x 80 = 224W
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 75
 Nodal Analysis
• Find the current through the 20Ω resistor using Nodal analysis

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 76

 Nodal Analysis
• Find the current through the 20Ω resistor using Nodal analysis

VA VB VC

Step 1: I1 I2

There are four nodes. The nodes VA, VB and VC are

I3 I4 I5
non-reference nodes, and Vref are reference nodes. The
nodes VA and Vref are known nodes, VB and VCis unknown node.
Vref

Step 2:
Assuming current in clockwise direction, writing KCL equations at unknown nodes:
I1 = I2 + I3
I2 = I4 + I5

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 77

 Nodal Analysis
Step 3:
Writing KCL equation in terms of Ohm’s Law: VA VB VC
𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
= + I1 I2
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

= + I3 I4 I5
𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅5

Known node voltages: VA = 100V, Vref = 0V

Vref
Substituting and solving, we get: VB = 68.2V, VC = 27.3V

Step 4:
Current through 20Ω resistor = Voltage across 20Ω resistor divided by resistance
Voltage across 20Ω resistor = VC – Vref = 27.3V
Current through 20Ω resistor = 27.3/20 = 1.365A
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 78
 Nodal Analysis
• In the given circuit, if 90V battery and 5A current source is used, find the current flowing
through all elements

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 79

 Nodal Analysis
• In the given circuit, if 90V battery and 5A current source is used, find the current flowing
through all elements
VA VB VC

Step 1:
There are four nodes. The nodes VA, VB and VC are
non-reference nodes, and Vref are reference nodes. The Vref
nodes VA and Vref are known nodes, VB and Vc is unknown node.

Step 2:
Writing KCL at nodes VB and VC,
I1 = I2 + I3
I3 = - I
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 80
 Nodal Analysis
Step 3:
Writing KCL equation in terms of Ohm’s Law:
𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝑐 VA VB VC
= +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐶
= −I
𝑅3

Known node voltages: VA = 90V, Vref = 0V

Known branch current: I = 5A Vref
Substituting and solving, we get: VB = 54V, VC = 94V

Step 4:
Current through 9Ω resistor = (90-54)/9 = 4A
Current through 6Ω resistor = (54-0)/6 = 9A
Current through 8Ω resistor = (54-94)/8 = -5A
Also, Current through 8Ω resistor = -I = -5A
17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 81
 Star – Delta Transformation
Star to Delta Transformation
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 +
𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝑏𝑐 = 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐 +
𝑅𝑎
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎
𝑅𝑐𝑎 = 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑎 +
𝑅𝑏

Delta to Star Transformation

𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑐𝑎
𝑅𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎
𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑏𝑐
𝑅𝑏 =
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎
𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑐𝑎
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 82

 Star – Delta Transformation
• Convert the delta network into a star network

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 83

 Star – Delta Transformation
• Convert the delta network into a star network

Solution:
𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑐𝑎 25×10
𝑅𝑎 = = = 5Ω
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎 25+10+15
𝑅𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝑏𝑐 25×15
𝑅𝑏 = = = 7.5Ω
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎 25+10+15
𝑅𝑏𝑐 𝑅𝑐𝑎 15×10
𝑅𝑐 = = = 3Ω
𝑅𝑎𝑏 +𝑅𝑏𝑐 +𝑅𝑐𝑎 25+10+15

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 84

 Star – Delta Transformation
• Convert the star network into a delta network

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 85

 Star – Delta Transformation
• Convert the star network into a delta network

Solution:
𝑅1 𝑅2 1.67×5
𝑅12 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + = 1.67 + 5 + = 10.01Ω
𝑅3 2.5
𝑅2 𝑅3 5×2.5
𝑅23 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + = 5 + 2.5 + = 14.98Ω
𝑅1 1.67
𝑅3 𝑅1 2.5×1.67
𝑅31 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 + = 2.5 + 1.67 + = 5Ω
𝑅2 5

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 86

 Star – Delta Transformation
• Determine the resistance between the terminals P and Q using star-delta transformation

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 87

 Star – Delta Transformation
• Determine the resistance between the terminals P and Q using star-delta transformation

Solution:

• In the circuit, 6Ω, 6Ω and 18Ω resistors are connected in delta

connections. Convert it into star connections
𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐶𝐴 6×18
𝑅𝐴 = = = 3.6Ω
𝑅𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝐵𝐶 +𝑅𝐶𝐴 6+6+18
𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐴𝐵 6×6
𝑅𝐵 = = = 1.2Ω
𝑅𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝐵𝐶 +𝑅𝐶𝐴 6+6+18

𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐵𝐶 18×6

𝑅𝐶 = = = 3.6Ω
𝑅𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝐵𝐶 +𝑅𝐶𝐴 6+6+18

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 88

 Star – Delta Transformation
• Determine the resistance between the terminals P and Q using star-delta transformation

Solution:

• In the circuit, 5Ω and 3.6Ω resistors, 6Ω and 1.2Ω resistors,

3.6Ω and 18Ω resistors are in series.

• Finding equivalent circuit, we get 8.6Ω, 7.2Ω and 27.6Ω resistors

respectively

• Here, resistors 7.2Ω and 27.6Ω are in parallel

which are in turn in series with 8.6Ω resistor

• The net resistance is RPQ = 8.6 + {(7.2x27.6)/(7.2+27.6)} = 14.31Ω

17-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 89

 Module – 01
Electric circuits
• Basic Terminology • Waveform Terminology
• Ohm’s Law • Pure R, Pure L, Pure C Circuits
• Resistors – Series & Parallel • RL, RC, RLC Circuits
• Voltage and Current Division Rule • 3-phase Circuits
• Kirchoff’s Laws
• Mesh Analysis
• Nodal Analysis
• Star-Delta Conversion

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 90

 Waveform Generation
• Alternating voltage generated
• By rotating a coil in a magnetic field
• By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 91

 Waveform Generation
• Consider conductor placed perpendicular to the lines of magnetic flux produced by two poles
• Magnetic Flux 𝜙 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
• B – maximum flux density (Wb/m2), A – Area of the coil (m2) and θ – Angle of rotation
𝑑𝜙
• Generated emf is 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 × 𝜔 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
• Let the conductor rotate in a circular path from position 1.
• At position 1, angular displacement is zero (𝜃 = 0 = 𝜔𝑡),
• It moves parallel to the lines of flux and hence cuts no flux.
• Hence, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0
• Hence, emf induced in the conductor is zero

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 92

 Waveform Generation
𝜋
• After rotating through an angle 90° or π/2 radians, occupying position 2 (𝜃 = = 𝜔𝑡)
2
• It moves perpendicular to the lines of flux and hence cuts maximum flux.
• Induced EMF, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 = 𝐸𝑚
• Hence, emf induced in the conductor is maximum, which is equal to Em

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 93

 Waveform Generation
• Again rotating to position 3, angular displacement is 180 ° or π radians, (𝜃 = 𝜋 = 𝜔𝑡)
• It moves parallel to the lines of flux and hence cuts no flux.
• Induced EMF, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛180 = 0
• Hence, emf induced in the conductor is zero

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 94

 Waveform Generation
3𝜋
• At position 4, angular displacement is 270° or 3π/4 radians, (𝜃 = = 𝜔𝑡)
4

• It moves perpendicular to the lines of flux and hence cuts maximum flux.
• Induced EMF, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛270 = −(𝐸𝑚 )
• Hence, emf induced in the conductor is maximum, which is equal to -Em

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 95

 Waveform Generation
• Consider the instant when the conductor has moved through an angle θ and occupied position 5
• The emf induced in the conductor if given by
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡
• Em – Maximum emf induced in the coil
ω – Angular velocity in radian/second
t – Time in seconds
f – frequency of rotation of coil in rev/second
• Similarly, current can also be written as 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 96

 Waveform Generation

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 97

 Terminologies
• Cycle
• One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity is known as cycle
• A complete cycle is spread over 360° or 2π radians

• Time Period (T)

• The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its Time Period T

• Frequency (f)
• The number of cycles per second is called frequency of the alternating quantity
• Unit is hertz (Hz)
1
• Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period. 𝑓 = 𝑇

• Amplitude (Vm or Im)

• Maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity if known as amplitude
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 98
 Terminologies
• Instantaneous Value (v or i)
• Value of the emf induced in the conductor at any instant is instantaneous value

• Effective Value (Vrms or Irms)

• Also called as root mean square value or r.m.s value in short
• Defined on the basis of the amount of heat produced
• Definition: rms value of an alternating current is equal to that steady current (DC), which produced
the same amount of heat as produced by the AC, when passed through the same resistance for the
same time
• For non-sine wave:
𝑖1 2 +𝑖2 2 +⋯+𝑖𝑛 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑛

• For sine wave:

𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = and 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 2
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 99
 Terminologies
• Average Value (Vavg or Iavg)
• Arithmetic sum of all instantaneous values divided by the number of values used to obtain the sum is
average value
• For non-sine wave:
𝑖1 +𝑖2 +⋯+𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑛
• For sine wave:
2𝐼𝑚 2𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜋
and 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜋

• Form Factor (Kf)

• Ratio of effective value to its average value is form factor of an alternating quantity
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 0.707𝐼
• 𝐾𝑓 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔
= 0.637𝐼𝑚 = 1.11 (for sine wave)
𝑚

• Peak Factor (Kp)

• Ratio of maximum value to its effective value is peak factor of an alternating quantity
𝐼 𝐼
• 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐼 𝑚 = 0.707𝐼
𝑚
= 1.414 (for sine wave)
30-Jan-2025 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑚 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 100
 Terminologies
• Phase
• Angle through which the rotating vector representing the alternating quantity has rotated through
from the reference axis
• When rotating vector OA is along x-axis (position 1), the phase is equal to zero, At position 2, the
phase is equal to π/2 and so on.
• At any instant, the phase of the alternating quantity is θ
• The phase of the alternating quantity varies from 0 to 2π
• Phase Difference (Kf)
• Difference in angle between two rotating vectors
• Two alternating quantities are said to be in-phase with each other, when their corresponding
values occur at the same time 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
• If the value of an alternating quantity (current) occurs later than another alternating quantity
(voltage), then current lags voltage by an angle ϕ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
• If the value of an alternating quantity (current) occurs earlier than another alternating quantity
(voltage), then current leads voltage by an angle ϕ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 101
 Terminologies
The equation for an alternating current is given by 𝒊 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎° 𝑨. Find its
rms value, frequency and phase angle

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 102

 Terminologies
The equation for an alternating current is given by 𝒊 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎° 𝑨. Find its
rms value, frequency and phase angle

Solution:
𝐼𝑚 28.28
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 20𝐴
2 2
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 314
𝑓= = = 50 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 2×3.14

Phase angle = 30°

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 103

 Terminologies
An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50Hz has a rms value of
20A. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value of the current. Find the value at
the instant 0.0125 sec

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 104

 Terminologies
An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50Hz has a rms value of
20A. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value of the current. Find the value at
the instant 0.0125 sec

Solution:
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐴
𝐼𝑚 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 2 = 20 × 2 = 28.28 𝐴
ω = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2 × 3.14 × 50 = 314 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Equation: 𝑖 = 28.28 sin 314𝑡 𝐴
At 0.0125 sec: 𝑖 = 28.28 sin(314 × 0.0125) = −19.96𝐴 (Calculation must be done in radians)

Note: In Degrees: 𝑖 = 28.28 sin 2 × 180 × 50 × 0.0125 = −19.99𝐴

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 105

 A.C. Through Pure Resistive Circuit
• Alternating voltage applied is 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 → (1)
• Resistance is R, and current is i

• By ohm’s law, 𝑒 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑒 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑖=𝑅= = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 → (2)
𝑅
𝐸
where, 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅𝑚

• Comparing (1) and (2) relations, we find that alternating voltage and current are in-phase with each other

• Vectorially, rms values of voltage and current are represented as:

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 106

 A.C. Through Pure Resistive Circuit
• Alternating voltage and current are in-phase with each other

• Instantaneous power consumed is 𝑝 = 𝑒. 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 1 1
𝑝 = 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 − 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡
2
• Equation has two parts
• Second part is a periodically varying quantity, and its average value over a period of time is zero
• Power is a scalar quantity, hence power consumed due to resistance is due to first term
1 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝 = 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = . = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 2

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 107

 A.C. Through Pure Inductive Circuit
• Alternating voltage applied is 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 → (1)
• Inductance is L henry, and current is i

𝑑𝑖
• 𝑒 = 𝐿. 𝑑𝑡
1 𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝜋
• 𝑖 = 𝐿 ‫= 𝑡𝑑 𝑡𝜔𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝐸 ׬‬ −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 2)
𝜔𝐿 𝑋𝐿
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 2 → (2)
𝐸𝑚
• Where, 𝐼𝑚 = ,
𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 in ohm

• Comparing (1) and (2) relations, we find that alternating

current lags the voltage by an angle π/2

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 108

 A.C. Through Pure Inductive Circuit
• Alternating current lags the voltage by an angle π/2

𝜋
• Instantaneous power consumed is 𝑝 = 𝑒. 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 2 = 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
1
𝑝 = − 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡

• Equation has a periodically varying quantity, and its average value over a period of time is zero
• Hence, power consumed by a pure inductance is zero

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 109

 A.C. Through Pure Capacitive Circuit
• Alternating voltage applied is 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 → (1)
• Capacitance is C farad, and current is i

𝑑𝑒
• 𝑖 = 𝐶. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝐸𝑚 𝜋
• 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝜔𝐶𝐸𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 2)
1/𝜔𝐶
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2 → (2)
𝐸𝑚
• Where, 𝐼𝑚 = ,
𝑋𝐶
1
𝑋𝐶 = 1/𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 in ohm

• Comparing (1) and (2) relations, we find that alternating

current leads the voltage by an angle π/2

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 110

 A.C. Through Pure Capacitive Circuit
• Alternating current leads the voltage by an angle π/2

𝜋
• Instantaneous power consumed is 𝑝 = 𝑒. 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 2 = 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
1
𝑝 = 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡

• Equation has a periodically varying quantity, and its average value over a period of time is zero
• Hence, power consumed by a pure capacitance is zero

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 111

 A.C. Through Pure R/L/C Circuit

• In Resistor, current and voltage are in-phase

• In Inductor, current lags voltage by 90°
• In Capacitor, current leads voltage by 90°

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 112

 A.C. Through Pure R/L/C Circuit
A 60 Hz voltage of 115V (rms) is impressed on a 100Ω resistance. Show the voltage and
current on a time diagram

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 113

 A.C. Through Pure R/L/C Circuit
A 60 Hz voltage of 115V (rms) is impressed on a 100Ω resistance. Show the voltage and
current on a time diagram

v(t)
Solution:
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 2 = 115 × 1.414 = 162.6𝑉
𝑉𝑚 162.6
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅
=
100
= 1.63𝐴 i(t)
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2 × 3.14 × 60 = 377 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝜙 = 0°

𝑣 𝑡 = 163𝑠𝑖𝑛377𝑡 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 𝑡 = 1.63 sin 377𝑡 𝐴

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 114

 A.C. Through Pure R/L/C Circuit
A 60 Hz voltage of 230V is impressed on an inductance of 0.265 H. Show the voltage and
current on a time diagram and a phasor diagram

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 115

 A.C. Through Pure R/L/C Circuit
A 60 Hz voltage of 230V is impressed on an inductance of 0.265 H. Show the voltage and
current on a time diagram

v(t)
Solution:
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 2 = 230 × 1.414 = 325𝑉 i(t)
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 325
𝐼𝑚 = = = = 3.25𝐴
𝑋𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 2×3.14×60×0.265

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2 × 3.14 × 60 = 377 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝜋
𝜙 = 90° = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝐿𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
2

𝜋
𝑣 𝑡 = 325𝑠𝑖𝑛377𝑡 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 𝑡 = 3.25𝑠𝑖𝑛 377𝑡 − 𝐴
2

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 116

 A.C. Through series Resistive-Inductive Circuit
• The circuit consist of 3 voltages (rms value):
• Supply Voltage (E) = I × Z
• Voltage drop across resistor (ER) = I × R
• Voltage drop across Inductor (EL) = I × XL
• Where, Z is the impedance of the circuit in ohms
• All voltages are represented in the voltage triangle with
current as the reference vector
𝐸
• Current 𝐼 = 𝑍

• Drawing impedance triangle, we get

• 𝑧= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2

𝑋𝐿
• 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑅

30-Jan-2025 Impedance Triangle

Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE Voltage Triangle 117
 A.C. Through series Resistive-Inductive Circuit
• From Voltage triangle, current lags voltage by angle ϕ
• So, 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 then, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)

• Instantaneous power, 𝑝 = 𝑒𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)

1 1
= 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝐸 𝐼 cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
2 𝑚 𝑚

• Second term is periodically varying quantity, whose frequency Voltage Triangle

is two times the frequency of the applied voltage and its
average value is zero. As power is always an average value,
only the first term represents power consumed.
1 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
• 𝑝 = 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = . 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
2
where, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 is power factor of the circuit

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 118

 A.C. Through series Resistive-Capacitive Circuit
• The circuit consist of 3 voltages (rms value):
• Supply Voltage (E) = I × Z
• Voltage drop across resistor (ER) = I × R
• Voltage drop across Capacitor (EC) = I × XC
• Where, Z is the impedance of the circuit in ohms
• All voltages are represented in the voltage triangle with
current as the reference vector
𝐸
• Current 𝐼 = 𝑍

• Drawing impedance triangle, we get

• 𝑧= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2

𝑋𝐶
• 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑅

30-Jan-2025 Impedance Triangle

Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE Voltage Triangle
119
 A.C. Through series Resistive-Capacitive Circuit
• From Voltage triangle, current leads voltage by angle ϕ
• So, 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 then, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

• Instantaneous power, 𝑝 = 𝑒𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

1 1
= 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝐸 𝐼 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2 𝑚 𝑚

• Second term is periodically varying quantity, whose frequency

Voltage Triangle
is two times the frequency of the applied voltage and its
average value is zero. As power is always an average value,
only the first term represents power consumed.
1 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
• 𝑝 = 2 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = . 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
2
where, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 is power factor of the circuit

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 120

 A.C. Through series Resistive-Inductive-Capacitive Circuit
• The circuit consist of 4 voltages (rms value):
• Supply Voltage (E) = I × Z
• Voltage drop across resistor (ER) = I × R
• Voltage drop across Inductor (EL) = I × XL
• Voltage drop across Capacitor (EC) = I × XC
• Where, Z is the impedance of the circuit in ohms

• Three cases of the circuit can be considered:

• Case1: Inductive reactance is more than Capacitive reactance (XL > XC)
• Case2: Inductive reactance is less than Capacitive reactance (XL < XC)
• Case3: Inductive reactance is equal to Capacitive reactance (XL = XC)

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 121

 A.C. Through series Resistive-Inductive-Capacitive Circuit
• Case1: Inductive reactance is more than Capacitive reactance (XL > XC)
𝐸
• Current 𝐼 = 𝑍

• 𝑧= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2

𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
• 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅

• This circuit is similar to R-L circuit. Voltage Triangle

• So, 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 then, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
• 𝑝 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

Impedance Triangle
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 122
 A.C. Through series Resistive-Inductive-Capacitive Circuit
• Case2: Inductive reactance is less than Capacitive reactance (XL < XC)
𝐸
• Current 𝐼 = 𝑍

• 𝑧= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2

𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
• 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅

• This circuit is similar to R-C circuit.

Voltage Triangle
• So, 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 then, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
• 𝑝 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

Impedance Triangle
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 123
 A.C. Through series Resistive-Inductive-Capacitive Circuit
• Case3: Inductive reactance is equal to Capacitive reactance (XL = XC)
𝐸
• Current 𝐼 = 𝑍

• 𝑧=𝑅
• 𝜙 = 0°

• This circuit is similar to pure resistive circuit.

• So, 𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 then, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
• 𝑝 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Voltage Triangle

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 124

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
• Phase relation between voltage and current is shown.
• Current has two components:
i. 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 – It is in-phase with the applied voltage. Only this
component contributes to the real power consumed by circuit
ii. 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 – It is in quadrature with the applied voltage. This
component does not contribute to the power consumed
by circuit. It is also known as reactive power.

• Real Power: 𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 (𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)

• Reactive Power: 𝑄 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 − 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
• Apparent Power: 𝑆 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 − 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠)

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅 𝑃
• Power factor: 𝑝. 𝑓. = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = =
𝑍 𝐸.𝐼

• Determines the design quality and effective use of the supply in the electrical system.
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 125
 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
A circuit consists of a resistance of 20Ω, an inductance of 0.05H connected in series. A
supply of 230V (peak) at 50Hz is applied across the circuit. Find the current, power factor
and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector (phasor) diagram

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 126

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
A circuit consists of a resistance of 20Ω, an inductance of 0.05H connected in series. A
supply of 230V (peak) at 50Hz is applied across the circuit. Find the current, power factor
and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector (phasor) diagram

Solution:
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.05 = 15.7 Ω

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 = 202 + 15.72 = 25.42 Ω

𝑉𝑚 230
𝐼𝑚 = = = 9.05 𝐴
𝑍 25.42
𝑅 20
𝑝. 𝑓. = = = 0.786 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑍 25.4
230 9.05
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = × × 0.786 = 818 𝑊
2 2

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 127

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
Vector Diagram:
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐼. 𝑅 = 9.04 × 20 = 180.8𝑉
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐼. 𝑋𝐿 = 9.04 × 15.7 = 141.92𝑉
𝑋𝐿 15.7
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 38°
𝑅 20

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 128

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
A circuit consists of a resistance of 25Ω, an capacitance of 100μF connected in series. A
supply of 200V (peak) at 50Hz is applied across the circuit. Find the current, power factor
and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector (phasor) diagram

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 129

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
A circuit consists of a resistance of 25Ω, an capacitance of 100μF connected in series. A
supply of 200V (peak) at 50Hz is applied across the circuit. Find the current, power factor
and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector (phasor) diagram

Solution:
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 31.85Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2×3.14×50×100×10−6

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 = 202 + 31.852 = 40.48Ω

𝑉𝑚 200
𝐼𝑚 = = = 4.94𝐴
𝑍 40.48
𝑅 25
𝑝. 𝑓. = = = 0.617 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑍 40.48

𝑃 = 𝐸. 𝐼. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 200 × 4.94 × 0.617 = 609.59𝑊

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 130

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
Vector Diagram:
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐼. 𝑅 = 4.94 × 25 = 123.5𝑉
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐼. 𝑋𝐶 = 4.94 × 31.85 = 157.34𝑉
𝑋𝐶 31.85
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 51.87°
𝑅 25

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 131

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
In a series circuit containing pure resistance and a pure inductance, the current and the
𝟐𝝅 𝟓𝝅
voltage is expressed as 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒕 + 𝑨 and 𝒆 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒕 + 𝑽.
𝟑 𝟔
(a) What is the impedance of the circuit. (b) What is the value of the resistance. (c) What is
the inductance. (d) What is the average power drawn by the circuit. (e) What is the power
factor?

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 132

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
In a series circuit containing pure resistance and a pure inductance, the current and the
𝟐𝝅 𝟓𝝅
voltage is expressed as 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒕 + 𝑨 and 𝒆 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒕 + 𝑽.
𝟑 𝟔
(a) What is the impedance of the circuit. (b) What is the value of the resistance. (c) What is
the inductance. (d) What is the average power drawn by the circuit. (e) What is the power
factor?

Solution:
𝐸𝑚 15
𝑍= = = 3Ω
𝐼𝑚 5
2𝜋 2×180°
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝜙𝑖 = = = 120°
3 3
5𝜋 5×180°
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜙𝑒 = = = 150°
6 6

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜙 = 30°

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 133

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = ⟹ 𝑅 = 𝑍. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 3 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° = 2.6Ω
𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = ⟹ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑍. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = 3 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛30° = 1.5Ω
𝑍
𝑋𝐿 1.5
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 ⟹ 𝐿 = = = 0.0047𝐻 = 4.7𝑚𝐻
𝜔 314
15 5
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝐸. 𝐼. 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = × × 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° = 32.475𝑊
2 2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝. 𝑓. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° = 0.866 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)

Impedance (Z) = 3Ω
Resistance (R) = 2.6Ω
Inductance (L) = 4.7mH
Average power (P) = 32.5W
Power Factor (p.f.) = 0.866 (lagging)
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 134
 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
A circuit consists of a resistance of 10Ω, an inductance of 16mH and a capacitance of
150μF connected in series. A supply of 70.7V at 50Hz is given to the circuit. Find the
instantaneous current, power factor and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector
(phasor) diagram.

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 135

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
A circuit consists of a resistance of 10Ω, an inductance of 16mH and a capacitance of
150μF connected in series. A supply of 70.7V at 50Hz is given to the circuit. Find the
instantaneous current, power factor and power consumed by the circuit. Draw the vector
(phasor) diagram.

Solution:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 2 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 70.7 × 1.414 sin(2 × 3.14 × 50 𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 = 100 sin 314𝑡 𝑉
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 16 × 10−3 = 5.02Ω
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 21.23Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2×3.14×50×150×10−6

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 = 102 + 21.23 − 5.02 2 = 19.06Ω

 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit

𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 21.23−5.02
𝜙 = tan−1 = tan−1 = 58.32°
𝑅 10
𝑉𝑚
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = 5.24 sin 314𝑡 + 58.32° 𝐴
𝑍

Power Factor: 𝑝. 𝑓. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = cos 58.32° = 0.525 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) (since XC > XL)

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 100×5.25
Power: 𝑝 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = × 0.525 = 137.025 𝑊
2 2
 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit
Vector Diagram:
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑚 . 𝑅 = 5.25 × 10 = 52.5𝑉
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚 . 𝑋𝐿 = 5.25 × 5.024 = 26.38𝑉
𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑚 . 𝑋𝐶 = 5.25 × 21.23 = 111.46𝑉
𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 21.23−5.024
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 58.32°
𝑅 10
 A.C. Through series RL / RC / RLC Circuit

Type of Impedance Value of Impedance Phase angle for current Power factor

Resistance only 𝑅 0° 1

Inductance only 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 90° 𝑙𝑎𝑔 0

1 1
Capacitance only =
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
90° 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 0

Resistance + Inductance 𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿)2 0° < 𝜙 < 90° 𝑙𝑎𝑔 1 > 𝑝. 𝑓. > 0 𝑙𝑎𝑔

2
1
Resistance + Capacitance 𝑅2 + 0° < 𝜙 < 90° 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 1 > 𝑝. 𝑓. > 0 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝐶

2
Resistance + Inductance 1 0° < 𝜙 < 90° 1 > 𝑝. 𝑓. > 0
𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 − 𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑔/𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑
+ Capacitance 𝜔𝐶
 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
• Any electrical apparatus having only one winding is called a single-phase system
• Generator, Motor, Transformer, Rectifier

• If there are two windings connected in such a way that the voltages generated by them or the
currents flowing through them have a phase difference of 90°, they are called two-phase systems

• If there are three windings connected in such a way that the voltages generated by them or the
currents flowing through them have a phase difference of 120°, they are called three-phase systems

• If there are more than three windings connected together, they are called poly-phase systems

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 140

 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 141

 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
Advantages:
• A three-phase apparatus is more efficient than a single-phase apparatus
• For the same capacity, a three-phase apparatus costs less than a single-phase apparatus
• For the same capacity, the size of a three-phase apparatus is smaller than a single-phase apparatus, requiring
less material for construction
• For transmitting same power over same distance under same power loss, a three-phase system
requires lesser amount of conductor material than the single-phase system
• Three-phase motors produce uniform torque, while single-phase motor produce pulsating torque
• Three-phase motors are self-starting, while single-phase motors are not self-starting
• The connection in single-phase generators in parallel give rise to harmonics, while a three-phase
generator produces no harmonics.
• In case of a three-phase star system, two different voltages can be obtained – one between the
lines, and other between line and phase., whereas, only one voltage can be obtained in single-phase
system.
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 142
 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
Connections: STAR CONNECTION and DELTA CONNECTION
STAR CONNECTION
• A star connection is formed, when the ends of three coils are
joined together at point n, the other three ends are being free
• The point n is known as neutral point
• Ean, Ebn and Ecn are the phase voltages, each equal to Eph
• Eab, Ebc and Eca are the line voltages, each equal to El
• Ia, Ib and Ic are the line currents, each equal to Il

• 𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ

• 𝐸𝑙 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ

• 𝑝 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ × 𝐼𝑝ℎ × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 3 × 𝐸𝑙 × 𝐼𝑙 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 143

 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
Connections: STAR CONNECTION and DELTA CONNECTION
DELTA CONNECTION
• A star connection is formed, when three coils are connected
end-to-end
• Ia, Ib and Ic are the line currents, each equal to Il
• Iab, Ibc and Ica are the phase currents, each equal to Iph

• 𝐸𝑙 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ

• 𝐼𝑙 = 3 × 𝐼𝑝ℎ

• 𝑝 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ × 𝐼𝑝ℎ × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 3 × 𝐸𝑙 × 𝐼𝑙 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 144

 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
Calculate the phase voltage if the line voltage is 460V, given that the system is a three-
phase balanced star connected system

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 145

 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
Calculate the phase voltage if the line voltage is 460V, given that the system is a three-
phase balanced star connected system

Solution:
In star connection:
𝐸𝑙 460
𝐸𝑙 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ ⟹ 𝐸𝑝ℎ = = = 265.58𝑉
3 3

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 146

 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
A 400V, 3-ϕ supply is connected across a balanced load of three impedances each
consisting of a 32Ω resistance and 24Ω inductive reactance in series. Determine the
current drawn from the power mains, if the three impedances are (a) Υ-connected,
(b) Δ-connected

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 147

 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
A 400V, 3-ϕ supply is connected across a balanced load of three impedances each
consisting of a 32Ω resistance and 24Ω inductive reactance in series. Determine the
current drawn from the power mains, if the three impedances are (a) Υ-connected,
(b) Δ-connected. Also calculate power factor and power consumed by the system.

Solution:

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 = 322 + 242 = 40Ω

(a) Star (Υ) connection:

𝐸𝑙 400
𝐸𝑝ℎ = = = 231𝑉
3 3
𝐸𝑝ℎ 231
𝐼𝑝ℎ = = = 5.78𝐴
𝑍 40

𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ = 5.78𝐴
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 148
 Three – phase (3ϕ) Circuits
𝑅𝑝ℎ 32
𝑝. 𝑓. = = = 0.8 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑍𝑝ℎ 40

𝑝 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ × 𝐼𝑝ℎ × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 3 × 231 × 5.78 × 0.8 = 3204.4𝑊

(b) Delta (Δ) connection:

𝐸𝑝ℎ = 𝐸𝑙 = 400𝑉
𝐸𝑝ℎ 400
𝐼𝑝ℎ = = = 10𝐴
𝑍 40

𝐼𝑙 = 3 × 𝐼𝑝ℎ = 3 × 10 = 17.32𝐴
𝑅𝑝ℎ 32
𝑝. 𝑓. = = = 0.8 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑍𝑝ℎ 40

𝑝 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ × 𝐼𝑝ℎ × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 3 × 400 × 10 × 0.8 = 9600𝑊

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 149

 Module – 02
Semiconductor and Applications
• Principles
• PN Junction Diode
• Rectifiers
• Clippers
• Zener Diode
• Voltage Regulator

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 150

 Semiconductor
Materials
• Conductors:
• Materials that easily conduct electricity
• Materials have higher electrical conductivity and low electrical resistivity
• The valence band and conduction band overlap each other –
No forbidden energy gap
• Eg.: Copper, Gold, Silver, Aluminum

• Insulators:
• Materials that do not conduct electricity
• Materials have lower electrical conductivity and high electrical resistivity
• Large forbidden energy gap between the valence and the conduction band
• Eg.: Glass, Air, Wood, Plastic, Rubber

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 151

 Semiconductor
Materials
• Semi-Conductors:
• Materials whose conductivity is between conductors and insulators
• Forbidden energy gap between valence and conduction band is
smaller than the insulators (approximately 1eV)
• Eg. Silicon, Germanium, Silicon Carbide, Gallium Nitride

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 152

 Semiconductor

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 153

 Semiconductor - Terminology
• Electrons and Holes:
• Types of charge carriers responsible for flow of current
• Holes are positively-charged charge carriers
• Electrons are negatively-charged charge carriers
• Both holes and electrons are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity
• In bond-model of silicon of valency 4
• When one of the electron (blue dot) leaves its position, it creates a vacancy known as hole (yellow dot)

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 154

 Semiconductor - Terminology
• Valence Band:
• Energy band involving energy levels of valence electrons
• Highest occupied energy band
• Valence band supplies electrons to the conduction band
• Conduction Band:
• Lowest, unoccupied energy band
• It has conducting electrons responsible for current flow
• Conduction band accepts electrons from the valence band
• Forbidden Energy Gap:
• Energy levels where no electrons are permitted to stay
• Fermi-level (Ef):
• Highest energy level that an electron can occupy at absolute zero
• Lies between valence band and conduction band
• Position changes when electrons are added/removed or when the material is heated
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 155
 Semiconductor - Types

Acceptor Impurity(NA)

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 156

 Semiconductor - Types
• Intrinsic Semiconductor:
• Semiconductor that is extremely pure (Made up of only a single type of element)
• At room temperature, the conductivity will be zero
• Also called un-doped semiconductor
• Fermi energy level lies exactly in the middle of the valence and conduction band
• The concentration of electrons and holes are equal Intrinsic Semiconductor at T = 0K

• Extrinsic Semiconductor:
• Semiconductor to which an impurity has been added to make it conductive
• Process of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor is doping.
• Impurity is used to increase the number of free electrons or holes
in a semiconductor crystal to make it more conductive
• Depending on the type of impurity, the fermi energy level either moves towards
the valence band or the conduction band
Intrinsic Semiconductor at T > 0K
• The concentration of electrons and holes are not equal
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 157
 Semiconductor - Types
• n-type Semiconductor:
• A pure semiconductor is doped by a pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi)
• The fifth electron of the dopant is set free
• Since, the dopant donates a free electron, it is called a donor
• The concentration of electrons is higher than the holes
• Electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers n-type Semiconductor
Doped with Phosphorous
• Fermi energy level shifts towards the conduction band
• p-type Semiconductor:
• A pure semiconductor is doped by a trivalent impurity (Ga, B, In, Al)
• This leaves an absence of electron
• Since, the dopant is ready to accept a free electron, it is called a acceptor
• The concentration of holes is higher than the electrons
• Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers p-type Semiconductor
• Fermi energy level shifts towards the valence band Doped with Boron
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 158
 Semiconductor - Laws

Law of Mass Action

• Under thermal equilibrium, the product of the concentration of free electrons and the concentration of free holes is
equal to a constant which is equal to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentration

• The relationship is given by

𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2

• 𝑛 – concentration of free electrons in thermal equilibrium

𝑝 – concentration of free holes in thermal equilibrium
𝑛𝑖 – intrinsic carrier concentration

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 159

 Semiconductor - Laws

Law of Charge Neutrality

• Under thermal equilibrium, the sum of positive charges is equal to the sum of negative charges

• The relationship is given by

𝑁𝐷 + + 𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴 − + 𝑛

• 𝑁𝐷 – Donor impurity concentration (becomes positive charge after donating an electron)

𝑁𝐴 – Acceptor impurity concentration (becomes negative charge after accepting an electron)
𝑛 – concentration of free electrons (negative charge)
𝑝 – concentration of free holes (positive charge)

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 160

 PN Junction Diode
P-N Junction
Anode
• A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types,
namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor
• The P-N junction is created by the method of doping

Basic Structure of the P-N junction diode Cathode

• P-region: Semiconductor doped with acceptor impurity atoms
• N-region: Semiconductor doped with donor impurity atoms
• Metallurgical junction: Interface separating n- and p- region

• A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that

only conducts current in one direction
Electronic Symbol
• Triangle indicates the direction of current
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 161
 PN Junction Diode - Unbiased
• No external connections made to the diode. This is also called equilibrium condition

• At junction, the electron concentration is much higher in the n-side

than the p-side resulting in diffusion of electrons from n-side to the p-side
• The diffused electrons recombine with the holes on p-side creating
negative immobile ions just near the junction on the p-side
• This creates an electric field which produces electron flow (drift of electrons)
in opposite direction
• These effects exactly balance, and the net electron current is zero

• The same argument is applied to hole current, At equilibrium (no bias), net hole current is zero

• A thin layer is created on each side of the junction which is depleted of mobile charge carriers,
known as depletion region or space charge region

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 162

 PN Junction Diode – Potential Barrier

• Due to immobile positive ions on n-side and immobile negative

ions on the p-side, there exists an electric field across the junction
• This creates a potential difference across the depletion region
• The potential difference will act as a barrier that restricts
the flow of charge carriers i.e. holes and electrons
• The potential difference is called the barrier potential or
built-in potential (V0) of p-n junction

• The built-in potential depends upon

• Type of semiconductor
• Type and concentration of impurity added
• Temperature

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 163

 PN Junction Diode – Potential Barrier

𝑁𝐴 .𝑁𝐷
• The built-in potential is calculate by 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑉
𝑛𝑖 2

• 𝑉𝑇 is thermal voltage (26mV at room temperature)

• 𝑁𝐴 and 𝑁𝐷 are impurity concentrations
• 𝑛𝑖 is intrinsic concentration
• Built-in potential at room temperature for silicon is 0.7V,
and germanium is 0.3V

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 164

 PN Junction Diode - Biasing

• The process of applying external voltage to a device is called biasing

• External voltage is applied in two methods:

• Forward Biasing
• Anode (p-side) is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source,
and Cathode (n-side) is connected to the negative terminal

• Reverse Biasing
• Anode (p-side) is connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source,
and Cathode (n-side) is connected to the positive terminal

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 165

 PN Junction Diode – Forward Biased
• Large number of electrons in n-type material are drawn to the positive terminal and
holes in the p-type material are drawn to the negative terminal

• As the forward voltage is increased, the barrier potential is progressively

reduced to zero
• Holes convert negative ions into neutral atoms, and electrons convert
positive ions into neutral atoms. Depletion width reduces, and
hence barrier potential is reduced
• This allows more and more majority charge carriers to flow across the junction

• Beyond a point (called knee), the potential barrier is completely eliminated,

forward current increases almost linearly with increase in forward voltage

• If forward voltage is increased beyond certain value, extremely large current will flow
and the PN junction may get destroyed due to overheating
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 166
 PN Junction Diode – Reverse Biased
• Large number of electrons in n-type material are drawn to the negative terminal and
holes in the p-type material are drawn to the positive terminal

• As the reverse voltage is increased, the barrier potential is increases

resulting in very high junction resistance
• There is no possibility of majority carriers flowing across the junction

• However, minority carriers generated on each side can cross the junction
leading to small current called reverse saturation current
• Typically as low as 1μA

• On increasing reverse voltage, a point may reach at which the reverse

current increases suddenly. This voltage is called breakdown voltage

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 167

 PN Junction Diode – Diode Equation

• General expression for diode current is also known as Shockley Diode Equation given by
𝑉𝐷
• 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 −1

𝐼𝐷 is Current through diode

𝑉𝐷 is Diode voltage
𝐼𝑆 is leakage current or reverse saturation current
𝜂 is ideality factor. For silicon it is 2 and for germanium it is 1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑉𝑇 is Thermal Voltage given by 𝑞

𝑘𝐵 is Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

𝑇 is temperature in kelvin
𝑞 is charge of electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 168

 PN Junction Diode – Diode Equation

• When applied voltage is zero, VD = 0

𝑉𝐷
• 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇
− 1 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 0 − 1 = 𝟎𝑨

• That is no current flows through the diode

𝑉
• When applied voltage is positive (forward biased), current increases exponentially and 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 ≫1
𝑽𝑫
• 𝑰𝑭 ≅ 𝑰𝑺 𝒆 𝜼𝑽𝑻

𝑉
• When applied voltage is negative (reverse biased), current increases exponentially and 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇
≪ 1
• 𝑰𝑹 ≅ −𝑰𝑺

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 169

 PN Junction Diode – Problems

• A germanium diode is used in a rectifier circuit and is operating at a temperature of 25°C with a reverse saturation
current of 1mA. Calculate the value of forward current if it is forward biased by 0.22V.

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 170

 PN Junction Diode – Problems

• A germanium diode is used in a rectifier circuit and is operating at a temperature of 25°C with a reverse saturation
current of 1mA. Calculate the value of forward current if it is forward biased by 0.22V.

• Given: 𝑉𝐷 = 0.22𝑉, 𝐼𝑆 = 1𝑚𝐴 and 𝜂 = 1 for germanium

𝑉𝐷
• 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 −1
𝑇 25+273
• 𝑉𝑇 = = = 0.025𝑉
11600 11600
0.22
• 𝐼𝐷 = 1 × 10−3 𝑒 1×0.026 − 1 = 6.63𝐴

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 171

 PN Junction Diode – Problems

• The diode current is 0.6mA when the applied voltage is 400mV and 20mA when the applied voltage is 500mV.
Determine the ideality factor, if the thermal voltage is 25mV.

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 172

 PN Junction Diode – Problems

• The diode current is 0.6mA when the applied voltage is 400mV and 20mA when the applied voltage is 500mV.
Determine the ideality factor, if the thermal voltage is 25mV.

• Given: 𝐼𝐷1 = 0.6𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷1 = 400𝑚𝑉, 𝐼𝐷2 = 20𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷2 = 500𝑚𝑉

400×10−3
• 0.6 × 10−3 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝜂×0.025 −1 → (1)
500×10−3
• 20 × 10−3 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝜂×0.025 −1 → (2)

• Taking ratio,
16 16
4
0.6 𝑒 𝜂 −1 𝑒𝜂 −𝜂
• = 20 ⇒ 20 = 0.03 = 𝑒
20
𝑒 𝜂 −1 𝑒𝜂
4
• − 𝜂 = ln 0.03 = −3.51

• Solving, 𝜂 = 1.14
30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 173
 PN Junction Diode – Problems

• A silicon diode conducts 5mA at room temperature at forward bias condition at 0.7V. Calculate its reverse
saturation current. If the forward voltage is increased to 0.75V, calculate the new current through the diode

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 174

 PN Junction Diode – Problems

• A silicon diode conducts 5mA at room temperature at forward bias condition at 0.7V. Calculate its reverse
saturation current. If the forward voltage is increased to 0.75V, calculate the new current through the diode

• Given: 𝐼𝐷1 = 5𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝐷1 = 0.7𝑉, η = 2, At room temperature. 𝑉𝑇 = 0.026𝑉

0.7
−3
• 5 × 10 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 2×0.026 −1
• 𝐼𝑆 = 7.12𝑛𝐴

• Now, 𝑉𝐷2 = 0.75𝑉

0.75
• 𝐼𝐷2 = (7.12 × 10−9 ) 𝑒 2×0.026 −1
• 𝐼𝐷2 = 13.08𝑚𝐴

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 175

 PN Junction Diode – I-V Characteristics

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 176

 PN Junction Diode – I-V Characteristics
• Knee Voltage (𝐕𝛄 ):
• Minimum Voltage (forward-bias) required for the diode to conduct
• Also called cut-in voltage
• For silicon, 𝑉𝛾 = 0.7V, and for germanium 𝑉𝛾 = 0.3V

• Maximum Forward Current (𝑰𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙):

• Maximum current that can flow through the diode under forward-bias
condition

• Static Resistance (RS):

• Ratio of the voltage to the current when the diode is forward biased
𝑉𝐷 𝑂𝐴
• 𝑅𝑆 = ; From figure, 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑂𝐵
𝐼𝐷

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 177

 PN Junction Diode – I-V Characteristics
• Dynamic Resistance (rD):
• Resistance offered by the diode under AC conditions
• Ratio of the change in voltage to the change in current
when the diode is forward biased
∆𝑉𝐷 𝐴𝐶
• 𝑟𝐷 = ; From figure, 𝑟𝐷 = 𝐵𝐷
∆𝐼𝐷

• It is reciprocal of the slope of V-I Characteristics

• Reverse Resistance (Rr):

• Resistance offered by the diode under reverse bias conditions
• Ratio of the applied reverse voltage to the reverse saturation current
𝑉𝐷 𝑂𝐸
• 𝑅𝑟 = ; From figure, 𝑅𝑟 =
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆

• The resistance is very large, usually in the order of MΩ

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 178

 PN Junction Diode – I-V Characteristics
• Reverse Saturation Current (IS):
• Small amount of current flowing through the diode due to minority charge carriers under reverse bias
• Also called leakage current
• Reverse saturation current is very small, in orders of μA

• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

• Maximum voltage applied to the diode in reverse bias
without breakdown

• Maximum Power Rating (MPR)

• Maximum power that the diode can dissipate safely,
without increasing the junction temperature above
its limiting value

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 179

 PN Junction Diode – I-V Characteristics

• Find the value of dc resistance, ac resistance and reverse resistance of a germanium junction diode at 25°C with a
reverse current of 25 μA and at an applied voltage of 0.2V across the diode

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 180

 PN Junction Diode – I-V Characteristics

• Find the value of dc resistance and ac resistance of a germanium junction diode at 25°C with a reverse current of
25 μA and at an applied voltage of 0.2V across the diode

• Given: 𝐼𝑆 = 25𝜇𝐴, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.2𝑉, η = 1 (for Germanium), 𝑇 = 25℃ = 298𝐾

0.2
−6
• 𝐼𝐷 = 25 × 10 × 𝑒 1×0.026 −1
• 𝐼𝐷 = 54.7𝑚𝐴

𝑉𝐷 0.2
• 𝑅𝑑𝑐 = = 54.7𝑚 = 3.66Ω
𝐼𝐷

𝑉𝐷 0.2
• 𝑅𝑟 = = = 8𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑆 25𝜇

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 181

 PN Junction Diode – I-V Characteristics

• Find the value of dc resistance and ac resistance of a germanium junction diode at 25°C with a reverse current of
25 μA and at an applied voltage of 0.2V across the diode

𝑉𝐷
• 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇
−1

• Differentiating w.r.t. 𝑉𝐷 ,
𝑉𝐷
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝐼𝑆 𝐼
we get = 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇
= 𝑉𝐷
𝑑𝑉𝐷 η𝑉𝑇 𝑇

𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝑇 0.026
• 𝑅𝑎𝑐 = = = 54.7𝑚 = 0.5Ω
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝐼𝐷

30-Jan-2025 Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar - Asst. Prof. - ECE 182