European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-018-3222-1

REVIEW ARTICLE

Factors influencing post-mortem quality, safety and storage stability

of mackerel species: a review
Izumi Sone1 · Torstein Skåra1 · Stein Harris Olsen1

Received: 30 July 2018 / Revised: 10 December 2018 / Accepted: 16 December 2018 / Published online: 4 January 2019
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Consumers’ demand for fishery products and attentiveness of seafood quality continue to grow. The perishability of mackerel
species and the potential risk of foodborne illness demands adequate control of production, processing, storage and distri-
bution to ensure post-mortem quality, safety and storage stability. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the
intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing the quality changes in mackerel raw material from capture/slaughter, post-mortem
handling and to storage. The main topics include effects of the muscle composition, capture/slaughter methods and handling
onboard fishing vessels and at landing, e.g. bleeding. Concerning frozen storage, the literature included in this review dem-
onstrates the importance of raw material properties, storage temperature and freezing methods for maintaining the product
quality and the storage stability of mackerel. Thawing is another important aspect which requires optimization with respect
to several factors e.g. raw material properties and in adaption to production and processing capacity. Since mackerel muscle
contains a high amount of free histidine, temperature control through the complete supply chain is essential to prevent the
formation and accumulation of toxic histamine which can lead to scombroid food poisoning. For storage stability and shelf
life extension, efficiency of glazing and use of antioxidants and reduced-oxygen packaging are discussed.

Keywords Mackerel · Muscle composition · Handling and processing · Freezing and thawing · Microbial quality and
scombroid fish poisoning · Shelf life extension by antioxidants, glazing and packaging

Introduction documented health effects, e.g. reducing the risk of cardio-

vascular diseases, mitigating the symptoms of rheumatoid
Mackerel is a common name used for more than 30 different arthritis and promoting early neurodevelopment [28, 111].
fish species, mainly those belonging to the family Scom- Choice of capture methods may vary according to efficiency
bridae. North East Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) (profit), tradition, fishery policy and regulations, as well as
is one of the most economically important species for the in adaptation to the behavioral characteristics of the mack-
European fishing industry, and Norway, Iceland and the UK erel and the market demands. Frozen storage of whole fish
are among the main suppliers. Other mackerel species, e.g. dominates the industrial process after landing, though ice
chub mackerel (S. japonicas), horse mackerel (e.g. Trachu- and chilled storage is used when the destined market and
rus trachurus, T. murphy, T. japonicas) and spotted mack- processing plants are in close proximity.
erel (S. australasicus) are found widely distributed in the With the increase in consumers’ demand for fishery prod-
Pacific Ocean and in the European waters. Mackerel pro- ucts and attentiveness of seafood quality, the highly perish-
vides a good source of protein, fat soluble vitamins (vitamin able characteristics of mackerel species pose challenges to
A and D) and minerals (e.g. iron, selenium, iodine, calcium maintaining post-mortem quality, safety and storage stability
and phosphorous), as well as long chain n-3 polyunsatu- in the supply chain. Following death, a rapid decrease in
rated fatty acids (PUFA) including EPA and DHA with pH dominates the post-mortem changes, compromising the
integrity of muscle fibers in mackerel. Because of the low
* Izumi Sone post-mortem pH, high amounts of PUFA and pro-oxidants
[email protected] (e.g. heme pigments, metallic ions such as iron and cop-
per), mackerel is highly susceptible to lipid oxidation dur-
1
Nofima AS, Muninbakken 9‑13, Breivika, 9019 Tromsø, ing frozen storage. In addition, scombroid food poisoning
Norway

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776 European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791

has occurred throughout the world in association with con- For example, the fat content of Atlantic mackerel increases
sumption of mackerel products stored under non-frozen substantially from 10 to 15% in June to its peak (25–30%)
conditions. For ensuring quality and food safety in the in September in agreement with expected increase in food
increasingly global and diversified mackerel market, knowl- consumption. Furthermore, a within-batch variation of up
edge-based supply chain management is crucial. Despite the to 10–15% has been reported in the fat content of mackerel
perishability and safety concerns, a review that attempts to throughout the season, in addition to a significant year-to-
systematically summarize current knowledge on the intrinsic year variation and variation by geographic area (catching
and extrinsic factors affecting post-mortem quality, safety ground) [27, 38, 40, 143, 145, 146]. This may be related to
and storage stability of mackerel seems to be lacking. This substantial individual variation in weight gain during the
review focuses on fresh and frozen/thawed mackerel and feeding period and correspond with the within-batch vari-
primary processing such as bleeding, filleting, washing and ation in size, as the total fat content increases with the size
glazing. Effects of secondary processing methods (e.g. can- of mackerel [27, 45]. The content of PUFA in mackerel
ning, smoking, drying) and advanced technologies (e.g. irra- increases with the total fat content, with docosahexaenoic
diation and high-pressure) on fish quality and storage stabil- acid (C22:6n-3, DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3,
ity are reviewed by Raghavan and Kristinsson [139]. The EPA) being among the most abundant PUFA [29, 93]. As in
factors discussed in this review include effects of the muscle total fat content, the fatty acid profile of mackerel muscle has
composition (e.g. fat content, fatty acid profile), slaughter shown seasonal variation. For example, Atlantic mackerel
methods and handling onboard fishing vessels and at land- caught in July reached significantly higher levels of PUFA
ing (e.g. bleeding) following a mackerel supply chain. Both than fish caught in September, while no significant differ-
non-frozen and frozen storage are discussed with respect to ence was observed in the amount of DHA or EPA [143].
effects of raw material properties and storage temperature Similar season-dependent changes have been reported in the
on quality, safety and storage stability, focusing on microbial fatty acid composition of horse mackerel, chub mackerel and
growth and formation of toxic histamine in mackerel as well Atlantic mackerel (August and September) [19, 20, 145]. In
as on lipid oxidation. Furthermore, the review summarizes addition to season, the fatty acid composition may depend
the existing literature exploring how choice of freezing and on size [119], location in mackerel muscle [26] and catching
thawing methods may influence the product quality and stor- ground [146].
age stability of mackerel. For storage stability and shelf life The highest fat content in mackerel is found within a
extension, the effects of glazing, antioxidants and packaging thin layer of fat cells under the skin, and the fat content
are of high relevance for fatty fish such as mackerel. decreases further into the muscle. The fattier the mackerel
(the higher the total fat content), the more fat is deposited in
the muscle creating marbled fish meat, while lean mackerel
Muscle composition had their main fat deposit mainly under the skin. Moreo-
ver, fattier mackerel may maintain the muscle structure and
Mackerel is a migratory fish, moving as they spawn and feed firmness (texture) better during frozen storage than lean
at the respective spawning and feeding grounds, and finally fish. In addition to the variation related to fat content, the
to the areas where they overwinter. The migration and the quality of mackerel may be influenced by exercise intensity
periods of heavy feeding lead to large variations in the con- required in their living environment. Chub mackerel with
dition of the mackerel both seasonally and geographically. a firmer texture (i.e. a larger breaking strength) originated
During the period of heavy feeding, Atlantic mackerel prey from waters with a fast current velocity (maximum 9 km/h)
mainly on Calanus copepods (e.g. Calanus finmarchicus), compared to fish caught in waters where the current veloc-
while the diet composition of prey species may vary accord- ity was slower (2.7 km/h) [7]. Firmer texture has been cor-
ing to area and season [137]. The muscle of the fish caught related with a higher collagen content in raw fish muscle
during this period may be sensitive to processing and trans- [58] and swimming movement [156]. However, the content
port conditions affecting the product quality aspects such of type V collagen was found to be significantly lower in
as gaping and texture [187]. The stomach content, depend- chub mackerel exposed to higher exercise intensity [159].
ing on the volume and type of zooplankton, may promote The result may suggest other factors influencing the muscle
proteolytic activity accelerating post-mortem degradation firmness, e.g. activity of protease [8], physical strengths of
in muscle, similar to the belly bursting in herring [47]. As myofibrils [170] and species difference: when samples of
environmental and biological factors e.g. the reproductive spotted mackerel and chub mackerel were compared during
cycles, migration time and feed availability influence the storage at 4 °C, the muscle of spotted mackerel was softer
muscle composition [48, 188], seasonality associated with (lower breaking strength), and had a lower collagen content
the migration and feeding period may be reflected in the and thinner connective tissues than that of chub mackerel
fat content and the lipid composition of mackerel muscle. [57].

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European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791 777

Post‑mortem quality changes a significantly lower breaking strength were observed in

chub mackerel killed after 30 min of struggle in air com-
The post-mortem changes initiated immediately after pared to the fish killed by decapitation, during storage at
death are characterized by a rapid decrease in pH and 5 °C. The histological features of muscle in the struggled
fast rigor development. The muscle pH at death ranges fish revealed that struggling promoted faster collagen fibril
between 6.5 and 7.3, followed by a quick drop to 6–6.5 disintegration and weakened binding forces in the pericel-
pre rigor, before it reaches a stable pH at < 6 during and lular connective tissues, resulting in larger extension of the
after full rigor. Fast rigor development accompanies the intracellular spaces [5]. Solubilization of type V collagen
pH drop, entering full rigor within the first 2–5 h at 0 °C and a decrease in tyrosine content in the collagen fibrils
and lasts until 20–28 and 36 h at 0 and 4 °C, respectively occurred more quickly in struggled chub mackerel than in
[49, 56, 57]. Furthermore, mackerel muscle is susceptible non-struggled fish during ice storage for up to 24 h [155].
to post-mortem muscle softening. Using seven fish species Possible causing mechanisms behind struggle-induced
including horse mackerel, Shigemura et al. [160] estab- muscle softening may be e.g. release of cathepsin L and
lished that a decrease in type V collagen was related to ­Ca2+ as a result of physical shock.
early muscle softening after death. Horse mackerel showed The effect of struggling was also studied in horse mack-
a higher proportion of type V collagen and more extensive erel [104, 105, 107] and spotted mackerel [115] using differ-
collagenolytic activity in muscle compared to other demer- ent killing methods. The destruction of spiral cord was most
sal species analyzed [6]. After 24 h of storage at 4 °C fil- effective in delaying autolytic changes in horse mackerel but
lets of horse mackerel lost early 55% of relative content did not lead to a significant decrease in the breaking strength
of type V collagen, and the breaking strength decreased during storage [104]. Instant killing by neck-breaking miti-
by 30% [160]. gated the decrease in post-mortem pH of spotted mackerel
during storage at 5 °C for 8 h [115]. In addition, a higher
initial concentration of ATP and a slower rate of rigor mor-
Slaughter tis was observed in horse mackerel killed by neck breaking
compared to fish killed by stabbing in the spinal bulb [105].
Mackerel is highly susceptible to capture related stressors Neck breaking also maintained 15–25% higher myofibril
and can exhibit high mortalities [61, 87]. A comprehensive ATPase activity and salt solubility in spotted mackerel when
study of the Atlantic mackerel industry involving coastal compared to struggling in air for 7–10 min [115].
fisheries, trawl and purse seine showed that mackerel qual-
ity starts to deteriorate during capture, and this continues Handling after slaughter
throughout handling onboard fishing vessels, influenced
by factors such as hauling time, fishing gear, pumping, Following capture, handling onboard fishing vessels, e.g.
storage temperature as well as weather conditions [37, 38]. cooling capacity in the storage tank, pumping and storage
Tamotsu et al. [171] compared post-mortem changes in time can contribute to quality loss such as increased gaping,
spotted mackerel collected immediately after catch by a discolorations and softer texture [39, 81]. Digre et al. [39]
purse seine, and those recovered from capture stress by compared fillet quality of mackerel pumped either from the
resting in a fish cage for 3 days and killed instantly. After seine directly onboard the catching vessel or transferred at
9 h of storage at 5 °C, the rested fish maintained an ATP sea to a secondary vessel. In addition to the above men-
value that was sevenfold higher, and the muscle showed a tioned quality defects, mackerel transferred to a secondary
significantly greater elastic strength than that of the cap- vessel suffered higher mortality and catch damage due to the
tured fish. Furthermore, killing methods that involve strug- crowding and mechanical forces applied during the pump-
gling to accelerate post-mortem quality loss. Mochizuki ing. Temperature shock as studied by Mochizuki and Sato
and Sato [108] analyzed chub mackerel killed by three [107] and Mishima et al. [104] corresponds to the commer-
procedures, instant killing by stabbing in the brain, tem- cial practice in the Norwegian mackerel fisheries where the
perature shock by dipping in cold seawater (− 1 °C) and caught mackerel is transferred to an onboard storage tank
struggled killing in air. The struggling at death resulted in containing refrigerated sea water (RSW) at a temperature of
accelerated nucleotides degradation (ATP, IMP, creatine − 1.5 °C by a high velocity pumping device [39]. For chub
phosphate, K-value) and faster onset of rigor-mortis com- mackerel, temperature shock did not differ from struggling
pared to fish killed instantly during storage at 0 °C. Instant in air as to post mortem changes where ATP was as low as
killing also delayed post-mortem softening of mackerel in struggled fish after 8 h at 0 °C [107]. Horse mackerel
muscle, with a twofold higher breaking strength main- killed by temperature shock and by decapitation (instant kill-
tained for up to 26 h. Correspondingly, more gaping and ing) however followed similar rate of changes in APT and
K-value during storage at 10 °C [104].

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These varied results may be related to difference in Storage

storage temperatures, as storage temperature following
death can both delay and accelerate post-mortem changes Frozen storage
in mackerel. Earlier studies have reported temperature-
dependency of rigor mortis and sarcoplasmic reticulum Frozen storage is common after landing. Because of low
function in fish muscle [68, 190]. The decrease in ATP post-mortem pH, high PUFA content and pro-oxidants
and the development of rigor mortis was slowest in chub including heme pigments (e.g. Hb, Mb), metallic ions
mackerel stored at 5 and 10 °C compared to fish stored (e.g. iron and copper), and enzymes (e.g. lipoxygenase),
at − 3 and 0 °C. To maintain the breaking strength of mackerel muscle is highly susceptible to lipid oxidation
muscle, the storage at 5 °C was found to be most favora- [21, 36, 140] leading to quality loss and sensory rejec-
ble regardless of the catch season, as well as to limit the tion during frozen storage. Considerable loss of PUFAs
accelerated increase of the K-value [109]. Similar results may occur in relation to lipid oxidation [112, 121, 126],
were reported in horse mackerel [104] and chub mack- while no significant change in the amount of DHA and
erel [189] stored in the temperature range 0–15 °C for up EPA was observed in mackerel fillets during 9 months
to 48 h post-mortem. In addition, the post-mortem qual- of frozen storage, regardless of season, feeding state and
ity changes in chub mackerel may progress more quickly temperature abuse [143, 145]. In addition, frozen storage
when the difference between the water- and storage tem- may reduce the oxidative stability of sarcoplasmic and
perature increase, e.g. during the summer months [109]. myofibrillar proteins, affecting the water holding capac-
Digre et al. [39] observed that higher storage temperatures ity and protein extractability of mackerel muscle [166].
(temperature range − 1.1 to − 0.3 °C) in the RSW tank Freshness of raw material is important because prolonged
increased the percentage of gaping registered at land- storage prior to freezing reduces the product quality and
ing, while storage onboard led to more gaping in Atlan- storage stability of mackerel muscle. In spotted mackerel
tic mackerel in general. Elevated temperature in onboard frozen after 24 h of chilled storage (4 °C) significantly
storage tank has also been shown to promote soft flesh larger ice crystals were formed around the connective tis-
symptoms in Atlantic mackerel infested with the parasite sues compared to those seen in fish frozen after 3 h, whose
Kudoa thyrsites [38, 85]. smaller ice crystals were mainly in the intracellular spaces.
Bleeding may be another important step after slaugh- Consequently, thawing after 1 month at − 20 °C resulted
ter affecting post-mortem quality and storage stability of in a significantly larger thaw drip for mackerel fillet whose
mackerel muscle. Ando et al. [6] observed that bleeding pre-freezing storage exceeded 27 h [56]. When the fish was
by gill cut delayed muscle softening in horse mackerel by frozen post rigor (at pH < 6), the extent of freeze denatura-
6 h during storage at 5 °C. Similarly, early bleeding mod- tion was larger in the muscle proteins of chub mackerel
erated the rate of rigor mortis development and increase examined after 8–10 months at − 30 °C than in the fish
in K-value in horse mackerel during ice storage for up to frozen at pre rigor (pH 6.5–7) [49]. Horse mackerel, ice-
7 days [106]. While the pro-oxidant ability of mackerel stored 3–5 days before freezing was more rancid after 3
hemoglobin and its dependency on pH is well established months of subsequent storage at − 20 °C, compared to fish
[92, 141, 181], early bleeding has shown variable effects frozen 0–1 day after slaughter, and the overall shelf life of
for lipid oxidation. Bleeding by a tail-cut significantly the product was reduced by 4 months [12].
reduced the amount of hemoglobin and delayed rancidity
development in minced light muscle and intact dark mus-
cle of bled Atlantic mackerel during storage at 2 °C for 12 Freezing methods
days [140]. On the contrary, bled chub mackerel showed
higher lipid oxidation after 5 days at 0 °C than unbled fish Use of commercial air blast and plate freezers was com-
[151]. Rancidity development measured by chemical and pared for the freezing time and effect on the quality of
sensory analyses progressed faster in gutted horse mack- whole Indian mackerel during freezing and subsequent
erel than in ungutted fish during storage at − 20 °C for frozen storage at − 18 °C [82]. The reduction of freezing
12 months [84]. As possible explanations for the varying time by 51% with plate freezer corresponded with signifi-
results, species-dependency in the effect of bleeding has cantly higher taste- and overall acceptability scores after
been reported [95, 150, 164]. In addition, the method of 3 months of storage. The freezing rate affected the protein
bleeding and conditions of the subsequent storage (e.g. quality of mackerel muscle more significantly than that of
temperature) differed between the studies. Sample prepara- amberfish (e.g. extractability and Ca-ATPase activity of
tion involving mincing and gutting may have contributed actomyosin), when dry ice, air blast- and semi-air blast
to increased exposure to oxygen and release of hemoglobin freezer, and still sharp freezer (without air circulation)
from erythrocytes [140].

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were compared [71]. The benefits of an automatic box − 23 °C after 8 months were K-value (only at − 18 °C),
freezer was demonstrated by 74% reduction in freezing water holding capacity, development of lipid oxidation
time and significantly lower drip loss compared to blast and sensory taste. The authors determined the sensory
freezer for mackerel blocks in the industrial setting [54]. shelf life of frozen mackerel to be 6 months at − 18 °C,
The freezing speed may also be influenced by raw material 8 months at − 23 °C and 12 months at below − 30 °C.
properties such as fat content [193]. A similar study with horse mackerel did not detect sig-
To facilitate rapid freezing, use of freezing media with nificant changes in the K-value, drip and cook loss during
higher heat transfer coefficient such as ethanol (alcohol 12-month storage at − 18, − 23, − 30 and − 40 °C, but the
brine) and salt brine have been investigated. Effect of rapid taste score in sensory test was lowest at − 18 °C after 8
freezing by direct immersion in alcohol brine was compared months of storage. The sensory shelf life of horse mack-
to conventional air freezing for whole horse mackerel. The erel was estimated to be 12 months at − 18 °C [79]. The
freezing speed to reach − 20 °C was 6 times faster with results in the two studies may be related to the difference
alcohol brine freezing than air freezing, and fish frozen in in fat content. During frozen storage at − 18 and − 25 °C,
alcohol brine maintained higher pH and sensory scores after a significantly higher lipid oxidation and lipid hydroly-
1 month of frozen storage at − 25 °C. However, no signifi- sis was observed at − 18 °C in whole fish, in canned and
cant effect of rapid freezing was detected on subsequent hot-smoked mackerel [144, 145]. Similar results were
rancidity development during storage [91]. While the use reported for development of lipid oxidation in fillets of
of liquid nitrogen spraying did not mitigate lipid oxidation Atlantic mackerel at − 20 and − 30 °C [148]. Storage at >
during storage, the size of the ice crystals formed by rapid − 20 °C resulted in the formation of larger ice crystals and
freezing was smaller and the shape and distribution of the release of sarcoplasm in the extracellular space leading to
crystals differed from those formed during contact freez- increased drip loss in chub mackerel stored at − 10, − 20
ing, thus contributing to reduced weight loss during stor- and − 40 °C for 6 months [172]. The corresponding histo-
age [172]. Rapid freezing by salt brine immersion (21%), logical features of chub mackerel muscle was observed at
however, turned mackerel muscle more prone to lipid oxida- − 10 and − 20 °C after 6 months [114].
tion and reduced shelf life by 2 months, when compared to Frozen temperatures may affect protein denaturation, e.g.
whole mackerel frozen in a common freezer at − 18 °C [11]. decreased extractability of actomyosin and Ca-ATPase activ-
In addition to accelerated rancidity development, increased ity as observed at − 10 °C in chub mackerel [114] and in
salt content in muscle has been associated with lower lipid minced muscle of chub mackerel when storage temperatures
hydrolysis during frozen storage of fatty fish such as mack- (− 20, − 30 and − 40 °C) were compared [50]. Accelerated
erel [16, 62]. For prolonged storage, initial freezing tempera- protein denaturation and lipid oxidation due to high storage
tures (− 20, − 30 or − 40 °C) did not significantly affect the temperature may promote aggregation of proteins and tough-
degree of denaturation of myofibrillar protein (Ca-ATPase ening of texture [31, 149]. Deterioration of texture (hard and
activity) in whole fish and minced meat of chub mackerel, rough mouth feel) was the first detectable sensory change
which was to a larger extent influenced by the subsequent after 140 days of storage at − 10 °C [172]. Constant storage
storage temperatures [50]. Lowering freezing temperature temperature below − 20 °C (e.g. − 25 and − 30 °C) may be
may not always improve the quality of mackerel muscle. The recommended to store mackerel [172] as temperature abuse
protein quality (Ca-ATPase and extractability of actomyosin) may lead to increased gaping and peritoneum deterioration
of spotted mackerel frozen to − 10, − 20, − 30, − 40 and and accelerate development of lipid hydrolysis and oxida-
− 50 °C before storage at − 20 °C for 2 months was lowest at tion [143].
− 50 °C, possibly due to the increased protein denaturation at In addition to storage temperature, the rate of quality loss
a freezing temperature below the eutectic points of the salts and lipid oxidation may depend on season and feeding state
in fish muscle [71]. [17, 143, 146], total fat content [93], location in mackerel
muscle related to varied fat content [63, 74, 175] and lipid
Frozen storage temperature composition [26] and concentrations of endogenous antioxi-
dants (e.g. α-tocopherol) [116, 133] and pro-oxidants [140].
Lowering storage temperature mitigates the rate of qual- Product type is also an important factor. Increased suscep-
ity loss and oxidation development in mackerel during tibility of fillets for loss of endogenous antioxidant (e.g.
frozen storage. Selection of the studies examining the α-tocopherol) and shorter sensory shelf life was reported,
effect of storage temperatures on quality and storage sta- compared to whole horse mackerel during frozen storage
bility of mackerel are presented in Table 1. Kozima and (− 20 °C) [14]. Filleting may have a more profound effect
Ohtaka [80] compared quality changes of chub mackerel on rancidity development than season and total fat content
during frozen storage at − 18, − 23, − 30 and − 40 °C for in raw material during frozen storage because of mechanical
12 months. The quality attributes affected at − 18 °C and damage and increased exposure to oxygen in air [17].

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Table 1  Selection of storage temperatures investigated for mackerel quality and storage stability
Storage temperatures (°C); other variables investigated Species Product type Fat content (%) References

5, − 3, − 20 S. japonicus White muscle NAa Hashiguchi et al. [55]

4, − 80; presoaking in quince extract S. scombrus Fillet 4.0–6.0 g/100 g Fattouch et al. [46]
4, − 10 S. scombrus, Mince NA Pazos et al. [132]
T. trachu-
rus
4, − 18; degree of polymerization and galloylation of T. trachurus Fillet, mince 1.3 Pazos et al. [129]
catechins
2, 4, 6, 10; modified atmosphere packaging T. trachurus Fillet NA Alfaro et al. [3]
2, − 20, − 40; glutathione, glutathione peroxidase S. scombrus Fillet, mince NA Jia et al. [69]
2, − 20; washing, degree of freshness, antioxidant S. scombrus Fillet NA Richards et al. [142]
(0.2% sodium ascorbate and 0.2% sodium trip-
olyphosphate)
− 10, − 80, green tea S. scombrus Mince NA Alghazeer et al. [4]
− 10, − 18; hydrixycinnamic acids (caffeic, o-coumaric T. trachurus Mince 6.8 Medina et al. [101]
and ferulic acids)
− 10, − 20; glazing S. japonicus Whole 2.28 Nishimoto [114]
− 10, − 20, − 30; BHT, vitamin C and E S. scombrus Fillet NA Saeed and Howell [148],
Saeed and Howell
[149]
− 10, − 20, − 40; freezing methods S. japonicus Whole 16–17.4 Tanaka and Inaba [172]
− 15, − 30, − 40 S. scombrus Various parts of mackerel 1.8–48 Ke et al. [74]
− 18, − 23, − 30, − 40 T. trachurus Whole 1.7 Kozima and Ohtaka [79]
− 18, − 23, − 30, − 40 S. japonicus Whole 19.4 Kozima and Ohtaka [80]
− 18; glazing and temperature abuse S. scombrus Fillet, thawed 22 Popelka et al. [134]
− 18, − 25; feeding state S. scombrus Whole 20–21 Romotowska et al. [145]
− 18, − 25; feeding state S. scombrus Whole, brined and un-brined 20–21 Romotowska et al. [144]
− 20, − 80 T. trachurus Whole, fillet 2.2–3.7 Aubourg et al. [14]
− 20, − 30, − 40 S. japonicus Mince 3.5 Fukuda et al. [50]
− 25; temperature abuse, feeding state S. scombrus Whole 20–21 Romotowska et al. [143]
− 30, − 40; ascorbic acid, vacuum packaging S. scombrus Fillet, mince NA Chapman et al. [31]

NA data NOT AVAILABLE

a
Moisture content measured in dorsal ordinary meat was 71.0%

Thawing the quality of horse mackerel thawed in tap water (21 °C)
and in cold water (3 °C) to reach the final thaw temperature
Frozen mackerel is consumed after being thawed and pro- of 0 °C. The fish thawed rapidly in the tap water showed a
cessed, and thawing is an important step in processing for lower value of lipid oxidation than the fish thawed in cold
ensuring the product quality. The freeze-thawing process water, suggesting that thawing time may be more important
has been shown to accelerate quality loss and hydrolysis and than thawing medium temperature with respect to lipid oxi-
oxidation of lipids [30, 44, 78]. The most common thawing dation. When thawed rapidly by microwave and 20 °C run-
methods include thawing in water and in air at various tem- ning water to reach the final thaw temperature 0 °C, thawed
peratures, while the potential of novel technologies for freez- whole mackerel showed a significantly higher water hold-
ing and thawing [32, 86] is yet to be fully investigated for ing capacity than those thawed in air at 5 and 25 °C [71].
mackerel. The thawing speed and the final thaw temperature Moreover, thawing speed influenced the initial total viable
in fish muscle are the two main factors affecting the quality aerobic counts and the lag time of hydrogen sulfide-pro-
of thawed products. Rapid thawing in water at 10 °C limited ducing bacteria during subsequent chill storage of Atlantic
drip loss and maintained protein quality (e.g. Ca-ATPase mackerel, where fast thawed mackerel (in water at 18 °C for
activity), while thawing in air at the same temperature took 2 h) showed extended shelf life compared to slow thawed
20 times longer to reach the same final thaw temperature mackerel (in air at 30 °C for 14 h) [118]. Haugland [59]
(0 °C) and led to more extensive disruption of muscle cells investigated the effect of final thaw temperatures in the range
for whole chub mackerel [1]. Maeda et al. [91] compared of − 5 to − 1 °C in industrial thawing and demonstrated that

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yield, trimming capacity as well as final product quality the potential to improve handling practices throughout the
(weight loss, gaping and consistency) highly depended on production line, thereby microbial quality [168].
final thaw temperatures for blocks of whole Atlantic mack- Due to high contents of free histidine, mackerel is prone
erel. The optimal final thaw temperature may also depend on to the formation and accumulation of toxic histamine [83].
raw material properties such as fat content and size, type of Histamine poisoning associated with consumption of mack-
processing to be performed as well as choice of parameter(s) erel has occurred throughout the world [22, 174, 176]. His-
to be optimized, e.g. production rate. tamine and other biogenic amines have been detected in
samples of mackerel products available in retail markets,
in most cases but not all at below legal limit and levels of
Non‑frozen storage recommendation [75, 124, 177, 196]. Freshly caught fish
have negligible amounts of histamine, and outbreaks of
Microbial quality and scombroid fish poisoning scombroid fish poisoning often occur at toxic histamine level
(> 500 mg/kg) due to storage at high abusive temperatures
During non-frozen storage, temperatures have a most pro- combined with inadequate harvesting and handling onboard
found effect on the rate of the bacterial growth and the type fishing vessels [135, 158, 186]. In addition to storage condi-
of microorganisms to be predominant affecting the remaining tions, degree of histamine production in mackerel may vary
shelf life of mackerel. At elevated temperatures (> 20 °C), between species [102] and parts of mackerel muscle [67,
the microflora may be dominated by the family Enterobac- 110, 192] and depend on handling, processing and packag-
teriaceae and Pseudomonas species, with total viable count ing [23, 51, 77, 88, 89].
exceeding 6 log cfu/g on the first day of storage in several Post-mortem formation and accumulation of histamine
mackerel species [70, 76, 103]. Storage at low temperature is dependent of growth and histamine producing ability
(0 °C) resulted in predominance of Vibrio accompanied by of microorganisms. Bacteria known to possess histidine
gradual increase in Pseudomonas in chub mackerel, while decarboxylase include mesophilic bacteria belonging to the
the proportion of the halophilic bacteria, originally compris- Enterobacteriaceae family Morganella morgani, Enterobac-
ing 40–60% of the total microflora decreased over time [67]. ter aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Hafnia alvei and Raoultella
Similar results were obtained in Atlantic chub mackerel and species [70, 75, 76, 103, 197] and psychotrophic and psy-
Spanish mackerel, with Pseudomonas species dominant at chophilic bacteria Photobacterium species [70, 110]. Addi-
low temperature 0 and 4 °C as well as ambient temperature tional histamine producers for mackerel are Aeromonoas
at 15 °C [70, 103]. Additional bacteria previously detected hydrophila, Vibrio and Pseudomonas species [24, 76, 103,
include Gram negative bacteria as Psychrobacter and Acine- 157], while halophilic or halotolerant bacteria Pantoea sp.,
tobacter in thawed mackerel stored at refrigerated and ambi- E. cloacae and P. agglomerans may have histamine-forming
ent temperatures [118], as well as Gram-positive bacteria activity in salted mackerel [177]. Several of the most prolific
such as Clostridia and Bacillus in Atlantic mackerel directly histamine formers e.g. Morganella morgani are not part of
collected from the purse seine and from the RSW transport the natural microflora of fish and may be introduced through
tank [168]. Besides the microbial growth, additional qual- guts, skin and gills and by contamination [76, 89].
ity and freshness loss occur during non-frozen storage of At elevated temperatures, production of histamine accel-
mackerel species including increase in K-value, pH, total erates and dominates that of other biogenic amines (e.g.
volatile basic nitrogen and trimethylamine [23, 35, 102, 192] cadaverine, putrescine) because of the mesophilic nature of
as well as loss of PUFAs including the n-3 fatty acids [66]. the most prolific histamine producers [76, 103, 195]. Sam-
The rate of quality changes may depend on product type ples stored at > 20 °C become spoiled within 12–24 h of
e.g. fillet, whole fish [10]. The quality and the shelf life of storage as the amount of histamine exceed the unacceptable
mackerel may be limited by contamination during handling level faster than total microbial count and growth of spoilage
and storage onboard fishing vessels as well as in fish pro- bacteria [70, 102, 136]. At low temperature, the growth of
cessing factories. In a 10-year spot sampling programme the most prolific histamine producers is hindered and his-
of the commercially most important pelagic fish species in tamine production is correspondingly low relative to other
Norway, more than 75% of all fishing vessels and fish pro- biogenic amines [70, 77, 117]. The histamine forming ability
cessing factories involved fish-, surface- and storage water of microorganisms dominant at low temperature (e.g. Pseu-
samples that did not comply with the limits for microbial domonas and Vibrio species) may not be sufficiently high,
quality, hygiene and food safety in the proposed assessment and the main factor limiting the shelf life is rather related to
scheme [169]. Moreover, the presence of Vibrio spp. in gut the rapid growth of non-histamine producing bacteria [70].
of Atlantic mackerel from the purse seine, as well as in the Refrigerated and ice storage delays but does not prevent his-
skins and gills of all samples collected from the RSW tank tamine production. It is only by frozen storage histamine
indicated fecal contamination during transport, emphasizing formation can be effectively controlled [34, 77]. At low

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782 European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791

temperature, other biogenic amines may dominate, causing methods [18, 72, 97], pro-oxidative systems [130], the ratio
spoilage and intensifying histamine-related toxic effects of lipid/antioxidant concentration [101], product type [127]
during storage. While the role of other biogenic amines in and storage temperature when applied to mackerel muscle.
scombroid fish poisoning is not yet clear, their presence has For example, the antioxidant activity of caffeic acid was
been shown to both potentiate and inhibit histamine-related lower in horse mackerel mince at − 10 and − 18 °C than
toxic effects [60, 122]. at chilled temperature, possible due to a lower diffusion of
active compounds to effectively reach the sites sensitive to
oxidation at frozen temperatures [100, 101].
Extension of shelf life Exogenous antioxidants (e.g. caffeic acid, grape procya-
nidins) protect and regenerate the endogenous antioxidants
Antioxidants (e.g. α-tocopherol) and vice versa, creating an antioxidant
synergy consistent with retarded propagation of lipid oxida-
Antioxidants have been used to hinder the rate of quality loss tion during chilled and frozen storage of mackerel muscle
and lipid oxidation in fish containing high amounts of PUFA [64, 66, 132]. The efficiency for regeneration may depend on
and catalysts for oxidation, such as mackerel [96, 99]. Dur- concentration of applied antioxidants [64, 66, 126], product
ing post-mortem storage, the endogenous reducing system in type (e.g. mince, fillet), storage temperature as well as type
mackerel muscle (e.g. α-tocopherol, ascorbate, ubiquinone, of endogenous antioxidants to be regenerated in mackerel
glutathione) become consumed with time as they react with muscle [128, 132]. The antioxidative capacity and the affin-
free radicals. The lipophilic antioxidant α-tocopherol is the ity for incorporation into fish muscle may also depend on
last defense as endogenous inhibitor of oxidation in mackerel how the antioxidant has been applied to the product during
muscle, and the depletion of this antioxidant is highly cor- processing. Pazos et al. [125] applied PG, grape procyani-
related with the development of lipid oxidation [132]. The dins and hydroxytyrosol to fillets of horse mackerel by three
decrease rate of the water- and lipid soluble endogenous methods: spraying, glazing and combination of washing in
antioxidants depend on their reducing potential and stability, water and spraying, before storage at − 10 °C. Spraying
and varies between dark and light muscle of mackerel [133], was more effective than glazing in inhibiting lipid oxida-
storage temperatures and product types [69]. tion due to better incorporation of the applied antioxidants
Exogenous antioxidants can be synthetic or natural phe- into unfrozen fillets. Furthermore, when combined with the
nolic compounds and plant extracts (Table 2). Synthetic washing step, fillets sprayed with grape proxyanidins showed
antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), but- a synergistic effect on inhibition of lipid oxidation and pres-
ylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), ethylenediaminetetraacetic ervation of endogenous antioxidants e.g. α-tocopherol and
acid (EDTA) and propyl gallate (PG) have raised concerns glutathione. As grape proxyanidins are highly water-solu-
about toxicity and food safety in recent years and are under ble, the washing and the residual water on fillet surface may
strict regulation. As alternatives, natural organic acids such have allowed better distribution and penetration, and thereby
as citric, lactic and ascorbic acids, and their combination increased the antioxidant efficiency. Similarly, washing in
have shown antioxidative effects on frozen fillets of horse a solution containing an antioxidant (0.2% sodium ascor-
mackerel [13] and chilled horse mackerel [153]. Filleting bate and 0.2% sodium tripolyphosphate) doubled the shelf
may enhance the accessibility of the applied antioxidants life of Atlantic mackerel fillets [142], while the microbio-
to fish muscle [13]. The ability of sodium and potassium logical, biochemical and sensory quality of minced horse
phosphate salts to act as antioxidants was tested for Atlantic mackerel was greatly improved by including a washing step
mackerel, but found inferior to that of ascorbic and erythor- with tannic acid [163]. The antioxidant included in the wash-
bic acids and PG [191]. ing water also helped retain α-tocopherol in horse mackerel
Because of increasing concerns and consumers’ demands mince [43]. The efficiency of washing to inhibit lipid oxida-
for food safety, much of recent focus have been directed tion may depend on freshness of raw material [142].
towards the use of antioxidants from natural sources such Contribution of lipid oxidation to protein changes has
as phenolic or polyphenolic compounds and plant extracts been indicated in studies where quality changes of mackerel
(Table 2). These natural antioxidants have been applied in muscle treated with antioxidant are compared with those of
different products (e.g. fillet, mince, fish burger) and dem- the untreated. For example, decrease in protein solubility
onstrated antioxidative and antimicrobial effects during and ATPase activities, as well as protein aggregation, were
chilled and frozen storage of different mackerel species, effectively mitigated by application of vitamin C, E and but-
though research focused on whole fish is scarce [99]. The ylated hydroxytoluene in minced muscle and fillet of Atlan-
antioxidative mechanism and effectiveness of the phenolic tic mackerel. Use of Vitamin E at − 10 °C was as effective
compounds and plant extracts vary and depend on molecu- as storage at − 30 °C [148, 149]. Corresponding results were
lar structure [65, 100, 127, 129], extractant and preparation obtained with the addition of carob seed in horse mackerel

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European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791 783

Table 2  Selected application of natural and synthetic antioxidants in mackerel

Antioxidants Species Product type Fat content (%) Storage temperature References
(°C)

Ascorbic acid, citric T. trachurus Whole, fillet 0.7–1.9 − 20 Aubourg et al. [13]
acid
Ascorbic acid, citric T. trachurus Whole 1.0–2.5 Ice storage Sanjuas-Rey et al. [153]
acid, lactic acid in ice
Ascorbic acid, vacuum S. scombrus Fillet, mince NA − 30, − 40 Chapman et al. [31]
packaging
Bay leaf, thyme, S. japonicus Fillet 1.0 − 20 Erkan and Bilen [41]
rosemary, black seed,
sage, grape seed,
flaxseed and lemon
essential oil
BHT, vitamin C and S. scombrus Fillet NA − 10, − 20, − 30 Saeed and Howell [148]
vitamin E
Caffeic acid, hydroxy- S. scombrus, T. tra- Mince NA 4, − 10 Pazos et al. [132]
tyrosol, PG churus
Caffeic acid, T. trachurus Mince NA 4 °C on ice Iglesias et al. [64]
α-tocopherol,
o-coumaric, ferulic
and chlorigenic acids,
concentration
Catechin, caffeic acid, R. kanagurta Mince NA Ice storage Maqsood and Benjakul
ferulic acid and tannic [94]
acid, concentration
Catechin, concentration S. scombrus Mince NA 4 Pazos et al. [131]
Catechin, degree of T. trachurus Fillet, mince 1.3 4, − 18 Pazos et al. [129]
polymerization and
galloylation
Date seed extracts, R. kanagurta Mince NA Ice storage Maqsood et al. [97]
extraction method
Dill extract, concen- R. kanagurta Fillet NA 4 Kannaiyan et al. [72]
tration, preparation
methods
Erythorbic acid, S. scombrus Fillet NA −7 Santos and Regenstein
vacuum packaging [154]
Flaxseed extract S. scombrus Whole 8.5–14.3 − 20 Stodolnik et al. [167]
Flaxseed extract S. scombrus Fillet 80–145 g/kg − 20 Aubourg et al. [15]
Glutathione, glu- S. scombrus Fillet, mince NA 2, − 20, − 40 Jia et al. [69]
tathione peroxidase
Grape and papaya seed R. kanagurta Whole NA Ice storage Sofi et al. [162]
extracts, BHT
Grape dietary fiber, T. trachurus Mince NA − 20 Sánchez-Alonso et al.
concentration [152]
Grape polyphenols S. scombrus Mince NA − 10 Pazos et al. [127]
(flavanol monomers,
oligomers and glyco-
sylated flavonols), PG
Grape procyanidins, T. trachurus Fillet 2.0 − 10 Pazos et al. [125]
hydroxytyrosol, PG,
application
Grape procyanidins T. trachurus Mince NAa Ice storage Iglesias et al. [66]
Grape procyanidins, PG T. trachurus, S. scom- Fillet, mince NA − 10 Pazos et al. [128]
brus
Green tea S. scombrus Mince NA − 10, − 80 Alghazeer et al. [4]

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784 European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791

Table 2  (continued)
Antioxidants Species Product type Fat content (%) Storage temperature References
(°C)

Hydrixycinnamic acids T. trachurus Mince 6.8 − 10, − 18 Medina et al. [101]

(caffeic, o-coumaric
and ferulic acids)
Hydroxycinnamic acids T. trachurus Mince 1.3–4.4 4 Medina et al. [100]
(caffeic, chlorogenic,
o-coumaric and feru-
lic acids), catechins
(catechin, gallocat-
echin, catechin gallate
and gallocatechin
gallate), concentration
Hydroxytyrosol, con- T. trachurus Mince 1.2 − 10 Pazos et al. [126]
centrations
Mint and citrus extract R. kanagurta Whole, HG NAb − 20 Viji et al. [184]
Mint extract, vacuum R. kanagurta Whole, HG 5.5 0–2 Viji et al. [185]
packaging
Phosphates, ascorbic S. scombrus White and dark muscle, 15, assumed Ice storage Weilmeier and Regen-
acid, citric acid, mince stein [191]
erythorbic acid, BHT,
PG, EDTA
Pineapple peel extract, R. kanagurta Steaks 34–35 3–4 Uchoi et al. [180]
BHA
Polyphenol fraction T. trachurus Mackerel Hb, Mince, NA Ice storage Neira et al. [113]
from pine bark, grape washed
and witch hazel,
concentration
Potato peel extract T. trachurus Mince 21–25 5 Sabeena Farvin et al.
[147]
Quince extract S. scombrus Fillet 4.0–6.0 g/100 g 4, − 80 Fattouch et al. [46]
Rosemary and basil S. scombrus Fillet NA 2 Karoui and Hassoun
essential oil [73]
Rosemary extract, S. scombrus Mackerel burgers in 18 4 Uçak et al. [179]
concentrations vacuum
Rosmary and oregano T. murphyi Whole 3.5–4.9 Ice storage Quitral et al. [138]
extract in ice
Rosmary extract T. trachurus Fillet, mince 6.3 − 18 Vareltzis et al. [183]
Rosmol-P solution T. trachurus Whole 5–9 − 20 Lugasi et al. [90]
Rosmol-P solution T. trachurus Fillet 5.3–10.8 − 20 Aubourg et al. [9]
Seaweed extract, S. scombrus Mince 7.8–9.8 5 Babakhani et al. [18]
extraction method,
BHT
Sodium ascorbate, 0.2% S. scombrus Fillet NA 2, − 20 Richards et al. [142]
and sodium trip-
olyphosphate 0.2%,
washing, degree of
freshness
Tannic acid, washing T. trachurus Mince 1.94–3.81 − 20 Sofi et al. [163]
Tea catechins, NA Mince 20.2 4 Tang et al. [173]
α-tocopherol

NA data not available, BHA butylated hydroxyanisole, BHT butylated hydroxytoluene, EDTA ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, PG propyl gallate
a
The initial content of PUFAs was 42.1 ± 1.2% of total fatty acids (0.29 ± 0.01 mg/mg of lipid)
b
Moisture content of fresh fish was 75.15%

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European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791 785

mince during cold storage [2] and when minced muscle of Modified atmosphere packaging, especially when used with
Atlantic mackerel was treated with seaweed extracts [18]. On a higher proportion of ­CO2 (e.g. > 30%), is more effective
the contrary, use of phenolic antioxidants (hydroxycinnamic than vacuum packaging for shelf life extension of whole
acids) did not provide protection against protein aggregation mackerel and fillet [33, 42, 53, 165]. Vacuum packaging
and reduced water holding capacity during frozen storage combined with mint extract treatment extended the shelf life
of horse mackerel mince [101]. The study by Pazos et al. of chilled whole mackerel by 5–8 days, attributed to limited
[131] seems to offer possible explanations to the contra- lipid oxidation and microbial growth [185]. The combined
dictory results. The authors found that the efficiency of the positive effects of vacuum packaging and antioxidants are
antioxidant catechin to retard protein oxidation in chilled also reported in similar studies [31, 123, 154]. Vacuum
mackerel mince was concentration-dependent and depended packaging in combination with various processing methods
on the type of protein to be targeted. Catechin applied at (e.g. hot smoking, marinating and gamma irradiation treat-
200 ppm was ineffective to inhibit the oxidation of actin ment) provided effective control of bacteria and biochemi-
while it demonstrated a high efficiency in reducing carbon- cal parameters for Atlantic and chub mackerel [98, 120].
ylation of other proteins (e.g. glycogen phosphorylase) and In addition, recent studies have demonstrated potential use
oxidation of lipids. of edible coatings and films, e.g. chitosan-gallic acid, bor-
age and gum arabic as protection against microbial growth,
Glazing lipid oxidation and histamine formation, and shown com-
parable or improved efficacy to vacuum packaging for shelf
Glazing is used commercially to enhance the storage sta- life extension during refrigerated and frozen storage [25,
bility of mackerel fillets, but may also be used for whole 52, 194].
fish. Applied by spraying or dipping in a water solution with
and without use of antioxidants and other agents, glazing
prevents dehydration of the product surface and mitigates Conclusions and future perspectives
the quality loss by limiting the access of air for oxidation.
Adequate glazing depends on product type, storage condi- The literature cited in this review demonstrate the highly
tions as well as customer demands and economical value. variable nature of the mackerel muscle and the post-mortem
Glaze is usually applied at a rate of 4–10%, although the changes in quality, safety and storage stability. The varia-
range varies from 2 to 20% [182]. When applied to fillets tion in species, raw material properties (e.g. pH, fat content,
of Atlantic mackerel, glazing delayed rancidity by 2 months freshness, product type) and processes (e.g. thawing and
and improved sensory scores at − 18 °C for 6 months [134]. freezing methods) and storage temperature in the published
Glazing retarded the progress of oxidation and protein work impede comparison and pose challenges to converting
denaturation throughout the storage when unglazed and the existing knowledge into operational value. Regarding
glazed whole chub mackerel were compared at − 20 °C. At future perspectives, the compositional variation that exist
− 10 °C, however, the inhibitory effect of glazing on oxida- within and between the catches (seasonal as well as annual
tion was limited to the early stage of storage (2 months) due variation) necessitate in-line sorting technologies to maxi-
to evaporation loss of glazing [114]. Despite the importance mize the quality-based differentiation and value creation
of glazing for product quality and acceptance, the existing of the mackerel catch. The research-based documentation
literature on glazing is scarce, and knowledge-needs remain, connecting the fisheries (e.g. choice of more lenient capture
e.g. optimal amount of glazing and application methods (e.g. methods) and post-mortem quality and storage stability may
spraying, dipping) with respect to product type, as well as provide economic incentives for future technological inno-
effectivity of antioxidants included in the glazing water. vation thus contributing to the sustainability of the mack-
erel fisheries. Knowledge-needs remain to enable optimal
Reduced oxygen packaging thawing according to raw material and product type, and
to maximize yield and production/processing capacity. The
Reduced oxygen packaging (e.g. vacuum- and modified potential antioxidants for mackerel require to be tested for
atmosphere packaging) mitigates lipid oxidation and limits their feasibility and effectivity for application in pilot test-
the growth of microorganisms and formation of biogenic ing and on commercially available products such as fillet
amines during frozen and chilled storage of mackerel. and whole fish. In addition, the cost effectiveness and con-
Vacuum packaging delayed quality loss and enhanced the sumer acceptance of such application should be evaluated
storage stability of horse mackerel fillets during froze stor- for the respective product and the market in question. While
age at − 18 °C [161, 178]. Similarly, modified atmosphere it is well established that mackerel fillets exhibit increased
packaging (70% C ­ O2/30% ­N2) prolonged sensory quality of susceptibility for the quality loss during storage, knowledge-
fillet 10 days longer than those stored in air at 2 °C [53]. needs remain as regards e.g. effect of raw material, freezing,

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786 European Food Research and Technology (2019) 245:775–791

thawing, use of glazing, antioxidants and packaging on the 12. Aubourg SP, Lehmann I, Gallardo JM (2002) Effect of previous
fillet quality and storage stability. Moreover, the quota- chilled storage on rancidity development in frozen horse mack-
erel (Trachurus trachurus). J Sci Food Agric 82:1764–1771
regulated landing and overfishing limit the volume to be 13. Aubourg SP, Perez-Alonso F, Gallardo JM (2004) Studies on
exploited for human consumption. Future research, there- rancidity inhibition in frozen horse mackerel (Trachurus tra-
fore, calls for an integrated approach combining technologi- churus) by citric and ascorbic acids. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol
cal development and innovation with a credible evaluation 106:232–240
14. Aubourg SP, Pineiro C, Gonzalez MJ (2004) Quality loss related
of environmental, social and economic sustainability in the to rancidity development during frozen storage of horse mackerel
global supply chain. (Trachurus trachurus). J Am Oil Chem Soc 81:671–678
15. Aubourg SP, Stodolnik L, Stawicka A, Szczepanik G (2006)
Effect of a flax seed (Linum usitatissimum) soaking treatment
on the frozen storage stability of mackerel (Scomber scombrus)
Compliance with ethical standards fillets. J Sci Food Agric 86:2638–2644
16. Aubourg SP, Ugliano M (2002) Effect of brine pre-treatment on
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of lipid stability of frozen horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus).
interest. Eur Food Res Technol 215:91–95
17. Aubourg SR, Rodriguez A, Gallardo JM (2005) Rancidity devel-
Compliance with ethics requirements This review does not contain opment during frozen storage of mackerel (Scomber scombrus):
any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of effect of catching season and commercial presentation. Eur J
the authors. Lipid Sci Technol 107:316–323
18. Babakhani A, Farvin KHS, Jacobsen C (2016) Antioxidative
effect of seaweed extracts in chilled storage of minced Atlantic
mackerel (Scomber scombrus): effect on lipid and protein oxida-
tion. Food Bioprocess Technol 9:352–364
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