Chapter I

Ancient Revisits of The Mahabharata: A Study of Bhasa’s Plays

Introduction

Revisits of epics are essential features of the oral and literary traditions of

India. In the post-Vedic period, the bards (sutas) were engaged in the dissemination

of epics through recitations accompanied by music and gestures. Since the epic

stories were familiar, the focus of the revisits was on the manner of representation or

interpretation. Bhasa (circa 4th Century BC) is considered the pioneer among

Sanskrit playwrights. His plays represent the literary tradition of revisits of the epic,

The Mahabharata. This chapter examines six of his plays that are based on the epic.

It analyses the transformation of epic characters within the framework of Sanskrit

dramatic conventions. Before attempting a critical analysis of Bhasa's plays, let us

examine the socio-political and cultural background for the emergence of drama as a

vehicle for the revisits.

Contextualising the Revisits

The period of Bhasa’s revisits witnessed drastic changes in the society on

many fronts. Many scholars and historians like Pusalker, R.S. Sharma, A.L. Basham

and Romila Thapar discuss these changes in the political, social and religious

spheres. The social life-style changed from pastoral and nomadic, to a stable

agrarian society (Pusalker 84). The political power structures of tribal clans

controlled by chieftains were consolidated into monarchy. Desiring to broaden their

power base, kings engaged in wars to annexe neighbouring kingdoms, and

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performed sacrifices like rajasuya yajna and aswamedha yajna to symbolise their

control over other kings. The constant strife and the expansionist attitudes were

reflected in the changing economic status, religious practices, and social attitudes

(Pande 51). The well-established monarchy and flourishing agrarian society

provided the impetus for trade with neighbours of the period. The consequent

prosperity attracted invasions from rulers of countries like Greece and Persia. These

in turn effected changes in the social life and values of the people.

The flux in the political and cultural fronts affected the social value systems

encoded in the Vedas, warranting new interpretations. These changes caused the

emergence of many reform movements, such as Buddhism and Jainism which

emerged as a result of the excesses in the Vedic-religious practices. Earlier the Vedic

social order had divided the society into four castes according to occupations

(varnas). Cutting across caste hierarchy, Buddhism and Jainism preached oneness

of all people. The period witnessed the mutual influence among the evolving

religious traditions. Buddhism and Jainism stressed asceticism and individual

righteous conduct as guiding principles for salvation while the Bhagavata tradition

emphasised devotion to lord Vishnu. Buddhism professed non-violence as its main

doctrine, reinterpreted the concept of dharma, and assimilated it as dhamma in its

fold (Sharma, R.S. 137, Haksar 5). The all-inclusive principle contained in the

Bhagavad Gita, which adds yet another dimension to the Bhagavata tradition,

appropriated the concept of non-violence from Buddhism (Sharma, L.P. 91-93,

Hiriyanna Indian Aesthetics 35-36).

The post-Vedic period saw the emergence of the epics which sought to

interpret the Vedas. The language of the Vedas, considered as ‘given,’ later changed
 28

into a more secular and spoken form during the epic period as is witnessed from the

dialogues found in the epics. Thus the values and practices of Vedic period

underwent a great change in the post epic period and these are reflected in the

revisits. The epics reinterpreted the canonical values of Vedas in a secular manner

through stories and moralistic discourses. The Vedas were accessible only to a select

group of people, whereas the secular nature of the epics made them accessible to the

entire society1. The writers of that period were stimulated by the socio-politico-

cultural milieu. Monarchy and court life offered patronage to the writers. In addition

the congregational form of worship2 popularised by various religious groups offered

a platform for writers to express their ideas through the genre of drama.

Emergence of Drama as a Popular Genre

There are two different hypotheses regarding the evolution of Sanskrit

drama. While scholars like Winternitz consider it to have evolved from the ritualistic

expressions/mimesis of the Vedas, others like Adya Rangacharya consider it to have

evolved from epics and their recitation by professional wandering minstrels (sutas).

Both these ideas are discussed in the following sections.

Drama evolved from Vedas and religious rituals (Keith Drama 23,

Winternitz 179-182). These scholars are of the view that the Rg Veda inspired

narration, recitation and dialogue-hymns or samvada-suktas. Yajur Veda inspired

the writers to include actions, Sama Veda, the music and Atharva Veda, the rasa-s or

emotions. Like rituals, drama is culture specific to communities and is a collective

experience. This form of community participation allows identity formation as well

as reaffirmation of prevalent values. Rituals, while serving as spiritually elevating

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experiences for the individual as well as the community at large, simultaneously

encode the social conduct (Esslin 23). Drama, which has its origin in rituals, either

affirms or subverts the values of the given society. Sanskrit drama is a potent

expression of ancient creativity. Since drama evolved from the Vedas, it commands

as much importance as the Vedas.

Western scholars trace the evolution of Sanskrit drama from religious rituals

(Richmond Indian Theatre 29). However, Indian playwrights and scholars like Adya

Rangacharya and R.N. Rai project a more secular evolution. They argue that since

Vedas were taught only to, and were recited by, a select set of students and

followers, they were not open to a congregational form of worship. However, there

were no such restrictions imposed on reciting the epics. The bards or wandering

minstrels (sutas) played an active role in the process of dissemination of the epics by

retelling them on important occasions to congregations of people. The tradition of

the sutas is valorised in Sanjaya's commentary of the Kurukshetra battle to

Dhritarashtra in The Mahabharata. These sutas were authors, chroniclers, and

preservers of heroic poetry (Jani 81). The popular or interesting stories and episodes

were enacted by the sutas to the accompaniment of vocal and instrumental music.

Subsequently, the episodic form of retelling with recitation and mono acting by the

sutas gained popularity and formed the basis of dramatic expression.

The prescriptive codes encapsulated in the Vedas, along with the specific

social context provided by the epic, led to the evolution of descriptive Sanskrit

drama. The epic conveys the social codes or moral instructions through interesting

stories and dialogues (Rangacharya 12). The dramatic elements from the epic offer

scope for the playwrights to express themselves through drama. Heroic characters
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and action-oriented incidents of the epics offer a greater range for experimentation

by playwrights. Moreover, the style and the language of the epic evolve towards the

spoken language. The selective representation of certain episodes is supported in the

genre of drama. The earliest reference to a drama enacted on stage is in epics

themselves. In The Mahabharata, it is mentioned that the king has to patronise

pugilists, dancers, and comedians for entertaining the people. In Harivamsa, a later

composition of Vyasa, Krishna stages a drama in music along with the gopikas of

Gokulam (Krishnamoorthy Literary Theories 112).

The epics turned ancient Vedic literature into an art form of greater charm

and wider reach. Drama carried them further. The super-human characters of the

epics and the element of supernaturalism of the heroic age were retained to an extent

by the dramatic literature (Rangacharya 12, 15). KRS Iyengar states that the epic

portrays the whole truth of human experience whereas drama specialises in

focussing on one aspect of experience, character, or event. Epics have a multiplicity

of characters and incidents and are composed with great care and attention to

stylistic language. They offer, “whole variegated spectrum of life in the heroic age”

(Iyengar and Nandakumar 138).

Drama evolved in the age of transition (before 4th century BC) from the

heroic to the classical in India. The influence of Valmiki and Vyasa on playwrights

across the ages emphasises the impact of epic on the cultural life of India. Kunhan

Raja says of The Mahabharata:

Major part of the epic is in the form of direct dialogue between the

characters. This form gives a dramatic touch to the epic. The

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characters and settings make the epic more realistic than the precursor

literature. There is an instant rapport between the audience and

characters and events of the epics. (67 emphasis added)

The direct dialogue between characters inspires dramatic expression. The realistic

portrayal of characters provides scope for actions. Thus the epic inspired the

evolution of Sanskrit drama.

With the development of drama, the need for charting its conventions and

providing a structural basis arose. Bharata’s seminal treatise on drama and dance,

the Natyasastra encompasses many aspects such as, the origins of drama,

construction of theatres, worship of stage divinities by actors before performance,

elements of music and dance, language and costumes and other dramatic

conventions (Levi 12). Bharata introduces the concepts of aesthetic sensibility

(bhavana) and sentiment (rasa) (Krishnamoorthy Sanskrit Poetics 326). Drama is a

representation of distinctive moods, (bhava-anukeerthana). It is the moods that

define and demand other aspects of drama like action, character, costume, style of

speech and more. The emotions (bhava), when expressed by an actor, evoke a

certain sentiment (rasa) in the minds of the audience. This experience, known as

rasanubhava, is the ultimate goal of drama (Raghavan 5). Drama combines the

literary tradition of the Vedas, the orality of the epics and aesthetic conventions of

dramatic representation, to foreground, challenge and subvert the socio-cultural

contexts.
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Purpose of Drama

Though Western and Indian scholars agree that dramatic experience offers

instruction and entertainment, they differ in their views regarding the purpose of

drama. Bharata states that the artistic purpose of drama is to offer comfort and

amusement to those who are weary and miserable. Aristotle postulates that certain

emotions like pity and fear are stirred by seeing a tragic play. This acts as catharsis

on the minds of the audience and helps them to be free of inhibitions. Milton

believes that it leaves one with “peace and consolation…and calm of mind, all

passion spent” (Rees 51). In Bhavabhuti’s view, in drama, “sentiments are depicted

in all their subtlety; the actions are charming and reasonable; there is sense and

dignity; the plot is unusual and dialogues skilful” (Rangacharya 13). All these views

emphasise the fact that the level of understanding dictates the extent of enjoyment of

drama. Among all the literary works, drama is considered the most delectable of

experiences, “Kavyeshu natakam ramyam” (Venkata Reddy and Dhawan 7). While

prominence is given to dialogues and dramatic elements, drama also includes music,

dance, narration, and poetry in its exposition. Winternitz affirms that drama presents,

“epic, lyric, and imitative representations of life as a single artistic whole”

(Winternitz 179-182). Though drama is primarily a medium of entertainment, the

literary aspects and cultural context embedded in it makes it a holistic experience.

Drama as a Vehicle of Revisits

The need for a new medium to reinterpret and reaffirm traditional values

enshrined in the Vedas facilitated the development of drama as a popular genre. As a

multi-dimensional creation, drama, unlike epics, conveys its narrative in short

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episodes with many actors, dialogues and action on stage. It is more secular in

nature than the epic recitations in the sense that the actors and the audience belong to

varied social groups. As drama gained popularity as a genre attracting courtiers and

commoners, it widened the reach of the playwrights. As humans learn more by

imitation, drama as a genre became more powerful in the diffusion of ideas. Thus,

the evolution of a genre and the choice of that genre by a writer to pursue his

creative expression were dictated by the needs or demands of the society at that

particular moment of time: “The work of a great author is fed by the combined

influences of his epoch, it enters again into that epoch as one of its most potent

seminal elements” (Hudson 41). The creative genius of the intellectuals of the

ancient period found drama to be the ideal genre to explore and experiment their

revisits of The Mahabharata. The radical change in the literary form from epic to

drama reflects, “diverse literary and social interests” (Thapar Sakuntala 5). The

changes in the society in a particular period, the cultural memory of the epic and its

heroes and the desire of the kings to emulate legendary rulers of the past act as a

stimuli for playwrights to experiment with that genre, its theme, as well as its

protagonists. The dramatic form is a deliberate choice of the writer to isolate and

distance a particular character or episode from the epic to project a new vision.

Introduction to Sanskrit Drama

Bharata Muni’s Natyasastra is a treatise on dramaturgy. He categorises

Sanskrit plays into ten main types (Dasa Rupakas). They are Natakam, Prakaranam,

Bana, Prahasanam, Dima, Vyayoga, Samavakara, Vithi, Ihamrga, and

Utsristikanka. They are distinguished from one another in the nature of the hero, and

other characters, the plot, the length of the play and the sentiments developed. While
 34

Nataka and Prakarana are long plays with a minimum of five acts, Dima and

Samavakara have four and three acts respectively. Prahasanam has no restrictions

regarding the number of acts. Vyayoga, Vithi, Bana and Utsristikanka are all one act

plays (Aiyar v-iv).

Three important aspects of Sanskrit drama are the plot (vastu), the hero

(neta), and the sentiment (rasa). These three have further divisions, which combine

to create a great variety of drama. The plot may be based on puranas, legends, or

fiction. The heroes are of four types depending on the dominant trait exhibited. A

hero could be Dhirodatta or a calm and magnanimous person, Dhiroddhata, a proud

and vehement person, Dhiralalita or lighthearted one, Dhiraprasanta or calm and

peaceful one. Heroines may be bashful (mugda) or progressive (prauda). The eight

types of sentiments (rasa-s) recognised in Natyasastra are: erotic (Sringara), heroic

(Vira), pathetic (Karuna), furious (Raudra), humorous (Hasya), frightful

(Bhayanaka), loathsome (Bibhatsa), and marvellous (Adbuta) (Aiyar 9).

Abhinavagupta, a later day critic, expounds on yet another rasa, namely peace

(Santa) (Masson and Patwardhan 61, Narang 34). Rasa is an aesthetic experience3

distinct from the normal emotional experience felt through the works of art

(Nagendra 120).

Some structural features that are recognised are benediction (Nandi),

prologue (Stapana), interludes (Vishkambaka), epilogue, or closing prayer

(Bharatavakya). In Nandi, the playwright invokes the blessings of his favourite deity

and prays for the smooth conduct of the drama, as well as for the welfare of the

audience and the actors. The Sutradhar is the stage manager who trains the actors

and conducts the performance in accordance with the rules of dramaturgy. He comes
 35

to the stage to recite the Nandi and to introduce the play to the audience. Stapana is

a type of introduction to the play and of the characters, usually done by the

Sutradhar. Incidents that cannot be represented on stage are narrated during the

interludes enabling the progress of the play. Interludes also introduce elements of

comedy. Bharatavakya-s are epilogues or closing prayers. They are usually

greetings for happiness and prosperity to all the subjects and the king. Very often a

close examination of the structure lead to an understanding of the times and place of

the events presented by the playwright (Aiyar 10-14).

The history of Sanskrit literature reveals that revisits of earlier works are part

of the Indian literary tradition. During the Classical period that followed the epics,

revisits dominate the scene. The royals who wished to fashion their reign after the

epic rulers patronised these revisits. This is evident from the works of Kalidasa,

Bharavi, Bhattanarayana and other eminent litterateurs of the period (Varadachari

Appendix iv). Bhasa chose to revisit them through the genre of drama as it offered

challenges in representation, scene settings, and the choice of heroes and other

characters.

Bhasa: An Introduction

Bhasa is a pioneering dramatist of Sanskrit literature, whose plays inspired

great dramatists like Kalidasa. The first reference to Bhasa in ancient literature is in

Malavikagnimitra, where Kalidasa poses the question in the prologue: “How can the

work of the modern poet Kalidasa be more esteemed than the works of Bhasa,

Kaviputra, Saumillaka, and others of established fame?” (Haksar i). Ancient

litterateurs like Vamana, Dhandin and Bhamaha refer to and quote from his works,
 36

testifying to Bhasa’s greatness. In his introductory verses to Harsacaritra,

Banabhatta pays high tributes to the techniques adopted by Bhasa (Unni 1).

Jayadeva, in his thirteenth century work Prasanna Raghava, has this to say about

the greatness of the three poets of ancient India. “Who will not delight in the Muse

of Poetry, the lovely maid whose laughter is Bhasa, the guru of poets, whose sport of

pleasure is Kalidasa, whose Cupid is Bana….?” (Haksar i). Eminent critics of

Sanskrit literature like Abhinavagupta, Ramachandra and others refer to his play

Svapnavasavadutta as a seminal work4. These references point to the fact that

Sanskrit writers down the centuries were aware of Bhasa and venerated him.

Till the beginning of the twentieth century, Bhasa’s revisits of The

Mahabharata were not known to oriental scholars. This changed with the epoch-

making discovery by Ganapati Sastri in the year 1910. He published these plays,

known as Bhasa Nataka Chakra, within three years of their discovery (Sastri 5).

Among these Svapnavasavadutta is the most popular play. Bhasa’s plays dramatise

episodes from The Ramayana and The Mahabharata. Stories on Krishna and the

romantic stories of the past also constitute his repertoire.

Bhasa’s Life and Times

Various scholars have expressed different opinions regarding the possible

period of Bhasa and have tried to justify their contentions on the basis of historical

as well as speculative evidences. This has led to Haksar’s dictum that, “Bhasa, the

playwright, is renowned, while Bhasa the man is yet to emerge from the shadows of

history” (Haksar iii). The exact period and the authenticity of Bhasa’s authorship is a

much debated subject. (Keith, Notes 297). Scholars like Ganapati Sastri, Bhide,
 37

Kirata and Tatake accept Bhasa as belonging to the period ranging from sixth

century BC to fourth century BC. Others like Bhandarkar, Jacobi, Jolly and

Berridale Keith maintain that Bhasa belonged to the third century AD. From the

following historical facts one can ascribe to Bhasa the pre-Mauryan era.

i. Bhasa reveals the territorial limits of the kingdom in which he lived,

through his Bharatavakya-s or the ending prayers of the play. The king

referred to in one of the plays could be Ugrasena Nanda, a monarch

who reigned prior to Chandragupta Maurya. This places Bhasa’s period

in the fourth century BC

ii. His use of words such as Sakyasramantaka and Nagasramantaka and

references to places such as Nagavana, Venuvana, Rajagrha and

Pataliputra place his works in the post-Buddha period

iii. The customs and practices followed in marital alliances and the

glorification of the hierarchical system and its practices point to the

pre-Mauryan era

iv. He has also drawn from the legend of the historical king Udayana and

the folklore of Avimaraka. He has made reference to the royal families

and the kingdoms especially Kasi. He has also mentioned several

treatises in his play, Pratima Nataka, which indicate the time period as

sixth century BC

v. The playwright’s silence on the usage of coins and zodiacal signs

indicates absence of Greek influence and hence affirms a pre-Mauryan era

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vi. The earliest reference to the play of Bhasa by name, is by Bana, who is

assigned the period of seventh century AD. But researchers are

uncertain about the dates of great writers like Kalidasa, Sudraka and

Kautilya themselves. This may be the reason for assigning different

dates to the works of Bhasa by many scholars

vii. Kalidasa and Kautilya refer to Bhasa in their works

viii. Bhasa’s style, syntax and grammar in the usage of Sanskrit and Prakrit

suggest a period later than Panini’s, an authority on Sanskrit language

ix. The free flowing style of Sanskrit language would indicate a period

when Sanskrit was the common spoken language and not restricted to

the royal courts, which was the case in later periods

Thus it appears reasonable to accept the view that Bhasa’s times was between the

sixth and fourth centuries BC based on the historical as well as speculative

evidences (Pusalker 69-84).

The absence of authorial mention in any of Bhasa’s plays had opened up a

debate as to the authenticity of the plays. In their introduction to The Thirteen Plays

of Bhasa, Woolner and Sarup raise these questions:

i. Are all the thirteen plays the work of one author or belong to one

period at least?

ii. Do the plays belong to different authors belonging to different periods?

iii. Were the original manuscripts reworked by one or more later day

authors?
 39

They are unable to find convincing answers to these questions (Woolner and Sarup

vi). Hence it leads us to the conclusion that Bhasa’s time and the authenticity of the

plays are still open to debate. However, Pandit Ganapathy Sastri, who discovered the

plays, maintains that Bhasa is the sole author of all the thirteen plays (Sasrti 113).

He comes to this conclusion based on the fact that the Trivandrum collection

contained Svapnavasavadutta and Pratijna Yaugandharayanam, which were already

renowned and attributed to Bhasa.

This chapter analyses in detail six plays of Bhasa namely, Madhyama

Vyayoga, Pancaratra, Dutavakyam, Duta Ghatotkacam, Karnabharam and

Urubhangam. Of these Madhyama, Karnabharam and Dutavakyam, provide a stage

for the transformation of the second or the unsung heroes to protagonists and in the

process change the concept of a hero. The other three plays offer space for

antagonist-to-protagonist transformation. Before proceeding to the analyses of the

plays, a brief introduction to Bhasa’s theatre is warranted.

Bhasa’s Theatre

Bhasa’s creations predate the treatise on Natyasastra by approximately eight

centuries. This fact lends credence to the belief that Bhasa’s plays helped in the later

codification of dramatic elements in Bharata’s Natyasastra. While analysing

Bhasa’s drama, it is interesting to register not only the transformation of character

through changes in strategies but also his experiments with the elements of drama.

Classical Sanskrit drama had developed certain conventions by the time of

Bhasa. Most plays begin with a nandi or benediction, followed by a prologue or

prastavana where the sutradhara, the stage director, appears and introduces the
 40

play. The plays end with a bharatavakya or an ending statement or verse, often as a

prayer to a deity, while pravesaka-s or interludes by minor characters are common

between acts to introduce elements of humour or provide continuity to the story

(Haksar vii). These conventions were clearly influential in the later compilation of

the comprehensive treatise known as Natyasastra by Bharata (Rangacharya 28).

There are differences between Bhasa’s practice and the conventions/rules as

laid down in the Natyasastra. They are listed below:

i. Opening benediction (nandi) is not performed on stage; instead it is

announced as having been done by the sutradhar

ii. The stage manager or Sutradhar introduces the play, playwright and

the actors; in Bhasa’s plays the playwright’s name is absent, and has

given rise to speculations on the authorship

iii. Introduction precedes Mangala Sloka in Bhasa’s plays

iv. The name of the play appears as the last line after the epilogue

(Bharatavakya)

v. A major difference is the tragic ending with the death of the hero

portrayed on stage in Urubangam

These are the structural differences found in Bhasa’s plays and have been noticed

and commented upon both by ancient as well as modern writers (Haksar ix).

Bhasa’s Heroes

Of the four types of heroes found in dramatic conventions, Bhasa portrays

the dhiroddhata type, i.e., proud and wilful, yet noble and courageous individuals
 41

(Haksar x). The principal characters are from the priestly and warrior classes, with

their respective codes of conduct. This may be on account of his firm belief in the

hierarchical system of the society of those times. Yet another reason may be that the

patrons of his drama belonged to that stratum of society. Bhasa, however, bridges

the gaping gulf between the world of gods (the epic characters) and the human world

he portrays (Krishnamoorthy Sanskrit Criticism 243). His characters exhibit an

extraordinary range of heroism. The protagonists display valour in the battle field

(Yuddhavira), show steadfastness in their adherence to duty (Karma vira), and are

ready for ultimate/extreme sacrifices (Dhana vira) (Venkatachalam 74). At the same

time he humanises them and represents them as deeply emotional individuals. He

reflects the spirit of his times and brings drama from divine heights to the level

plains of humanity. The conflict between the characters is essayed more at the

psychological level than at the physical and is dominated by intense human

emotions (Krishnamoorthy Literary Theories 43). The characters are delineated in

the epic fashion only up to a certain extent. The author’s innovation is in

highlighting certain other traits to give a differential perspective. These strategies

enable the author to shift the focus of the epic narrative, and transform his characters

in order to provide perceptival changes. Bhasa was also acutely aware of the socio-

political and cultural changes of his times and did make singularly important

comments. These are remarkable contributions, especially since they have had a

shaping influence on later writers. In all his plays, he blends unique themes, novel

techniques, and apt characterisation to evoke the right sentiments, and is therefore

rightly hailed as a pioneer among Sanskrit dramatists.

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Classification of Bhasa’s Plays

Bhasa has a wide repertoire of plays. The sources of his plays are the legends

and folklore of his times, literature on Krishna and the two epics. His thirteen plays

can be classified according to the types catalogued in the Natyasastra. They are

tabulated below.

Table 1

List of Plays Attributed to Bhasa

No Name of Play Source Hero Theme Type of Play

Krishna, the Religious
1 Balacaritam Harivamsam Nataka
child Principles
Pratijna
2 Legend Udayana Political Intrigue Natika
Yaugandarayana
3 Svapnavasavadatta Legend Udayana Political Intrigue Nataka
4 Carudatta Folklore Carudatta Social Satire Prakarana
5 Avimaraka Folklore Avimaraka Social Satire Nataka
Religious
6 Pratima Ramayana Rama Nataka
Principles
Rama Religious
7 Abhisheka Ramayana Nataka
Incarnation Principles
Madhyama Social
8 Mahabharata Bhima Vyayoga
Vyayogam Conventions
Duryodhana
9 Pancaratram Mahabharata Political Intrigue Samavakara
& Others
10 Duta Vakyam Mahabharata Krishna Political Intrigue Vyayoga
11 Duta Ghatotkacam Mahabharata Ghatotkaca Political Intrigue Vyayoga
Social and Heroic Utsristikanka
12 Karnabharam Mahabharata Karna
Values
Comments on
13 Urubhangam Mahabharata Duryodhana Utsristikanka
War

It is seen from Table 1 above that The Mahabharata plays fall in three main

types Vyayoga, Utsristikanka and Samavakara. The first two types are one act plays
 43

and the last is a five act play. Vyayoga is based on a heroic or military episode,

without any romantic interest. Female characters are few and the hero is a virtuous

ruler or prince of great renown. The source of the plot should be from epics, puranas

or legends. The hero cannot be a celestial being but must be a person of royal

lineage. Fights or wrestling matches can be included in this form of play.

Appropriate sentiments or rasas should be incorporated. These are the rules that are

defined for a Vyayoga in Natyasastra as well as Sahityadarpana (Menon vii).

Utsrstikanka has common people for its heroes. Its main sentiment should be pathos.

There will be lamentations of women who have lost their dear ones in the battle just

concluded. There will be no violence or disgraceful actions. It just represents the

consequences of the war. Samavakara type of plays should deal with incidents that

are supposed to have happened within eighteen Nadika-s (~432 minutes) and should

be presented in three acts. The theme should be related to a conflict between devas

and asuras. The hero should be a famous personality. The play must have twelve

main characters. Sahityadarpana also gives the same definition for a Samavakara.

Bhasa’s Pancaratram is considered Samavakara type (Menon lx).

Frequently difference of opinion has arisen among scholars over the

classification of the plays. For instance, some scholars maintain that Urubhangam

belongs to the Vyayoga type, while others consider it a Utsristikanka. The play is an

admixture of elements of both these types; though, it has more pronounced elements

of the Utsrstikanka type (Aiyar vii). It is worth recalling that Bhasa predates

Natyasastra and probably pioneered this type of plays. Besides the elements of

drama of his period may have been different (Pusalker 193)

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While discussing the popularity of one act plays, Srinivasa Iyengar and

Prema Nandakumar refer to the fact that Bhasa pioneered one act plays.

As a modern art form, the one act play like the modern short story is an

exercise in literary impressionism. It is a moment’s monument, the

little drama (or the short tale) revolving around- like an electronic

envelope- the nucleus of the moment in time that is forever set apart in

time (Iyengar and Nandakumar 159).

Clearly one act plays are a challenge because of their space and time constraints.

They appeal to the audience but they are forgotten quickly. On the other hand, good

one act plays often leave a strong and lasting influence on the reader. Bhasa’s plays

are performed even now, after two millennia (Richmond Bhasa Festival 68). This

can be attributed to the fact that he overcomes the constraints by structural

simplicity, direct and simple language and by use of terse minimal script (Yarrow

56). The continuing influence of Bhasa’s drama is dealt with later in this chapter.

In this context, it is interesting to note the manner in which Bhasa has

employed the basic elements of drama, which have been catalogued in the section on

the Introduction to Sanskrit Drama. The essential elements in Bhasa’s revists to The

Mahabharata are:

i) Plot (Vastu): The episodes of The Mahabharata with war as the

backdrop constitute his themes

ii) Hero (Neta): He chooses unsung and second heroes and places them as

his protagonists. In general, he takes proud and brave warriors

(dhiroddhata type) and portrays them as sensitive heroes

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iii) Sentiment (Rasa): His plays evoke the dominant sentiments of heroism

and pathos, and associate sentiments like filial love, humour and

marvel

In both, invocation and epilogue, Bhasa refers to the incarnation of Vishnu,

indicating his devotion to lord Vishnu. They also act as indices to his times through

references to the kingdom and its ruler. In addition, there are other elements like

dramatic irony, word play, display of portraits, surprise, suspense, magic and

disembodied voice (akasa bhasita) (Ayyar 34). The terse language and rapidity in

style are hallmarks of his drama. Bhasa chose the epics as a source of his literary

creations and he chose drama as a means to explore aspects of the epic. The focus of

this chapter is the plays from The Mahabharata. However there are two outstanding

plays based on The Ramayana, which are examined briefly in the following section.

The Ramayana Plays

Bhasa wrote two plays based on The Ramayana: Pratima (The Statue) and

Abhisheka (The Coronation). Pratima is a seven act play which dramatises episodes

from Ayodhya kandam, Aranya kandam and Rama Pattabhishekam of the epic. In

this play Rama is portrayed as a hero, who goes through the trials and tribulations of

life with determination and finally succeeds. The play departs from the original epic

in many aspects. Ravana appears in the guise of a venerable Brahmin at the first

death anniversary of Dasaratha performed by Rama. On that occasion he asks for a

gift of a golden antelope. Rama’s departure to the Himalayas in search of the

antelope, and the abduction of Sita in the absence of Lakshman and Bharata’s

preparation for war are all significant departures from the epic. We also find that
 46

Kaikeyi does not ask the king for two boons, namely kingship for Bharata and

Rama’s exile to forest. In Bhasa’s revisit, Bharata has the right to the throne, since it

was a bridal gift (Sridhana) to his mother given at her marriage to Dasaratha.

(Pusalker 493). The valkala incident where Sita playfully asks for an ascetic robe is

an innovation through which the playwright indicates her impending forest life.

In the play Abhisheka, the coronation of Rama is enacted in six acts. Here,

Rama is identified as the incarnation of god Vishnu. This play marks a departure

from the normal dramatic conventions. For instance, the killing of Vali, Sugriva’s

brother, is depicted on stage. Bhasa has used episodes from the Kishkinda, Sundara

and Yuddha kandams of the epic in his plays. It is possible that other versions of the

Ramayana existed during that period, which might have inspired him. Bhasa's

revisits reveal his ingenuity in the choice of medium and the presentation. Common

to the dramatic revisits of The Ramayana and The Mahabharata are the introduction

of new incidents. But the notable difference is that he does not transform the epic

portrayal of Rama. He rather enhances his divine status. Rama is a calm and

peaceful type of hero, (dhiraprasanta). Also these plays are not episodic in that they

present the entire story of the Ramayana.

Analysis of plays based on The Mahabharata

The thesis analyses six of Bhasa’s plays6, which are based on The

Mahabharata. Read together, the plays revisit the epic from the exile of the

Pandavas to the end of the Kurukshetra war. The order of the plays taken for

analysis is based on the aligning of heroes of plays with the protagonists of

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contemporary novels (discussed in Chapter III) in order to facilitate a comparison

between them.

Second Rung Heroes as Protagonists of the Revisits

Madhyama

Madhyama is a one-act play, which conforms to the type Vyayoga. The play

is set in the period of exile of the Pandavas (Vana Parva) and dramatises the

meeting of Bhima and Ghatotkaca. Bhasa introduces the framing narrative of a

Brahmin family pursued by Ghatotkaca to set the stage for the meeting between the

father and son. Bhasa has innovated this episode. He has deftly intertwined a story

Sunasepaka Upakyana found in the Vedic text Aitereya Brahmana with that of the

exile of the Pandavas (Pusalker 88, Basham 157). When Ghatotkaca first meets

Bhima, he is not aware of their relationship. Though Bhima comes to know of

Ghatotkaca’s identity, he playfully engages him in a trial of strength. Finally he

meets Hidimba and the family is reunited. The leit motif of the father meeting the

son without either being aware of their respective identity and the family re-union

might have been inspired by The Ramayana in which Rama meets his sons Lava and

Kusa in his assembly, where they recite his story and finally bring about the meeting

of Rama with Sita. The framing narrative of the Brahmin family, willing to sacrifice

its middle son, links the title to the theme of the play and foregrounds the ‘Middle

One,’ Bhima.

The title of the play is a pun on the phrase ‘Middle One’ as it refers to the

order of the birth of both the Brahmin boy and Bhima.

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GHATOTKACA . Oh, MIDDLE ONE I am shouting for you.

BHIMA. That is why I have come.

GHATOTKACA. Are you also the MIDDLE ONE ? (Menon 127).

As both are addressed as Madhyama, it leads to confusion at first but later brings

both together, and helps in the progression of the play (Pusalker 204). Bhasa plays

on the word Madhyama throughout the play5. In the beginning the sutradhar calls

the attention of the audience to Ghatotkaca as the rakshasa son of the middle

Pandava. Again we find the Brahmin boy referring to Bhima as the middle one who

will be in charge of the hermitage. We then hear the second son of the Brahmin

family calling himself the 'Middle One.' The dramatist thus prepares us for the scene

when Bhima answers the call of Middle One, addressed by his own son Ghatotkaca.

Bhasa makes the opening scene sensational. The Sutradhar introduces

Ghatotkaca as the son of Bhima the ‘middle’ Pandava and Hidimba. He narrates the

plight of a Brahmin family being pursued by Ghatotkaca. The forest settings create

the necessary background and tension in order to introduce the sentiment of surprise.

The actions as well as the dialogues of the characters create the sentiment of fear.

For instance, the third son of the Brahmin, on seeing Ghatotkaca shouts, “Death has

taken a shape of man” (Menon 113).

Bhima’s appearance, in response to Ghatotkaca’s call as Madhyama,

introduces the conflict of interest between Bhima who wants to protect the Brahmin

boy and Ghatotkaca who wants to take the boy to his mother. This generates a

spectacular effect.
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GHATOTKACA. Leonine form with arms like golden palm trees,

Tight waist, like the kin of birds in sides

Could be Visnu with blooming lotus eyes

He steals my heart like a kinsman arrived (Menon 126, emphasis added).

Bhasa employs dramatic irony in the confrontation between Bhima and Ghatotkaca

as the latter is unaware of Bhima’s idenity. The dialogue between Bhima and

Ghatotkaca is full of humour and irony. For instance, Ghatotkaca enquires of Bhima

whether he is also a ‘middle one’? To this Bhima replies that he alone is the middle

one. He further adds that, “I am the middle one among the inviolable and also the

middle one among the haughty. O good man! I am the middle one on earth and also

the middle one among my brothers” (Menon 127).

The duel between Bhima and Ghatotkaca again provides a spectacle for the

audience. The stage direction suggests actions like, throwing of rocks by Ghatotkaca

at Bhima, which the latter wards off effortlessly, incantation of spells to produce

water and to bind Bhima with a noose. These techniques do not depend on the

plausibility of the incident but as on the fact that they are woven into the cultural

space of the spectators’ thinking and feeling to build an immediate rapport with

them (Bradbrook 39).

The play ends on the positive note of Bhima's reunion with his family and

Ghatotkaca offering his services to Bhima in the war against the Kauravas. Unlike

the epic, which presents Hidimba as a demoness, the play highlights her role as a

mother, engineering the union of father and son. In the play, Bhasa foregrounds the

heroic sentiment through his protagonists. In addition associated sentiments like

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fear, anger, affection and wonder follow in quick succession enhancing the appeal of

the play.

Characterisation

In the epic, Ghatotkaca is depicted as a Brahmin hater and a demon7. This

informs Krishna’s justification for sacrificing Ghatotkaca in the war (Unni 35).

Bhasa presents Ghatotkaca as a person who has respect for Brahmins, but his respect

for his mother’s command outweighs that societal norm.

GHATOTKACA. If my father were to pronounce

His release with great love and faith

Caught by me at mother’s behest

He will not be released by me (Menon 131).

This subtle change of perspective makes the character of Ghatotkaca more human.

Bhasa reiterates the social dictum that when there is a conflict between obeying the

wishes of parents, mother’s wish takes the precedence. Bhasa has portrayed

Ghatotkaca as a powerful warrior in his own right, a sensitive and obedient soldier

who knows how to obey as well as to command. He thus projects Ghatotkaca as a

leader capable of taking over the reins of Pandava kingdom.

Bhima’s character is delineated on well defined hierarchical lines. Bhima’s

role as the protector comes through the words of the first son of the Brahmin family

even before Bhima actually makes his entrance in the play. When Bhima chances on

Ghatotkacha harassing the Brahmin family, he advises him to leave them alone by

pointing out that it is the duty of a warrior to protect people. His admiration for his
 51

son’s youthful exuberance and his concern for his well-being are expressed in a

distinct manner in the following asides in the play:

BHIMA. This spurt of his youthful valour

Reminds me of Subhadra’s son…..

His form, valour and might

All are like his parents

How then become devoid

Of compassion for man? (Menon 131-132, emphasis added).

By pointedly referring to Abhimanyu, the playwright brings to focus the neglect of

Ghatotkaca’s importance in the epic. Bhima is reminded of his all powerful mother,

Kunti, when his son defies his own in order to obey his mother’s. Bhasa has

portrayed both son and father as sharing the edict of respecting and honouring the

words of their mothers at any cost.

Bhasa positions Hidimba as a powerful mother. Bhasa invests her role with

great importance as that of a thread that binds all actions of the play from the

beginning to the end. Though she is absent in the beginning of the play, her presence

in the life of her son is palpable. She is the one he remembers when he wants to cast

a spell on Bhima and tie him up by magic. Her role, not only as a mother but also as

a preceptor, is brought to the fore. Just before he attempts to cast a spell on Bhima

and tie him up, Ghatotkaca says, “As a gift from my mother I have got the magic

noose” (Menon 138). She had taught her son obedience and devotion to parents,

respect for Brahmins, a sense of pride about his family and his father and self-

confidence. One can infer from the dialogues, that Hidimba must have planned this
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reunion of father and son, when she came to know of the presence of the Pandavas at

the hermitage.

Bhasa has introduced a new incident in order to foreground Ghatotkaca, the

hitherto neglected character, as a protagonist. By projecting him as the first-born

Upapandava his legitimacy in the Pandava hierarchy is hinted. In Duta

Ghatotkacam, which will be discussed later in the chapter, Bhasa enhances

Ghatotkaca’s image by investing leadership qualities on him. Through this

characterisation, Bhasa emphasises the importance of family and social values.

Bhasa’s heroes offer scope for dramatic action as well as character

transformation, because of their fluid characterisation in the epic. The

characterisation of Ghatotkaca is an example of the sensitive interpretation of human

sentiments. The exemplary understanding demonstrated by Ghatotkaca and his

yearning for a place in the family is brought to the fore:

GHATOTKACA. It was in ignorance earlier

I did not pay you my respects.

Do forgive your son’s offence

And bestow your blessings on him.

I am Ghatotkaca the fire destined to burn and destroy the forest

of Dhritarastra’s sons. My obeisance to you!

Pray forgive your son’s childishness! (Menon 143).

The play Madhyama ends on the positive note of reunion of Bhima with his family.

By this intervention, Bhasa erases the image of a negligent father, and presents

Bhima as a proud and a dharmic preceptor. He also portrays Bhima as an

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affectionate husband and sensitive warrior. The playwright isolates Ghatotkaca from

the epic background in order to gloss over his unacceptable traits and invest him

with affirmative qualities and project him as the eldest Upapandava.

Bhasa sets his play in the forest away from the society and the divide of

social order. In the forest the means of survival is represented as might being right.

Yet the framing narrative foregrounds the Brahmin’s place in the hierarchy. The

final scene where the two family units of the Brahmins and Bhima/ Ghatotkaca/

Hidimba –move towards the Pandava camp reaffirms the harmonious co-existence

of the various castes of the society. This suggests a reinterpretation of the Vedic

precepts. Though a tribal, Ghatotkaca understands the values embedded in the

Vedas: Matru devo Bhava/Pitru devo bhava. The forest-urban divide is blurred

through this drama. Bhasa transforms the character of Ghatotkaca from the Brahmin

baiting, cannibalistic demonic image of the epic into a lovable and respectable first-

born Upapandava.

Bhima is projected as a family man. Though his prowess is showcased in a

playful encounter with Ghatotkaca, the formidable aspects of his character like

killing the enemies with the sheer strength of his hands are avoided. His affectionate

and sensitive nature and his upholding of kshatriya duty in protecting the Brahmins

are highlighted. Through the portrayal of the sensitive nature and filial bonds of his

heroes Bhasa presents more humane protagonists than the epic. In the epic Bhima,

being the second-born, is denied the right to the throne. Ghatotkaca, though the first

born upapandava, is sacrificed for the Pandava cause. By articulating the silences of

the epic about the second rung heroes like Bhima and Ghatotkaca, Bhasa alters the

view of the epic.

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Bhasa’s projection of Bhima as a central figure in the play finds echoes in

many a later day revisit. An example could be found in Bhattanarayana’s Veni

Samhara, which dwells in detail on Bhima’s revenge and his completion of his vow

in a graphic manner (Krishnamachariar 613). Gitomer is of the view that Bhima’s

physical prowess and his ability to intervene and engage the rakshasas on behalf of

the Pandavas in physical combat makes him a hero; a good rakshasa. (Gitomer 226)

Ranna, a Jain poet of the heroic age, in his Kannada revisit Sahasa Bhima Vijayam,

portrays Bhima in a similar light. In fact he identifies the valour and power of his

protagonist with that of his patron, the king Satyasraya (Sumitrabai and Zydenbos

265). Focussing on Bhima as a protagonist continues to this day; M. T. V. Nair,

whose Second Turn is analysed in detail in Chapter III, is one of the celebrated

writers in this class. The following play Karnabharam, projects Karna, another

second rung character, as hero.

Karnabharam

Karnabharam belongs to the Utsristikanka type (Pusalker 195). The

dominant rasa is pathos. The play begins with an invocation to lord Narasimha,

whose man-lion form instils fear among people. It illustrates that traditionally

warriors worship lord Narasimha before they engage in war. The closing benediction

indicates that only a virtuous kshatriya should rule the land (Menon 363). This

signifies the true sentiment of Karna, who anticipates his imminent defeat and

wishes that the righteous Yudhishthira should rule the kingdom.

In this short play, Bhasa highlights the generosity of Karna even in adversity.

The title can be interpreted at various levels. At one level, it refers to the

responsibility of Karna to lead the Kaurava army and at another his compulsion to
 55

part with the precious earrings and the body armour with which he was born. Just

before the war, he gifts them to Indra, who appears disguised as a Brahmin. Karna

feels that they were a burden to him even during the short time it takes to actually

handing them over (Pusalker 192).

The play has only three main characters, Karna, Salya (his charioteer), and

Indra. A soldier and an angel are the minor characters. Menon says, “the play

carries an air of pathos through out and is one of the few tragic plays in Sanskrit”

(Menon lxxii).

The opening lines indicate the confused mental state of Karna: “Dark misery

shrouds my heart at the hour of combat” (Menon 347). This scene resonates with the

confused state of mind of Arjuna on the first day of the battle. On the way to the

battlefield, Karna reminisces on his acquisition of many weapons and the curse of

Parasurama. When Indra arrives in the guise of a Brahmin and begs for the armour,

Karna gifts them away despite Salya’s protests. Karna’s generosity stems from his

conviction that benevolent acts alone are remembered in the future.

KARNA. Knowledge acquired leaves us with lapse of time

Trees even deep rooted, do fall down once.

Water well-stored in lakes often dries up

But oblations and gifts last for all times (Menon 360 emphasis added).

In his portrayal, Bhasa reveals Karna’s yearning for unassailable fame. Karna’s

sense of insecurity urges him to perform exemplary sacrifices to gain the acceptance

of his peers. This trait sets him apart in a galaxy of great warriors. This

representation has inspired many future writers. In the epic his yearning for
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acceptance turns him into a haughty and malevolent person. Bhasa turns this very

yearning of Karna into something affirmative and makes him a noble person. He

understands the ephemeral nature of this world and longs only for the fame that is

permanent. Though the epic mentions Karna’s philanthropic nature, it also registers

his vengeful nature. Bhasa selects incidents and episodes from the epic that highlight

Karna’s philanthropy and chooses to gloss over his unacceptable traits. Bhasa twists

the epic episode of the gift of divine weapon by highlighting Karna’s reluctance in

accepting it. In this play Karna is projected as a great warrior, generous to a fault.

Bhasa projects two contrasting perceptions of the incident of Karna’s gift to

Indra, in two different plays. In Duta Gatotkacam we find Dhritarashtra is not

appreciative of Karna’s philanthropy. He derides him as a “mad-cap half charioteer

robbed of armour by Indra, The kind one with divine arms, futile, obtained in deceit”

(Menon 320). On the other hand in Karnabharam, his gift to Indra is portrayed as

supreme sacrifice for the sake of eternal fame.

Indra receives the gift and blesses Karna saying, “May thy fame live long!”

instead of the customary, “May you live long!” Karna responds by saying, “Power

flits like the serpent’s tongue. Virtue alone is worth striving for. Kings live long

through their virtues when they die” (Haksar 95). Karna chooses immortal fame to

attaining heaven. Karna expresses a similar view in the play Pancaratram when he

quotes Ikshvaku kings and says that a king should only leave behind a weapon for

his son and not a kingdom. Karna emerges as a well informed person, aware of the

consequences of his choices.

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Vyasa portrays Karna as a victim of circumstances. His is a mixture of noble

as well as unacceptable traits. In the epic, Karna goes to war without being bogged

down by his filial ties. Bhasa, however, portrays him as a sensitive person torn

between loyalty to his friend and to his family. He is torn by conflicting emotions

and handicapped by the loss of all the powers gifted to him at birth. These heighten

the pathos and evoke sympathy in the heart of the audience. At this juncture the

verse he recites is a variant of Krishna’s advice to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita8.

If you are slain, you win heaven

If you triumph, you enjoy earth-

So stand up, son of Kunti,

And resolve to fight the war (Bhagavad Gita, Ch II verse 33).

Karna tells Salya:

If a man is slain, he wins heaven,

If he triumphs, he wins fame-

Both ends are prized in the world,

So war is not without reward ( Miller 60).

Bhasa has depicted Karna as a karmayogi who performs his ordained tasks

efficiently and without expectations of reward.

Techniques

Bhasa uses the technique of telescoping the incidents of Karna’s life, by

which he incorporates the following incidents right on the battlefield:

i. Acquisition of weapons

ii. The resultant curses

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iii. Revelation of his birth mystery

iv. Gift of his armour to Indra

At one level shifting and telescoping incidents act as features that accelerate the pace

of action, thus ensuring economy of time, which is central to drama and especially to

one act plays (Bradbrook 13). At another level, it contrasts Karna’s generous nature

with the devious nature of Indra, though the latter is a celestial. By these strategies,

Bhasa enhances the sentiments of pathos.

The epic portrays Karna as a misguided and malevolent character. Bhasa

contextualises the events and telescopes the incidents to transform Karna into a

peerless philanthropist. While in Pancaratram, Karna advises Duryodhana about

kshatriya dharma, here the knowledge of his birth makes him all the more

determined to practise it, a right that was denied to him thus far. Bhasa is a

trendsetter in more senses than one because his characterisation finds echoes in

several contemporary representations of Karna such as Dinkar’s Rashmi Rati

(Bhattacharya P. 82), Kailasam’s Karna: The Brahmin’s Curse (Amur 166; Iyengar,

IWE 237) and Rabindranath Tagore’s Karna-Kunti Sambad (Kumar 44, 96). This is

a clear illustration of Bhasa’s influence spreading across language, across genres and

through the ages. Karna stands for the central ideas expressed in the Bhagavad Gita,

that is Duty, Action and Detachment.

Duta Vakyam

This play belongs to the category of Vyayoga. It is a short one act play with

just a few characters. The style is distinctly graceful. The invocation alludes to the

Vamana incarnation of lord Vishnu, when he is born as the brother of Indra. “May
 59

those feet, the joy of the universe, protect you. Those feet with pinkish nails cast off

the demon Namuci from the sky.” There is a reference to the demon Namuci, a

lieutenant of Mahabali (Varadpande Mythology 76-80, Mani 523). The legend has it

that lord Vishnu just kicks the demon who tries to restrain him from taking a cosmic

form by holding on to His feet (Unni 285). The reference to this particular

incarnation indicates a later display of Krishna’s cosmic form. Through this

Bharatavakya,

May he, the monarch of leonine virtues

Have his sovereign sway over this earth,

Extending from ocean to ocean

With Himavan and Vindhya as ear-drops (Menon 295),

Bhasa makes reference to the extent of the kingdom from ocean to ocean and from

the Himalayas to the Vindhyas. Historians consider the monarch referred in this text

as Ugrasena Nanda, and so consider it as an internal evidence to assign the period of

Bhasa as fourth century BC.

In this play, Krishna undertakes a peace mission as a last resort to avert the

war between Pandavas and Kauravas. The futility of the effort is hinted right at the

beginning, even as the play starts with the consecration of Bhishma as the

Commander-in-Chief of the Kaurava army. In the play Pancharatram, Bhasa

represents Duryodhana as one willing to share the kingdom at the behest of his

preceptor, but in this play he is portrayed as a wicked king. He reveals his poor taste

by displaying the portrait of Draupadi’s humiliation in the august assembly.

Duryodhana and Krishna argue the legitimacy of the Pandavas’ claim to the

kingdom of Hastinapura. Duryodhana even tries to arrest him. Krishna reveals his
 60

true divine form and is almost ready to annihilate the Kauravas. Duryodhana leaves

the place in a huff after declaring that he will take revenge on the Pandavas.

Sudarshana, a weapon of Krishna, is personified in the play. Sudarshana pacifies

him and Krishna leaves after accepting the apologies of the blind king,

Dhritarashtra.

Characterisation

Bhasa positions his protagonists Krishna and Duryodhana at opposite ends of

the character spectrum. He intones the similarity in their images, in the description

of Duryodhana as syama yuva or a dusky youth in white silken robes. But the

similarity ends there. The humble and affectionate Duryodhana of Pancaratram is

replaced by a proud and defiant figure with a mean streak of vengeance. This fact is

evident at the beginning of the play, as he and not his father, is depicted as the king.

He orders the display of the painting showing Draupadi’s humiliation. Duryodhana:

“I will look at it and will not get up for Keshava” (Haksar 62). His haughty

demeanour is demonstrated when he orders that none should rise for Krishna. His

defiant nature is revealed when he counters the advice of Krishna with arguments

questioning the very legitimacy of Pandavas to the throne. He derisively tells

Krishna how khsatriyas should conduct themselves.

DURYODHANA. One does not beg for a kingdom, nor give it as charity.

Kingdoms are won by princes with stout hearts who defeat their

enemies. If the Pandavas desire dominion let them act boldly.

Otherwise let them enter a hermitage and live there with peace-

minded monks (Haksar 65).

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He even orders the arrest of Krishna, though such an act defies tradition. The strong

influence of his uncle over him is clear when he seeks Sakuni’s approval for

anointing Bhishma as their commander-in-chief. Duryodhana is portrayed as the

king determined to assert his right to the throne at any cost. The exhibition of his

extreme arrogance clearly indicates his effort to cover up his sense of insecurity.

Bhasa seems to sensitise the audience to the fact that over inflated egos can only

lead to intolerance and to destruction (Snowden 56)

Bhasa projects Krishna as both a human and a divine person in this play.

The human aspect of Krishna comes to the fore in the beginning of the play,

particularly when he has heated arguments with Duryodhana regarding the

Pandavas’ share of the kingdom. The revelation of his cosmic form, his calling upon

the weapon Sudarshana and his benevolence towards Dhritarashtra reveal his divine

nature.

Bhasa portrays the functions of an envoy very clearly through the role of

Krishna, when he starts with entreaties first, then elaborates on the merit of his

counsel, proceeds to describe the benefits of sharing the kingdom with Pandavas and

finally threatens total annihilation if the plea is refused.

Bhasa employs the technique of incorporating portraits, magic,

representation of weapons in human form to enhance the impact of the play. He

adopts the technique of akasa bhasita, wherein an actor off stage speaks to or replies

to a person on stage (Ayyar 34). With very few characters on stage, Bhasa presents a

spectacle of the entire Kaurava assembly. Duryodhana’s monologue exemplifies this

idea. The playwright has introduced the element of magic which arouses surprise by
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unfolding Krishna’s cosmic form and bringing the weapon Sudharshana on the stage

as a person. This personification of weapons indicates the playwright’s belief in the

Pancaratra philosophy9 (Unni 378, Pusalker 433).

Bhasa employs the portrait device to bring out the wicked nature of

Duryodhana which finds “expression in an amoral aestheticism.” It informs the

audience about the previous history of the clan and the reason for the enmity and

war between the cousins (Pusalker 496). The visual effect of the portrait becomes an

integral part of the drama, not by the enactment of the scene of Draupadi’s

humiliation but by the enactment of Duryodhana’s inappropriate response. The

events leading up to the war are suggested retrospectively. Keith considers this as

“effectively elaborated.” Referring to these, Venkatachalam points to Bhasa’s skill

in character rendition, and his economy and aesthetics in their representation

(Venkatachalam 76). It is worth pointing here that Bhasa won accolades as a pioneer

in using portrait as a dramatic device in his famous play, Swapnavasavadutta.

Bhasa adapts the principle of contrast (Hudson 222) in his portrayal of

Krishna and Duryodhana. Bhasa describes Duryodhana as: “See this dark youth

(Syama Yuva)…. Endowed with royal splendour …. like the full moon, amidst the

constellations” (Menon 261). The words ‘Syama Yuva’ resonate with the image of

Krishna. Gitomer finds these words of Bhasa full of ‘multivalent irony’ and notes

that they, “….stir up the self-contestory elements latent in every presentation of

Duryodhana, for here Duryodhana is the legitimate king, potentially sympathetic,

who at least physically mirrors the divine hero he rejects” (Gitomer 226). If

Duryodhana accepts Krishna’s divinity, he would lose the kingdom; for him, the
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principles of kshatriya dharma, requires that he fight for his rights. He retorts that a

kingdom is not won by begging. By giving a new twist to a well known incident,

Bhasa provides a new insight into Duryodhana’s character.

In this play Duryodhana emerges as a proud kshatriya who reposes ultimate

faith in his valour. The author has shifted the power centre around Duryodhana, by

projecting him as the king, rather than a crown prince. From this status emerges his

arrogant attitude towards an emissary. In this revisit, Bhasa introduces and

personifies the weapons of Vishnu and identifies Krishna as the incarnation Vishnu.

By this he presents a perception of the epic as a treatise that expounds the Bhagavata

tradition. In the three plays examined so far, the author has chosen secondary

characters with fluid identities and positioned them as heroes in his revisits of The

Mahabharata.

Duryodhana (Antagonist) and Ghatotkaca (Minor Character) as Heroes

In the plays Pancaratram, Duta Ghatotkacam and Urubhangam, Bhasa has

foregrounded Duryodhana, an antagonist and Ghatotkaca, a minor charachter as

heroes. This change in the positioning of heroes is remarkable for his period.

Through these plays Bhasa marks the change in the characteristics that qualify a

classic hero of his period from that of the epic. This attempt might be to counter the

influence of Buddhism and Jainism which sought to introduce secular values and

question the ritualistic bent of the Vedic-religion. He seeks to sustain the Bhagavata

tradition. The epic does not justify the wrong doings of either Pandavas or Kauravas,

but merely chronicles their lives. The socio-political scene in the post-epic period

required reinterpretation of values. Duryodhana, the crown prince of Kauravas and

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Ghatotkaca the eldest Upapandava, are two strong personalities of the epic, who

provoke either admiration or fear due to their physical prowess as well as their

intense reactions to situations. Bhasa, through these plays, portrays the

transformation of these two powerful characters. He does this by highlighting their

noble traits, adding more dimensions to their personality and introducing domestic

situations. He glosses over their unacceptable traits like vindictive behaviour.

Duryodhana

In the epic, Duryodhana is depicted as the most fluid character, who is proud

and wicked, who keeps devising ways to deny his cousins Pandavas their rightful

share of the kingdom. Right from the invocation in the play Pancaratram, Bhasa

sets the tone to transform the negative traits of Duryodhana into affirmative ones,

acceptable to the society. He portrays Duryodhana as a generous, dutiful, skilful,

honourable and an affectionate prince. When Duryodhana enters the court after

successfully completing the sacrificial rituals (yajna), Bhishma observes:

BHISHMA. Treading the path of dharma has gained in merit

Duryodhana is now shining in glorious form (Menon 164).

Duryodhana is in an exuberant mood as everyone heaps praise on him:

DURYODHANA. My heart is full of faith. My elders are pleased. The

world acknowledges my virtues. My reputation is untarnished.

It is not true that people go to heaven only after death. For me

heaven is here itself (Haksar 26).

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This very idea of heaven on earth, not hereafter, unfolds the vedantic thought and

can be inferred as the continuation the idea from the invocation wherein it was stated

that all forms are but the manifestation of the Supreme One. Duryodhana is relieved

as well as refreshed after emerging from the shadow of his cousins Pandavas,

winning the approbation of his elders. The lines reveal the underpinnings of a

youthful prince’s yearning for his rightful place in the hierarchy.

After the yajna, Duryodhana seeks the blessings of his preceptor and

promises to honour any request that he may make. Drona's request to share the

kingdom with the Pandavas induces a change of heart in Duryodhana. Sakuni

intervenes and sets forth a condition that, “if in the course of five nights you can

bring the tidings of Pandavas, I shall give half of the kingdom. You may be pleased

to bring it” (Menon 183). Ever under the influence of his uncle, Duryodhana asks his

preceptor to agree to this conditions. The protagonist’s vacillation on whether to

honour his own words or to find a way out of it clearly brings to the surface the

conflict between the conscious mind, the persona which wants to conform to social

norms and the unconscious psyche egging him on to discover a way to fulfill his

personal desire of becoming the sole ruler of Kuru dynasty.

Through these interactions, Bhasa reveals the wavering mind of Duryodhana.

Bhasa clearly depicts the conflict of interest between Duryodhana’s promise to his

preceptor and his own right as the sole heir of the Kuru dynasty. On another

occasion, quite disturbed by the capture of Abhimanyu during the cattle raid, a

conciliatory Duryodhana expresses his affection for Abhimanyu saying: “To me he

is more of a son, than to Pandavas/ Children are not offenders in family feuds”

(Menon 240). In the end, with the arrival of Uttara and the message of the
 66

impending wedding of Abhimanyu, he generously bestows half the kingdom to the

Pandavas and utters the altruism, “… after men’s lives are spent/ If truth prevails,

they still prevail” (Menon 250). Bhasa creates Duryodhana’s personality as a

combination of traits, at once greedy and conciliatory. Such a depiction is at

variance with that of the epic Duryodhana, who is a strong willed and whose hatred

extends to the children of the Pandavas. By transforming the character of

Duryodhana, Bhasa has imagined an option wherein the annihilation of the whole

clan of Kuru could be averted. One can assume that this affirmative representation is

the first of its kind in ancient literature. Bhasa specifically glosses over the

unacceptable traits of Duryodhana and provides a different perception, namely,

dhiroddhata with a difference. He juxtaposes Duryodhana’s character with

Yudhishthira’s, and gives the audience a chance to compare and accept him as a

hero.

In the plays Duta Vakyam and Duta Ghatotkacam, Duryodhana is projected

as an overconfident person through his fierce outbursts. In both the plays he insults

the emissaries of Pandavas viz., Krishna and Ghatotkaca and threatens them with

physical assault, an attitude that does not conform to the stature of a future king. In

Urubhangam, the episode of Duryodhana’s last encounter with Bhima forms the

theme. The title recalls the smashing of Duryodhana’s thighs by Bhima in the mace

combat, which determines the end of the Kurukshetra war. This revisit portrays a

contrite Duryodhana at the end of the war. The change of heart of Duryodhana and

his transformation in the last moments of his life are effectively depicted in this

play.
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In the epic the fallen yet defiant Duryodhana declares that he has lived as a

prince, enjoyed all the luxuries and performed sacrifices. He has met his end,

befitting a hero, in the battlefield. What more could a kshatriya ask for? On the other

hand, the victors are left to live on the earth surrounded by all the misery caused by

the war. This is the nucleus of inspiration for Bhasa (Gitomer 228). Duyodhana

taunts Krishna that he has bettered him as he has defeated Krishna’s purpose of

averting the war. It is against this background one must read the play of Bhasa for

the re-creation of the character of Duryodhana.

Bhasa, through his ingenuity, brings about a unique shift in the

characterisation of Duryodhana as the protagonist but a fallen hero. Duryodhana

recognises his faults and is not afraid of admitting them. Morally, he achieves great

heights of fame, though he has fallen physically. Bhasa depicts powerfully the inner

psychological conflict of Duryodhana using the background of the battlefield. He

portrays him as emerging ‘victorious’ from his encounter with Bhima. In Gerow’s

view, Urubhangam is a play which “examines issues of defeat and victory, and

suggests another sense of ‘victory’ which both presumes ‘defeat’ and transcends that

defeat” (Gerow 406). This fact stands out, as a fallen Duryodhana recognises his

own inadequacies. He recounts his past misdeeds and is full of remorse. He admits

to the futility of war and advises his son to make peace with the Pandavas and lead a

harmonious life with them. One observes the echo of the philosophy of non-

violence, a Buddhist ideology, adopted by Bhagavata tradition. Duryodhana’s

portrayal evokes empathy rather than condemnation from the audience.

The conflict in the play is between the conscious and the unconscious that

shapes Duryodhana’s character. The inferiority complex embedded in his

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unconscious psyche makes him pursue his desire for power at any cost; in the face of

defeat he reconciles with his inadequacies and tries to make a conscious effort to

resolve the conflict in his mind. Through this portrayal, Bhasa highlights the conflict

between social norms and individual ambitions. By effecting a transformation of the

character of Duryodhana, Bhasa suggests that introspection can alter a person’s

attitude towards life. Through Duryodhana's delayed remorse, Bhasa clearly reveals

that for any change of heart to be effective, constant support from the surroundings

is essential. Bhasa makes Duryodhana acknowledge that Bhima is but a tool in the

hands of Krishna, echoing the message of the Bhagavad Gita.

DURYODHANA. By whom were robbed Indra’s divine flowers and his

honour,

Who sleeps merrily for thousand divine years in the sea

By that Hari, so fond of battle and dear to the worlds

By him was I given to death, entering Bhima’s mace (Menon 392).

The metamorphosis in the character of Duryodhana is brought about once he accepts

the divinity of Krishna. In the epic, Duryodhana remains unrepentant and arrogant

till the end. He connives with Aswatthama to kill the Pandavas at night. In his

deathbed, he expresses great satisfaction upon hearing the killing of Dhrishtadyumna

and the children of Draupadi. In this revisit, Bhasa glosses over these points and

presents a very different Duryodhana. He innovates the presence of Vyasa as a

witness to the mace combat. In order to highlight Duryodhana’s positive attributes,

Bhasa subtly downplays the valour of Bhima. This is evident in the mace combat.

While Duryodhana is anxious to follow the rules of combat, Bhima breaches them.

Though Krishna endorses Bhima’s action, it becomes a blot on Bhima’s otherwise

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praiseworthy career (Menon 385). Bhasa projects the view that it is a conflict

between two rights as perceived by the protagonists and not between the values of

right and wrong (Pusalker 137). In yet another deviation from the epic story,

Balarama is a witness to the vow taken by Aswatthama. The coronation of

Duryodhana’s son Durjaya by Aswatthama is also a new invention by the playwright.

Bhasa presents in the last scene of Urubhangam, the shattering of

Duryodhana’s ego as well his thighs, as indicated in the title of the play. The

doctrine of karma embedded in the epic, that the roots of punishments lie in one’s

own actions is reiterated. A close study of the representation of the character of

Duryodhana reveals the playwright’s profound insight into the human psyche

(Chaitanya 301). By introducing the aspect of introspection in the character of

Duryodhana, Bhasa has transformed him from a vicious, aggressive, unscrupulous

and jealous antagonist into an acceptable hero. He is shown as a defender of the

kshatriya dharma who fights for his right till the end. Here Duryodhana grows

immeasurably in moral stature in the last moments of his life.

Ghatotkaca

Bhasa transforms the Brahmin hating and demonic Ghatotkaca into a person

who has respect for Brahmins in Madhyama; but his respect for his mother’s

command far outweighs the societal norms. The thread of comparison between

Ghatotkaca and Abhimanyu continues from Madhyama. Bhasa emphasises the fact

that while one of the heroic sons of the Pandavas, Abhimanyu is dead, the other one

is bristling to avenge his death. The theme of filial ties is represented effectively.

Ghatotkaca exhibits finer sentiments and follows traditional norms of respectful

conduct towards elders, just as in the play Madhyama. Bhasa effects this remarkable
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change in the characterisation of Ghatotkaca by questioning the superior and

condescending attitude adopted by the people belonging to the mainstream towards

the marginalised during ancient period. It is evident that Ghatotkaca is capable of

defending himself against the wicked acts of the Kauravas:

GHATOTKACA: I defy you to do your worst,

Combine together and attack!

I stand not like Abhimanyu

Helpless with the bowstring broken.

This has been my boyish yearning. Not only that-

Biting the lips and fists upraised,

Ghatotkaca is standing here

Let that man come up who would like

To journey to the house of death (Menon 333).

These words point to the violation of the code of conduct in Abhimanyu’s killing

and Ghatotkaca’s readiness to violate the code if needed. Bhasa clearly highlights

that, in general, people diligently conform to societal norms and are concerned about

the welfare of the society. But kings like Duryodhana, driven by avarice and

insecurity, jeopardise community’s welfare.

Duryodhana and Ghatotkaca are a study in contrast in Duta Ghatotkacam.

While the prince of the great Kuru kingdom exhibits bad taste in openly celebrating

the death of Abhimanyu, and in insulting an envoy to his court, Ghatotkaca exhibits

extreme restraint in handling the insults heaped on him. In this play, Bhasa

foregrounds Ghatotkaca as a protagonist and invests him with the qualities of a good
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envoy. Bhasa decides to give the first born upapandava his due, denied to him in the

epic. One cannot but compare the peace mission undertaken earlier by Krishna with

the one by Ghatotkaca. Krishna’s mission was before the war and Ghatotkaca’s is

during the war. Both the envoys are insulted by Duryodhana but pacified by

Dhritarashtra. Both are quite capable of handling difficult situations that they

encounter in the assembly of Kauravas. Just like Krishna, Ghatotkaca is also

capable of magical powers. While Krishna displays his cosmic form, Ghatotkaca

just flexes his muscles.

Bhasa employs these character transformations to convey the idea that a

person can be elevated by his/her deeds alone and not by birth. Through these plays

Bhasa elevates Ghatotkaca in the Pandava hierarchy. The playwright juxtaposes the

behaviour of Ghatotkaca, a forester and an emissary, with Duryodhana of royal

lineage and projects the idea that merit scores over lineage. This idea is in

consonance with the reformist movements of Bhasa’s period.

According to the conventions of Sanskrit drama, a dhiroddata type of hero is

a proud and strong personality totally devoted to his cause. Bhasa adds additional

dimensions of sensitivity, love for family members and transforms these two

characters into heroes. Through these innovations, Bhasa breaks the monotony in

representation of the type of hero without actually rupturing the conventions. Once

the impassioned hero learns self restraint, he becomes an agent of change for his

society than a cause for its annihilation. Bhasa presents the philosophy that every

aspect of human nature whether good or evil is but the manifestation of one supreme

god. Bhasa reiterates his faith in Bhagavata tradition.

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Conclusion

Erudite scholars had assigned Bhasa to the fourth century BC. This chapter

points out that it was a period of transition marked by changes in the social as well

as cultural lives of people due to the influence of nascent Buddhism and Bhagavata

tradition. In response to the socio-cultural and political changes, drama emerged as a

popular literary genre of the period. Bhasa, as a pioneer, combines the oral tradition

and the literary form of the epic and produces a new genre, viz. drama. He

introduces the domestic or familial angle to the epic episodes, and thereby reduces

the distance between his heroes and the spectators (Varadpande Theatre 51).

The analyses of his plays reveal the effective yet aesthetic manipulation of

the three important elements of Sanskrit drama; namely, the theme, the hero, and the

sentiment. Bhasa redefines the concept of the hero by positioning the second rung

and unsung heroes of the epic as central characters. He invests the characters with

positive and acceptable traits. A detailed study of the deviations from the epic helps

in identifying the strategies adopted by Bhasa:

Incidents

i. Adapting suitable episodes from the epic (Duta Vakyam)

ii. Introducing new incidents (Madhyama, Duta Ghatotkacam)

iii. Shifting focus on certain incidents and glossing over others

(Urubhangam)

iv. Giving a new slant to well known incidents (Pancaratram)

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v. Telescoping incidents to enhance dramatic effect (Karnabharam)

Characterisation

i. Highlighting positive traits or noble traits

ii. Glossing over unacceptable traits

Following these strategies, Bhasa has chosen the second born Bhima, the

marginalised Ghatotkaca, the aggressive yet noble Karna, the brave and wicked

Duryodhana as protagonists of his plays. Bhasa’s characterisation encapsulates the

main argument of the epic that absence of will to cause injury to others

(anrshamsya) is the supreme virtue. In the epic, Yudhishthira explains that the

nature of dharma as non-injury to others is the supreme virtue, anrshamsyam paro

dharmah. This concept occurs in various places in the epic though it is against the

very spirit of the epic theme, which extols war as a warrior’s way of life (kshatra

dharma). The Bhagavata tradition rests on these important principles,

complemented by compassion (anurosha) (Sharma T. R. S. Reflections 5, Lath 83).

Bhasa wrote his plays based on this concept and therefore invests his heroes with

sensitivity and glosses over their unacceptable qualities. At one level, Bhasa has

shifted the focus from the central characters of the epic to ‘others,’ who were useful

to develop the epic narrative. At another level, he chooses to reflect the socio-

cultural milieu of his period.

This chapter shows that Bhasa articulates certain silences of the epic,

reaffirms the values of the vedic religion, and points to an alternative to usher in

values compatible with the society of his times. Through strategies such as

fragmentation, isolation of episodes and innovative intervention of the epic story,

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Bhasa is able to add more dimensions to his characters without altering their

essential nature and project a different perception of epic heroes by transposition of

certain values. Keeping with the oral tradition, Bhasa domesticates, contextualises

and contemporises his heroes and effects transformation of characters. Bhasa artfully

avoids episodes like Bhima’s encounters with Hidimba or Baka, which would only

highlight his sheer physical prowess in combat. He is keen to present a sensitive

hero and a mentor of his son Ghatotkaca, so that he can articulate social values such

as kshatriya dharma and family values. Similarly, he projects Karna as a

philanthropic hero and Krishna as an envoy and divine incarnation.

The epics choose to portray their villains or antagonists as brave kings, with

an egoistical nature. In the revisit, Bhasa portrays Duryodhana as a great but

ambitious king, fighting for his rights as a kshatriya warrior should. Bhasa also

transforms an unsung hero of the epic, Ghatotkaca, who killed warriors in hordes in

the war, into a leader with humane qualities, deserving to etch his name along with

the Pandavas, as the first born crown prince, upapandava. Thereby he counters the

reformist onslaught on the Vedic religion. For him, drama is an ideal platform to

express the concepts of affirmative actions and reinterpret the Vedic religion. The

unique choice of the proud and vehement heroes (dhiroddhata) offer the necessary

action space to present them as gentle and sensitive individuals.

By shifting the focus of theme from war to that of family and society, Bhasa

effects a transformation in the concept of heroes. His heroes are projected as

individuals whose personalities do not revolve exclusively around their heroic

exploits alone. Bhasa includes attributes like sensitivity, compassion and concern for
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others. These changes are hallmarks of Bhasa’s dramatic revisits and his legacy for

the Indian literary tradition of revisits.

There is a definite trend in recent times to stage classical and popular themes

by theatre groups. Contemporary directors evince keen interest in staging Bhasa’s

plays. The annual Bhasa festival held in Trivandrum and the Kalidasa festival in

Ujjain feature Bhasa’s plays. Kavalam Narayana Panikkar has produced Madhyama

and Karnabharam successfully, incorporating techniques from the folk genre,

Kuttiyattam and martial arts Kalaripayitru in his productions (Richmond Bhasa

Festival 69). Ratan Thiyam has produced Urubhangam employing techniques and

costumes from Manipuri folk form (Kothari and Panchal 113). The terse style and

the minimal stage directions of Bhasa allow the directors to experiment in their

productions, and explore contemporary issues10.

In the later epic period new ideas challenged the established order,

particularly, the caste system, rituals and sacrifices. The idea of every individual’s

right to attain salvation was gaining momentum. Of the many distinct religious

beliefs that evolved in the period, Buddhism and Bhagavata tradition are most

important. The Bhagavad Gita provided the foundation for the propagation of

Bhagavata tradition. Its attractive message was that through unstinting devotion

every individual could attain salvation. While Buddhism preached the ascetic way of

life, Bhagavata tradition upheld the devotion of Krishna and the family as an

integrated unit of society. Bhagavata tradition gave a new shape and interpretation

to the Vedic religion by incorporating the idea of nonviolence (ahimsa) from

Buddhism. It viewed Krishna as divine incarnation. Bhasa’s plays reflect the

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interpenetration of these ideas and suggest a paradigm shift in the existing value

systems. He reaffirms the efficacy of yajna at the social level, and performance of

ordained duties consistent with social hierarchy and adherence to family values at

the personal level. Bhasa reinterprets many practices and value systems prevalent in

the society and often introduces desired changes to strengthen the existing system

through his characters. One observes the playwright’s regard for the universal

values, while at the same time aiming affirmative and inclusive changes in his

contemporary society. In reinterpreting family values and religious practices

enshrined in Bhagavata tradition, he reflects the spirit of his times, zeitgeist. Bhasa

retains the worldview expressed in the epic.

In The Mahabharata, the textual movement of the narrative is towards the

Kuru dynasty, which is the focus of the narrative; this effect is termed centripetal.

Here our study reveals that just as the epic, Bhasa’s drama too exhibits a centripetal

textual movement in the sense that the sub plot and other characters focus on the

dramatic episode and the hero. The epic story forms a diffuse background. The

inward centripetal movement here refers to the narrative centre. This in effect

transforms the epic into a large canvas, which the author examines through a

microscopic view, choosing an episode of his choice to voice his worldview. The

main point is that his plays reaffim the epic values. Bhasa’s revisits act as discrete

accretions to the epic whole.

Bhasa transforms the epic characters, and in the process he provides a

distinctly different perception of the epic. The reader now finds the epic to be not

just a source of traditional values, but is able to observe in it the germs of these
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transitional positions of the characters. In this sense, we can regard the epic is

writerly text facilitating these remarkable revisits. For, a reader of the epic has now a

softer, humane archetype of a hero more relevant, given the social context of the

aftermath of war and advent of Buddhism. His revisits suggest that the values and

practices of the epic need reinterpretations according to the changing society. While

at one level the incidents/episodes provide entertainment, at another, the dramatic

revisits reveal their socio–political context. It is apparent from the handling of his

revisits, that Bhasa anticipates their continual growth.

Notes

1. Vedas are ancient literary texts in the Indian literary tradition. They are

also records of ancient society and its life style. There are four Vedas, the Rg Veda,

the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. Each Veda comprises two

sections, text and commentary. The commentary section is further divided into two:

one interprets the rituals of the text, the other comments on the philosophy expressed

in the text. Over a period of time, the societal values expressed in the Vedas (for

example, respect your mother, father and preceptor) became canonical in nature.

Similarly, the caste system which was in an incipient stage in that period slowly

became more rigid in the post Vedic period. The belief that the ultimate goal of life

on earth is to attain heaven (Moksha) changed in the post Vedic period of

Upanishads into a heaven-here-on-earth principle.

2. Buddhism popularised the congregational form of worship. The followers

of Buddhism were of two streams-the monks and the householders. Centres

(Sangas) were established for training the monks in order to spread Buddhist
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principles to the masses. The sangas also served the purpose of congregational

meeting places for householders to listen to religious discourses by monks. The

membership of these sangas was open to all irrespective of caste, class or gender.

With passage of time, these congregational forms of assembly provided ready

audience for dramatic expositions.

3. Rasa is an aesthetic experience. Two important canons of Indian art are

likeness (sadrsya) and ideal proportion (pramana). It should be noted that art is an

imitation in the sense that it is not simulation of the real experience but a refined or

sublimated sense of the states of emotions and experiences of real life. A dramatic

experience is based on the comprehensive whole, created through subtle

representation and a combination of the theme, the hero and the rasa or emotional

experience (Kantak 110). The efforts of the dramatists to distil the essence of

experiences and present them in a higher plane as a wholesome aesthetic experience

is in consonance with the Indian philosophy of life. The main aim of a dramatic

experience in the Indian tradition is the “emotional consciousness” (rasa). A

dramatist expresses the ultimate aesthetic experience through various elements like

acting, dialogue, music, dance, costumes and other conventions. Rasa is responsible

for the whole dramatic experience to be shared by the creator as well as the

spectators. The “organic unifying” character of the rasa is explained in the

Natyasastra with the analogy of tastes of a meal (Gerow 230).

Bhava is an expression of rasa. It is either natural (laukika) or

representational (alaukika). This difference is discerned in the manner in which

lokadharmi and natyadharmi concepts are understood. According to Gerow the

natyadharmi is a synthesis of pure perception (laukika) and aesthesis (alaukika).

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Natyadharmi is a suggestive form of experience, which evokes a particular

experience as encoded in the conventions.

4. Bhasa became a name to reckon with through his play

Swapnavasavadatta. “Rajasekhara, a later day critic and poet, states in an anthology

by name, Suktimuktavali, that of all the drama of Bhasa only the Svapnavasavatatta

proved itself noncombustible in the fire of criticism” (Winternitz 201). The plot is

well constructed and the incidents project a multidimensional effect. It is famous for

the dream scene in which Udayana receives a vision of Vasavadatta. This has till

date very few parallels in the entire range of Sanskrit drama for sheer beauty and

imagination. The poetic style, invigorating dialogue, and fascinating situations and

the clever use of dramatic irony mark the success of the play. The plot is about

Udayana’s recovery of his lost kingdom by his marriage to the princess of Magada.

His faithful minister, Yaugandarayana helps him to this end.

5. By employing a pun on the word Madhyama, Bhasa has highlighted the

plight of the Middle Ones in the hierarchical system and how the sacrifices rendered

by them remain unrecognised. In fact, in ancient times, the second born had no right

to property and had to depend on his older and younger siblings for support (Unni

36). Kavalam Panikkar reads the ‘Middle One’ as the middle class in the

contemporary social setting. While discussing the scene where Ghatotkaca accosts

the Brahmin family, Panicker comments: “Thus before the rakshasa who insists that

he should get one of the sons of the Brahmin, a most tragic human story is enacted.

Creating a scene of deep sorrow, Bhasa draws three pictures of duality. The old

Brahmin says that the eldest son is most dear to him and he is unable to abandon

him. The wife says she desires to keep the youngest son. The middle son laments:
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‘Who will like me?’ To this Ghatotkaca replies that he likes him. Here on the stage

the three dualities unfold: the two pictures formed by the father and the eldest son

and the mother and the youngest son stand as static images on either side; in the

middle Ghatotkaca and the middle son create a dynamic image” (Panikkar Web).

6. I have read the original of Bhasa’s plays as well as several English

translations by Woolner and Sarup, A.N.D. Haksar, T.K. Ramachandran, and K.P.A.

Menon. I found Menon’s translation to be more suitable as it is closer to the spirit of

the source text and not a literal translation. Translation as revisit is a possible

discussion point. However, since this is a comparative study with defined

parameters, this aspect is beyond the purview of the study.

7. Many scholars believe that Ghatotkaca Upakhyana, which carried references

to the reprehensible acts of Ghatotkaca was really a part of a version of the epic. The

Gupta kings probably did not want adverse references to either the practice of

human sacrifice, which they propagated, or to the reprehensible character named

Ghatotkaca as they had princely men named Ghatotkaca in their clan. This particular

upakyana may have been omitted during the Gupta period, when the epic was

reorganised. This is inferred from a reading of Madhyama (Ray Chaudhuri H. xx).

8. One is reminded of the scene of Bhagavad Gita, where the charioteer

Krishna advises the Maharathi Arjuna. The situation here is reversed in that

Maharathi Karna reminisces to his charioteer Salya. Karna wills himself to fight on

and is able to see the right arguments to continue the battle.

9. Shanti parva of The Mahabharata explains the philosophy of the Pancaratra

system. This philosophy accepts Krishna as an incarnation of the Supreme Being

referred to variously as Vishnu, Narayana or Para Brahman. The devotion to

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Krishna is the central principle. While the system accepts the authority of Vedas and

Vedic sacrifices, it negates animal sacrifice. It is also known as satvata dharma, as it

was practised by Krishna’s clan (Vrishney clan) “devotion to Vishnu, practice of

Tapas, acceptance of the infallibility of the Vedas and Aranyakas and principle of

non-killing are the main characteristics of the Pancaratra system” (Pusalker 434).

The basic principles of the system have had many distinct re-interpretations, during

subsequent times. Ramanuja established the doctrine of Vaishnavism based on the

Pancharatra system (Fitzerald 168). His philosophy of worship of Narayana is

based on these teachings.

10. Bhasa’s plays continue to be part of the syllabus for courses in Sanskrit

literature in many universities including University of Madras, M. S. University,

Baroda, Kannur University, Kerala, University of Calicut, Kerala, Periyar

University, Tamil Nadu and Sri Sathya Sai University, Andhra Pradesh.