Maneesh Gupta Non-Ballasted Track Forms –

AECOM Australia Pty Ltd A Survey Of Global Best Practices

NON-BALLASTED TRACK FORMS – A SURVEY OF GLOBAL BEST

PRACTICES
Maneesh Gupta
B.E. (Civil), MBA (UK), FIEAust, CPEng, RPEQ, MAICD
Technical Director, AECOM Australia Pty Ltd, Perth, Australia

Summary
A wide range of non-ballasted track structures have been developed for transit railways throughout the
world, especially on tunnelled and viaduct sections of metro and light rail systems, as well as high speed
railways.

The currently operating Australian rail networks have relatively small lengths of non-ballasted track
within tunnelled sections, bridges and viaducts on the major metropolitan rail systems. An analysis of
new and future metropolitan projects suggests an increasing proportion of railway length involves
tunnels and associated non-ballasted track systems. It is therefore imperative, that rich experience
gained globally are systematically evaluated in the context of the specific requirements of Australian rail
projects which need to occur in already developed areas, and often includes stringent noise and
vibration performance.

This paper captures a detailed survey of various slab track systems currently being used around the
world and identifies best practices in the context of the typical design and performance requirements for
the tunnelled section of the rail projects within Australia.

1 INTRODUCTION  Operation requirements (speed, noise and

vibration constraints);
As Australia’s cities continue to expand so is
there a requirement to expand the public  Length of system (affects economy of
transport capacity and in particular the rail scale);
metro systems. In many instances the required
network expansions have to traverse already
 Transit space constraints;

developed areas resulting in the need for  Access constraints;

tunnelling.
 Specialised plant availability;
In the last 50 years many different types of slab  Construction time and cost;
track systems have been developed in various
countries to meet their individual project  Constructability (specially, alignment
control); and,
requirements. The different systems include
light rail, commuter and metro rail and parts of  System preferences (uniformity of
high speed networks. maintenance components).
Operation speed is impacted by factors such as:
A tunnel provides a unique environment in
terms of limited transit space and uniform
 Geometric constraints – curve radius;
climatic conditions. Aspects influencing the
choice of a slab track system in the tunnel  Electric Multiple Unit performance capacity;
environment include:  Frequency of stations / stops; and,

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 Customer comfort with respective Noise and vibration is generated by dynamic

acceleration and deceleration rates. forces at the wheel and rail interface. The
The European Union Directive 96/48/EC, Annex source vibration levels within tunnels are
1 defines high-speed rail as having a minimum dependent on a number of factors such as the
speed of 250 km/hr on lines specifically built for track design, train type, train speed, wheel
high speed and in the order of 200 km/hr on condition, ground conditions and tunnel design.
existing lines which have been specially Three-dimensional acoustic modelling is used
upgraded [11]. to assess the impact of noise and vibration on
external receivers and to assess the required
Current maximum design and operation speeds mitigation actions.
in Australia in the urban environment range
from 100 to 140 km/hr. Sydney Metro and There are several sources from which vibration
Perth’s Forrestfield Airport Link projects are design objectives can be drawn, including:
designed for a maximum operation speed under
 Australian Standard AS 2670.2 1990 –
130 km/hr. Thus, the Australian tunnelled rail Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole
projects are not classified as high-speed rail Body Vibration Part 2: Continuous and
projects. Shock Induced Vibration in Buildings (1 Hz
to 80 Hz);
Compared to a conventional track structure, a
slab track structure in tunnels is very efficient  The United States Federal Transit
Administration (FTA) guideline Transit Noise
from considerations of construction, durability,
and Vibration Impact Assessment;
strength and economy. The slab track structure
can be built directly on the tunnel base and the  British Standard BS 6472:1992 – Evaluation
thickness of the slab in many cases can be of Human Exposure Vibration in Buildings (1
reduced compared to a slab track on earth Hz to 80 Hz); and,
structures and slab for ballasted track on  The NSW DEC document Assessing
elevated structures. Vibration: A Technical Guideline.

In almost all slab track structures, the rail is Ground-borne noise refers to noise that is first
discretely supported to the concrete slab by transmitted to the ground by a train as vibration,
means of a fastening system selected from the which then travels to a sensitive location (such
considerations stipulated in the project design as a house) through the ground and
criteria. The choice of the fastening system and foundations, where the walls, floor and ceiling
slab support is strongly influenced by the noise then radiate this vibration as audible noise. The
and vibration constraints and possible ground-borne noise is also commonly termed
mitigation measures. regenerated noise. Ground-borne noise levels
are more difficult to predict than noise that is
2 DISCUSSION ON NOISE AND transmitted through the air only. This is because
VIBRATION the transmission of ground-borne noise
The broad principles for achieving vibration depends on the ground strata, coupling
isolation of railways aim to reduce the natural between the ground and buildings and internal
frequency of the track. Generally, these specify acoustical characteristics of buildings.
a reduction of the dynamic stiffness of the track Indicative ground-borne noise trigger levels are
support, introduction of (or increase in the mass provided in Table 1. An example of a rail
of) specific structural elements for track support, vibration source, propagation and receiver
and adjustments to damping. In general, the system (ISO 14837) is provided in Figure 1.
lower the natural frequency of the track support
system, the better the vibration isolation and the
low natural frequency is achieved by increased
mass and reduced dynamic stiffness [4].

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tunnel depth to lengthen the ‘noise’ travel

path. This may not be feasible due to a wide
surface receptor field at the surface and
geotechnical constraints.

 Avoiding tight curves (less than

approximately 600 m radius) that tend to
encourage rail corrugations.

 Considering track form design measures

including the provision of resilient rail
fasteners, booted sleepers or floating slab
track to reduce the vibration energy
transferred to the surrounding ground and
nearby buildings.
Figure 1 Vibration source, propagation and receiver
system
 Review of the design criteria, particularly the
design rail speed relative to the practical
The levels of vibration required to cause operational speed. For train operations in
damage to buildings tend to be at least an order tunnels, the vibration levels typically
of magnitude (10 times) higher than those at increase by 6 dB for each doubling of train
which people may consider the vibration to be speed [4].
intrusive or disturbing. Therefore, satisfying Figure 2 shows the various non-ballasted track
people comfort levels satisfies structural safety form layouts for typical tunnelled sections and
[1]. their acoustic performance impact.
Generic Trackform Layouts Acoustic Description
Performance
Receiver Time of Day Noise Trigger Highest Noise and Vibration
Direct fixation with standard rail foot
Level (dBA) pads (eg HDPE)

Residential Day (7:00am to 40 dBA

Day 10:00pm)
Night (10:00pm 35 dBA
to 7:00 am) Decreasing Resilient rail fasteners (eg, Delkor
Ground‐borne Alt 1, Pandrol Vipa, Pandrol Double
Schools, When in use 40 dBA to Noise and Fastclip)

educational 45 dBA Vibration

institutions, Highly resilient rail fasteners (eg,

Delkor Egg or Pandrol Vanguard)
places of Resiliently supported sleepers/blocks
worship or
continuously supported slabs (eg slab
Retail When in use 50 dBA on ballast mat)

Areas
Private When in use 40 dBA Floating Slab Track (FST) systems
using short, long or continuous slabs
Offices and with rubber or spring elements
Lowest Noise and Vibration
Conference
Rooms
Cinemas, When in use 35 dBA Figure 2 Acoustic performance impacts for generic
track form layouts in tunnelled sections
Public
Halls and 2.1 Airborne noise within train passenger
Lecture
Theatres
and driver cabin areas
Workshops NA NA When trains are moving on track surface, in-car
/ Industrial
noise levels are controlled by airborne noise
Buildings
generated at the wheel-rail interface,
Table 1 Ground Borne Noise Trigger Levels
predominantly transmitted through the floor of
Potential ground-borne noise mitigation options the train. Other contributors to in-car noise are
at the design stage for a new tunnelled railway air conditioning systems (particularly at low
line can include: speeds), and structure radiated noise
generated by vibration of surfaces inside the
 Review of options to adjust the vertical and
car. Trains with well-sealed windows and doors
horizontal alignment to avoid key sensitive
receptors, in particular maximising the

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are quieter in tunnels than trains with operable An example of an acoustic floor panel system
windows or poorly-sealed doors. (Quietstone) is shown in Figure 4.

When trains operate in tunnels, a much higher

sound field is generated around the perimeter of
the train as a result of the build-up of
reverberant noise. This noise is transmitted
through the walls, windows and roof of the train,
in addition to through the floor. The higher noise
levels around the train, means that in-car noise
levels in tunnels are normally significantly
higher than when operating on open track.
Figure 4 Example of acoustic floor panels
Increased in-car noise levels in tunnels can
affect passenger comfort and speech
intelligibility.

The noise level inside the tunnel is dependent

on factors such as the train design, train speed,
the amount of absorptive material inside the
tunnel, wheel and rail roughness or surface
irregularities, and also the design of the rail
supports (the track fastening system). Highly
resilient rail supports allow the rail to vibrate Figure 5 Acoustic floor panels in the Epping to
more resulting in increased in-tunnel noise Chatswood tunnel – Sydney
emissions relative to stiffer alternatives. Acoustic floor panels were retrofitted to in the
Epping to Chatswood tunnel to reduce in-train
Measures that can be applied in a tunnel to
noise (Figure 5). Because retrofitting being
minimise the reverberant noise include:
significantly expensive and disruptive, it is
 Acoustic wall panels to the tunnel walls and imperative that a balanced trackform design
floor panels between the rails; solution is produced in the initial stage of the
project to mitigate noise and vibration for both
 Rail web dampers to control vibrations;
external and internal receptors.
 Using stiffer fasteners; and,
3 SLAB TRACK SYSTEMS
 Using floating slabs.
Operational advantages of slab track systems
An example of a rail web damper system is [2, 10] include:
shown in Figure 3. The dampers are fitted to
each side of the rail web between the fastenings  Reduction of structure height;
to increase the mass of the rail and reduce
vibrations.
 Lower maintenance requirements and
hence higher availability;

 Increased service life; and,

 High lateral track resistance which allows

future speed increases.
Table 2 summarises the more well-known slab
track systems currently in operation around the
world, mostly on high speed lines:

Figure 3 Example of rail web damper

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Slab Track Country Constru Approx. considered a disadvantage as the equipment

Design of Origin ction Length in needs to be fairly sophisticated to handle and
Method Operation
(km)
place the panels. This can be a problem in a
Bögl Germany Precast 4,390 tunnel environment where space is limited as
Shinkansen Japan Precast 3,045 the bored tunnels in Australia tend to have a
Rheda Germany Encased 2,205
sleeper maximum diameter in the order of 6.5m.
Sonneville Switzerland Encased 1,030
block 4.1 Shinkansen System
Züblin Germany Encased 600
block The Shinkansen slab system was developed in
Stedef France Encased 335 Japan during the 1960’s and has had an
sleeper
influence on subsequent systems developed
Table 2 Major slab track systems
around the world, particularly high speed.
Other systems include Walo twin block system
The Shinkansen slab track (Figure 6) consists
(Switzerland), Edilon block track (Netherlands),
of a cement stabilised sub-layer, cylindrical
IPA precast slab track system (Italy), ÖBB-Porr
“stoppers” to prevent lateral and longitudinal
precast slab track system (Austria) and
movement, reinforced pre-stressed concrete
Embedded Rail Structure (Netherlands). The
slabs measuring 4.93 m x 2.34 m x 0.19 m (4.95
majority of these systems are more suited to
m x 2.34 m x 0.16 m in tunnels) and asphalt
high speed lines and are not considered
cement mortar injected under and between the
suitable for current Australian requirements.
slabs. The slabs weigh approximately 5 tonnes.
However, they are included in the discussion for
information purposes.

Slab track systems can be categorised in terms

of their design and construction method:

 Precast slab systems (top down or bottom

up construction);

 Encasing sleepers / blocks in concrete (top

down or bottom up); and,

 Direct Fastening Fixation (top down or

bottom up).
4 PRECAST SLAB SYSTEMS
The advantages of precast slab systems
Figure 6 Shinkansen Slab System Schematic
include:
Recent developments (Figure 7) have slightly
 The quality of the prefabricated slab thicker precast slabs (220mm) and a 2860 ×
components can be more readily managed
800 mm ‘void’ between the rails. The slabs are
in a controlled environment;
lighter to handle and also result in a more
 Faster construction process due to a high effective grouting operation.
level of mechanisation;

 Less on-site labour requirements promoting

safety and economy;

 Easier direct adjustment and fixation of the

rail; and,

 Repair and renovation friendly system. Figure 7 Recent Shinkansen Slab System Schematic
A key disadvantage is their high cost, which can
be up to four times more than ballasted track.
The high level of mechanisation may also be

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A precast system is needed when a Floating

Slab Track (FST) is required to mitigate noise
and vibration criteria. A section of the Epping –
Chatswood system in Sydney has been
provided with a FST as shown in Figure 11. This
system consists of rails supported on steel
baseplates, fixed to a concrete floating slab by
elastomeric bearings, and is designed to
achieve significant noise and vibration reduction
outcomes for this railway. This is distinct from
Figure 8 Recent Shinkansen Slab System the remainder of the concrete track structure
(Kyushu Line) used on this project which consists of rails
supported on steel baseplates; which are fixed
4.2 Bögl System
directly to the tunnel invert slab, called Direct
The Bögl slab track system was developed and Fixation Fastener.
first used in Germany in 1977. The
prefabricated slab track system is largely similar
to the Shinkansen slabs except that the Bögl
slabs are made of B55 steel fibre reinforced
concrete and are 200 mm thick, 6.45 m long and
2.55 m or 2.80 m wide. The slabs are pre-
stressed in the lateral direction with traditional
reinforcement in the longitudinal direction.
Spindles integrated in the slabs allow for Figure 11 FST (Epping – Chatswood)
adjustment of the slabs (Figure 9 and Figure
5 ENCASED SLEEPERS OR BLOCKS
10). The slabs are connected longitudinally by
post-tensioned steel rods in the neutral axis In this category of slab tracks, the best-known
[10]. German designs are the Rheda (Figure 12) and
the Züblin (Figure 14), named after the places
where these types were first installed. In both of
these systems, the special concrete sleepers
are cast into a concrete slab.

5.1 Rheda 2000 System

The first Rheda system constructed was in the
Rheda - Wiedenbruck station (Germany) in
1972. The Rheda design is free of any patent
rights and therefore has been under continuous
Figure 9 Bögl System
development by various designers/contractors.
The latest developed version is the Rheda 2000
as shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13. The basic
system structure consists of modified twin-block
sleepers connected with non-tensioned braced
girder reinforcement and embedded in a
monolithic concrete slab. Resilient rail
fastenings are used to provide the required
vertical rail deflection for load distribution and
smooth train travel.

Figure 10 Positioning the Bögl System

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Figure 12 Rheda 2000 System (a)

Figure 15 Züblin Construction Plant

5.3 Sonneville Insulated Booted Block or

LVT System
The Low Vibration Track (LVT) System consists
Figure 13 Rheda 2000 System (b) of reinforced concrete blocks that are separated
from the concrete slab by a rubber boot
5.2 Züblin System
specially developed for this purpose. This boot
The Züblin slab track system development contains a resilient block pad below the
started in the late 1970s. The construction concrete block. This elastic support of the
method consists of concrete twin-block or concrete block by means of a pad, which is
mono-block sleepers vibrated into their final individually designed for each project, allows
position in a fresh concrete supporting slab. improved load distribution. Regardless of the
This method requires a very large amount of type of fastening system mounted, an elastic rail
surveying and measurement work that can only pad of cdyn = 150 kN/mm is used to provide
be handled automatically and by integrating it dual-level elasticity. The LVT system can be set
into the vibration machinery (Figure 14 and up with all customary fastening systems [9].
Figure 15). The requirement of a large
surveying and measurement input is similar to A top down construction process is applied. The
the Rheda System, as the construction requires system has the advantage that each block can
pouring of fresh concrete around pre-set up be considered as ‘floating’ allowing a stiff
sleeper blocks. fastening system to be used to support the rail,
thus reducing the internal rail vibration and
noise within a tunnel environment. Figure 16
indicates the components of the system. Figure
17 shows a view of the system in the Channel
tunnel.

Figure 14 Züblin System

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Individual concrete block

Resilient block pad

Rubber boot

Figure 18 Stedef System

6 DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING

SYSTEMS

Figure 16 Sonneville System

The direct fixation systems are the most
adopted systems found on current Australian
metro rail networks.

The rail is fixed to the reinforced concrete slab

by means of a fastening base plate assembly.
The rail is fastened to the base plate by a clip
while the base plate is secured to the slab by
holding down bolts or anchors.

Traditional construction approach for base plate

systems has been “bottom-up” where the
Figure 17 Channel Tunnel Track concrete slab is cast first. The base plates and
rails are then set up to the correct alignment
The insulated booted system allows a standard
before fixing by drilling and grouting beneath the
rigid fastening system to be applied. The boot
base plate. Figure 19 shows the “bottom-up”
mitigates the vibration to external receptors
method used on Perth underground.
while the rigid fastener gives the rail more
support thereby reducing in-train noise.

5.4 Stedef System

The Stedef system (Figure 18) developed in
France comprises of booted blocks connected
by a tie-bar. The drawback of this system is that
it creates a trip hazard between the rails. On
other systems this area can be used as a
maintenance and emergency access walkway.

Figure 19 "Bottom-up" Method on Perth Underground

“Top-down” construction allows the slab to be

cast in situ around the base plates and fixings.
The concrete is placed in two pours. The initial

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pour creates a working surface to assemble and 7 FASTENING SYSTEMS

align the track before casting the second pour. Resilient fastening systems are available from a
Figure 20 shows a track (turnout) set up for the range of suppliers including ATP, CDM, Delkor,
second pour with the fastening system Getzner, Hilti, Lord, Pandrol, Schwihag and
protected against the wet concrete during the Vossloh. The dynamic stiffness of resilient
concrete pouring process. fastenings varies significantly, ranging from
around 5 kN/mm to 40 kN/mm. Table 3
summarises the fastener systems more
commonly applied in Australia.

Figure 20 "Top-down" Construction

Static Dynamic
Fastener Type Stiffness Stiffness Comments
Direct Fixation with Standard Rail Fasteners
Normal "stiff" rail pads
usually only used on
Pandrol HDPE > 100 kN/mm > 100 kN/mm surface tracks
Resilient Rail Fasteners
Pandrol VIPA 17 - 20 kN/mm 17 - 20 kN/mm
Stiffness options can be
Delkor Alt 1 12 - 30 kN/mm 17-42 kN/mm varied to suit
Sonneville Standard 18 kN/mm 27 kN/mm
Highly Resilient Rail Fasteners
Pandrol Vanguard 3 - 5 kN/mm 5 - 7.5 kN/mm
Stiffness options can be
Low Profile Delkor Egg 6 kN/mm 7.2 kN/mm varied to suit
Sonneville High Attenuation 9 kN/mm

Table 3 Fastener Types and Stiffness

Choice of a system often depends on client  Delkor Alternative 1 Elastic Rail Fastener
preference. For example, the Public Transport (Type SL-065); and,
Authority in Western Australia code of practice
specifies the following preferences for slab
 Delkor Egg Elastic Rail Fastener.

track: Any alternative fastening system would be

required to go through an 18-month testing and
 Pandrol e2000 series clip VIPA assembly (2 type approval process.
bolts minimum);
Figure 21 shows the Pandrol Vipa and
 Pandrol Vanguard Assembly (Bolted base Vanguard fastening systems while Figure 22
plate with bump stop pads);
shows the Delkor fastening systems

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Figure 21 Pandrol Fastening (Vipa and Vanguard)

Figure 22 Delkor Fastenings (Alt 1, Egg and its components)

The selection of the fastening is mainly 8 TRACK FORM DESIGN

governed by the required noise and vibration
The final track form design will depend on the
mitigation requirements. Factors related to the
level of mitigation required to control noise and
selection of softer fastenings during the design
vibration.
stage include:
The main factors associated with operational
 Care needs to be exercised to ensure that a patterns are the train speeds and timetabling,
low stiffness track design does not give rise as the impact of two passing trains needs to be
to excessive passenger discomfort vibration taken into account.
levels or unacceptable reliability, availability,
maintainability and safety (RAMS) Structural design of the concrete slab track
implications. within Australia is undertaken in accordance
with AS 5100. The Asset Standards Authority
 Careful attention is needed to ensure that (ASA), an independent unit within Transport for
the loaded natural frequency of the resilient NSW (TfNSW) also provides design guidelines
rail fastener does not coincide with other (T HR CI 12072 ST Track Slabs Version 1.0
frequencies associated with the fastener Issued date: 30 June 2015 [8]) that are more
spacing, wheel diameter, bogie passing specific to the non-ballasted railway track
frequency, etc. If this occurs, the structure and provide more level of detail for
performance of the system will be severely adoption on TfNSW.
impaired due to resonance phenomenon.
The current trend is to use fibre reinforced
 An increase in the fastener spacing and concrete instead of the traditional steel
decrease in the static stiffness of the reinforcing rods to control shrinkage cracking.
resilient rail fasteners will increase the Crack inducing joints need to be created. A rail
maximum rail deflection (and rail stress). system using DC traction will require a stray
current mesh.

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The design approach should include verification systems which are trending to converge into a
of the following: limited number of relatively more generic
systems. The selection of a particular type of
 Rail deflections and bending stress from non-ballasted track and associated fastening
compound multiple axle vertical and lateral
system will be dictated by specific requirements
loads;
of a project and a range of factors covered in
 Loads on each fastener; this paper. However, on network expansion
projects in Australia, the past experience with
 Rail break gap for the assumed fastener
spacing and rail clip (more critical on the incumbent system and avoidance of
viaducts exposed to the elements); proliferation of multiple systems will continue to
be the dominant consideration.
 Adequate longitudinal rail restraint, generally
necessary on grades of 3% or greater if 10 REFERENCES
elastic rail clips are intended for use;
1. SLR Consulting. North West Rail Link - Noise
 Adequate lateral fastener restraint; and Vibration Technical Paper for Operations
 Fastener anchor bolt pull out capacity within and Additional Construction Works. Sydney:
the limits of minimum slab depth Transport for NSW; 2012.
requirements. Requires evaluation of the
anchor bolt torque to restrain lateral loads 2. Yokoyama A. Introduction of High-Speed Rail
and the anchor bolt insert capacity at the in Japan. Presentation presented at; 2010; Los
required bolt torque and minimum insert Angeles.
depth; and,
3. SLR Consulting. Bus and Train Tunnel
 Sensitivities of a design to tolerance Environmental Impact Statement Operation
accumulation that could affect performance. Noise and Vibration. Brisbane; 2014.
Common rail size used in Australia and
4. Transport for NSW. Track Slabs. Sydney:
internationally on slab track systems is the
Transport for NSW; 2015.
60kg/m profile. Fastening spacing varies from
600mm to 760mm with 700mm being more 5. Low Vibration Track (LVT). Sonneville. 2015;
frequently adopted on Australian systems.
6. Esveld C. Recent developments in slab track.
9 CONCLUSION Delft: Delft University of Technology; 2003.
The current state of non-ballasted track 7. European Union. Council Directive 96/48/EC.
systems has evolved from popular historical European Union; 1996.

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