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CIE A Level Biology Your notes

2.2 Carbohydrates & Lipids

Contents
Biological Molecules: Key Terms
Covalent Bonds in Polymers
Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars
The Glycosidic Bond
Starch & Glycogen
Cellulose
Triglycerides
Phospholipids

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Biological Molecules: Key Terms

Your notes
The Two Forms of Glucose
The most well-known carbohydrate monomer is glucose
Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6
Glucose is the most common monosaccharide and is of central importance to most forms of life
There are different types of monosaccharide formed from molecules with varying numbers of carbon
atom, for example:
Trioses (3C) e.g. glyceraldehyde
Pentoses (5C) e.g. ribose
Hexoses (6C) e.g. glucose
Glucose exists in two structurally different forms – alpha (α) glucose and beta (β) glucose and is
therefore known as an isomer
This structural variety results in different functions between carbohydrates
Alpha and Beta Glucose Diagram

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Your notes

Straight chain and ring structural formula of alpha & beta glucose
Different polysaccharides are formed from the two isomers of glucose
Structure of polysaccharides table

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Polysaccharide Alpha Glucose Beta Glucose Your notes

Starch ✓ X

Glycogen ✓ X

Cellulose X ✓

Examiner Tip
You must be able to recognise and draw the isomer rings of α and β glucose.

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Biological Molecules: Key Terms

The key molecules that are required to build structures that enable organisms to function are: Your notes
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Water
Biological Molecules Diagram

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Your notes

The key biological molecules for living organisms

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids contain the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H)
making them organic compounds
Carbon atoms are key to the organic compounds because:
Each carbon atom can form four covalent bonds – this makes the compounds very stable (as
covalent bonds are so strong they require a large input of energy to break them)
Carbon atoms can form covalent bonds with oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur

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Carbon atoms can bond to form straight chains, branched chains or rings
Carbon compounds can form small single subunits called monomers, that bond with many repeating
subunits to form large molecules called polymers, by a process called polymerisation Your notes
Macromolecules are very large molecules
That contain 1000 or more atoms therefore having a high molecular mass
Polymers can be macromolecules, however not all macromolecules are polymers as the subunits
of polymers have to be the same repeating units

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the main carbon-based compounds in living organisms
All molecules in this group contain C, H and O
As H and O atoms are always present in the ratio of 2:1 (e.g. water H2O, which is where ‘hydrate’ comes
from) they can be represented by the formula Cx (H2O)y
The three types of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
Types of carbohydrate table

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

A polymer formed by
A sugar formed from two
A single sugar many monosaccharides
monosaccharides joined by
Definition monomer, all of which joined by a glycosidic
a glycosidic bond in a
are reducing sugars bond in a condensation
condensation reaction
reaction
Cellulose (monomer
Maltose (α glucose + α
is β glucose)
Glyceraldehyde glucose)
Starch (monomer is
(3C) Sucrose (α glucose +
Examples α glucose)
Ribose (5C) fructose)
Glycogen
Glucose (6C) Lactose (α glucose + β
(monomer is
galactose)
α glucose)

Sugar in germinating
Energy storage
Energy in seeds (maltose)
(plants - starch;
respiration Mammal milk sugar
Function animals - glycogen)
Building blocks (lactose)
Structural cell wall
of polymers Sugar stored in cane
(cellulose)
sugar (sucrose)

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
When discussing monomers and polymers, give the definition but also name specific examples e.g.
nucleic acids – the monomer is a nucleotide.
You need to be able to define the terms monomer, polymer, macromolecule, monosaccharide,
disaccharide and polysaccharide.

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Covalent Bonds in Polymers

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Covalent Bonds in Polymers
A covalent bond is the sharing of two or more electrons between two atoms
The electrons can be shared equally forming a nonpolar covalent bond or unequally (where an
atom can be more electronegative δ-) to form a polar covalent bond
Generally each atom will form a certain number of covalent bonds due to the number of free electrons
in the outer orbital e.g. H = 1 bond, C = 4 bonds
Covalent bonds are very stable as high energies are required to break the bonds
Multiple pairs of electrons can be shared forming double bonds (e.g. unsaturated fats C=C) or triple
bonds
Covalent Bond Diagram

Different types of covalent bonds

When two monomers are close enough that their outer orbitals overlap this results in their electrons
being shared and a covalent bond forming. If more monomers are added then polymerisation occurs
(and / or a macromolecule forms)

Condensation
Also known as dehydration synthesis (‘to put together while losing water’)
A condensation reaction occurs when monomers combine together by covalent bonds to form
polymers (polymerisation) or macromolecules (lipids) and water is removed
Condensation Reaction Diagram

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Your notes

Written and symbolic illustrations of the removal of water to form a covalent bond between two or more
monomers during a condensation reaction
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis means ‘lyse’ (to break) and ‘hydro’ (with water)
In the hydrolysis of polymers, covalent bonds are broken when water is added
Hydrolysis Reaction Diagram

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Your notes

Written and symbolic illustrations of the addition of water to break down covalent bond/s during a
hydrolysis reaction
Covalent bonds in organic molecules table

Organic Molecules Covalent Bonds Diagram of Covalent Bonds

Carbohydrates Glycosidic

Proteins Peptide

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Lipids Ester

Your notes

Nucleic Acids Phosphodiester

Examiner Tip
You must be able to recognise and identify the location of the covalent bonds in the molecules – note
that these molecules may be unfamiliar to you.

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Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars

Your notes
Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars
Sugars can be classified as reducing or non-reducing; this classification is dependent on their ability to
donate electrons
Reducing sugars can donate electrons (the carbonyl group becomes oxidised), the sugars become
the reducing agent
Thus reducing sugars can be detected using the Benedict’s test as they reduce the soluble copper
sulphate to insoluble brick-red copper oxide
Examples: glucose, fructose, maltose
Non-reducing sugars cannot donate electrons, therefore they cannot be oxidised
To be detected non-reducing sugars must first be hydrolysed to break the disaccharide into its
two monosaccharides before a Benedict’s test can be carried out
Example: sucrose

The mnemonic to remember the definitions for oxidation and reduction

Examiner Tip
Become familiar with the OILRIG mnemonic to remember what happens to a molecule when electrons
are lost from it (oxidation) or gained by it (reduction).

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The Glycosidic Bond

Your notes
Forming the Glycosidic Bond
To make monosaccharides more suitable for transport, storage and to have less influence on a cell’s
osmolarity, they are bonded together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides
Disaccharides and polysaccharides are formed when two hydroxyl (-OH) groups (on different
saccharides) interact to form a strong covalent bond called the glycosidic bond (the oxygen link that
holds the two molecules together)
Every glycosidic bond results in one water molecule being removed, thus glycosidic bonds are formed
by condensation
Glycosidic Bond Formation Diagram

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The formation of a glycosidic bond by condensation between two monosaccharides (glucose) to form
a disaccharide (maltose)
Your notes
Each glycosidic bond is catalysed by enzymes specific to which OH groups are interacting
As there are many different monosaccharides this results in different types of glycosidic bonds
forming (e.g maltose has a α-1,4 glycosidic bond and sucrose has a α-1,2 glycosidic bond)
Glycosidic Bond Formation Diagram

The formation of a glycosidic bond by condensation between α-glucose and β-fructose to form a
disaccharide (sucrose)
Glycosidic Bond Formation Diagram

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Your notes

The formation of glycosidic bonds to create a polysaccharide (amylopectin)

Types of Glycosidic Bonds Table

Sugar Type of Glycosidic bond Type of Molecule

Maltose α 1,4 Disaccharide

Sucrose α 1,2 Disaccharide

Cellulose β 1,4 Polysaccharide

Amylose α 1,4 Polysaccharide

Amylopectin α 1,4 and α 1,6 Polysaccharide

Examiner Tip
Make sure you can identify where the glycosidic bond is in a carbohydrate.

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Breaking the Glycosidic Bond

The glycosidic bond is broken when water is added in a hydrolysis (meaning ‘hydro’ - with water and Your notes
‘lyse’ - to break) reaction
Disaccharides and polysaccharides are broken down in hydrolysis reactions
Hydrolytic reactions are catalysed by enzymes, these are different to those present in condensation
reactions
Examples of hydrolytic reactions include the digestion of food in the alimentary tract and the
breakdown of stored carbohydrates in muscle and liver cells for use in cellular respiration
Hydrolysis of Glycosidic Bond Diagram

Glycosidic bonds are broken by the addition of water in a hydrolysis reaction

Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar which gives a negative result in a Benedict’s test
When sucrose is heated with hydrochloric acid this provides the water that hydrolyses the
glycosidic bond resulting in two monosaccharides that will produce a positive Benedict's test

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Hydrolysis of Glycosidic Bond Diagram

Your notes

A molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose are formed when one molecule of sucrose is
hydrolysed; the addition of water to the glycosidic bond breaks it

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Remember that disaccharides hydrolyse to two monosaccharides whereas polysaccharides must
undergo many hydrolytic reactions until they form monosaccharides.

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Starch & Glycogen

Your notes
Starch & Glycogen: Structures & Functions
Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymers formed from many monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds to
form chains; these chains may be:
Branched or unbranched
Folded
Straight or coiled
Starch and glycogen are storage polysaccharides because they are:
Compact
Many molecules fit into a small space, so large volumes can be stored inside cells
Insoluble
They do not dissolve in the cell cytoplasm, so have no osmotic effect on cells; soluble
molecules like glucose would lower the water potential of cell cytoplasm, drawing water into
cells by osmosis

Starch
Starch is the storage polysaccharide of plants. It is stored as granules in plastids (e.g. chloroplasts)
Due to the many monomers in a starch molecule, it takes longer to digest than glucose
Starch is constructed from two different polysaccharides:
Amylose (10 - 30% of starch)
Unbranched helix-shaped chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules
The helix shape enables it to be more compact and thus it is more resistant to digestion
Amylose structure diagram

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Your notes

Amylose is one of the two polysaccharides that forms starch, the storage polysaccharide in plants
Amylopectin (70 - 90% of starch)
1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules but also 1,6 glycosidic bonds form
between glucose molecules creating a branched molecule
The branches result in many terminal glucose molecules that can be easily hydrolysed for use
during cellular respiration or added to for storage
Amylopectin structure diagram

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Your notes

Amylopectin is the other of the two polysaccharides that forms starch

Glycogen
Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi, it is highly branched and not coiled
Liver and muscles cells have a high concentration of glycogen, present as visible granules, as the
cellular respiration rate is high in these cells (due to animals being mobile)
Glycogen is more branched than amylopectin making it more compact which helps animals store
more
The branching enables more free ends where glucose molecules can either be added or removed
allowing for condensation and hydrolysis reactions to occur more rapidly – thus the storage or release
of glucose can suit the demands of the cell
Glycogen structure diagram

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Your notes

Glycogen is a highly branched molecule used as a storage polysaccharide in animals and fungi
Summary of storage polysaccharides table

Starch
Feature Glycogen
Amylose Amylopectin
Monomer α-glucose α-glucose α-glucose

Branched No Yes Yes

Helix shape Yes No No

Glycosidic Bond Present 1,4 1,4 and 1,6 1,4 and 1,6

Source Plants Plants Animals

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Examiner Tip Your notes

Be clear about the differences between starch (amylose and amylopectin) and glycogen.

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Cellulose
Your notes
Cellulose: Structure & Function
Cellulose is a polysaccharide
Polysaccharides are macromolecules that are polymers formed by many monosaccharides joined by
glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction to form chains. These chains may be:
Branched or unbranched
Folded (making the molecule compact which is ideal for storage, e.g. starch and glycogen)
Straight (making the molecules suitable to construct cellular structures, e.g. cellulose) or coiled
Polysaccharides are insoluble in water

Cellulose – structure
Is a polymer consisting of long chains of β-glucose joined together by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
As β-glucose is an isomer of α-glucose to form the 1,4 glycosidic bonds consecutive β-glucose
molecules must be rotated 180° to each other
Beta Glucose Diagram

To form the 1,4 glycosidic bond between two β-glucose molecules, the glucose molecules must be
rotated to 180° to each other
Due to the inversion of the β-glucose molecules many hydrogen bonds form between the long chains
giving cellulose it’s strength
Hydrogen Bonds in Cellulose Diagram

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Your notes

Cellulose is used as a structural component due to the strength it has from the many hydrogen bonds
that form between the long chains of β-glucose molecules
Cellulose – function
Cellulose is the main structural component of cell walls due to its strength which is a result of the many
hydrogen bonds found between the parallel chains of microfibrils
The high tensile strength of cellulose allows it to be stretched without breaking which makes it
possible for cell walls to withstand turgor pressure
The cellulose fibres and other molecules (e.g. lignin) found in the cell wall form a matrix which increases
the strength of the cell walls
The strengthened cell walls provides support to the plant
Cellulose fibres are freely permeable which allows water and solutes to leave or reach the cell surface
membrane
As few organisms have the enzyme (cellulase) to hydrolyse cellulose, it is a source of fibre
Cellulose Diagram

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Your notes

The strength and insolubility of cellulose fibres means it is a suitable molecule to construct cell walls

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Learn the monomer for cellulose, the arrangement of the glycosidic bond (which is dependent on the
position of the OH group on carbon 1 and 4) and that cellulose exists in parallel chains bonded by many
hydrogen bonds giving it high mechanical strength.

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Triglycerides
Your notes
Triglycerides: Basics
Lipids
Lipids are macromolecules which contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. However, unlike
carbohydrates lipids contain a lower proportion of oxygen
They are non-polar and hydrophobic meaning they are insoluble in water
Different types include:
Fats and Oils (composed mainly of triglycerides)
Phospholipids
Steroids and waxes (considered lipids as they are hydrophobic thus insoluble in water)

Triglycerides
These are non-polar, hydrophobic molecules
The monomers are glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol is an alcohol (an organic molecule that contains a hydroxyl group bonded to a carbon
atom)
Fatty acids contain a methyl group at one end of a hydrocarbon chain (chains of hydrogens
bonded to carbon atoms, typically 4 to 24 carbons long) and at the other is a carboxyl group
Fatty acids can vary in two ways:
Length of the hydrocarbon chain
The fatty acid may be saturated (mainly in animal fat) or unsaturated (mainly vegetable oils,
although there are exceptions e.g. coconut and palm oil)
Unsaturated fatty acids can be mono or poly-unsaturated
If H atoms are on the same side of the double bond they are cis-fatty acids and are metabolised by
enzymes
If H atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond they are trans-fatty acids and cannot form
enzyme-substrate complexes, therefore, are not metabolised. They are linked with coronary heart
disease
Fatty Acids Diagram

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Your notes

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Your notes

Examples of different types of fatty acids with the functional groups and presence of double bonds
highlighted

Triglycerides are formed by esterification

An ester bond forms when the hydroxyl group of the glycerol bonds with the carboxyl group of the
fatty acid
For each ester bond formed a water molecule is released
Therefore, for one triglyceride to form three water molecules are released
Triglyceride Formation Diagram

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Your notes

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Your notes

Formation of a triglyceride from a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules by the process of
esterification

Examiner Tip
Ensure that you are familiar with the structure of a triglyceride and that you can recognise whether the
fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated.

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Triglycerides: Structure & Function

Energy storage Your notes
The long hydrocarbon chains contain many carbon-hydrogen bonds with little oxygen
So when triglycerides are oxidised during cellular respiration this causes these bonds to break
releasing energy used to produce ATP
Triglycerides therefore store more energy per gram than carbohydrates and proteins (37kJ compared
to 17kJ)
As triglycerides are hydrophobic they do not cause osmotic water uptake in cells so more can be
stored
Plants store triglycerides, in the form of oils, in their seeds and fruits. If extracted from seeds and
fruits these are generally liquid at room temperature due to the presence of double bonds which
add kinks to the fatty acid chains altering their properties
Mammals store triglycerides as oil droplets in adipose tissue to help them survive when food is
scarce (e.g. hibernating bears)
The oxidation of the carbon-hydrogen bonds releases large numbers of water molecules (metabolic
water) during cellular respiration
Desert animals retain this water if there is no liquid water to drink
Bird and reptile embryos in their shells also use this water

Insulation
Triglycerides are part of the composition of the myelin sheath that surrounds nerve fibres
This provides insulation which increases the speed of transmission of nerve impulses
Triglycerides compose part of the adipose tissue layer below the skin which acts as insulation against
heat loss (e.g. blubber of whales and sea lions)

Buoyancy
The low density of fat tissue increases the ability of animals to float more easily

Protection
The adipose tissue in mammals contains stored triglycerides and this tissue helps protect organs from
the risk of damage

Examiner Tip
It is common to be asked why triglycerides are energy reserves (they store more energy per gram due
to their hydrocarbon chains).

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Phospholipids
Your notes
The Vital Role of Phospholipids
Structure
Phospholipids are a type of lipid, therefore they are formed from the monomer glycerol and fatty
acids
Unlike triglycerides, there are only two fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule in a phospholipid as
one has been replaced by a phosphate ion (PO43-)
As the phosphate is polar it is soluble in water and described as hydrophilic
The fatty acid ‘tails’ are non-polar and therefore insoluble in water and described as hydrophobic
Phospholipid Structure Diagram

Phospholipids are the major components of cell surface membranes. They have fatty acid tails that are
hydrophobic and a phosphate head, that is hydrophilic, attached to a glycerol molecule.
Phospholipids are amphipathic (they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts)

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As a result of having hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts phospholipid molecules form monolayers or
bilayers in water
Your notes
Monolayer and Bilayer Diagram

In the presence of water due to the hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts phospholipids will form
monolayers or bilayers.
Role of Phospholipids
They are the main component (building block) of cell membranes
Due to the presence of hydrophobic fatty acid tails, a hydrophobic core is created when a
phospholipid bilayer forms
This acts as a barrier to water-soluble molecules
The hydrophilic phosphate heads form hydrogen bonds with water allowing the cell membrane to be
used to compartmentalise
This enables the cells to organise specific roles into organelles helping with efficiency
Composition of phospholipids contributes to the fluidity of the cell membrane
If there are mainly saturated fatty acid tails then the membrane will be less fluid
If there are mainly unsaturated fatty acid tails then the membrane will be more fluid
Phospholipids control membrane protein orientation
Weak hydrophobic interactions between the phospholipids and membrane proteins hold the
proteins within the membrane but still allow movement within the layer
Phospholipids vs Triglycerides Table

Phospholipid Triglyceride

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Number of fatty acid tails 2 3

Your notes
Presence of phosphate Yes No

Polar or non-polar Polar phosphate head Non-polar

Number of water
molecules released during 3 3
formation

Function Cell membrane component Energy storage

Examiner Tip
Ensure you know the difference between phospholipids and triglycerides!

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