Measurement of Displacement

(1) Explain the working principles of following displacement

measuring transducers.
i) Capacitive type transducer
ii) Inductive type transducer
iii) Piezoelectric transducer
iv) Resistance transducer
Capacitive Type Transducer:
A capacitive type transducer measures displacement by exploiting changes in
the capacitance between two parallel plates as the distance between them
varies. These plates are typically separated by a non-conductive material. When
the distance changes, the capacitance changes, and this change can be
correlated to the displacement. The capacitance (C) is directly proportional to
the area of the plates (A) and inversely proportional to the distance (d) between
them, as per the formula C = ε₀ * (A/d), where ε₀ is the permittivity of the
material between the plates. By measuring the capacitance, the transducer can
determine the displacement.
Inductive Type Transducer:
An inductive type transducer operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It consists of a coil of wire, which is part of an electrical circuit, and a
core that can be displaced. When the core moves, it changes the magnetic
linkage with the coil, inducing a voltage in the coil according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. The induced voltage is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux, which is affected by the core's displacement. By
measuring this induced voltage, the transducer can determine the
displacement.
Piezoelectric Transducer:
Piezoelectric transducers use the piezoelectric effect, which involves certain
materials generating an electric charge when subjected to mechanical stress or
pressure. In the context of displacement measurement, these materials are
typically cut into precise shapes and attached to the object whose movement
you want to measure. When the object moves, it applies mechanical stress to
 the piezoelectric material, causing it to generate an electric charge. By
measuring this electric charge or the voltage it produces, the transducer can
determine the displacement.
Resistance Transducer:
Resistance transducers, often called resistive or potentiometric transducers,
operate on the principle of changing electrical resistance with movement. These
transducers consist of a resistive element, such as a wire or a thin film, and a
wiper or slider that moves along the resistive element as the object displaces.
As the wiper position changes, it alters the length of the resistive path, which, in
turn, changes the resistance. By measuring the resistance using a Wheatstone
bridge or similar circuit, the transducer can determine the displacement based
on the relationship between resistance and position.

(2) List the advantages and disadvantages of inductive type

displacement measuring transducers.
Inductive type displacement measuring transducers have several advantages
and disadvantages:

Advantages:

1. High Accuracy: Inductive transducers offer high measurement accuracy, making

them suitable for precise applications.
2. Long Lifespan: They have a long service life due to the absence of physical
contact between components.
3. Non-Contact Sensing: Inductive transducers do not require physical contact
with the object being measured, reducing wear and tear.
4. Minimal Friction: The absence of friction in these transducers ensures minimal
energy loss and high repeatability.
5. Wide Measurement Range: They can measure a wide range of displacements,
from micrometres to centimetres, depending on the design.
6. Good Linearity: Inductive transducers typically exhibit good linearity in their
response.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitive to Environmental Factors: They can be affected by changes in
temperature, humidity, and electromagnetic interference, leading to
measurement inaccuracies.
2. Cost: Inductive transducers can be relatively expensive compared to some other
displacement measurement methods.
3. Complex Calibration: Calibrating these transducers can be intricate and time-
consuming, requiring specialized equipment and expertise.
4. Limited Speed: In some cases, the response time of inductive transducers may
not be fast enough for high-speed measurements.
5. Size and Weight: Depending on the design, they may have a larger physical
footprint and weight compared to some other displacement sensors.
6. Limited Environmental Suitability: They may not be suitable for harsh
environments where dust, moisture, or extreme temperatures are present.

(3) What are the applications of resistance type displacement

measuring transducers?
Resistance type displacement measuring transducers have various applications
across different industries due to their accuracy and reliability. Some common
applications include:
1. Machine Tools: Monitoring and controlling the movement of machine tool
components, ensuring precision in machining processes.
2. Automotive: Measuring displacement in suspension systems, brakes, and
engines to enhance vehicle performance and safety.
3. Aerospace: Ensuring accurate positioning and alignment of aircraft components
for reliable flight control.
4. Civil Engineering: Monitoring structural deformation in buildings and bridges to
assess safety and integrity.
5. Manufacturing: Measuring the position of robotic arms, conveyors, and other
equipment in automated production lines.
6. Quality Control: Checking dimensional accuracy in manufacturing processes to
maintain product quality.
7. Medical Devices: Position sensing in medical instruments and equipment, such
as surgical robots and imaging devices.
8. Material Testing: Measuring displacement in materials under stress or strain to
evaluate material properties.
9. Research and Development: Used in laboratories and testing facilities for
various experimental purposes, including material characterization and motion
analysis.
10. Automation: Providing feedback for closed-loop control systems in industrial
automation to maintain precision and accuracy in various processes.

These transducers are versatile tools for measuring displacement accurately and
are crucial in ensuring the efficiency and reliability of many mechanical systems
and industrial processes.

(4) Explain how photoelectric transducers are used for

displacement measuring transducer.
Photoelectric transducers are used for displacement measuring transducers by
converting changes in light intensity into an electrical signal, which can then be
used to measure the displacement of an object.

"Photoelectric transducers are devices that measure displacement by using

light. They consist of a light source, such as a laser or LED, and a light detector,
typically a photodiode or phototransistor. The basic idea is to shine the light
onto the object whose displacement you want to measure.

As the object moves, it can either block the light or reflect it. The amount of light
reaching the detector changes accordingly. This change in light intensity is then
converted into an electrical signal, usually a voltage or current, which varies with
the object's position.

By measuring this electrical signal, you can determine the object's displacement.
When the object is closer, it blocks more light, reducing the signal. When it
moves away, it allows more light to reach the detector, increasing the signal.
This change in signal can be calibrated to provide a precise measurement of the
displacement.

Measurement of Temperature

(1) Explain how the expansion of metal can be used to measure

temperature.
The expansion of metal can be used to measure temperature through a device
called a bimetallic strip. A bimetallic strip consists of two different metals,
usually steel and brass, bonded together. These two metals have different
 coefficients of thermal expansion, which means they expand or contract at
different rates when subjected to temperature changes.

When the temperature changes, the two metals in the strip expand or contract
by different amounts. This causes the strip to bend or curve in response to the
temperature variation. The direction of the bend depends on which metal is on
the outer side of the curve. If the temperature increases, the metal with the
higher coefficient of thermal expansion will expand more, causing the strip to
curve with that metal on the outside. If the temperature decreases, the strip will
curve in the opposite direction.

The amount of curvature in the bimetallic strip is directly proportional to the

temperature change. By measuring this curvature, we can indirectly measure
the temperature. This principle is utilized in various temperature-sensing
devices such as thermostats, thermometers, and temperature switches.

(2) Explain the working principles of following temperature

measuring instruments
I) Thermocouple
ii) Resistance thermometer
1. Thermocouple:

A thermocouple is a temperature measuring instrument that operates on the

principle of Seebeck effect. It consists of two different metal wires or conductors
that are joined at one end, creating a junction. When there is a temperature
difference between the junction and the free ends of the wires, it generates a
voltage, known as the thermoelectric voltage.

The key working principle is that the voltage produced is proportional to the
temperature difference between the hot junction and the cold junction. This is
because different metals have different electrical properties, and as the
temperature changes, the electrical properties of the metals change. By
measuring the voltage generated at the junction and comparing it to a reference
table or a calibrated curve, you can determine the temperature at the hot
junction.

Thermocouples are widely used for temperature measurements in various

industries due to their durability and wide temperature range.
2. Resistance Thermometer (RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector):

A resistance thermometer, also known as an RTD, operates on the principle that

the electrical resistance of a metal or conductor changes with temperature. It
consists of a thin wire or a thin film made of a pure metal, such as platinum,
which is highly sensitive to temperature changes.

The key working principle is that as the temperature changes, the electrical
resistance of the wire changes in a predictable and repeatable manner.
Typically, the resistance of the wire increases with temperature. By measuring
the electrical resistance of the wire and comparing it to a calibrated table or
formula, the temperature can be accurately determined.

Platinum RTDs are commonly used because they offer a high degree of accuracy
and stability over a wide temperature range. RTDs are often used in scientific
laboratories and industrial applications where precise temperature
measurements are required.

(3) Explain the difference between NTC and PTC type

thermometers.
NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) and PTC (Positive Temperature
Coefficient) thermistors are two common types of temperature-sensitive
resistors, but they operate differently in response to changes in temperature.
NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient):
 Resistance decreases with increasing temperature: NTC thermistors
exhibit a decrease in resistance as the temperature rises. In other words,
their resistance has a negative temperature coefficient. When it gets
warmer, their electrical resistance decreases, and when it gets colder,
their resistance increases.
 Used for temperature sensing: NTC thermistors are commonly used for
temperature measurement and control. Their resistance change with
temperature is predictable, making them suitable for applications like
thermostats, temperature sensors, and temperature-compensating
circuits.
 Example application: An NTC thermistor in a thermostat will have lower
resistance as the room temperature increases, signalling the heating
system to turn off.
PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient):
  Resistance increases with increasing temperature: PTC thermistors, on
the other hand, have a resistance that increases as the temperature rises,
which gives them a positive temperature coefficient. As they get warmer,
their resistance goes up, and as they cool down, their resistance
decreases.
 Used for overcurrent protection: PTC thermistors are often used as self-
resetting fuses or for overcurrent protection in electronic circuits. When
excessive current flows through them, they heat up and their resistance
increases, limiting the current and protecting the circuit from damage.
 Example application: A PTC thermistor in a power supply can limit the
current if there's a short circuit, preventing damage to the connected
devices.

Measurement of Pressure
(1) Explain the working principles of following low pressure
measurement instruments.
i) Pirani gauge
ii) Ionization gauge
iii) Ambient pressure gauge
1. Pirani Gauge: The Pirani gauge operates based on the principle of thermal
conductivity. It consists of a heated wire element placed in the vacuum chamber.
When the pressure in the chamber changes, the thermal conductivity of the gas
surrounding the wire also changes.

Here's how it works:

 As the pressure decreases, there are fewer gas molecules around the wire to conduct
heat away from it.
 The heated wire's temperature increases as a result.
 The temperature change of the wire is directly proportional to the pressure in the
chamber.
 A temperature sensor, such as a resistance thermometer, measures this change and
converts it into a pressure reading.

2. Ionization Gauge: The ionization gauge, also known as a hot cathode ionization
gauge, relies on the ionization of gas molecules to measure pressure. It operates as
follows:
 A cathode (a filament or wire) is heated to release electrons.
 These electrons are accelerated towards an anode by an electric field.
 Gas molecules in the vacuum chamber collide with the high-energy electrons and get
ionized (lose electrons).
 The resulting positive ions are collected by the anode.
 The ion current is proportional to the number of gas molecules in the chamber,
which is directly related to the pressure.
 By measuring this ion current, the gauge determines the pressure in the vacuum
chamber.

3. Ambient Pressure Gauge: Ambient pressure gauges, often referred to as barometers,

measure the atmospheric pressure in their surroundings. They work based on the
fundamental principle of hydrostatic pressure:
 A column of liquid, typically mercury, is sealed in a vertical tube.
 The weight of the mercury column exerts a downward force due to gravity.
 This force is balanced by the atmospheric pressure pushing down on the open
surface of the mercury in the tube.
 The height of the mercury column is inversely proportional to the atmospheric
pressure; as pressure increases, the column height decreases, and vice versa.
 The gauge is calibrated so that the height of the mercury column provides a direct
reading of the ambient pressure.

These three types of low-pressure measurement instruments operate on different

principles but all serve the common purpose of determining pressure levels in
various applications.

(2) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of manometer type

pressure gauge.
A manometer is a simple device used to measure pressure, typically in a closed system. There
are several advantages and disadvantages associated with manometer-type pressure gauges:

Advantages:

1. Simplicity: Manometers are straightforward and easy to use. They consist of a U-

shaped tube partially filled with a liquid, which moves up or down in response to
changes in pressure. This simplicity makes them cost-effective and suitable for
various applications.
2. High Precision: Manometers can provide highly accurate pressure measurements,
especially when used with an appropriate liquid that offers the desired sensitivity and
range.
3. Continuous Monitoring: Manometers offer continuous pressure monitoring without
the need for complex equipment or frequent recalibration.
4. No External Power Required: Manometers do not require external power sources or
electricity to operate, making them reliable in various settings, including remote or
hazardous environments.
5. No Electrical Hazards: Since manometers are not electrical devices, they are safe to
use in explosive or flammable atmospheres where electrical devices might pose a
risk.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited Range: Manometers have a limited pressure measurement range.

Their sensitivity depends on the choice of liquid and the size of the tube, so
they may not be suitable for measuring very high or very low pressures.
2. Susceptible to Temperature Variations: The density of the liquid in the
manometer can change with temperature, affecting the accuracy of
pressure measurements. Compensating for temperature variations can be
challenging.
3. Fluid Compatibility: The choice of the liquid in the manometer depends on
the pressure range and the compatibility with the substance being
measured. Not all liquids are suitable for all applications.
4. Bulk and Fragility: Manometers can be relatively large and fragile, making
them less portable and more susceptible to damage in some environments.
5. Limited Readability: Reading the pressure value on a manometer tube can
be challenging, particularly when the liquid level is not precisely at eye
level. This can introduce parallax errors in measurements.
6. Time-Consuming: Taking accurate measurements with a manometer can be
time-consuming, especially when compared to digital pressure gauges that
provide instant readings.

(3) State the applications of following types of pressure gauges.

i) Bourdon temperature gauges
ii) Bellows pressure gauge

Bourdon Temperature Gauges: Bourdon temperature gauges do not exist as a

standard type of gauge. Bourdon gauges are typically used for measuring pressure,
 not temperature. Bourdon gauges use a curved tube to measure pressure changes,
not temperature.

Bellows Pressure Gauge: Bellows pressure gauges are used to measure pressure in
various applications, including:

1. Industrial Machinery: Bellows pressure gauges are used in industrial machinery to

monitor and control pressure levels in processes like manufacturing, hydraulic
systems, and chemical processing.
2. HVAC Systems: They are used to monitor and maintain pressure levels in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems to ensure efficient and safe
operation.
3. Laboratory Equipment: Bellows pressure gauges are employed in laboratory
instruments and setups to measure and control pressure in experiments and
research.
4. Aerospace: These gauges are used in the aerospace industry to monitor pressure in
aircraft systems, including hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
5. Automotive: Bellows pressure gauges are found in vehicles to measure tire pressure,
fuel pressure, and other critical pressures to ensure safety and performance.
6. Oil and Gas Industry: They are used in oil and gas production and refining processes
to monitor pressure in pipelines, vessels, and equipment.

Measurement of Level
(1) Explain two methods of direct level measurement.
1. Float and Tape System:
 This method employs a buoyant float that rests on the liquid surface whose
level is being measured. The float is typically connected to a tape or cable. As
the liquid level changes, the float moves up or down, causing the tape to
unwind or wind around a drum. The position of the tape on the drum
corresponds to the liquid level.
 The tape is often marked with measurement increments, allowing direct
reading of the liquid level. This method is commonly used in open or closed
tanks where the liquid is not corrosive to the materials used in the float and
tape system.

2. Float and Counterweight System:

 In this method, a float is again utilized, but instead of a tape, a counterweight
is employed to measure the liquid level. The float is connected to a
counterweight through a pulley or lever system. As the liquid level changes,
the float moves, causing the counterweight to either rise or fall.
  The counterweight is often calibrated, and the position of the counterweight
provides a direct indication of the liquid level. This method is suitable for
situations where a tape system may not be practical, such as in environments
where the tape could become tangled or damaged.

(2) Explain the working principles of following level measuring

instruments.
i) Capacitive level indicator
ii) Ultrasonic level indicator

Capacitive Level Indicator:

A capacitive level indicator operates based on the principle of capacitance, which is

the ability of a system to store an electric charge. In the context of level
measurement, the instrument typically consists of a probe or sensor and a reference
ground. The probe is inserted into the liquid or material whose level is to be
measured.

1. Capacitance Variation: As the probe comes into contact with the material, the
capacitance between the probe and the reference ground changes. The capacitance
is influenced by the dielectric constant of the material between the probe and the
reference ground. The dielectric constant is a measure of a material's ability to store
electrical energy.
2. Calibration: The instrument is calibrated to relate the changes in capacitance to the
level of the material. The higher the level of the material, the greater the capacitance.
3. Output Signal: The instrument processes the capacitance changes and produces an
output signal that corresponds to the level of the material. This signal can be
displayed on a screen or transmitted for further processing or control.

Ultrasonic Level Indicator:

An ultrasonic level indicator uses ultrasonic waves to measure the distance between
the sensor and the material surface. Here's how it works:

1. Generation of Ultrasonic Waves: The instrument generates high-frequency

ultrasonic waves using a transducer. This transducer can typically emit and receive
ultrasonic signals.
2. Signal Transmission: The generated ultrasonic waves travel from the transducer
towards the material whose level is being measured.
3. Reflection: When the ultrasonic waves encounter the surface of the material, they
are reflected back towards the sensor.
4. Time-of-Flight Measurement: The instrument measures the time it takes for the
ultrasonic waves to travel to the material surface and back. Since the speed of sound
in air is known, the distance to the material surface can be calculated using the
formula: distance = (speed of sound × time of flight) / 2.
5. Level Calculation: The calculated distance represents the level of the material. The
instrument may require calibration to account for factors such as temperature and
atmospheric conditions that can affect the speed of sound.
6. Output Signal: The instrument provides an output signal that corresponds to the
level of the material, which can be displayed or used for control purposes.

(3) State advantages and disadvantages of magnetic type level

indicators.
Advantages of Magnetic Type Level Indicators:

1. Non-Contact Measurement: Magnetic level indicators operate without direct

contact with the fluid, reducing the risk of contamination or corrosion.
2. Reliable Operation: They are known for their reliability, providing accurate level
measurements in various industrial applications.
3. Low Maintenance: These indicators have fewer moving parts, resulting in lower
maintenance requirements and longer service life.
4. Visible Level Indication: The magnetic float movement directly influences the
external level indicator, providing a clear and visible indication of the fluid level.
5. Suitable for Harsh Environments: Magnetic level indicators can withstand harsh
and corrosive environments, making them suitable for challenging industrial
conditions.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Type Level Indicators:

1. Cost: Magnetic level indicators can be more expensive upfront compared to some
other level measurement technologies.
2. Installation Complexity: Installation may require careful alignment of components,
and any misalignment can affect the accuracy of the measurements.
3. Limited to Clear Liquids: The effectiveness of magnetic level indicators is reduced
when dealing with opaque or viscous fluids that may interfere with magnetic field
transmission.
4. Temperature and Pressure Limitations: Extreme temperatures or pressures may
affect the performance of magnetic level indicators, limiting their use in certain
applications.
5. Potential for Interference: External magnetic fields or metallic objects in the vicinity
can interfere with the accurate functioning of magnetic level indicators.

(4) Explain what are cryogenic fuel level indicators.

Cryogenic fuel level indicators are devices designed to measure and display the
amount of cryogenic fuel, such as liquid oxygen or liquid nitrogen, present in a
storage container. These indicators use specialized technology to accurately assess
the fuel level despite the extremely low temperatures associated with cryogenic
fluids.

In simple terms, cryogenic fuel level indicators provide a clear and precise indication
of how much cryogenic fuel is remaining in a storage tank or container, helping
operators monitor and manage the fuel supply efficiently.

Flow Measurement
(1) Describe the construction and working of rotameter use to
measure a flow rate.
A rotameter is a device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid in a pipeline. It
consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass or metal, with a float inside. The
tube has a larger diameter at the top and narrows down towards the bottom. The
float, which is usually a ball or a cylindrical shape, is free to move up and down inside
the tube.

Here's a step-by-step description of the construction and working of a rotameter:

Construction:

1. Tapered Tube: The main component of a rotameter is the tapered tube through
which the fluid flows. This tube is typically transparent, allowing for easy observation
of the float.
2. Float: Inside the tapered tube, there is a float, which is a buoyant object that moves
freely in response to the flow of the fluid. The shape of the float is designed to match
the taper of the tube.
3. Scale: The rotameter has a scale alongside the tube, marked with flow rate units
(e.g., litres per minute or gallons per hour). This scale helps in reading the flow rate
based on the position of the float.
4. Inlet and Outlet: The rotameter has inlet and outlet connections for the fluid to
enter and exit the device.

Working:

1. Fluid Flow: The fluid enters the rotameter through the inlet connection and flows
upward through the tapered tube.
2. Float Movement: As the fluid flows through the tapered tube, it exerts a force on
the float. The float rises in the tube until the buoyant force acting on it equals the
gravitational force pulling it downward.
3. Flow Rate Reading: The position of the float within the tube corresponds to a
specific flow rate. Users can read the flow rate directly from the scale by observing
where the top of the float aligns with the scale.
4. Calibration: Rotameters are typically calibrated for specific fluids and operating
conditions to provide accurate flow rate measurements.

(2) Describe the working principles of following flow measuring

instruments.
i) Magnetic flow meter
ii) Ultrasonic flow meter
iii) Turbine flow meter
Magnetic Flow Meter:
 A magnetic flow meter operates based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.
 It consists of a non-conductive pipe through which the conductive fluid flows.
 When the fluid (conductive liquid) moves through a magnetic field created by
the meter, a voltage is induced perpendicular to both the magnetic field and
the fluid flow direction.
 The induced voltage is directly proportional to the average flow velocity of the
fluid.
 By measuring this induced voltage, the magnetic flow meter can determine
the flow rate of the conductive liquid.

Ultrasonic Flow Meter:

 Ultrasonic flow meters use the principle of measuring the transit time of
ultrasonic pulses through a fluid.
  It involves sending ultrasonic signals (sound waves) upstream and
downstream through the flowing fluid.
 The flow velocity of the fluid affects the time it takes for the ultrasonic signals
to travel between the two points.
 By comparing the transit times of the signals in the upstream and downstream
directions, the flow meter calculates the average velocity of the fluid.
 The flow rate is then determined by multiplying the average velocity by the
cross-sectional area of the pipe.

Turbine Flow Meter:

 A turbine flow meter operates on the principle of the fluid flow causing a rotor
(turbine) to spin.
 The meter consists of a rotor with blades placed in the path of the flowing
fluid.
 As the fluid flows through the meter, it impinges on the rotor blades, causing
the rotor to spin at a rate proportional to the flow rate.
 The rotation of the rotor is detected by sensors, typically magnetic or optical,
and converted into an electrical signal.
 The frequency of the electrical signal is directly proportional to the flow rate,
allowing the flow meter to measure the volumetric flow of the fluid.

(3) Describe the applications and limitations of turbine flow meter.

Applications of Turbine Flow Meter:

Turbine flow meters are commonly used for measuring the flow rate of liquids in
various industrial applications. Their main applications include:

1. Liquid Flow Measurement: Turbine flow meters are effective in measuring the flow
rate of liquids such as water, chemicals, and petroleum-based products.
2. Precision Measurements: These meters provide accurate and precise
measurements, making them suitable for applications where precise flow control is
essential.
3. Industrial Processes: Turbine flow meters find use in industries like pharmaceuticals,
food and beverage, chemicals, and petrochemicals, where monitoring and controlling
liquid flow are critical.
4. Water Treatment: They are employed in water treatment plants to measure the flow
of water in different stages of the treatment process.
5. Agriculture: Turbine flow meters are used in irrigation systems to monitor and
optimize the distribution of water for crops.
 Limitations of Turbine Flow Meter:

1. Viscosity Sensitivity: Turbine flow meters may be sensitive to changes in the

viscosity of the measured fluid, affecting their accuracy. They are generally better
suited for low-viscosity fluids.
2. Maintenance: The moving parts of the turbine can be prone to wear and tear over
time, requiring regular maintenance to ensure accurate and reliable measurements.
3. Contamination Risk: The turbine's moving parts can be susceptible to damage or
malfunction if the fluid being measured contains contaminants such as solids or
debris.
4. Pressure and Temperature Limits: Turbine flow meters may have limitations
regarding the pressure and temperature of the fluid being measured. Extreme
conditions outside their specified range can impact their performance.
5. Installation Considerations: Proper installation is crucial for accurate
measurements. Turbine flow meters may be sensitive to factors like turbulence and
uneven flow profiles, requiring careful consideration during installation.

(4) Describe the applications of hot wire anemometer.

A hot wire anemometer is a device used to measure the velocity of fluid flow,
typically air. It operates based on the principle of convective heat transfer. Here are
some applications of hot wire anemometers:

1. HVAC Systems: Hot wire anemometers are widely used in heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning (HVAC) systems to measure air velocity and ensure proper airflow for
effective temperature control.
2. Aerospace Industry: In aerodynamics and aerospace engineering, hot wire
anemometers are employed to study airflows around aircraft, ensuring optimal
performance and safety.
3. Automotive Engineering: These anemometers are used in automotive
research to analyse airflows around vehicles, helping in the design and
optimization of aerodynamics for improved fuel efficiency and reduced drag.
4. Environmental Monitoring: Hot wire anemometers find applications in
environmental studies, measuring air velocity in outdoor settings to analyse
wind patterns and airflow in various geographical locations.
5. Industrial Ventilation: In industrial settings, especially those involving
manufacturing processes, hot wire anemometers are utilized to assess and
optimize ventilation systems for worker safety and process efficiency.
6. Research and Development: Hot wire anemometers play a crucial role in
fluid dynamics research. They are used in laboratories to study and
understand the behaviour of fluids, aiding in the development of various
technologies.
 7. Cleanroom Monitoring: In environments such as cleanrooms, where air
quality is critical, hot wire anemometers help monitor and control airflow to
maintain specified cleanliness levels.
8. Wind Tunnel Testing: Hot wire anemometers are commonly used in wind
tunnel experiments to analyse and simulate aerodynamic conditions, ensuring
the performance and safety of various structures and vehicles.
9. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Assessments: For assessing and improving indoor
air quality in buildings, hot wire anemometers are employed to measure air
circulation and ventilation effectiveness.
10. Weather Stations: Hot wire anemometers are integrated into weather
monitoring equipment to measure wind speed, contributing to accurate
weather forecasting and climate studies.

(4) Describe the construction and working of laser Doppler

anemometer.
A Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) is a device used to measure the velocity of fluid
flows, such as air or water, with high precision. Here's a concise description of its
construction and working:

Construction: A Laser Doppler Anemometer typically consists of the following

components:

1. Laser Source: The LDA system begins with a laser that emits a coherent beam of light,
often in the form of a monochromatic and collimated laser beam.
2. Beam Splitter: The laser beam is directed towards a beam splitter, which divides it
into two separate beams.
3. Optics: Each split beam is then directed through a set of optics to create two parallel
laser beams. One beam is typically kept stationary, while the other is sent into the
flow that needs to be measured.
4. Scattering Particles: In the flow, tiny particles (like smoke or seed particles) are
introduced. These particles scatter light when they pass through the laser beam.

Working:

1. Particle Motion: As the fluid flows, the introduced particles move with the flow,
causing the scattered light to experience a Doppler shift.
2. Interference: The scattered light from the moving particles interferes with the
stationary reference beam. This interference creates an optical interference pattern.
3. Photodetector: The combined light from the scattered and reference beams is
directed to a photodetector, which converts the optical interference pattern into an
electrical signal.
4. Frequency Analysis: The electrical signal is then analysed to determine the
frequency shift caused by the Doppler effect. This frequency shift is directly related to
the velocity of the particles and, consequently, the fluid flow.
5. Velocity Calculation: By using the known characteristics of the laser light
(wavelength) and the scattering particles, the system can calculate the fluid velocity
based on the Doppler shift.

(5) List the applications of laser Doppler anemometer.

A Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) is a scientific instrument used to
measure fluid velocity with high precision. Here are some applications of
Laser Doppler Anemometry:

1. Turbulent Flow Studies:

 Measure and analyze turbulence characteristics in fluid flows.
2. Aerodynamics Research:
 Study airflow around objects, such as aircraft wings or automotive
components, to understand aerodynamic behavior.
3. Wind Tunnel Testing:
 Assess the performance of models in wind tunnels by quantifying air
velocity at various points.
4. Blood Flow Measurement:
 Monitor blood flow velocity in medical research and clinical
applications, aiding in the study of cardiovascular diseases.
5. Combustion Research:
 Investigate combustion processes by measuring gas velocities and
flow patterns in flames.
6. Heat Transfer Studies:
 Examine heat transfer mechanisms by analyzing fluid velocities in
heat exchangers and related systems.
7. Oceanography:
 Study ocean currents and turbulence to better understand marine
environments.
8. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV):
 Combine LDA with imaging techniques to visualize and analyze the
motion of particles in a fluid.
9. Fluid Dynamics in Microchannels:
 Investigate fluid behavior in microfluidic devices and small-scale
channels.
10. Industrial Flow Analysis:
 Assess and optimize fluid flow within industrial processes and
machinery.
11. Boundary Layer Studies:
 Examine the characteristics of boundary layers in fluid flows, aiding in
the understanding of viscous effects.
12. Agricultural Research:
 Study airflow around crops and vegetation to optimize agricultural
practices.

These applications showcase the versatility of Laser Doppler Anemometry

in various scientific and industrial fields, providing crucial insights into fluid
dynamics and velocity measurements.

Measurement of Speed
(1) Briefly explain the working of two types of mechanical
tachometers.
 Spring-Driven Tachometer: A spring-driven tachometer operates on the
principle of torsion in a spring. The device consists of a flexible shaft that is
connected to the rotating machinery whose speed needs to be measured. One
end of the shaft is fixed, while the other end is attached to a pointer. As the
machinery rotates, it imparts torsional stress on the shaft, causing it to twist.
This twisting motion is transmitted to the pointer, resulting in its movement
across a calibrated dial. The degree of twist is proportional to the speed of
rotation, providing a visual indication of the machinery's speed.
 Eddy Current Tachometer: An eddy current tachometer utilizes the
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. It consists of a magnet connected
to the rotating shaft of the machinery and a stationary coil located in close
proximity. As the shaft rotates, the magnetic field around the magnet changes,
inducing eddy currents in the nearby coil. The induced currents generate their
own magnetic field, creating a repulsive force that opposes the motion of the
rotating magnet. The strength of this force is proportional to the speed of
rotation. This opposition causes the magnet to lag behind the shaft's
 rotational speed, and the resulting movement is translated into a dial or
pointer reading, indicating the rotational speed of the machinery.

These mechanical tachometers provide a simple and direct means of monitoring the
speed of rotating machinery by converting mechanical motion into readable output.

(2) Explain the working principles of following speed

measuring instruments.
a) DC tach generator
b) Eddy current tachometer
a) DC Tach Generator:

A DC tachometer generator, also known as a DC tach generator, is a device used for

measuring the rotational speed of a shaft. It operates on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. Here's how it works:

1. Magnet and Coil Setup: The tach generator consists of a permanent magnet and a
coil of wire. The permanent magnet is usually mounted on the rotating shaft whose
speed we want to measure, and the coil is stationary.
2. Rotation Induces Voltage: As the shaft rotates, the magnetic field produced by the
magnet cuts across the turns of the stationary coil. According to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction, this changing magnetic field induces a voltage in the coil.
3. Proportional Voltage Output: The induced voltage is directly proportional to the
speed of rotation. Faster rotation results in a higher induced voltage, and slower
rotation produces a lower voltage.
4. Output Signal: The generated voltage is then used as an electrical signal that
represents the speed of the rotating shaft. This signal can be further processed and
displayed to provide a measurement of the rotational speed.

In summary, a DC tach generator converts the mechanical rotation of a shaft into an

electrical voltage, with the magnitude of the voltage directly proportional to the
shaft's rotational speed.

b) Eddy Current Tachometer:

An eddy current tachometer is another type of device used for measuring rotational
speed, and it operates based on the principles of eddy current induction. Here's a
simple explanation of how it works:
1. Magnetic Disk: The eddy current tachometer consists of a magnetic disk that is
connected to the shaft whose speed needs to be measured.
2. Coil Proximity: A coil is positioned close to the surface of the rotating magnetic disk
but is not in direct contact with it.
3. Eddy Currents Induction: As the magnetic disk rotates, it generates a changing
magnetic field. This changing magnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal disk.
4. Eddy Currents Create a Counteracting Magnetic Field: The eddy currents, in turn,
create their own magnetic field, which opposes the original magnetic field. This
opposition creates a damping effect on the rotation of the disk.
5. Damping Effect and Speed Measurement: The degree of damping is proportional
to the speed of rotation. The induced eddy currents resist the motion, and the extent
of this resistance is used to measure the rotational speed.

(3) Explain how stroboscope is used to measure the speed

of a rotating disc.
A stroboscope is an instrument used to measure the speed of a rotating disc by
creating the illusion of freezing its motion. Here's a simple explanation:

1. Set Up the Stroboscope:

 Ensure the stroboscope is properly calibrated and ready for use.
 Position the stroboscope in a way that its light can illuminate the rotating disc.
2. Adjust the Strobe Frequency:
 Set the stroboscope's flashing frequency to match the speed of the rotating
disc. This is crucial for creating the stroboscopic effect.
3. Turn on the Stroboscope:
 Turn on the stroboscope and direct its light towards the rotating disc.
4. Observe the Stroboscopic Effect:
 When the stroboscope flashes at the same frequency as the rotation of the
disc, it will create the illusion that the disc is stationary or moving slowly.
 Adjust the frequency of the stroboscope until the rotating disc appears to be
still.
5. Measure the Strobe Frequency:
 Once the stroboscope is synchronized with the disc's rotation, note the
frequency setting on the stroboscope. This frequency corresponds to the
rotational speed of the disc.
6. Calculate Rotational Speed:
 Using the frequency obtained from the stroboscope, you can calculate the
rotational speed of the disc. The formula is often given by:
Rotational Speed=Strobe Frequency×Number of Marks or Divisions o
 n the DiscRotational Speed=Strobe Frequency×Number of Marks or D
ivisions on the Disc
 The number of marks or divisions on the disc is known, and the strobe
frequency is the value you set on the stroboscope.

This method relies on the stroboscopic effect, where the intermittent illumination
from the stroboscope synchronizes with the rotation of the disc, creating an
apparent freeze-frame effect that allows for accurate measurement of the rotational
speed.

(4) Briefly describe three types of non-contact type

tachometers.
1. Infrared Tachometer:
 An infrared tachometer utilizes infrared light to measure the
rotational speed of an object without physical contact.
 It emits infrared light towards the rotating object and detects
the reflected light. The frequency of the reflected light is then
used to determine the speed of rotation.
2. Laser Tachometer:
 A laser tachometer uses a laser beam to measure the speed of
rotation from a distance.
 The device projects a laser beam onto the rotating surface and
detects the reflected light. By analyzing the changes in the
reflected light frequency, the tachometer calculates the
rotational speed.
3. Magnetic Tachometer:
 Magnetic tachometers operate based on the principles of
magnetic induction.
 These devices use a magnetic sensor to detect changes in the
magnetic field caused by the rotation of a target object. The
variations in the magnetic field are then converted into electrical
signals, allowing the tachometer to determine the rotational
speed without direct contact.

These non-contact tachometers are commonly used in industrial applications where

precise measurement of rotational speed is essential, and physical contact with the
rotating object is impractical or undesirable.

Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration

Stress Strain Measurements
Measurement of Humidity
Measurement of Force Torque Power