Production of high value liquid fuel via microwave
pyrolysis of plastic waste – an overview.
Introduction:
Plastics are long-chain polymers, consisting of repeating monomer molecules, that are
derived from petroleum and are extensively utilized in a variety of industries and daily
applications. Plastics are separated into seven types according to their recycling codes:
(Zewei Liu et al., 2024 reviewed). Plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP),
polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), poly vinyl alcohol (PVA), polyurethane
(PUR), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are low-cost lightweight synthetic polymers with greater
toughness, elasticity, durability, and long useful life than conventional raw materials like
wood, metals, and paper (S.S. Alam et al., 2023). Plastic materials are extensively used
along core sectors which include urban and industrial applications, i.e., in packaging and
component materials (Alejandro Fresneda-Cruz et al., 2025).
While plastics have contributed greatly to modern society, they are also responsible for
environmental nuisance (E. Butler et al., 2011). The cities in the world produced 1.3 billion
ton/year of wastes. Based on Department of Environmental and Hygiene data, shown that
Indonesia produced 10.95 million pieces/year/100 stores plastic bag waste (Yohandri Bow et
al., 2019). The past half-century has witnessed a twenty-fold increase of plastic production,
and this trend is expected to continue, with annual plastics production exceeding 500 million
tons, and estimated to consume as much as 40% of crude oil by 2050 (Nan Zhou et al., 2021).
In landfills, waste plastics degrade slowly due to their chemical inertness and last in the
environment for a considerably long time ranging from decades to centuries which results in
their fast accumulation, soil degradation, and water pollution via leaching (S.S. Alam et al.,
2023). Therefore, appropriate management of plastic waste is an urgent issue to reduce
environmental pollution, as well as to avoid wasting valuable and scarce resources derived
from petroleum (Kuan Ding et al., 2019).
Importance of liquid fuel:
Energy is the most important necessity of humans existence on the earth. It is involved in
most economic sectors, such as transportation, agriculture, industry and electricity
generation, as well as food (Prashant M. Ingole et al., 2016). The conversion of plastics to
valuable energy is possible as they are derived from petrochemical source, essentially
having high calorific value (Shafferina Dayana Anuar Sharuddin et al., 2016). Fossil fuels, an
non-renewable energy resource including petroleum, coal, and natural gas, account for 81%
of global energy consumption (13972 Mtoe) in 2017, remaining the dominant primary energy
source (Nan Zhou et al., 2020). Around the globe, there is a huge demand for renewable
transportation grade liquid fuels owing to increased use of automobiles and depletion of
fossil fuels. The International Energy Agency predicts that 27% of the conventional
transportation fuels like diesel, kerosene and jet fuels will be replaced by biofuels or drop-in
biofuels by 2050 (Dadi V. Suriapparao et al., 2018).
Thermochemical conversions for the production of fuel:
Convectional mechanical recycling techniques cannot recycle all types of plastic waste due
to their contamination with food, dirt, paper labels, and polymer mixtures which makes
energy recovery technologies an attractive alternative (Antzela Fivga et al., 2018). These
concerns have encouraged the development of sustainable technologies capable of solving
the mentioned problems, i.e., reducing solid wastes and at the same time generating clean
and renewable energy (Yaning Zhan et al., 2019). Chemical reactions can be initiated by
using heat to transform waste materials into chemicals, fuels, or energy through
thermochemical processes. These procedures consist of incineration, gasification, and
pyrolysis. Thermochemical treatment utilizes heat to transform various feed stocks, including
waste materials, into value-added products such as energy, fuels, or chemicals (Divya Bisen
et al.,2025).
In this context, thermochemical processes have emerged as promising solutions for the
recycling of plastic waste streams: traditional thermolysis, catalytic pyrolysis, hydrocracking,
solvolysis hydrogenolysis (Alejandro Fresneda-Cruz et al., 2025). Therefore, waste-to-
energy approach such as thermochemical conversion technologies (e.g., gasification and
pyrolysis) are introduced for energy recovery with careful emission control, while recovering
high-value products from biomass/waste materials (Shin Ying Foong et al., 2023).
Gasification is a thermochemical biomass-to-gas technology that converts organics to
synthesis gas. Gasification can be performed in air, steam or aqueous media. While
conventional gasification is operated in the presence of air or steam, hydrothermal
gasification involves subcritical or supercritical water as the reaction media. Liquefaction is
another thermochemical biomass-to-liquid technology that transforms waste organics at high
pressures usually in the presence of catalysts to energy-dense bio-oil (Sonil Nanda et
al.,2021). In hydrothermal liquefaction, plastic wastes can be converted into superior oils at
relatively lower temperature compared to conventional pyrolysis. Besides, high purity oil can
generate by plastic conversion via advanced oxidation at room temperature and pressure.
Catalytic cracking refers to the heating process of mixed catalysts with plastic wastes,
aiming to obtain liquid oil. By adding catalysts, the activation energy can be reduced. As a
result, the cracking of plastic wastes and the production of liquid oil are facilitated. With high
calorific value and excellent performance, cracked oil has the potential to substitute fossil
energy such as oil and diesel (Ning Li et al., 2022). Chemolysis involves the chemical
breakdown of the condensation polymers (e.g., PET, PC, and PU) in a solvent to retrieve
monomers or chemicals for secondary reuse. Reactions such as hydrolysis, glycolysis,
methanolysis, and aminolysis are utilized to breakdown condensation polymers with a
solvent (water, ethylene glycol, methanol, and ethanolamine, respectively) (Ren-Xuan Yang
et at., 2022).
Another alternative for handling plastic waste that is currently being researched and
developed is to convert plastic waste into fuel oil or also called the plastic pyrolysis process
(Yohandri Bow et al.,2019). Pyrolysis is a thermochemical conversion technology that can be
employed for the production of liquid transport fuel intermediaries or finished fuel products
from plastic wastes. The advantage of pyrolysis is that it can accommodate relatively
contaminated feedstocks and value added materials can, if desired, be recovered prior to
conversion to fuels e.g. metals or hydrochloric acid (E. Butler et al., 2011). The microwave
heating process usually occurs at 300–700 ◦ C in order to decompose feedstock to generate
value-added products such as liquid oil (Wan Adibah Wan Mahari et al.,2022). Three primary
groups comprise the current pyrolysis techniques: flash pyrolysis, rapid pyrolysis, and slow
pyrolysis. Furthermore, the pyrolysis processes are further improved and diversified by
cutting-edge technologies such (Divya Bisen et al.,2025).
Microwave pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition process performed in an oxygen-free
environment where biomass and waste are mixed, heated and pyrolyzed at high
temperatures (300–800°C) by microwave such as hydrous-pyrolysis, hydro-pyrolysis,
catalytic hydro pyrolysis, microwave pyrolysis, and hydro-pyrolysis radiation (Su Shiung Lam
et al., 2019). Microwave-assisted pyrolysis applies electromagnetic waves to interact with
matters, which is volumetric and instantaneous (Minquan Dai et al., 2018). The use of
microwave heating is reported to show beneficial features with respect to fast heating, higher
pyrolysis temperature achieved at low operating temperature, enhanced heat distribution,
and increased production rate compared to conventional heat source such as furnace and
oven (Su Shiung Lam et al., 2019). Microwave assisted heating has the advantages of
evenly internal heating, energy efficiency, and low cost against other traditional processes
(Liangliang Fan et al.,2017). In addition, the microwave radiation could break the heavier
hydrocarbon component (e.g., C51–C57 hydro carbons) of waste or biomass into lighter
hydrocarbon component (e.g., C4–C18 hydrocarbons) via chain-end scission mechanism
that normally occurred during microwave pyrolysis (Su Shiung Lam et al., 2019).
Previous studies:
Recently, Tran Van Hien et al. (2024) conducted a thorough assessment of MAP's suitability
for producing liquid fuel from popular plastics, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
(PP), polystyrene (PS), and their blends. Key process parameters such catalyst loading
(NiO/ZSM-5, 0–20 wt%), microwave absorbent content (carbon black, 5–30 wt%), reaction
time (15–150 min), and microwave power (300–900 W) were all examined by the
researchers. The process produced high fuel oil conversion efficiencies of 84% for PS and
PP, 83% for PE, and 83.5% for mixed polymers when run at ideal conditions, which included
500 W power, 120 minutes, 10 weight percent absorbent, and 20 weight percent catalyst.
The final oil had good physicochemical qualities, including low ash and sulfur content, a high
calorific value (up to 11,074 cal/g), and suitable flash and pour points, and it complied with
the Vietnamese fuel oil standard TCVN 6239:2019. Moreover, the pyrolysis oil was primarily
made up of C7–C12 hydrocarbon chains, which included alkanes, alkenes, and aromatic
chemicals including toluene and styrene, according to GC-MS analysis. These results
highlight the viability of MAP as a scalable process for creating premium fuel oil as well as a
waste control tactic. This study demonstrates MAP's expanding potential as a key
technology in the circular economy, allowing for the economic and environmental
advantages of energy recovery from plastic trash.
Fresneda-Cruz et al. (2025) conducted a thorough investigation of the MAP of actual low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) waste in a fixed-bed reactor system, highlighting the influence
of gas-solid temperature gradients caused by microwaves on the distribution of oil products.
The study evaluated several important operational factors, such as the pyrolysis temperature
(450–500 °C), the SiC-to-LDPE ratio (5:1–10:1), and the nitrogen gas flow (0.1–1 L/min). It
showed that under ideal circumstances, up to 75 weight percent of pyrolysis oil can be
produced.The study's key finding was that microwave-induced temperature gradients speed
up the quenching of volatile intermediates, which causes a noticeable change in the
product's composition toward olefin-rich hydrocarbon oils (up to 76 weight percent) with low
levels of aromatic and heteroatomic content. The oils produced using MAP showed longer
carbon chains, a higher percentage of olefin and diene, and less saturation than those from
traditional electrically heated pyrolysis (EHP). These characteristics made them ideal for use
in downstream processes like steam cracking. The study also highlighted the critical
importance of the susceptor-to-feedstock ratio in process efficiency by introducing a
predictive multivariable regression model that can estimate oil yield depending on process
parameters. These findings not only support MAP's potential as a low-aromatic, high-olefin
pyrolysis pathway, but they also set the stage for future expansion and incorporation into
petrochemical industry strategy involving renewable feedstocks.
Significance of our study:
The importance of this article is based on its examination of the innovation of microwave-
assisted pyrolysis (MAP) as a new methodology for converting plastic waste into useful liquid
fuels. This paper underlines the differences in MAP from pyrolysis as MAP uses microwave
radiation and offers several advantages such as volumetric heating, faster energy transfer
rate, better thermal regulation, and enhanced efficiency/selectivity in the breakdown of
polymer chains. Overall, with the new innovation of MAP technology, the yield and quality of
the liquid fuel products are improved alongside reduced process time for operation and
energy costs. The review further consolidates evidence from several important experimental
studies that demonstrate MAP’s capacity to manage mixed and contaminated plastic
materials, a major hurdle for traditional recycling while producing fuel oils with desirable
properties such as high calorific value, low sulphur content, and compliance with industry
fuel specifications. MAP is not just presented as an alternative disposal technology, but also
a potential means to reduce plastic pollution, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and
promote energy recovery from waste materials. This review provides the basis for further
study and commercialisation for this new technology and compelling evidence for MAP to be
considered as a novel, viable, and sustainable technology in an emerging, rapidly growing,
area of waste to energy systems.
Research progress in the current area
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