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REVISE BTEC NATIONAL
sport and Exercise Science

Series Consultant: Harry Smith

Authors: Laura Fisher, Katie Jones, Stacey O’Donnell, Tracy Richardson,
Louise Sutton and Danielle Toward
”

A note from the publisher

While the publishers have made every attempt to ensure that advice on the qualification
and its assessment is accurate, the official specification and associated assessment
guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always
be referred to for definitive guidance.
This qualification is reviewed on a regular basis and may be updated in the future.
Any such updates that affect the content of this Revision Guide will be outlined at
www. [Link]/BTECchanges. The eBook version of this Revision Guide will also
be updated to reflect the latest guidance as soon as possible.

For the full range of Pearson revision titles across KS2,

KS3, GCSE, Functional Skills, AS/A Level and BTEC visit:
[Link]/revise

@ Pearson mii SK 2628886 9

 Introduction |
Which units should you revise?
units
This Revision Guide has been designed to support you in preparing for the externally assessed
necessaril y be studying all the units included here — it will
of your course. Remember that you won’t
depend on the qualification you are taking.

BTEC National qualification Externally assessed units

For both: 2 Functional Anatomy

Extended Certificate 3 Applied Sport and Exercise Psychology
Foundation Diploma
1 Sport and Exercise Physiology
2 Functional Anatomy
3 Applied Sport and Exercise Psychology

Extended Diploma 1 Sport and Exercise Physiology

2 Functional Anatomy
3 Applied Sport and Exercise Psychology
13 Nutrition for Sport and Exercise Performance

Your Revision Guide

Each unit in this Revision Guide contains two types of pages, shown below.

|content |pages help you revise the cs pages help you prepare for
essential content you need to © your exam or assessed task.
know for each unit. Skills pages have a coloured edge and
are shaded in the table of contents.
unit? 7 Had a look [ | Nearly there [_| Nailed itt [_]
\ content
Energy system adaptations
In response to training, adaptations occur to parts of the eneray eyatem in order to maintein enengydias
exerclee and perlormance. 2
Stores of ATP, PC, glycogen and Number and size of Uni Had a look [_| Nearly there [_] Nailed it! [_|
\ triglyceride mitochondria Skills
In responce to recietence training:
* concentrations of CP and ATP within the muscles increase
© the Increased ATP and CP availability meane an increase in
Long-answer questions
energy production Long-anewer questions may ack you to analyse, 90609, evaluate, discuss or ask ‘to what extent’,
+ muscular atrength will increase Part of » good response to a long-anewer question jo shown below,
© muscular hypertrophy will occur
* pertormance vill improve.
In response to long-term training: ‘Workod example
* muscle glycogen stores will Increase Figure1showsanathlete ‘
| # thie meane blood glucose cen be maintained during performing the end phase A
training of a triple jump. , ss —. =» =
* the increased fuel supply for exercise can lead to ‘Analyse the required
Improved partormance,
In responcetoendurance training:
movements at the hip, ¢
knee and ankle to achieve
* muscle triglyceride stores increase the postion shown at C
* fot oxidation increases, accounting for 75 per cent of during the follow through
eneray. in exercioe over 1 hour, phase of the jump. 4
4

| The Increased component atores of ATP, PC

and glycogen allow for anaerobic exarclee to be antic Wit heed to happen
maintained tor » longer duration before the oneet emer mown In Plguce 1,
of blood lectate accumulation, This increases Too hip Ws # Wall and wcahet jetty which le tormed by the
the lactate threshold and maintains intensity of ariculation of the tamur ane pelvis, The Hyp allowe a great rage
exercise. r
es Thin will allow the triple
o nel remeth oo ter forward ae
ponolilc Wks the aunt Yo Qala Ngher azar, The muscles that
Sroabe Noon at the Hy are hye Mexors and #9 och arethe
fo) inte Painter i Agortat Modlen, The aRagoniate ans the qludealo, which mush
ORLA see page 22, | cela te allow the Kip Natore to contract, As the hip Nlexore Show your skills
aonteas shorten palllng on the bone (lemur) attested Coneider how your re:
ee eee ee ee ee ee eee
ee ee tusdien' Insertier) pole. The mingle gontraction will ke to a long-snower question
might show the following
Adaptations to energy systems | The biee ls & Hinge jo The jolt ie formed by artiouktton of qualities
When you think about adaptations to the enengy systeme, ack yourself three queations: Vhe femon Neule are + Only Movement tn the sagittal plas toy © Identity appropriate i
© What type ot training? ponalilie, Uxtarolon eazure at the hioe te allow the triple jompoae etructures and tunctione
* Which energy system? fo atratch hie Inge de fer tocward ae poestbla, * demonstrate acourate and
* How will it banefit performance? The mudiile thuh crates efferalonsbthe knee to thaquadriceps, thorough knowledge
* apply knowledge to the
SECS VSS VSS ee eee
context of the question
? use specialist language
consistently and fluently,
Explain the adaptations that occur to the number snd size of mitochonxirla from endurance training and thelr effed
on performance.

A
Create a table with detail that
would enable youtoevaluate 6
the role of the muscles §
operating at the hip and knee
that allow an athlete to move
from standing (position A) to ORES movemert on pages 94-101 |
2 lunge postion (position 8). 7 to help you answer this question,

Use the Now try this activities on every Look out for the sample response extracts to exam
page to help you test your knowledge questions or set tasks on the skills pages. Post-its will
and practise the relevant skills. explain their strengths and weaknesses.

ele
fete
{

a Contents
a
Unit 1 — and 44 Equivalent altitude Types and structure of
adaptations at sea level synovial joints
Exercise Physiology 45 Thermoregulation Functions of the skeletal
i Osteoblast and osteoclast Homeostasis and heat loss system
activity methods Muscle types
2 Synovial fluid Body responses to Skeletal muscle fibre types
3 Muscle fibre recruitment excessive heat Neuromuscular control
4 Muscles: Exercise effects Body adaptations to Sliding filament theory
9 Control of breathing rate excessive heat 91 Types of muscle contraction
6 Respiratory muscles. Impact of adaptations Muscle fibre type
7 Respiratory skeletal muscles to excessive heat on recruitment
& Respiratory volume performance Location of skeletal muscles
“a Heart rate, cardiac Ogee Ways of reducing heat loss Major skeletal muscles and
~ and stroke volume ~ The-effects-of extreme cold their function-(1).
10. Starling’s law Your Unit 1 exam Major skeletal muscles and
~ 11Blood pressure — Using case studies theimonction(2}——_—
| 12 Cardiac cycle Short-answer questions Antagonistic muscle pairs
ze “13 Changesinblood ‘State’ and ‘Name’ questions ~ Types of movement (1) ~
{
he =—- 414 Motor unit recruitment _ ‘Give’ and ‘Identify’ questions Types of movement (2) _
y
15 Sensory receptors ‘Describe’ questions 2 Range of movement at
te _Adrenaline, noradrenaline ‘Explain’ questions SVHOVIGI OCS ee eee
and cortisol Long-answer questions Planes of movement
—— 17 testosterone, human growth Assess questions Types of movement-in
hormone and oestrogen — ‘Discuss’ questions each plane
NG PENeraypSOurces)., ‘Analyse’ questions ~ 402-Phases of movement—
1D ATF-PC system ‘Evaluate’ questions 103 Body sections for eae.
20. Lactate system (anaerobic ‘To what extent’ questions 104 Movement efficiency ee ae

_ glycolysis)_ Concise answers 105 Your Unit 2 exam

21 Aerobic system (aerobic 106 Using case studies —
glycolysis) Unit 2 Functional 107 Short-answer questions
22 The energy continuum 108 ‘State’ and ‘Name’ questions
23 Causes of fatigue
Anatomy 109 ‘Give’ and ‘Identify questions
~ 24 Energy systems recovery Anatomical language 110 ‘Describe’ questions =
25 Nutrition for recovery Heart function and anatomy 111 ‘Explain’ questions
26 Musculoskelatal recovery Blood vessel location and 112 Long-answer questions —
27 Overtraining and performance anatomy
113. ‘Assess’ questions
28 Physiological effects of Blood composition 114 ‘Discuss’ questions
overtraining Cardiovascular system Pe ‘Analyse’ questions _
29. Skeletal adaptations to Cardiac cycle
116 ‘Evaluate’ questions
EXErclse Respiratory system location es ‘To what extent’ questions
30-- Muscular system adaptations and anatomy
N18 Concise answers :
31 Skeletal muscle adaptations Respiratory system functions
32° Respiratory adaptations Gaseous exchange Unit 3 Applied
34
33 Cardiovascular adaptations
Nervous system adaptations —
Control of breathing in
~ response to exercise —
Sport and Exercise _
35 Endocrine adaptations _ Bone anatomy _ Psychology
36 Energy system adaptations Process of bone growth 119° Types of motivation
__37_ Aerobic adaptations_ _ Bone remodelling and mineral — 120 Nééd achievement theory
38 Measuring effects ot training uptake 121 Achievement goal theory
_..[Link]—__— meerS. Location ofskeletal-bones (AGT)
endurance 60 Axial skeleton
_ 122 Self-determination theory
“61 Appendicular “Skeletor
(SDT)
41 Response to high altitude 62 Types of bone 123. Weiner’s attribution theory
a5
'-42- Adaptation to high altitude Ligaments — 124 Motivational environment
43 Impact of altitude 64 Classification and structure 125 Influencing motivation
adaptations on performance of joints 126 Over-motivation and its signs
 127 Effects of over-motivation 207 Nutritional supplements and
128 Arousal performance competition regulations
theories (1) ad 208 Phased nutritional intake
129 Arousal performance 209 Pre-event nutritional intake
_. theories (2) 210 Nutritional intake during an.
130 Changes in arousal event
131-Stress 211 Post-event-nutritional intake ——
132 Anxiety
133 Anxiety: Emotions and Unit 13 Nutrition for
behaviours
134 Sources of stress Sport and Exercise
135 Symptoms of stress and Performance
anxiety
Be eo oaiositivesconseaiiences
of 174 Nutrition and hydration ff 2
stress and anxiety 175 Nutritional measurements
—— 137 Negative consequences of —— 176 Recommended daily
stress and anxiety allowance (RDA)
= “436 Types of aggression es LAvoMetanoisit ae
139 Theories. of aggression 176 Energy balance Hees
aa ~ 140 Self-confidence oa 179 Body weight, BMl and body 2
__|_141 Impact of self-contidence composition
142 Expectations
and performance 160 Macronutrients:
| 143 Self-efficacy Carbohydrates _221 Answers
144 Application of Bandura’s self ~ 181 Carbohydrate RDA
AANA to) ee ee 162 Macronutrients: Fats. ~~
145 Self-esteem 183 Macronutrients: Protein A small bit of small print
Fearson publishes Sample Assessment
~-446 Dweck's theory— 184. Micronutrients: Fat-soluble
“Material and the Specification on its
147 Application of Dweckss6 theory vitamins website. This should be the official
{| iO Resilience sa e — +85-Mierenvtrients: Water—_———— content and this book should be used
in conjunction with it. The questions in
149 Perfectionism soluble vitamins Now try this have been written to help
150 Tuckman’s group development 166 Micronutrients: Minerals you test your knowledge and skills, ~~~ —
187 Fibre Remember: the real assessment may not
151 Group effectiveness look like this,
152 Carron’s model of cohesion 168 Fluid intake
153 Types of leader 189 Types of fluid
154 Chelladurai’s model of 120 Digestion
leadership - 191. Digestion and absorption
155 Team focus and commitment 192 Blood sugar control
156 Aims of psychological 193 Water balance control
interventions 194 Balanced diet
157 Ferformance profiling 195 Impact of food preparation
158 Applying performance 196 Benefits of a balanced diet
profiling 197 Eating disorders
159 Goal timescales and types 198 Nutritional strategies
160 Principles of goal setting 199 Weight loss and gain
—___l61—Types-_of imagery _200 Nutritio for sports
n events
162 Uses of imagery 201 Nutritional supplements
——--~- +63-types of setftatk ——____—_ AAR ee
164 Uses of self-talk 202 Sle Au, use
~ 165 Relaxation techniques --203- Caffeine— =
166 Energising techniques 204 Creatine and pana chain
ATU ACI ee a
205 Sports foods
206 Vitamin supplements,
_ beetroot juice and diuretics _
 Had a look | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|

_ Osteoblast and osteoclast activity

There ane two types of bone cells responsible for remodelling of bone. Osteoblasts are responsible
for
_ the building and growth of bone tissue in response to stress placed upon the bone.
Osteoclasts are
_ responsible for breaking down and removing old and weakened bone tissue, making way for stronger
bones.

Osteoblast activity

| 3 ES = = = = —*a ac “=r 7 an —— -

_ Osteoblasts — Osteoclast activity

_ Osteoblasts are the immature cells that make Osteoclasts are cells that have the role of
_ bone. ; breaking down and removing old weakened bone.
_© They produce a matrix that then becomes ¢ This is reabsorbed and makes way for new
_ mineralised. stronger bone tissue.
~@ When loading bone during exercise, calcium in ° Osteoclast activity increases in response
the blood is absorbed and encourages bone to elevated calcium concentration within the
formation. blood (at rest).

~ Bone density
i | Bone mass is maintained by a balance between the activity of osteoblasts, forming bone, and the
osteoclasts, breaking it down.
© Bone density increases as a result of placing stress on the bone when completing weight-bearing
exercise. This can help to reduce the likelihood of osteoporosis. Exercise stimulates the bones to
| take up more minerals.
f - @ Osteoclast activity will increase as a result of this, which will lead to an overall strengthening of
i | the bone.

Julie has returned to playing netball after a three-year break from sport. She needs to improve her fitness so takes
part in a three-month fitness training programme. She joins a gym and is given the following weekly training
programme:
Monday — 20 minutes continuous running
Tuesday — weight training (upper body)
Thursday — 15 minutes continuous rowing and 15 minutes continuous cycling
Friday — weight training (lower body)
Saturday — 20 minutes continuous running

Explain how this fitness training programme will increase the strength ofJulie's bones.
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed itt| |

Synovial fluid
of articulating
Synovial fluid lubricates the joints. This reduces friction between the hyaline cartilage
of tissue that lines the joint and
bones during movement. The synovial membrane is the inner membrane
secretes the synovial fluid into the joint.

Synovial joints Knee joint ,

There are five main joints where synovial fluid is The structure of a synovial joint can be seen in
the knee joint. The synovial fluid within the joint |
found:
capsule is viscous (thick)at rest, though when
> Knee 4) Hip warmed, provides a friction-free environment
-g allowing for ease of movement. ora eet Te
: 2] Elbow 5 Ankle
Knee joint _ ee ae

@) Shoulder
ee \
The act of exercise: \
_ © mobilises the joints and is essential to
maintain joint mobility and to avoid joint
stiffness
ets Vj
¢ increases the production of synovial fluid
within the joint, which is warmed and becomes
m7
ee.
membrane
i
a
Panic
less viscous (runnier), aiding joint mobility and peren if || Patella
range of movement capsule” AN
* increases blood flow to the tissues around Synovial Fat pad
the joint, which delivers nutrients and keeps fluid
the joint healthy. Hyaline
cartilage
. ~ Ligament

j
ma eR BS ee ae ee ee EE ee ee UCC lUlUellCUClC lle Ue CeCe Cee ee lee Uell ee lc lL le

Structures common to synovial joints

[Berets = iMunction =
| Hyaline cartilage Hyaline articular cartilage covers the ends of articulating bones.
It smooths and eases gliding movement between the bone ends.
Joint capsule This is a fibrous tissue that encases the joint, forming a capsule.
_ |Ligaments Ligaments are white fibrous connective tissue, joining bone to bone.
They restrict the amount of movement that can occur at the joint.
Synovial membrane | The synovial membrane acts as a lining to the joint capsule and
| secretes synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid Synovial fluid fills the joint capsule; it nourishes and lubricates the ae
articular cartilage.
| Fat pad Pads of fat act as cushions to protect the bones from wear and tear,

Choose a sport or exercise and consider the role of synovial fluid in response to it. Using
the same chosen sport,
explain the importance of three roles of synovial fluid in your answer.
e. Had a look x Nearly there ead Nailed it! bai

Muscle fibre recruitment

_ Recruitment of muscle fibres alters, depending on the level of demand on the muscle during exercise.
Different sporting actions and exercises require varied amounts of muscle contraction and force
production.

Muscle fibres and demand Frequency of stimulation

| The body recruits the minimum amount of muscle Muscle contracts in response to a stimulus. The
_ fibres to complete a task. Muscle fibres react to force production or duration of contraction is
the demand made on them depending on the type relative to the type of exercise.
_ of exercise. ¢ A single contraction in response to a stimulus
° Type | muscle fibres are recruited first as they is known as a twitch.
are the smallest, contract more slowly and e Repeated stimulation (twitches) is known as
generate less force. wave summation and acts to increase muscular
° Type Ila muscle fibres are then recruited, and_ _tension.
then Type IIx. Type Il fibres are larger in size, ® Tetanus is when a muscle is in a complete
able to contract more quickly and so generate sustained contraction due to rapid stimulation
greater force. of the muscle.
Muscle fibre recruitment

— OO

12) Muscle
tension
a

5 (5) 5 5 5 555555955955 55595555 559555

Type | Duration
Muscle
recruitment
fibre.
|(%) O Soa ee
O 50 100
[ Exercise intensity (%)

7 Muscular endurance Muscular strength

F Where sport and exercise focus on muscular Where sport and exercise focus on muscular
endurance such as long-distance running, strength such as weightlifting and climbing,
cycling or swimming, the muscle develops Type Ila and Type IIx fibres are recruited and act
the Type | fibres. This allows for efficient at a quicker and faster rate to produce the force
_ performance of repetitive slow isotonic required.
_ contractions but a decrease in strength ° Type lla fibres help to produce sustained power.
_ capacity. i ° Type llx fibres are faster, but fatigue more
rapidly.

| Endurance athletes have a higher ratio of Type | muscle fibres and strength
_— ~~ | athletes have a higher ratio of Type II muscle fibres.

Explain which types of muscle fibres would be of greater use during sustained
submaximal jogging or cycling, and explain the influence of the frequency of
muscle stimulation in a 1RM barbell squat.
 Had a look Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Muscles: Exercise effects

Exercise leads to a number of effects and adaptations within working muscles. These may include
alterations in blood flow and temperature of muscle, as well as micro-tears.

Blood flow to working muscle Tem perature

During exercise the blood flow to the working The temperature of muscle alters during exercise
muscle increases. which has various effects:
® Blood vessels dilate during exercise improving ¢ When muscles contract they produce heat.
oxygen and nutrient supply to tissues and e Increased blood flow also increases the
stimulating waste removal (lactic acid/COz). temperature and pliability of muscles, which in
¢ The increased blood flow also allows for turn helps to improve flexibility and range of
oxygen demand to be met and enhanced motion.
aerobic performance. ¢ Improved elasticity of muscle aids performance
¢ While blood flow is directed to working and recovery, and reduces delayed onset —
muscles, blood flow to the digestive system is muscle soreness (DOMS).
reduced.

Micro-tears
How can micro-tears in muscle
Overload from strength and endurance exercise
creates stress on muscles. affect sports performance? an
¢ The excess stress creates micro-tears within Micro-tears from training sessions do not fully
the muscles. repair when recovery is insufficient. If there
¢ When micro-tears repair, the muscle rebuilds. is not enough rest between training sessions
° This process is normal and increases strength the body does not fully repair the muscles.
and muscular hypertrophy. This may happen because of:
¢ Training improvements, such as increased ® overtraining
muscle strength and size, are made if the body © high volume of training
has sufficient rest to repair. ® poor scheduling.
Muscle tissue Micro-tears in
muscle tissue

Tommy attends the gym three times a week, in

addition to training for and competing as a mixed
martial artist twice a week. His primary goal in the
gym is to improve his strength so that his punches
and kicks are more powerful when he competes.

Explain the main exercise effects that will occur

within Tommy's muscles when completing a strength
training session.
 Had a look L | Nearly there [| Nailed it! |_|

Control of breathing rate

In response to different sports activities the rate of breathing needs to change in order to provide
a sufficient supply of oxygen. As oxygen (O,) consumption increases, so too does carbon dioxide
_ (COz) production, hence the rate of breathing will alter in response to this. The body has two control
mechanisms for this — the rate of breathing is under chemical and neural control.

Breathing control mechanisms

How does breathing rate affect
Brain
sports performance?
When you exercise:
® you need to take in more Oz to help
Respiratory centre
(medulla oblongata) Other receptors produce energy for the working muscles, so
(e.g. pain)
your breathing rate alters subconsciously in
response to the increased demand for Oz
_, stretch
“\) receptors you need to breathe more quickly in order
in-lungs to maintain performance, not only to take in
more Oz, but to exhale more CO,
J Irritant if the supply of oxygen is insufficient this
oo
Be receptors _
will cause a build-up of COz and a decrease
in blood pH.
Receptors in
intercostal and
diaphragm muscles

aKa
—— 7

Chemical control of breathing rate Neural control of breathing rate

Breathing may also be controlled by peripheral The pons in the brain is the control centre and
sensors (chemoreceptors) within the aorta and the medulla oblongata subconsciously controls
_ carotid arteries. the breathing rhythm.
; Oe
\
¢ Chemical changes, including the concentration e In response to increased COz in the blood and
of Og and COz and the blood pH are a subsequent decrease in pH, the body will
monitored. increase the rate of breathing to draw in more
© |f there is a low pressure (below GOmmHg) and oxygen.
saturation (below 90 per cent) of Oz within ¢ Nerve impulses are sent to the intercostal
the blood, information is sent to the medulla muscles and diaphragm to stimulate
oblongata to increase the breathing rate. contraction and increase breathing rate.
° Breathing control is closely linked to e Stretch receptors in the lungs prevent over
cardiovascular control. inflation.
|
4 i
* ‘sazitt)

Dionne is a long-distance runner. To ensure that she has an adequate supply of

oxygen during her races, her rate of breathing will need to change.
Ee
Explain the changes that occur to Dionne’s breathing rate in response to exercise.
 Had alook | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it!| |

Respiratory muscles
main
Respiratory muscles contribute to inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out). The
. They act to
muscles involved are the intercostal muscles (internal and external) and the diaphragm
enlarge and decrease the thoracic cavity in the chest area, which contains the lungs.

Respiratory muscles

The diaphragm

Flattens when it contracts,

A dome shaped muscle increasing the thoracic
separating the thoracic cavity for lung expansion,
and abdominal cavities upon inhalation
External
intercostal
muscles
The intercostal Internal —
muscles intercostal
muscles

- Contractto move Located on the inner side Diaphragm :

, _ the ribcage during __ (internal) and outer side H
breathing (external) of the ribcage

‘Inhalation and exhalation Inhalation

Inhalation Exhalation When breathing in:

; ® the diaphragm contracts and flattens. _-

® the external intercostal muscles
move the ribs upwards and outwards
Theracic Three © the size of the thoracic cavity
cavity size cavity size increases and the lungs expand
increases decreases ;
aiclainiis anclalne ° the pressure in the lungs decreases
sucked in pushed out and so air is sucked into the lungs.

Lung Lun °
oe : Exhalation
xterna External ;
intercostal intercostal When breathing out:
muscle muscle *° it is a passive process when breathing
Diaphragm Diaphragm out at rest
ay ta ° the external intercostal muscles relax
Diaphragm ilaphragm : :
contracts palacoe moving the ribcage downwards and
inwards
¢ the diaphragm returns to its dome
shape
© the size of the thoracic cavity
decreases and the lungs recoil _
¢ the pressure in the lungs increases
and air is pushed out of the lungs. ~ 7

During breathing the respiratory muscles will need to work to ensure an

adequate oxygen supply.

Explain the different functions of the respiratory muscles at rest and how the air
gets into the lungs when a person inhales and exhales.
7 Had a look [| Nearly there eal Nailed it! [|

Respiratory skeletal muscles

During intense physical exercise, where oxygen demands are increased, additional muscles assist the
diaphragm and the intercostal muscles during the breathing cycle. This enables maximal flow of breath
_ during inhalation and exhalation.

Additional skeletal muscles aid Additional skeletal muscles aid

_breathing during inhalation breathing during exhalation
¥ _ During intense physical exercise, additional muscles Due to the increased breathing rate during
Fi _ assist the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles exercise, other (accessory) muscles
' (primary muscles) during inhalation due to the contribute to exhalation.
_ greater oxygen demands. © Due to the increased demand for oxygen,
¢ The extent of their involvement depends on rather than being a passive process as
_ the degree of respiratory effort required. As happens at rest, it requires forcible
breathing rate increases, so too does their exhalation. _
contribution. © In addition to the internal intercostal
During inhalation, in addition to the diaphragm and muscles pulling the ribcage downwards —
intercostal muscles, the sternocleidomastoid and inwards during exhalation, the rectus
~~-and sealene muscles (anterior, mid and posterior abdominis and transverse abdominis
6 — accessory muscles) act to help lift the top (accessory muscles) pull the lower portion
“portionof the ribcage. of the ribcage downwards.
_ __® This increases the thoracic cavity size and further © This forces exhalation and increases the
4 decreases pressure within the lungs. pressure within the lungs.
os
eat a - " =

we !

__Muscles used during inhalation and exhalation

aS

- | Muscles used Muscles used

during inhalation during exhalation
(primary) — (accessory)

rr Sternocleidomastoids |
ES
hid Scalenes
External Internal
intercostals intercostals

Rectus
abdominis

Transversus
abdominis

Kim is a tennis player. During intense exercise, her respiratory

muscles need to work harder than when they are at rest to ensure
adequate oxygen supply.

| _ Explain the functions of the accessory respiratory muscles during

exercise and how air gets into the lungs when Kim inhales and exhales.
 Had alook| | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Respiratory volume
_ Although breathing rate increases in response to exercise, the amount of air taken in per breath
(tidal volume) and hence per minute (minute ventilation) also needs to increase to help accommodate
this increased demand.

Tidal volume Minute ventilation

Tidal volume is the amount of air you breathe in Minute ventilation (V;) is the volume of gas you
and out within a normal breath. breathe in and out per minute.
e The average tidal volume in a healthy adult is e At rest the average breathing rate is
around 500ml per inhalation. 12 breaths per minute.
_ © During exercise this increases as the breaths © To calculate minute ventilation you can use
become deeper to help accommodate the the following calculation:
increased oxygen demands. V_ = Frequency of breaths X Tidal volume
_ Therefore the average V; is: -
Ve = 12 x 500 = GOOOmI! OR 6 litres

Oxygen dissociation curve 100>—

_ This curve plots the saturation of oxygen-rich
haemoglobin (%) within the blood against the
_ partial pressure of oxygen in the blood (PO>;).
© Each molecule of haemoglobin (Hb) has the
ability to carry 4 molecules of Oz. The amount
filled with O2 is known as saturation.
gio)
_ © As more molecules bind to the haemoglobin
the partial pressure increases.
_ © The curve flattens above GOmmHg - this
(%)
Oxygen
saturation
indicates the Oz content is stable. i) gi

The Bohr effect

The Bohr effect states:
O 40 60 120
¢ that the attraction of oxygen to bind
to haemoglobin is inversely related to
increased CO, and decreased pH
¢ hence during exercise when body
temperature increases along with an
increased level of CO, and a decreased i
pH, Oz is more easily released from Hb due
to the increased demand
° the curve will shift to the right. 1

ee

Gina is a triathlete who trains and competes regularly. Due to the duration of
her sport, she obviously needs to increase the amount of oxygen within her
working muscles.

Explain the changes that occur to Gina's tidal volume and minute ventilation
=
in response to exercise, including details of what happens to the oxygen
dissociation curve.
eo Had a look | Nearly there [| Nailed it! bal

_ Heart rate, cardiac output and

stroke volume
The cardiovascular system, composed of the heart and blood vessels, pumps blood
around the body
to ensure an adequate supply of O2 and nutrients, as well as removing waste products. During
exercise,
heart rate needs to increase to ensure the supply to the working muscles is maintained.

_._ Anticipatory rise in Adrenaline and

heart rate heart rate
_ Before you even start to exercise Adrenaline is a hormone
your body begins to prepare you by released at times of stress,
increasing your heart rate (beats per _sometimes known as your ‘fight
minute). or flight’ hormone.
Hl
pee
_ © This happens because your
_ -— s Sympathetic nervous system is
_ stimulated and releases adrenaline.
_____® This increase in heart rate is known
as an anticipatory rise in heart rate.
_—- ® The heart beats faster in order to
; help circulate a greater volume of
blood to the working muscles.
AEE
tet et tl latte

_ Cardiac output Calculating cardiac output

‘ _ Cardiac output (Q) is the volume of blood To calculate cardiac output you can use the
Z i pumped from the heart per minute. . following equation:
_ © For the average person, at rest, this is around Cardiac output = Heart rate x Stroke volume.
_ ss §& litres per minute (I/min). Q HR SV
: © The heart has the ability to adjust the strength (Vmin) (bpm) (litres)
t of its contraction dependent upon how full the Generally:
| ventricle chamber is. ¢ stroke volume at rest is around 70-90
-_ ® As more blood enters the heart during millilitres (ml)
; exercise, the muscle contracts with greater ° the average heart rate is around GO-100 bpm
force to push out a larger blood volume per
© for example, if your SV is 0.081 and your HR is
beat (stroke volume).
7Obpm, your Q is 5.6 litres per minute.

Variations in heart rate

Sometimes you can experience variations in heart rate including:
¢ bradycardia — slow heart rate less than GObpm (common in athletes)
© tachycardia — heart rate more than 100 bpm (normal during exercise)
© ginus arrhythmia — variation in heart rate due to increased breathing rate (normal).
j

rn ee ee ee ee ee ee ne ee ee
ae rr

Bradley is a 400-metre hurdler and although he is not nervous, when he is on

the starting line before a race, he experiences a pounding sensation in his chest
and it feels as though his heart is quickening.

Explain the reason for Bradley experiencing this sensation and explain what
factors it affects and the influence upon his performance.
 Had alook | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Starling’s law
In order to supply the working muscles with sufficient amounts of oxygen during exercise, the heart
stroke
needs to increase its cardiac output. To do this the heart rate (HR) and volume per beat —
volume (SV) — increases, in addition to the volume of blood filling the heart.

Starling’s law
Starling’s law indicates the relationship between the stretch of cardiac muscle or pressure and the
stroke volume.
e As more blood fills the heart, the ventricle walls are stretched.
® This stretching of the cardiac muscle causes it to contract more forcibly and hence increase the
stroke volume.
e The more blood squeezed into the ventricles, the more can be pumped out with each contraction.
e The amount a muscle can shorten depends on the degree to which it is stretched (without over
extension).
® Greater stretch of the ventricles means increased cardiac muscle shortening and a more powerful
contraction. cam aa

= = ms == et 2 Se ee et Ee EE ES eS Oe ee ee el ee ee — at BS Sat eee mm |

Starling’s law illustrated 150

e An increase in blood volume would
During exercise
cause an increase in pressure and a
shift along the x (horizontal) axis.
100 Normal
e As the volume of blood is greater,
the stroke volume increases and
there is a shift along the y (vertical)
axis. 50
Stroke
(ml)
volume

Pressure (mimtgy

How does this relate to exercise?

Stroke volume is an important contributing factor of cardiac output and consequently blood pressure.
e During exercise, as the pressure within the ventricle rises and increases the stretch of the cardiac
muscle, a greater contraction will occur, pumping a greater volume of blood out of the heart per beat
— meaning an increased SV.
e As SV is increased, so too is Q.
° An athlete’s heart provides greater ventricular filling and a longer diastole phase allowing stretch to
be increased and therefore an increase in SV too.

As a crossfit athlete, Frank’s heart is used to working harder to help him

maintain his performance. When he competes, he has to complete a number of
different exercises within the quickest time possible.

Explain the changes that occur relative to Frank’s cardiac output in response to
exercise.

10
 L Had a look a Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

. Blood pressure
Blood pressure allows for the flow of blood around the body. It is a measure of the arterial
pressure
exerted upon the walls of the blood vessels (mmHg) as a result of the heart contracting and pumping
_ out blood.

_Blood pressure
Blood pressure is most commonly taken using the
brachial artery in the arm. When blood pressure
___ is taken, two values are given. A typical measure
_ for the average adult is 120/80.
© The upper value is the systolic pressure. This
occurs during heart muscle contraction.
_ © The lower value is the diastolic pressure.
This occurs during relaxation of the heart
muscle.

_ Calculating blood pressure

_ Cardiac output (Q) is the volume of blood pumped from the heart per minute. Blood pressure (BP) is
determined by cardiac output and the resistance to the blood flow (R).

BP=QxR

Blood pressure changes if the resistance to flow is altered.

© This is caused by the diameter of the blood vessel and the viscosity of the blood. Smaller blood
vessels and thicker blood increases resistance.
+e Baroreceptors detect changes in blood pressure and stimulate the central nervous system (CNS)
50 appropriate response can occur.
¢ The involuntary smooth muscle that lines the arterioles of)Links| To revise vasodilation and
may either relax, causing vasodilation, or contract,
G vasoconstriction, see page 13.
causing vasoconstriction.

Blood pressure and exercise

Variations in heart rate
_ _ When aerobic exercise or strength training commences:
© If Q increases and R does not
¢ blood pressure increases change then BP will automatically
e the baroreceptors detect this and stimulate the increase:
P sympathetic nervous system (SNS) branch of the e If R increases, then Q and blood flow
: . autonomic nervous system (ANS) to increase BP and will decrease and BP will increase.
| vasodilate arterioles
® aerobic exercise and strength training increase HR,
which increases Q.
® strength training leads to temporarily increased blood
pressure, due to isometric contraction of muscles.
ee oe ee eee Oe ee
=o = we oe

Sally has just joined a gym. She wants to start getting fitter so that she
can participate in a 5-km charity run. At her induction, the instructor
measured her blood pressure as 120/80.

Explain to Sally what will happen to her blood pressure when she exercises
and the additional effects that will take place in order for this to occur.
 Had alook | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! | |

Cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle includes the contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle during a heartbeat. The
frequency of the cardiac cycle is known as the heart rate, which is typically expressed as beats per minute.

The cardiac cycle

The active phase of the cycle is called systole (contracting) and the resting period diastole. At rest,
one heartbeat or cardiac cycle takes O.& seconds.
® The contraction phase begins with both atria pushing blood into the ventricles. Their contractions
are not powerful but help to improve the heart’s efficiency by forcing blood into ventricles. Atrial
contraction is complete at the time the ventricle contraction begins.
° A resting phase begins in the atria at the same time that a contraction phase begins in the
ventricles. After the ventricles have contracted, all chambers relax for a short period as they fill
with blood.
_ During exercise the cycle speeds up, increasing the heart rate. The volume of blood filling the atria and
ventricles also increases along with systolic blood pressure in order to meet the demands of exercise
_ by transporting sufficient oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles and removing carbon dioxide.
Additionally, vasodilation occurs within the arterioles, resulting in increased blood flow to the working
muscles. Conversely, vasoconstriction occurs to other regions of the body, such as the digestive
system, decreasing blood flow.

ee ee j

Control of heart rate

Heart rate is controlled by the
SAN = sinoatrial node = the
Parasympathetic nerve
heart’s internal pacemaker. This
decreases heart rate
_ will increase or decrease relative
to the information received from
the nervous system.
_ When you exercise:
_ © the sympathetic nerve will
signal to increase the heart
rate and noradrenaline will be
secreted
_ © the parasympathetic nerve will
decrease the heart rate and
acetylcholine will be selected.
Sympathetic nerve
increase heart rate and
Neural control of the cardiac cycle force of contraction
The heart’s electrical system is made up of three main parts:
* Sinoatrial node (SAN) revised on this page
* Atrioventricular node (AVN) revised on page 71
* Bundle of His and Purkinje fibres, revised on page 71.

eo et Ga Be A A Et Oe Oe Oe OC Oe Oe ee

|Nowtrythis
A single heart beat is where the cardiac muscle relaxes and contracts. Your heart rate
is the number of heart
beats over one minute. When you exercise, your heart rate increases.

Explain what happens to the cardiac cycle when you exercise.

12
L Had a look [| Nearly there = Nailed it! be

5 Changes in blood
To accommodate the increased oxygen needed during exercise, blood is redistributed in response to
chemical changes. Oxygen can reach the relevant areas to allow for increased exchange and uptake of
oxygen.
Redistribution of blood flow Changes in blood pH
' As exercise commences: The pH of your blood is normally 7.35-7.45.
_ ® Blood is redistributed and directed to the If this drops below it is termed acidosis, if it
exercising muscles — known as shunting. rises above, it is termed alkalosis.
¢ Primarily this is controlled by vasoconstriction and ° As you exercise, in the absence of Op,
vasodilation of the smooth muscle lining arterioles blood becomes more acidic because the
in response to chemical changes in local tissues. amount of CO2 produced increases and
_ The sympathetic nervous system: bicarbonate (HCO3) and hydrogen (H*)
ions are produced and accumulate — this
| ® Increases vasodilation to skeletal muscle and
lowers the pH.
respiratory system.
_ © Exhaling COz acts to lower the pH. The
_- © Decreases vasoconstriction to skin and digestive
bicarbonate acts as a buffer to prevent
organs.
a sharp increases in H* and to maintain the
The parasympathetic nervous system: pH between 7.35-7.45.
_— e Decreases vasoconstriction to skeletal muscle and ® When exercising, if there is insufficient Oo,
respiratory system. a build-up of H+ ions occurs, which may
e Increases vasodilation to skin and digestive organs. impair muscle contraction. 7

_ Diffusion rate Arteriovenous oxygen

© Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area difference
where they are in a high concentration to an area
where they are in a low concentration. Maha chilicdnic eASablbeliascent
VOz diff) is a comparison of the difference
© Diffusion rate is the rate at which Oz diffuses from between the concentration of oxygen in
the blood stream (high concentration) into tissue (low arterial blood and venous blood, measured
concentration). in ml of oxygen per 100 ml of blood
2 mIAOO
mi) Sen boi peeess |CET ther ign tee at
© It provides an indication of how much
oxygen is removed from the capillaries
and circulating within the body at any one
time and is a factor contributing to total
oxygen consumption.
e As you exercise, your muscles use oxygen
and this results in an increased a-VOz
diff. This is enhanced in trained athletes
and increased capillarisation allows for
increased diffusion and an enhanced
ability to extract Oz from the blood.

When you exercise you need more oxygen to sustain your performance.

Explain how the body is able to redistribute, exchange and extract oxygen for use and how it ensures a suitable
environment for transporting oxygen.

13
 Hadalook | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! | |

Motor unit recruitment

To produce a muscle action, nerve impulses from the central nervous system, the brain and spinal cord
stimulate skeletal muscle fibres.

Motor units
_ @ Signals travel from the central nervous system through nerve cells called motor neurons as motor
impulses. A motor neuron has its main body within the central nervous system (CNS) and then
branches (axons) carry signals to the effectors in the muscle fibres to produce muscular contractions.
¢ A single motor neuron and the fibres it stimulates make up a motor unit,
which may innervate many muscle fibres. Smaller motor units are used in Innervate
fine movements and larger motor units for gross movements. To innervate means
© The point at which a neuron contacts a muscle is known as the to supply an organ or
neuromuscular junction. A chemical neurotransmitter called other body part with
acetylcholine (Ach) is released from the neuron to stimulate the muscle nerves.
cell. —
_ © This neurotransmitter travels across the synaptic cleft (the space between neuron and muscle) and
is received by the motor end plate in the muscle. The electrical impulse spreads rapidly along the
muscle membrane creating an action potential (AP). ee oe
e A muscle can undergo many APs in the duration of a single muscle twitch. However, if an AP arrives
before a twitch has been completed, the twitches overlap. APs arriving repeatedly before the end of —
a twitch produces greater force (summation), e.g. concentric biceps curl.
e If the APs are constant and fired rapidly, tension within the muscle rises smoothly and gradually
plateaus (tetanus), e.g. holding a handstand.

_Motor unit recruitment and exercise

When a motor neuron is activated, all of the
Motor unit recruitment _ Sa. ere |
muscle fibres it innervates are stimulated to
contract.
® Motor unit recruitment is relative to the
force production required. The more motor
neurons activated, the more muscle fibres are \ r y if NS >

stimulated and therefore the stronger the 5 | Fy \\

i Small motor
muscle contraction (size principle). { units — weak | units — moderate units — strong
contraction fm contraction contraction
© The motor units will only be recruited as
needed and motor units are generally
recruited smallest to largest. If the initial force
production is insufficient, further motor units
are recruited.
¢ During exercise the motor units produce muscle
contraction at different rates. Different parts
of the muscle contract at different times to
produce a smooth contraction.

RETA RN RE RR Re ee ee ~~ De —a — ee —spe —ae —sek ~~ eet—ee —geen ee —Ser

When you lift a load, you are contracting your muscles to move the resistance.

Explain the motor unit recruitment for a powerlifter performing a 1RM bench press, and
a Pilates instructor
performing a plank for 1 minute.

14
= Had a look t | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|

5 Sensory receptors
Fluctuations within the body’s internal environment are monitored by muscle spindles, Golgi tendon
i organs and other sensory receptors, which serve as a means of communication between an organ and
the central nervous system (CNS).

Muscle spindles :
i A muscle spindle is an organ within a muscle belly, which acts as a proprioceptor to sense changes in
muscle length, primarily when a muscle is contracting. |
¢ When a muscle is contracted the muscle spindle senses a change in length, which is communicated via
signals to the CNS. This helps to regulate muscle contraction in order to increase the strength of a
contraction or to relax the muscle.
i ° In addition, when the muscle lengthens, the muscle spindle is stretched, which sends signals to the
CNS. This triggers action potentials and results in increased motor unit recruitment and greater
force of contraction in order to decrease the speed at which the muscle is being stretched.
© This is a protective response to avoid overstretching known as the stretch reflex.
a
Fe Bi —— scons—_ secs—_ses sh SLPS Se —__ —_ —_RG —— —__ O._S—__—S —_E _—— —— s——— ——s—— eee —eee—ae_ S —neS —we eRe — am —semen—sree aon

Baroreceptors, located in
- the Thermoreceptors respond to changes in
walls of blood vessels, SS Sr _ temperature and are located in the skin. They
respond to changes in CNS. transmit signals to the CNS when the environmental
blood pressure. When the — temperature changes and predict a change in core
blood vessel walls are body temperature, acting to cool or warm the body.
_ stretched, they signal the
CNS and firing of action
~ potentials is increased. This
influences cardiac output Chemoreceptors respond to changes in the blood pH and levels
and peripheral resistance in of O,. In response to exercise, the CNS signals the diaphragm and
the form of vasoconstriction intercostal muscles to increase the rate and depth of breathing.
—and vasodilation. This helps regulate short-term responses to exercise.

Muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs

Golgi tendon organs (GTO) are located at

the points where skeletal muscle fibres meet
Muscle their tendons and act as another type of
proprioceptor, providing information about
Simple muscle stretch changes in muscle tension.
reflex arc: the stretch ¢ When a muscle is under great tension a
of the muscle spindle
causes reflex contraction signal from the GTO is sent to the CNS.
This causes the motor neuron to relax and
so the muscle tension is released.
Muscle contracts
in- response to © This is a protective response to avoid
change in length overstretching known as the inverse
myotatic reflex. It acts to regulate the ~
tension in a muscle causing relaxation
; before the tension in the tendon becomes
Aon too great and causes tissue damage.

neuron
rythis
CotwWhen Ella exercises, several variations occur
within her body systems. One of these is the
Simple inverse stretch
arc: the stretch of stretch reflex.
- the Golgi tendon organ Muscle relaxes
causes reflex inhibition in response to Explain the stretch reflex and how it prevents
(relaxation) increased tension
injury.

15
 Had alook | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it!| |

Adrenaline, noradrenaline
and cortisol
The endocrine system consists of a group of glands that produce hormones. The endocrine system
and nervous system work together to regulate and coordinate the body's responses. Although the
effects of the endocrine system occur more slowly, they are longer lasting.
Responsible for |
Stimulated by the
changes to the
Pa
system (SNS)
Adrenaline and noradrenalined are 1 cardiovascular
secreted from the adrena system function
hormones
kidneys
rimary
oY etion is rae glands located above the
secr Often referred to
adrenaline (60%) Noradrenaline is mainly secreted by the SNS as the ‘fight or
and acts more as a neurotransmitter, flight’ hormones

Blood concentration , r =
The blood concentration of adrenaline and noradrenaline increases as exercise intensity increases.
—— increase peripheral 3]
increase heart rate — stimulating ee resistance of blood vessels —
cardiac muscle contraction, When released into the stimulating involuntary smooth ~~~
increasing cardiac output bloedstream adrenaline muscle in walls of arterioles

and noradrenaline act to: ingpaaee dilation of Bronchicies =

increase glycogenoylsis — where
— smooth involuntary muscle __ 2
~ glycogen in the liver is transformed into
relaxation
| glucose, to be released into the blood

_ The above contributes to an increase of blood flow and oxygen to working muscles during exercise and
_.a decrease to the urinary and digestive systems. When exercise stops, acetylcholine is released to...
lower adrenaline and noradrenaline concentration, and return the body back to normal.
aah - eae — Sines ~~ —--2 a -— ee — Ss BS —-See ~— a —~~ ~~ ee SS ~~ ~~ — ~~~ — fe —

Cortisol Hormone response to exercise

The adrenal cortex releases
glucocorticoids. One is called cortisol, Bec cline <Beercise
also known as hydrocortisone. ae sa Physical responses
e |[Link] i !
i a tee Sek erie at Y t ad: pas ands &
carbohydrate reserve by stimulating Ronen siine a Boch: sabes tls ————S—
the liver to convert amino acids yi ee ONT LY peripheral resistance
and fatty acids (FAs) into glucose and cortisol of blood vessels
(gluconeogenesis). levels lower ai ae am t glycogenolysis
® It also has anti-inflammatory effects. and cortisol { dilation of bronchioles.
As exercise duration increases: released . Mliver glycogen utilised |
* More liver glycogen is utilised. Meeaehelte Bite ahs f muscle glucose uptake
¢ There is an increase in muscle peleaaes stops iver glucose release —
glucose uptake and an increase in So idyconen stores as
liver glucose release. are reduced W glucagon
© As glycogen stores decrease levels increase. 1
glucagon levels increase.

Tara has just started training at the gym and has noticed that her heart beats faster and her breathing
quickens.
She has been told this is a normal response, though she wants to know why this happens.
As part of your answer for Tara, explain the responses of the adrenal glands to exercise and
how they act to help Tara
during exercise.

16
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [ | Nailed it! [|

Testosterone, human growth

hormone and oestrogen
The amount of a hormone secreted can be influenced by exercise, as by as to a number of variations of
the exercise.

Human growth hormone (HGH)

_ Exercise stimulates the release of human growth hormone into the circulation,
__ which stimulates other growth in different tissues around the body.
Produced in the anterior lobe Acts to promote growth of
_ of the pituitary gland tissues, stimulating protein
production for hypertrophy and
cellular maintenance and repair
Human growth
hormone

Acts on metabolism, stimulating the liver to release

fatty acids for energy in times of stress
om) eh

|
Oe ee ee OCs eee

+ HGH and resistance exercise HGH and endurance exercise

HGH secretion is relative to load and frequency. HGH secretion depends on intensity, duration,
It increases: frequency and mode of endurance exercise.
_® as load increases It increases:
@ as rest intervals decrease ® when intensity is above lactate threshold
_- © with an increase in training frequency © with duration over 10 minutes.

t
e with large muscle group exercises.
me on ot Gt MS he Be at am Se Ut RR ee ee lel el ee eel Oe eee le elle

Oestrogen Testosterone
| Oestrogen is produced by the ovaries and affects Testosterone is a hormone that is derived from
_ the skeletal system. Its main role is within the cholesterol, produced in men and women (mainly
_ menstrual cycle. in the testes in males). It affects the muscular
e Although bone mass increases as a result of system.
physical activity, highly trained women may ° It diffuses into surrounding fluids and is
experience amenorrhoea (when their periods absorbed into the bloodstream.
stop) when training intensity or volume increases. e Its main roles are to increase protein
© The variations in menstrual cycle may affect bone anabolism — muscle synthesis — and decrease
density. protein breakdown.
_ When women experience menstrual disruption this can: Testosterone secretion will increase and improve
® decrease oestrogen production muscle size, strength and power in response to:
® decrease osteoclasts activity e heavy resistance training (65-100% 1RM)
¢ decrease bone reabsorption e large muscle group exercises (squat)

e decrease bone density ¢ moderate-high training volume — multiple sets/

multiple exercises
© increase risk of osteoporosis.
e short rest interval (BOsec—1 min).
_ As bone density decreases with age, this may also
Production of testosterone decreases with age,
contribute to decreased strength, bone and muscle
so resistance exercise for older adults may help
_ mass. So resistance exercise may preserve bone
raise levels.
density, strength and muscle mass as the body ages.

|
Grant and Sally are 21 and attend the gym together 5 days a week. Grant is a powerlifter. He usually trains at
85-100%1RM and likes to complete at least 8 sets for each lift. Sally is an Olympic qualified steeplechaser and
usually trains at 60-80%1RM for 5 sets, and has recently increased her training volume from 3 days to 5 days a week.
Explain the response to exercise of HGH, testosterone and oestrogen for Grant and Sally.
17
ee
 Energy sources —
te
Sources used to supply the energy needed by muscles to perform include adenosine triphospha
(ATP), phosphocreatine, blood glucose, glycogen and fatty acids. They are used within the three energy
systems: ATP-PC, lactate and aerobic systems.

ek sannnasras nie ae — © @ ~ Similar to ATP as itis

Contains one ]
Source of energy for 2 stored within the muscle
» muscle activation and : adenosine sarcoplasm and contains
molecule and
the energy currency high energy bonds, although wero ae |
of the body sds hacen eae it is composed of one 2) sescunscmee
palsaice Inked P and one creatine (Cr) of ATP
with high energy ene
Adenosine bonds
triphosphate
(ATP) _Phosphocreatine a |
| When ATP is broken
(PC) |
_ Stored within the ae
| © down to adenosine Y sarcoplasm of the
di- phosphate (ADP) muscle and the ' When PC is broken down to P and Cr,
and phosphate immediate source Z the energy released is used to reform
(P), it releases for muscular ATP from ADP and P a |
energy for muscular actions |
contraction :

_Energy sources for a single exercise session

ATPor PC or
+ blood glucose
| or glycogen
Carbohydrates
or fatty acids

:
During maximal activity or protein

During submaximal activity

Blood glucose and glycogen Fatty acids (FA)

Blood glucose refers to the concentration of Fat is stored in adipose (fat) tissue in the form of
glucose that is transported within the blood triglycerides.
_ to supply energy to the body. It is derived * Fat contains three fatty acid (FA) chains
from the diet and acts as the primary source connected by glycerol and is broken down by
of energy. lipase.
_ Glycogen Is primarily stored in the muscles e In muscle, fat can be broken down and enter the
with an additional store within the liver, which Krebs cycle via gluconeogenesis.
can be broken down to glucose, and used to ° FAs have a lot of high energy bonds, so when they
_ produce energy in the lactic acid system. Its
enter the cycle more energy is released to provide
release from the liver is stimulated by glucagon
ATP. However, it requires roughly 15 per cent more
from the pancreas and helps to maintain blood
oxygen to break down than glycogen, so when
glucose levels. Glucose provides approximately
oxygen is limited glycogen will be broken down. —
4kcal of energy per gram.
* Lactic acid inhibits the breakdown of fat.

Notrwythis|
Explain the energy sources available to maintain energy
production and blood glucose levels.

18
 Had a look [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! Bl

ATP-PC system
_ Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and phosphocreatine (PC) are stored within the muscle in limited
amounts,
which restricts the amount of energy they can produce.

ATP-PC system ATP-PC system stages - coupled reaction

_ The ATP-PC system is the
_ primary source used for
_ resistance exercises which are:
e short duration
° high power
a © high force.
me ATE: - “anes
® is stored within the muscle
~~ ® is broken down to release
energy for use in muscular
_ contraction
|© lasts for approximately 8-10 |
seconds.
—. The system does not rely on
_ the presence of oxygen and is
_ used exclusively for the first
_ 5 seconds of high-intensity
exercise.
_____ Creatine kinase is the enzyme
involved, which breaks down PC.

_ ATP and exercise Advantages and disadvantages of

_ © Training to improve the use of this system the ATP-PC system
| Ver ves rgritbhetieiey ates SHOE bration & The energy is immediately available for use by
exercise. the muscle.
¢ The training should be specific to the actions IN Has ajlarse. ewe ueete
required by the athlete.
o The will th PaGa Ee acaciay of dS Supplies large amounts of energy per second
ee Be a to support muscular contraction.
ae
the muscle tissue, mannan
Me irae and enhance neuromuscular
:
adaptation. As exercise continues there is an imbalance
. a between use and resynthesis of ATP, leading
| to fatigue.
Stores must be fully replenished to continue
further intense bouts of training.

ese . = Eee =

1
Raj is completing a sprint training session of 6 x 60 metre sprints, with a 3-minute rest in between sprints.

Explain the process of energy production relative to Raj and why it is appropriate for energy production for a sprinter.

19
 Had alook [|_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! {_|

Lactate system
(anaerobic glycolysis)
The breakdown of glycogen occurs when energy demands are increased and oxygen is not required to
function.

Lactate system Energy production in the lactate

The process is as follows. system

Glycogen
e
Geen CY OSE
i 7 phesenopiaee

a ¢===2Phosphofructokinase —S>_—|
| Pyruvic Oe a Se |
: acid

l= Lactosepa leaee lee

_ Advantages and disadvantages of the Resistance versus endurance —

lactate system exercise
| ey No delay waiting for oxygen to be supplied from During endurance exercise, muscle glycogen
| the lungs for glycogen breakdown as oxygen is stores decrease, in contrast to the response
| not required. after resistance training.
ey Relatively large amounts of glycogen stored in ¢ Bodybuilders may have up to 50 per
our bodies and so this system can provide more cent greater glycogen concentration than
ATP than PC system. untrained people. Endurance athletes also
| SS Relatively few chemical reactions taking place so have high levels of glycogen in their muscle
ATP can be provided for high intensity activities tissue.
that last anywhere from 15 to 90 seconds. ¢ Skeletal muscle glycogen content increases
7) The by-product, lactic acid, reduces the pH of as a result of resistance training and blood
the muscle, making it more acidic. glucose levels do not decrease during
& This prevents the enzymes from functioning resistance training:
properly, causing muscle fatigue. ¢ Therefore, unlike within endurance exercise,
carbohydrate availability is not a limiting =
factor to performance during a training»
session. a
ania reece ee Ea ee a

George trains at the gym. When he exercises for more than

10-15 seconds and wants to maintain his performance, his
body needs to produce more energy.

Explain the process of energy production in George's lactate

energy system.

20
 Had a look [| Nearly there wns Nailed it! |_|

Kerobic system (aerobic glycolysis)

Although oxygen is available at the onset of exercise there is not enough to break down the
glycogen
relative to the rate of ATP use. So anaerobic glycolysis is used (the lactate system), then after 1 to
2
minutes enough oxygen is supplied to the muscles and aerobic energy production begins.

Aerobic system
Aerobic energy production does not produce lactic acid, and takes place in three stages:

© Stage 1 is anaerobic glycolysis. This is a similar process as within the lactate system.

2) Stage 2 is the Krebs cycle.

© This is where pyruvic acid produced in the anaerobic stage diffuses into the mitochondria
matrix where it is broken down into acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA).
°¢ A complex cycle begins where the acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to form citric
acid, and is converted into carbon dioxide and hydrogen (H*) which are removed, and forms
2 ATP.

3) Stage 3 is the electron transport chain (ETC).

° This is where the H* removed from the Krebs cycle are transported to the inner membranes of
the mitochondria cristae where they enter the ETC.
° The electrons are removed from the H*, which eventually combines with oxygen to form water
and release energy, 34 ATP. ar
| There is a sufficient supply of oxygen available to provide the aerobic metabolism at a rate at which the
_ oxygen delivery meets the demand. Unless you run out of carbohydrate, protein and fat stores, this system
__is unlimited. However, the rate of production of ATP is decreased if only fat and protein are available.

_ Advantages and disadvantages of Energy production in the aerobic

the aerobic system system
| & A large amount of ATP can be resynthesised
) using this system.
ds The system can supply ATP for long duration |
at submaximal intensity. Boe = Onan | cs
ey) There are no harmful by-products from the acid 5S coenzyme A
| chemical reactions. j
Due to the need for oxygen, the system Acetyl
acid
CoA= citric
+oxaloacetic
acid
_
cannot resynthesise ATP immediately during
exercise as there is a delay while oxygen is
transported to the muscles.
This system cannot provide ATP while working
|2 AIF om
Krebs
jmp(aon |
yy
at high intensities as oxygen is not delivered iP
in time to the working muscles therefore i , —
anaerobic systems are used, — | Electron transport chain |

34 ATP + Water

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4.

State two advantages and two disadvantages of using the aerobic system.

21
 The energy continuum
_ Energy is required for muscle action and the duration and intensity of the action are determined by the
amount of energy available for use. |

The energy continuum 100

ATP-PC system |
The energy continuum: :
© describes the collaboration of the three e :
energy systems in their provision of energy ios Ke Soe
and resynthesis of ATP 3 system
© demonstrates the predominant system = 50
or usage of each system relative to the 5 Lactate |
intensity and duration of the exercise. > system
All three energy systems are active at 9 25 =
any given time as they do not function a iI
_ independently: |
¢ The intensity and duration of the activity OoS arta an Bp oe Sal
will determine the primary energy provider, Time*oninites) '
though they all make a contribution. a
® ATP is used in around 3 seconds.
¢ The ATP-PC system kicks in and supplies energy for 8-10 seconds.
¢ The lactate system continues for longer still in absence of Oz, up to % i eg |
|
90 seconds.
¢ The aerobic system takes over and continues on, almost indefinitely. 7 e 7

Recovery times
Following exercise the recovery time for your body to replenish its fuel stores varies:
Replenishment of muscle PC stores = 180 seconds.
Removal of lactic acid from the muscles and the blood = 15 minutes to several hours (depending
on the intensity and duration of exercise carried out).
Replenishment of muscle and liver glycogen stores = 2 hours to several days (depending on the
intensity and duration of exercise carried out).

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Onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) Factors which affect OBLA

Anaerobic energy production can only continue until the build- OBLA is affected by:
up of lactic acid causes the muscles to fatigue. ° intensity of exercise
* OBLA, also known as lactate threshold, is the point at e muscle fibre type
which lactate begins to pool as the muscle is unable to
© ability of body to remove and use
remove it. It will then move into the blood stream which
lactate
can be felt like a burning sensation.
° training adaptations. |
¢ OBLA prevents O2 binding to haemoglobin (Hb), which
decreases Op availability for energy production, leading to
lactate build-up, fatigue and failure.
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[No
Danny is a footballer who has started the new season after 6 months of not training. His fitness
levels are not what
they were and after 5 minutes he feels a burning sensation in his legs and they feel heavy.
Explain why Danny feels like this and what he could do to relieve the feeling during a match.

22
 Had a look |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! ha

Causes of fatigue
Fatigue can occur due to a number of factors including neural, muscular, metabolic
and an accumulation of
waste products.

| Depletion of energy sources Accumulation of waste products

_ To provide energy for exercise, energy stores ¢ During exercise there is an increased production
_ are broken down into ATP. However, there is a of lactic acid (LA) and carbon dioxide.
| fae in cis phosphate (CP), gucose ¢ During high-intensity exercise the blood
| eye stores as the duration of exercise concentration of lactic acid increases as a by-
. . product of anaerobic ATP production, resulting
_ © CP stores (anaerobic) last approximately 10 in OBLA and a decrease in pH.
seconds. ¢ Carbon dioxide also builds up as the
tg Glycogen stores (aerobic and aerobic) last decreased pH of blood inhibits oxygen binding
| approximately 2 hours. to Hb and reduces enzyme activity for ATP
° The rate of ATP production and supply to _ production. +
4a muscle will limit force and power production, ¢ This will limit performance and may affect neural
and reduce performance. signalling.

ej

_ Neuromuscular fatigue
_ © Neuromuscular fatigue indicates an inability of the
_ central nervous system to send signals to stimulate
the muscle and also that the muscle is unable to
function effectively.
_ © Increases in H* leads to lowered pH and
contributes to decreased release of calcium ions
_ (Ca*) required for muscle contraction.
_ © Additionally, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(Ach) is depleted affecting the nerve signalling and
/ preventing the action potential reaching the muscle
~~ and stimulating it to contract.
: °® Neural fatigue leads to a reduction in the number
_ of motor units recruited and a reduced firing rate.
__@ Muscular fatigue leads to weaker muscular _
contractions as they cannot respond to stimulus.

Calcium and fatigue

A calcium deficiency can lead to fatigue because
the health of bones, muscles, and nerves are
_ compromised. Many people with low calcium levels
also experience a loss of appetite and this can
_lead to a reduced consumption of the nutrients the
body needs for energy production.

ia ee ee a ee i ae ae ae a ee i ee ee ee

F | Gary is a professional rugby player. When he exercises there can be an

___ | imbalance between ATP production, use and resynthesis.

Explain the effects of, and process of fatigue on, Gary's exercise performance.
 Had a look a Nearly there & Nailed it! Le

Energy systems recovery

Following exercise, rest and recovery are needed in order to return the body to a presexerciae state.
After intense exercise, the anaerobic energy systems must be replenished. This happens via the
_ aerobic energy system.

Excess post-oxygen Replacement of muscle ATP and PC

consumption (EPOC) The excess oxygen is used to aerobically reproduce ATP
EPOC is when heavy breathing continues, and CP. Part of the ATP is immediately broken down
although exercise has stopped, to elevate to ADP and P in order that P can combine with C to
oxygen levels where there is a ;Bk aie: recreate CP and also rebuild these stores in muscle.
_ The extra oxygen availability acts to repay ADP. +-P.-++-O2-=-ATP
the oxygen debt and is then made available ATP + C + P = CP + ADP
to: This has been referred to as the alactacid portion
® break down lactic acid to COz and HzO of oxygen debt, as this does not involve LA and is
¢ replenish ATP, PC and glycogen approximately 2—3.5L of Op.
© repay Oz borrowed from haemoglobin ¢ 20-48 seconds 50 per cent replenished <a
and myoglobin (oxygen stores in °* 40-96 seconds 75 per cent replenished
muscle). ° 2-4 minutes 99 per cent replenished
The Oz debt consists of alactacid debt Being fitter means an increased O, debt, but a
and lactacid debt. decreased recovery time.

-Resaturation of myoglobin Replacement of glycogen stores |

Part of the recovery process following ® In the lactacid portion, the aerobic energy a
anaerobic exercise involves the replenishment system helps remove LA, with around 7O per cent
_ of myoglobin with Op. removed during EPOC. — >
¢ Myoglobin transports O2 from haemoglobin ¢ Within 25 minutes approximately 50 per cent
to the mitochondria of cells ensuring energy removed.
supply to exercising muscles. ¢ Within 1h 15 minutes approximately 95 per cent
¢ Complete restoration is completed within removed. !
the time needed to recover the alactacid ¢ Accumulated lactate is removed from the
debt component (1-2 minutes), with blood more quickly during active recovery at
approximately O.5L of O2 needed for full approximately 50-GO per cent of maximum heart
recovery. rate. |
¢ Opportunities for breaks in training and * O2 is required to break down LA into pyruvate, |
performance should be maximised to allow which can then enter the aerobic energy system :
restoration of PC, ATP and myoglobin. for ATP resynthesis.
° Opportunities within team sports ° LA can also be converted in the liver to glycogen |
are particularly important for improved and used to replenish stores in either liver or :
performance, e.g. props in rugby ‘going muscle tissue. |
down injured before important scrums’ — e Glycogen replacement :
is a long-term process,
allowing full or nearly full recovery of PC. which can take 24-48 hours depending on fitness
level, the intensity and duration of the exercise.
and diet of the sportsperson.
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Now try this

After playing in a hockey match, the players will experience EPOC. |
Explain what EPOC is.

24
 Had a look |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! bE

Nutrition for recovery

Training and exercise recovery can be supported by nutritional strategies that promote refuelling,
_ rehydration, rebuilding and staying healthy after strenuous exercise. Appropriate food and drink will also
_ enhance the adaptations achieved by the training programme.

_Post-exercise carbohydrate Post-exercise protein consumption

. consumption Post-training protein consumption promotes
The body’s carbohydrate fuel stores for protein synthesis, including gains in muscle mass
exercise and training are limited and need to be and strength .and neralacimuccle damage,
replenished to promote adequate recovery. ° Recent studies suggest that the total amount
* Carbohydrates generally make up about of protein is not as important as the timing of
:
70 per cent of dietary intake, so it is intake in relation to training.
important for athletes to plan their intake when ° A post-training protein shake can offer
a training and competing. sufficient protein and carbohydrate for
° Resynthesis of muscle glycogen levels is hace AK
assisted by the intake of carbohydrate-rich ° Intake of approximately 10-20gof high-quality _
| foods and drink. protein and 1g of carbohydrate per kg body
"| * Carbohydrates should be consumed soon mass in the hour following exercise would be.
sufficient:
after exercise to maximise efficient muscle

g
refuelling and support recovery. was :eelhs ena sede Hilal 50g of
ydrate for refuelling.

i
Glycaemic index (GI) ¢ 500nI low fat milk provides 10g of protein
and 50g of carbohydrate for refuelling and

w
It is a good idea for athletes to choose
rebuilding.
carbohydrate drinks/gels with a high Gl
so that glucose is absorbed by the muscle e A larger meal should be eaten within the
and liver cells as quickly as possible. The following two hours as it will take 24-48
glycaemic index is a number that indicates a hours to re-establish glycogen stores after a
food type’s effect on blood sugar levels. bout of glycogen depleting exercise.
i
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__Post-exercise hydration
Rehydration requires the replacement of the
~~ fluids and electrolytes lost in sweat and when
the fluid deficit remaining after training or a race
‘is greater than 2 per cent of body mass.
e Inthe 2 hours after exercise, the athlete
should consume a volume of fluids equal to
= 1.5 times the fluid lost.
© The replacement of electrolytes lost, = en
| particularly sodium, is also needed, via rr
electrolyte rehydration products or high- |
_——- sodium foods. ;
© Water hydrates the body well, although
isotonic and hypotonic drinks may |
provide faster hydration and replacement of —
/ electrolytes. |
: f i

xD
t

Sa a a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee 2

Following an intense training session, Naseem needs to be able to refuel, rehydrate and rebuild tissues.

Explain how Naseem can eat and drink for recovery, providing examples.

25
 — =

Had alook |_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! ||

Musculoskeletal recovery_
The musculoskeletal system needs to recover after exercise. This can take some time due to several
potential fatigue factors.

Post-exercise muscle recovery Post-exercise calcium replacement

During exercise, stress is placed on the Bone is also placed under stress from exercise
connective tissues, tendons and ligaments. and is stimulated to form new bone.
They contain collagen, a dense connective tissue © Bone is the main calcium reservoir in the
that makes up approximately 25 per cent of total body. The concentration of blood calcium is
protein within the body. maintained by controlling the rate of calcium
Within tendons reabsorption and deposition.
© Additionally, both nerve and muscle cells
When the body has undergone int
intense stre
trenuous Peed oncesievrete (Ca*) to function
‘
exercise, specific changes occur within a tendon
that contribute to the increase in its cross- _ e ee ee
sectional area: ° Physical activity encourages deposition of
~ © an increase in collagen fibre diameter calcium
; within bone
; and canj reduceany effects __
of inadequate dietary calcium.
© an increase in the number of collagen fibrils : ; |
t = -@ Increases in bone mass, bone mineral content =}
® an increase in density of collagen fibrils.
and bone mineral density occur in practically
_ Within tendons and ligaments all bones of the skeleton in response to high- |
° Low- to moderate-intensity exercise does not intensity resistance exercise (e.g. weight lifting). |
influence the collagen content. 7
__© High-intensity loading does increase collagen.

Post-exercise muscle repair

When recovery is sufficient micro-tears in the
muscles, which occur as a result of exercise,
are able to fully repair. This can be assisted by:
* scheduling training sessions
° taking time for adequate rest between
——_—_—__-—_-werkevts
¢ suitable nutrition.
Delayed onset of muscular soreness (DOMS)
_ is also a normal response to intense exercise,
lasting between 24-48 hours. Recovery can be
helped and the effects lessened by:
¢ performing an adequate cool down at
50-60 of maximum heart rate
* stretching, which acts to return the body to
its pre-exercise state.

Martin takes part in an intense training session. Afterwards, certain effects

occur within his tendons, ligaments
and bone tissue.
Explain the effects in Martin’s tendons, ligaments and bone tissue durin
g recovery from exercise and explain how
micro-tears in muscle affect sports performance.

26
 Had a leok a Nearly there - Nailed it! bz

Overtraining and performance

_ Overtraining is a situation where performance decreases, despite training harder or trying
to recover.
It is the result of the physical stress of exercise on the body being greater than the body’s ability to
repair and recover, leading to physical exhaustion.

Causes of overtraining
With general fatigue from intense training the body should recover within 24—48 hours.
he In a balanced training programme, incorporating planned overload, recovery may take 1-2 weeks.
© If overload is too great and the training programme is poorly planned (causing performance
deterioration) increased recovery time may be weeks to months.
° An imbalanced training programme, involving poorly scheduled activities and insufficient rest, can lead
____ to overtraining syndrome. It can be months until the body is fully recovered and performance improves.
_ Imbalanced training programming can result from:
an overly heavy training load * monotony of training
© inadequate recovery °® an excessive number of competitions.
© a high training volume .

_ Impactof overtrainingon performance and body systems

|| Decreased Decreased Increased
- aerobic : ability to injury
Decreased Increased susceptibility
| capacity complete Loss of et Be.
— performance training periods — LT susceptibility renege
1 , osteoporosis to injury

= eee 4 : 3 : Increased overuse injury — most common.

Increased recovery time are stress fractures in the lower limb
~— Reduced number ae Decreased i AB
| and function of Decreased infection, (yd in bane Inadequate of colds
_ immune-system : especially inetion sleep and rest
cells, such as LMmMmune i |
in the
whike Ploed cere function respiratory Reduced repair of tissues prior
je RRs a tract to the next bout of training —
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Exercise addiction — Overtraining and

_. |f-an athlete is suffering from exercise injury
_ addiction, they have Become, gacendent If you overtrain you are
on the feelings associated with more likely to sustain
ewok. ces meas addiction call eed a injuries and take longer
overtraining where, despite detrimental to Werte?
q responses and poor recovery, the
athlete continues to exercise.

oy
me aD

Malala is a cross-country athlete and joined a new training group four months ago. Her coach implemented a
programme where her training increased to six days a week, with lots of continuous running and training with
older, faster athletes. She has recently stopped her periods, has a constant cold and struggles to complete her
training.

Explain to Malala why she is feeling this way.

2i
 Ee
_O i

) Physiological effects of overtraining |

In addition to decreased performance, a number of physiological effects can also occur in response to
overtraining.

Imbalances in the Excess cortisol production

endocrine system There is an increase in resting cortisol level.
Exercise requires the endocrine system ad :
to release hormones that control |
important body functions. Overtraining Excess cortisol suppresses the immune response, making the athlete -
disrupts the endocrine system, resulting more susceptible to infection.
in the production of too much or too re “‘w ae
little of the various hormones secreted.
This can have knock-on effects on the Cortisol rapidly increases in response to stress for repair and
digestive and nervous systems. remodelling.

Imbalances that can occur from leh

overtraining include: Cortisol response increases, as well as growth hormone and lactate.
© too much growth hormone e
® too much resting adrenaline and
This leads to a drop in the effects of testosterone and muscle catabolism.
noradrenaline leading to increased
heart rate and blood pressure Sd
¢ a drop in testosterone — cortisol is
If levels do not return to rest within 24 hours this indicates
an indicator of insufficient recovery
overtraining.
and catabolism (muscle breakdown).

Excess adrenaline production Insufficient rest periods to repair

Increased Sensitivity to muscular and skeletal tissues
amounts of j their effects

adrenaline and, decreases and Overtraining leads to an increase in sympathetic

noradrenaline resting levels of nervous system activity and increased adrenaline and
are released. adrenaline and
noradrenaline.
noradrenaline
decrease. 4
In the early stages
of overtraining This leads to poor sleep patterns, meaning there is
insufficient rest and recovery from exercise.
The time taken for post-exercise heart
rate to return to normal increases. vv

Decreased Incomplete recovery causes tissue inflammation and

In the later stages amounts of fatigue.
of overtraining adrenaline and
noradrenaline Ww
are released.
|
_ Sympathetic nervous Incomplete repair of tissues prior to the next bout of |
system (SNS) activity €) The effects of training increases susceptibility to injury and chronic )
decreases. fatique increase. muscle soreness.

Now try this

Andy is a 1500-metre track athlete. He has been increasing the
duration and intensity of his training to improve his performance.
However, lately he has been feeling tired and has started suffering
from shin splints, a well-known overuse injury.
Explain the physiological effects of overtraining Andy is experiencing.

28
 Had a look 2 Nearly there |_| Nailed it! bm

Skeletal adaptations to exercise

_ Weight-bearing cardiovascular and resistance exercise encourages deposition of calcium within bone
and increases bone mass, bone mineral content and bone mineral density.

Osteoblast, osteoclast and osteocyte Bone remodelling

activity Bone remodelling occurs when both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts are
Exercise can stimulate activated relative to bone turnover and
Using large repair.
) aa new bone formation muscle
Relative to \
ee a
Mm ithe area
loaded

x;

type of training
the ng
____.Varyi _ Using progressive overloading

© Osteoblast activity is increased in response to loading

| bone during exercise, where calcium (Ca*) in the blood is
|

absorbed and encourages bone formation.

_ @ When blood Ca* concentration is high, this stimulates
_ osteoblast and osteocyte (mature osteoblasts) activity
__and causes Ca* to be deposited and stored within bone
adding to the bone matrix.
——.®@ When blood calcium concentration is decreased, this
stimulates osteoclast activity and bone reabsorption
~~ which causes Ca* to leave bone and move into the blood.

2Mineral and collagen _-Weight- bearing exercise and bone |

| content : strengthening Aare
- Bone contains: Jumping
¢ minerals including calcium (65-70
Running
per cent) and in small quantities
magnesium, chloride and sodium.
This accounts for the compressive
strength of the bone
® collagen which makes up
30-35 per cent and when
mineralised provides strength
and rigidity.
In response to weight-bearing
exercise:
© there is an increase in bone
| mineral density and bone
strength; this can prevent or delay
_ osteoporosis
® however, if blood Een fevels are
Squatting
low for an extended time, bones: _ stepping
continually lose calcium.

ryths
Cotw
ee ee
ee

Explain bone remodelling in response to weight-bearing exercise.

 Muscular system adaptations .
The muscular system will respond and adapt to the demands placed upon it.

Hypertrophy Muscular strength

_ Muscle growth in response to load is termed The ability of a muscle or group of muscles
hypertrophy. to exert a maximal force is known as muscular
_ © The short-term effect is due to fluid strength.
accumulation in the muscle, known as ‘the pump’.
To increase muscle strength, the following
¢ The longer-term effect is due to increased
guidelines can be used:
cross-sectional area.

To increase muscle size, the following

guidelines can be used:
- Muscle hypertrophy ~—|

Load —
70-100% 1RM
Beginners | 1-3 sets of 6-12
reps
Volume
Advanced | 3-6 sets of 1-12

: Beginners | 1-2 minutes :

Rest period : : ae a |
| Advanced | 2-3 minutes a

Muscular
To increase muscle endurance, the following guidelines can be used:
endurance | ———— OS
The abilitg7of 7 Muscleendurance.
ie torepestacl
muscle group to repeatedly Load __| Beginners
Load Lessthan
Beginners ||Less than70% 1RM____
70% 1RM
exert a force against a 2-4 sets of 10-25 reps
submaximal resistance is BO seccadeeiminote
called muscular endurance.

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Described as the continuous and passive Used within postural muscles where muscle
activation of muscle and indicates the normal ‘units actively maintain body position,
tension and firmness of a muscle at rest. without motion, for example, the erector |
spinae aids spinal posture. |
. . . |

:
|

Muscle tone

Developed through exercise, and helps to << te —

maintain stability during sporting actions.
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Jamal is an experienced gym user and has recently decided to train for a
7
bodybuilding competition. \
State the type of resistance training Jamal should perform and explain the
muscular adaptations.

30
 Had a look SS Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

Skeletal muscle adaptations

Regular strength and endurance exercise leads to adaptations in skeletal muscle.

Mitochondria and myoglobin Muscle fibre type

| in Feoponse < regular cardiovascular exercise There are adaptations to the muscle
mitochondrial density within the muscle increases. This fibre types and regular training results
| allows for increased use of fat as fuel for exercise, and in more specific and efficient muscle fibre
_ the ability to prolong endurance performance. recruitment, relative to the exercise mode.
Myoglobin is a protein that is used to carry oxygen to Fewer action potentials are required to
the mitochondria. Myoglobin stores increase as they produce submaximal forces, in addition
adapt to the demands of regular exercise. This means to increased synchronisation of motor
_ they carry more oxygen to the mitochondria, which aids unit firing which increases the duration of
_ the breakdown of triglycerides in the mitochondria, maximal force output that can be sustained.
_ sparing glycogen. Stores of triglycerides and Type lla muscle fibres can take on
glycogen within the muscle increase. : characteristics of type | fibres as a result
of enautaaee training.

= -
2 a a A SS Ge GR Ge es oe ee ee eR oe =
i more on muscle fibre - a

oe liars see page 3.

| Capillarisation eee
_ Long-term exercise can lead to increased capillarisation
allowing for increased oxygen delivery to the muscles. Both
cardiovascular and muscular endurance training have been shown
~~ to increase the number of capillaries in response to exercise.

High myoglobin and Moderate myoglobin and Low myoglobin and

mitochondrial content — mitochondrial content — mitochondrial content —
regular aerobic exercise moderate aerobic exercise no aerobic exercise

Hyperplasia Muscle tone

_ Although muscle hypertrophy is an increase in a
Muscle tone is a relatively low level,
_ muscle’s size in response to training, hyperplasia
unconscious contraction of the muscle tissue.
also contributes to muscle growth. Hyperplasia As muscles are constantly activated, muscle
is a process where muscle cells split, and tone assists us with maintaining posture and
essentially multiply, in order to contribute to
balance. With an effective training programme,
_ muscle growth. However, this is a somewhat
muscles become more receptive and muscle
_ controversial theory and there is insufficient tone can help with quicker reflex actions. _
research to prove it conclusively.

Mason is a footballer and has trained for a number of years with a marked
improvement in his performance.

Explain the muscle adaptations that have helped Mason improve his
performance.
 Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [_|

Respiratory adaptations
Over time, as the respiratory system becomes more efficient through training, there is an increase in
the O, delivered and COz removed.

Respiratory muscle adaptations

The respiratory muscles, diaphragm and
intercostal muscles are strengthened as you
breathe more deeply. This allows for greater interaostst
expansion of the chest cavity. In addition, the muscles
accessory muscles that aid respiration during ae
exercise are strengthened. Chest
cavity

Diaphragm
(dome-shaped muscle
at the bottom of chest
cavity)

Lung volume adaptations

During exercise tidal volume (TV) will increase

as the breaths you take become deeper and
accessory muscles are activated to support
forcible exhalation, leading to improved O, supply
and removal of CO,. Your respiratory rate (RR) also
increases. The number of breaths you
P take per minute increases to help satisfy
;
Sete the increase
) d oxygen
Ns demands.
:
Greater TV and RR produce a larger volume of
gas breathed in per minute — minute ventilation 3
(VE). During exercise in trained athletes, this can a
be as much as 150 \/min.
In response to regular exercise your
lungs are able to expand further, which in
turn increases your vital capacity (VC)
Residual volume (RV) is the amount of O, — the amount of air that can forcibly be
remaining in the lungs following a maximal exhaled after a maximum inhalation. This
exhalation. As athletes breathe more deeply helps to accommodate the growing need
during exercise, those who have controlled for increased gaseous exchange.
breathing levels have a greater RV, whereas
people who are untrained tend to lose their
breath more and gasp for air as their RV is lower.
Over time RV increases as you become
ie more efficient at O, utilisation.
The sum of VC and RV equals total lung
capacity, which improves with training.

[Now
trythis|
lan has just started playing tennis. He has noticed that he can become quite short of breath
after moving around
the court.

Explain to lan what adaptations will take place to his respiratory muscles if he continues
to exercise regularly.

— 32
 Had a look [| Nearly there ~ Nailed it! har

Cardiovascular adaptations
Aerobic exercise requires a lot of oxygen to maintain performance. To accommodate this increased
demand the cardiovascular system undergoes adaptations.

Cardiovascular adaptations
Regular aerobic training results in cardiac hypertrophy where the left ventricle thickens, increasing
the potential for a stronger contraction and a more efficient heart. The sinoatrial node (SAN) receives
impulses via the sympathetic nerve and acts to increase the heart rate (HR). Additionally, these signals
are sent prior to exercise, causing an anticipatory rise in HR.

Cardiac cycle adaptations Cardiac output, SV and

In response to training: HR adaptations
° The ventricle can fill with more blood and its contraction During exercise:
increases in strength which alters the cardiac cycle.
° Increasing the diastole phase allows for the heart to fill with More blood is able to enter the heart.
more blood. a4
¢ The increased stretch on the muscle promotes increased The pressure within ventricles increases :
SV. and stretches the cardiac muscle. |

BP adaptations
: v
Stronger contraction and increased |
SV is a contributing factor to cardiac output and consequently stroke volume (SV) result.
blood pressure (BP). wv

During exercise: SV increases progressively then

© Systolic BP progressively increases. plateaus.
© There is no change or a slight decrease in diastolic BP. Ww
The effect on diastolic pressure is primarily due to the
meh . ; : More oxygen is transported to the
vasodilation of the arteries during exercise. is aaa
working muscles,

Blood adaptations h4
Blood composition is also altered during prolonged exercise. Venous return increases.
Vv
Blood plasma volume decreases due to lost fluids (sweating) which can HR and SV increase, which means that
increase BF. cardiac output also increases.
Vv vy
An increase in BP draws water from the vascular system into the muscles. Blood circulation incteases.
Vv Vy
Blood viscosity increases when plasma levels decrease, which hinders More oxygen is transported to the
the transport of Op. iajecies.
Vv : Ww
pH decreases in response to a reduction in Oz availability. All Gb Elis ontiee tS on ee eee

Vv a cardiovascular system. ,

Resistance to blood flow increases, which leads to an increase in BP.

a4
If fluids are not replaced performance level will drop.

During exercise:
© More COz is produced and the demand for Oz increases.
© This results in an increase to cardiac output.
Cotrwythis
Explain the adaptations to the
© There is an increase in potential for gaseous exchange and cardiovascular system that will occur
in response to aerobic endurance
diffusion rate
® An increased amount of Oz is extracted from the blood to training.
muscles.
33
 ——

Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Nervous system adaptations

Long-term exercise can cause adaptations within the nervous system, which enhance the neural
responses and can improve performance.

Motor unit adaptations

Motor units are recruited smallest to largest. When a motor neuron is activated, all of the muscle fibres
it innervates are stimulated to contract, with the intensity relative to the force required.
Adaptations to long-term exercise include:
¢ Improved summation — the synchronisation of motor unit recruitment (summation) improves, so the
duration of maximal force production is increased in response to strength and power training.
° Improved recruitment — motor unit recruitment will become more efficient at force production.

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Neural pathway transmission efficiency

Long-term exercise may also lead to cellular adaptations. ope
¢ Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine are more readily stored. This allows for increased Beton
potentials at the nevromuscular junction, leading to greater force production.
® Cell structure may alter, for example, mitochondrial size may increase. This allows for increased
aerobic respiration.
© Reflexes may be enhanced. Completing speed and power training can lead to more precise and
efficient signaling and enhanced performance.

Nervous inhibition
_ Nervous inhibition prevents muscle injury from
increased force production and/or overstretching.
¢ Golgi tendon organs (GTOs) inhibit muscle
activation when tension becomes too great so
as to relax the muscle and avoid injury.
© Muscle spindles regulate muscle contraction
relative to changes in muscle length to prevent
injury.
° In response to progressive increases in muscle
force, length and tension, the feedback to the
central nervous system will decrease nervous
inhibition.
¢ The muscle will become conditioned as a result
of resistance training, which enhances the
ability to recruit motor units during an exercise
leading to increased force, production and iain i
strength.

a wee iene ee ie ee |

aed {
wow try this| \ a
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AISCUSS:
saramiiee &
a

In response to resistance training, performance will increase due to neural \

5
n
adaptations. Explain the adaptations to the nervous system that help to improve
performance.

34
 Had a look | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! PH

Endocrine adaptations
With exercise the motor units recruited dictate the amount of muscle activity and the need for
hormonal support.

Testosterone response HGH response

Testosterone release will increase in response to Human growth hormone (HGH) secretion
_ the acute physical stress of high load, high volume increases during and following heavy
_ resistance exercise. The concentration within the blood resistance training and may act to increase
increases, particularly when you are in a fasted state. muscle size, strength, power, tissue repair
When you have eaten, testosterone levels in the and remodeling post-exercise. Resting
| blood decrease due to the uptake within the muscles, concentrations of HGH are less sensitive to
_ resulting in protein synthesis. change, though chronic training leads to a
_ Over time the body adapts to the resistance training slight increase in the resting concentration
_and resting blood testosterone levels increase. of HGH.

_ Adrenaline and noradrenaline response Cortisol response

_ Adrenaline acts to: Increased resting cortisol levels reflect
¢ increase cardiac output, which causes blood flow to _ adaptation to long-term resistance
increase and allows more oxygen to be supplied to the training and are involved with
muscles. —- homeostasis. This may be in response to
° increase blood sugar, which allows an increase in fuel for the micro-tears incurred from resistance
muscle actions training and the increased need for
tissue repair and anti-inflammatory
| © increase glycogen breakdown and fat mobilisation, which
effects. Higher volume endurance
allows the body to exercise for longer.
training results in a lowered cortisol
~~ In addition, noradrenaline: response and decreased resting
_ © controls vasoconstriction and increases blood pressure. concentration.

_ How can you predict the

hormonal response?
The endocrine release of hormones is sensitive
to various training stimuli including:
~@ the amount of muscle mass recruited
© the intensity of the workout
® the amount of rest between sets and
exercise
® the volume of total work.

Kate regularly lifts weights at the gym and notices benefits from her
new training programme, including increased muscle size and increased
strength.

Explain two of the endocrine adaptations that have helped Kate to improve
and notice these benefits.

35
 Had a look [| Nearly there Pa Nailed it! bee

t e m a d a p t a t i o n s
Energy sys
In response to training, adaptations occur to parts of the energy system in order to maintain energy for
exercise and performance.

Stores of ATP, PC, glycogen and Number and size of

triglyceride mitochondria
_ In response to resistance training:
® concentrations of CP and ATP within the muscles increase
© the increased ATP and CP availability means an increase in
energy production
© muscular strength will increase
® muscular hypertrophy will occur
© performance will improve.
_ In response to long-term training:
© muscle glycogen stores will increase
© this means blood glucose can be maintained during
training
_® the increased fuel supply for exercise can lead to
improved performance.
In response to endurance training:
© muscle triglyceride stores increase
® fat oxidation increases, accounting for 75 per cent of
energy in exercise over 1 hour. _

-OBLA
_ The increased component stores of ATP, PC
__and glycogen allow for anaerobic exercise to be
maintained for a longer duration before the onset
_ of blood lactate accumulation. This increases
the lactate threshold and maintains intensity of
— exercise.

oYLinks J revise more about {

aa
G OBLA, see page 22. Amoneteerecseeer
ten

_ Adaptations to energy systems

When you think about adaptations to the energy systems, ask yourself three questions:
© What type of training? nnemeiniemmne: |
¢ Which energy system?
© How will it benefit performance?
{ E
an 2 Oe me Te WS S ee A oe et OU 6 (Ue Oe lO Oe a ae - 4 > = - — eee ae Ee =|

Explain the adaptations that occur to the number and size of mitochondria from endurance training and their effects
ai
on performance.

36
 Had a look ze Nearly there [| Nailed it! |_|

| _ Kerobic adaptations
Training adaptations also affect enzyme activity, the ability to cope with lactate, O, utilisation and CO.
production.

Aerobic and anaerobic enzymes

_ Enzyme activity increases within the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems in response to training.
_ Within the ATP-PC system:
¢ ATPase and creatine kinase activity increases
| ° the rate of synthesis and resynthesis of ATP increases
| © more energy for muscle action is available.
Within the lactate system:
° phosphofructokinase (PFK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity increases
° the breakdown of glucose and pyruvic acid increases
_ © energy production increases. ‘san
Within the aerobic energy system:
_ © oxidative enzyme activity increases
|* the use of glycogen and triglycerides increases
___ * the duration of exercise increases.

Lactate buffering Respiratory exchange

Due to sufficient energy supply, the lactate thresholds ratio (RER)
_ will be reached at a higher exercise intensity. Resriratory exchange ratio 1m the amemneat
_ © The lactate produced increases hydrogen ion carbon dioxide produced in comparison to
- concentration and decreases pi, which will the oxygen used. me *)
eventually prevent enzyme activity and hinder
¢ When you exercise, the ratio of carbon
=| performance. -
dioxide produced increases.
e When this happens, bicarbonate is released and
¢ At high levels of exercise, COz production
acts as a lactate buffer to delay the effects
exceeds O, uptake and the ratio will
of the by-products and help prolong exercise increase, usually during a maximal effort.
performance, increasing tolerance of lactate.
“ i
aun! Re) ee ee eee ee _ _
}

How can energy systems affect performance?

__|_ If you try to exercise without sufficient training adaptation:
| © ATP and PC synthesis decreases
| ® energy availability decreases
enzyme activity decreases in response to an
increase in lactate and a decrease in PH
|. © fat utilisation decreases.
performance decreases.

pyres oe cue
IGG. Improve:
;
ACN
iat! F

© training ad

‘
|
Explain the lactate response to training and its effects upon performance.

37
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! {_|

Measurin g e f f e c t s o f t r a i n i n g —
In the long term, aerobic and anaerobic adaptations occur to the body in response to training.

VO,max measurement Anaerobic threshold

VO, max is one of the best indicators The anaerobic threshold is the exercise intensity at which
of cardiovascular fitness. lactic acid builds up in the body faster than it can be cleared
e It is the measure of the peak away. It is also known as the lactate threshold.
volume of oxygen you can ¢ It is usually measured in a laboratory with a graded
consume and use in one minute. exercise test, where velocity is increased at regular
e It is measured in mi/kg/min and is intervals and blood lactate is tested at each interval.
relative to body weight. © Each reading is—
e It is usually determined by plotted against
a maximal treadmill test in a time and where
laboratory, using a Douglas bag there is a sharp
and a gas analyser to collect rise in the curve,
expired air. this indicates
¢ When oxygen consumption plateaus
anaerobic
for 30 seconds-—1 minute, this
threshold.
indicates VO2 max.
¢ Comparisons can be made between
athletes as bodyweight is taken
into account.
© |t can be indirectly predicted with
the multi-stage fitness test.

_ VO,max contribution to Anaerobic threshold contributionto

performance performance
¢ Increasing VOz max will improve the ¢ The anaerobic threshold is approximately 30% HR;
aerobic energy system’s efficiency and this is where you improve anaerobic fitness.
endurance performance. ° With effective training, the lactate threshold will be
® In addition to cardiovascular exercise, reached at a higher intensity.
circuit training can increase VOz max ® Training at the anaerobic threshold can improve
as long as GO%HR is achieved for a performance and capacity of the aerobic system.
minimum of 20 minutes.
° Interval training, with longer work and shorter rest
periods, works well.

Anaerobic power Anaerobic power contribution to

Anaerobic power is the maximal power performance
developed in maximal effort short-term
e Anaerobic power contributes short bursts of
exercise. It reflects the energy output of the
ATP-PC and lactate energy systems to produce energy for short times within sports performance.
__ energy for muscle action. It is measured via the * The Wingate test can be used as a training method.
Wingate test, which is performed on a cycle e Other methods include anaerobic hill sprints
ergometer, consisting of a set time pedalling 4-12 x 8-10 seconds, plyometrics and heavy
against a constant resistance. weight training.

Explain how VO, max is measured, how it can be improved, and how increased VO, max
can contribute to sporting
performance.

38
 Had a look |_| Nearly there Luci Nailed it! hi |

Measuring strength and endurance

_ Muscular strength and muscular endurance will adapt with appropriate training. Testing and retesting
determine whether these components of fitness have improved and whether any alterations to training
are required.

Measuring strength (IRM) Measuring muscular endurance

One repetition maximum (1RM) is a single (ISRM)
_ maximal lift, which is used to measure strength.
Fifteen repetitions maximum (15RM) is the
This can be used to monitor adaptations to
maximum weight you can use to perform 15
_ strength training over time.
repetitions, which is used to measure muscle
endurance.
_ Contribution to performance of strength
¢ Knowing your 1RM means that you are able to Contribution to performance of muscular
properly schedule training at percentages of endurance (15RM)
this 1RM, e.g. 7O%1RM (RM training zone).
© This test is more functional and can be used
¢ This can be used after a period of training to within training programmes more regularly.
determine whether progression has occurred in © It can also be used to determine whether
response to a training programme. This allows
progression has occurred and any modification
for modification of training to ensure further
of training is needed to ensure further
_adaptation.
adaptation.
© It should be rated against normative data.
© However, there is no normative data available
to compare.

performance.
Explain how the results of the 15RM can be used to contribute to

39
 Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

High altitude
to different
Training is about improving and practising skills and techniques. It is also about adapting
environmental conditions such as high altitude.

Adapting to different environments

Competitions in sports (e.g. football, rugby, tennis and golf) happen throughout the year in different
climates and environments.
© Successful athletes have to adapt quickly to meet the physical demands of the changes of the
environment and reduce the impact on their performance.
° Recreational performers may also need to adapt quickly to different environments and conditions, for
example playing golf in Spain instead of the UK.
e It is important to understand the conditions of the sport so that elements of training can replicate
situations that the athlete will be subjected to.

What is altitude?
Altitude is the measure of ie 5 j
_ elevation above sea level. aut
Y ee |
_ Asaltitude increases there i
is a change in atmospheric I‘
pressure. The change in En

atmospheric pressure means

;
“that there is a decrease in E
oxygen pressure. It is common =
t
t
for elite level athletes to train, is

and in some cases compete, }

at altitude. This is because
it enables the athlete’s body Lua
liad.

to become more effective

_at transporting oxygen. This caoummeen!
oy
| |

process is often referred to as Tegepiiwn

~acclimatisation. |f +

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Training at altitude
_ At altitude the body becomes more responsive to the increase in carbon dioxide due to the decrease in
oxygen pressure.
_ © Chemoreceptors in the brain notice that there © It is reported that at 5O000m above sea level
is more carbon dioxide in the blood. It is the job oxygen saturation in the blood is around
of the chemoreceptors to increase an athlete’s 70 per cent whereas at sea level it is 98 per
breathing rate. This is the brain’s attempt to get cent.
rid of the excess carbon dioxide and to increase e If an athlete has not acclimatised to the
the level of oxygen in the blood. conditions, the lack of oxygen can impair physical —
_ © However, this is difficult at high altitude because activity. It is important that the ascent and
there is less oxygen available. This means that descent from altitude is carefully managed to _
the haemoglobin (a chemical in red blood cells ensure that the athlete remains fit and well.
that transports oxygen) carries less oxygen at
altitude when compared to sea level.

Explain the purpose of training at altitude.

40
 Had a look t | Nearly there fl Nailed it! ms

Response to high altitude

There are a number of physiological responses ex perienced by body systems
when training or
competing at altitude.
+ ;
Altitude sickness Hypoxia
_ It is important to make sure that the ascent to The demands on the cardiovascular and
_ high altitude is carefully managed. If not, high respiratory systems are increased as high
altitude sickness can occur. altitude is reached. Hypoxia occurs when the body
_ ® This illness is brought on by a fast ascent to becomes short of oxygen and acclimatisation does
high altitude. not occur due to the decrease in oxygen levels
- © It is characterised by a shortness of oxygen, _ Within the muscle tissues. _
resulting in symptoms such as an increased
breathing rate (hyperventilation), exhaustion
and nausea.

: 9)Links fhrevise high altitude,

G see page 40.

Increased breathing rate Increased heart rate

_ This is also referred to as Altitude can increase the resting heart rate to over
| hyperventilation. This occurs due to an 100 beats per minute. This increase can also be
_ increased ventilation of the lungs caused termed tachycardia. High altitude can also decrease
by reduced partial pressure of oxygen at maximal heart rate and as a result lowers cardiac output
altitude. (the amount of blood the heart pumps through the
|
{
circulatory system in a minute).

- Reduced VO, max

_ A decrease in VOzmax means that an athlete’s oxygen uptake and utilisation decreases.
© This has a significant impact on endurance events in terms of performance outcomes.
_® The effect of this can be profound if acclimatisation does not occur.
_@ For example, if acclimatisation does not occur then VOzmax can drop to SmV/kg/min.
At this level, an individual will not be able to exercise at altitude because there will not be enough

=
oxygen in the body to supply the working muscles with the nutrients needed for exercise.
: — a ee ee Oe et ee ee ee es ee et

Explain the body's responses to training at high altitude.

4)
 Had alook [| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! [_|

Adaptation to high altitude

on, haemoglobin concentration,
The body systems adapt to high altitude through red blood cell producti
capillarisation, mitochondria and oxidative enzymes.

i
i ogical
Physiol daptations
adap i 3 aeat
Arrival
_ When an athlete travels to an area of high altitude
their body develops a series of inefficient
ab
9)

physiological responses. These include: 090 Ea tice in

rat fitness
® an increase in breathing and heart rate — in 0 &
some cases it is possible for it to double = &
Fitness
o®
® an increase in pulse rate and blood pressure level
=8
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to meet the demands of the increased heart rate £s

as the heart works exceptionally hard to deliver =
0
oxygen to the muscles. sa
pie

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OO POSE NOE RR RUM] UREN

Red blood cell production Haemoglobin concentration

Through the process of acclimatisation there As red blood cell production increases inthe =
_ is an increase in red blood cell production in bone marrow, the haemoglobin content in the |
the bone marrow to help the body to meet the blood also increases. This change is part of the
demands. This is because the level of oxygen chain reaction. The protein found in red blood
is significantly reduced and therefore more cells is responsible for transporting oxygen
blood cells are needed to help support the ____around the body. More haemoglobin is needed
_ transport of oxygen around the body. so that the athlete is able to carry more oxygen
when the air is thinner. This helps to prevent
hypoxia.

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Capillarisation Mitochondria
Similar to the red blood cell production and the This is an organelle that is found in most cells.
increase in blood proteins, new capillaries are Mitochondria are often called the powerhouses
formed to supply the muscles and organs with of the cells. It is the role of these organelles to
oxygen. The body increases the blood network as generate energy. The number of mitochondria |
_ part of altitude adaptation so that it can adjust increases to enable the body to generate more |
to the new climate in a bid to ensure that oxygen energy so that the body can work effectively ona _
is distributed effectively. reduction of oxygen levels.
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Oxidative enzymes
_ Another link in the chain reaction is an increase in oxidative enzymes, which are foundinthe —
mitochondria. This naturally increases as the number of mitochondria multiplies. The oxidative enzymes .
allow the body to process the increased levels of oxygen found in Type | and Type Ila muscle fibres by
_ the aerobic energy system.
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wit Me c 2s
ex a
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mae a a — 3 —_— ft | Ge Sk Be A St ke Re MES Be Set RE et OO Oe oe Oe |

Explain four adaptations that the body makes to high altitude training.

42
 Had a look |_| Nearly there bast Nailed it! hal

Impact of altitude adaptations

on performance
Training at high altitude is used by competitive athletes to
gain a competitive advantage. The adaptation of the body «To revise adaptation to high
systems impacts on their aerobic and anaerobic performance. altitude, see page 42.

Aerobic performance Anaerobic performance

Effects of adaptation on aerobic performance: Effects on anaerobic performance that are the
same as aerobic performance:
The body increases the production of erythropoietin
(EPO), a hormone that is naturally produced by the Increase in EPO production, which increases the number —
body. This hormone increases the red blood cell of red blood cells in the body to enable the athlete
production in the bone marrow. to sustain training at high altitude. Although anaerobic
4 performances use little oxygen, the body produces red
blood cells to cope with the reduced amount. of oxygen
The body becomes more efficient at delivering more in the air. This helps the body to become more efficient
oxygen around the body due to the increase in red at sending oxygen around the body.
blood cell production.

a4 Haemoglobin concentration increases as a result of

The more red blood cells that the athlete has, the more red blood cells in the body.
greater the amount of oxygen that can be delivered to
the working muscles.

Vv Effects on anaerobic performance that are

An increase in the number of capillaries assists the body different from aerobic performance:
to manage the waste products as a result of exercise.
An increase in the number of capillaries helps the body
Vv to manage the waste products as a result of anaerobic
The extra cell ‘powerhouses’, mitochondria, assist the exercise.
athlete with aerobic performance, as they create energy
in the celi alongside the oxidative enzymes, which Vv
ensure that muscle fibres are supplied with oxygen so Oxidative enzymes work closely with the mitochondria
they can keep performing. This is needed to enable the and Type lla muscle fibres. These muscle fibres are
athlete to keep re-creating the same movements. fast glycolic which means that they work very hard for
a short period of time. It is these muscle fibres that
M4 are used in anaerobic performance to ensure that they
The outcome of altitude training is that performance can contract quickly and powerfully enabling anaerobic
increases because the red blood cells become more performance to take place.
efficient at getting oxygen to the tissues.
Vv
As a result of this, lactic acid is produced as a by-
product. However, the increase in the capillary network
means that the body is able to get rid of the waste
products more effectively and reduce the effect of ]'
onset blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). '
Vv |
OBLA occurs because of the changes in the acid/
alkali balance in the blood and enhances anaerobic
performance.

ce.
Summarise how the adaptations to altitude training affect anaerobic and aerobic performan

43
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! |_|

Equivalent altitude adaptations

at sea level
Training at high altitude is often very expensive and not easy or practical to do. However, there are
other ways to adapt to altitude which can be practised at sea level.

Hypoxic chambers How to use hypoxic chambers

Hypoxic chambers are used to simulate the effects Hypoxic chambers can be used as part of
of high altitude through a controlled process. a training programme, replacing an on-field
® The oxygen level can be controlled in the training session. Often this takes the shape
chamber. of a sprint training session using spinning

¢ The temperature and humidity can be manipulated. bikes.

¢ The chamber helps to replicate performance Conducting this activity in a chamber
conditions to train the body in becoming increases the demand on the cardiovascular...
more efficient when exposed to high altitude system while enabling the athlete to control
performance conditions. the type of exercise undertaken. ~ ig oe
oe Bee Se SN A ee! ee ee ee

When to use hypoxic chambers

It is essential to carefully manage the number of
_ sets and intervals within a hypoxic chamber.
This type of training can be used:
® as part of a maintenance programme between
competitions
¢ prior to performance to achieve the desired
training stimulus without the physical fatigue.
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Sleep high, train low

The theory behind this concept states that an athlete will acclimatise to altitude by:
* sleeping high — carrying out daily tasks and sleeping above sea level
* training low — the athlete trains as close to sea level as possible.
The purpose of this is to allow the athlete to experience the gains of altitude without having to endure
_ the negative effects. For this to work, it is recommended that the athlete needs to be exposed to ~ a
_ altitude for more than 12 hours a day for a minimum of a three-week period. Any less than this and the
effects of sleeping high, training low are significantly reduced. : .
the improvements seen in performance from doing this are substantial in events that last
longer than &
minutes. The research shows that athletes of all abilities have been able to benefit
from this process.
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1 What is a hypoxic chamber and why is it used?

2 Explain the sleep high and train low principle.
 Had a look [] Nearly there
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_ Nailed it! Liz]

Thermoregulation
Sody tenperdoure can Fuctente by several Gegrees
guting the day because of physical activity, ambient
tener zoe, Winess aid exctiors.

Thermoregulation
Dody temper zowre nicrezses ONG XETCBE ond tis increzses the metabolic rate. The hypothalamus in
Be An acts 2 the bodys thermontzt. tis Neves to control
the body's temperature at around 37°C
by 2 Bowe F specdised reyrore. i is important that this part
of the brain has a rich blood supply to
ve ae to wittidte 2 tesposse when temperature changes. This
process is known as i
8 <n be dtetved 2 the boA/s Aility tobe dhe to regdate
tts own temperature and is a vital
action.

+
| There 2 Sigificat erence between mes and females when t comes to thermoregulation.
_ ® Fengies goeAly swez. les tan males * Because temales rely on 2 lower sweat
4 eemwe Hey begn to swezt a higher core ONE ney ate considered to have greater
- BG SIO CEPA LONES. protection
from dehydration at higher
_ : * The teswerziwe tolerance between males tempersowes compared to males, This is
; 2d texdhes Eze He same. |
because males will swezt more in hotter |
| © This meses teat temdies rety on Grodiztory temperatures
and theretore lose a
: machatons tor Gesding neds. bn amour Of fvid compared to females.
great r
A Comte, “Aes tend to we ConWEON 20d * The suriace area to mass ratio in females
4 LYELL. Shows that they have 2 greater surtace area
exposed to the environment.
This means
that when compared to males in the same j
CONA women tend
ON to cool
S, quicker than
mahes. 4

Horneosrtazis
"WOMCIEASS & Ge Aili to see 2 balance between
_ Heat proportionate to
newt hose 20d test agin. The nervous system and _ intensity
mormomes ta tae body nee to control this. tt is also ) During exercise,
the amount of
CEES BEG as Gre matemance GF 2 constant irternal heat produced
by the body is
cufeoumes: aesiie Caanges occsttng tn the externa | proportionate to the level of
SUC OIEEe. intensity ; by the |
© The body kas 2 avaiber of bit mechasioms to help the individual. An example could be )
PTC GSEOOR CONIC BBB HOKE OAASS. someone who leads a sedentary :
* The typothalamwe in the brain helps to detect 2 rise in fest fe but wants to get fit and |
| temperature in the Dood begins running. They will sweat a
Se jt rer 7 lot in the first few weeks as they
* WOR
ms DIB BLP
ZZ BS EAESac GIFCABASS
BLAS LEGS= OPS Se to
progress towards 2 5-k run, but
ie Hip. Wits ie when seeding em occ, | stay on a 245 'the
* EIA CO IBNEE & to Gwett Te Dood towards he +4 ining schedule) the ie will ‘
smn autay trom the muses so that the heat is radiated scem easier 25 they become fitter.
Zw. SS eee

txgian the sole of the hypotnalamus in thermoregulation and homeostasis.

45
 Homeostasis and heat
loss methods
The body has a series of internal mechanisms that can be used to maintain homeostasis. There are a
number of ways that the body loses heat. Sweating is an evolutionary development that enables a
person to maintain a fairly constant internal body temperature. Sweating provides moisture which is
evaporated from the skin. This process enables the heat to be lost from the body as the moisture cools
down the skin.
. Convection
wy Water or air flows over the skin _. Conduction
and-carries away body-heat. | This requires heat-transfer |
This type of heat loss often from the body to the air or
happens in water. In application, * water.
when in water for a prolonged Conductive heat loss occurs
time, this is the quickest way when the skin is subjected to |
to lose body heat. The water cold air or water.
closest to the skin heats up. This The amount of heat = |
forms a warm layer around the conducted from the body to |
=) body. The more a person moves _ the air relies on the speed
of __ |
the greater the heat loss. the air flow.
In water, this can be critical _
because the body loses heat |
25 times faster than in air,

Four ways the body loses heat

Radiation
Ye This is the transfer of heat from
one object to another without
_ Evaporation
contact.- ~ -
wy this helps to prevent the body from
An athlete radiates heat towards
overheating. Water vapour is lost
cooler objects. The closer the
through breathing and sweating as the
temperature between the athlete
heat transfers from the body to the
and the object, the less heat is
surrounding environment. (Think about
lost by the athlete.
breathing on a cold day when you can
During rest, radiation is the main
see your breath as it hits the icy air.)
method used to lose heat.
In response to overheating, the sweat
glands secrete a saline fluid solution
through the pores of the skin, creating
sweat. The cooling process is achieved — |
as the sweat reaches the surface of the
skin and evaporates. a

Explain how convection, conduction, radiation and eva poration help to maintain a swimmer’s
body temperature
when competing in a hot climate.

46
 Had a look a Nearly there bass Nailed it! |_|

_ Body responses to excessive heat

The body has two main responses when exposed to prolonged periods of excessive heat during sport
and exercise performance: hyperthermia and dehydration.

Hyperthermia Dehydration
_ Hyperthermia occurs when the body is unable Dehydration occurs when the body loses
to maintain homeostasis because the increase excessive water. This can be caused by excessive
_ in temperature cannot be managed. The body sweating and not drinking enough fluid to
becomes unable to lose the excess heat. counteract the amount of water lost.
_ Symptoms include: Symptoms include:
® excessive sweating ° tiredness
_ @ headache © irritability
® nausea © fainting
© dizziness © muscle cramps
© hyperventilation. © loss of performance.
(| a wa a a a ee i a a ee a a a ae ae ee

Why does hyperthermia Why does dehydration happen?

_happen? Dehydration happens when the amount of water
expelled by the body is greater than that taken in.
Hyperthermia happens as the body becomes
overexposed to hot and humid conditions. This creates a negative fluid balance. This negative
balance can have a series of serious consequences
_ It is this overexposure that causes the usual
for the body such as low blood plasma levels. This
_ heat loss processes to become ineffective.
affects the blood volume that is needed to maintain
This can lead to a core temperature of over
_cardiovascular function.
“| 40°C.
¢ Plasma makes up 55 per cent of the blood volume
_ When this occurs:
so when this is reduced the volume naturally
¢ the metabolic rate increases along with an decreases.
‘increase in heat production
° However, once an individual replenishes the water
© this process causes the skin to become lost, the volume of blood increases, as does plasma
dry and hot because the body cannot production.
produce sweat or use any other of the
During exercise or through heat exposure the body
heat loss mechanisms that prevent the
perspires to reduce the internal body temperature.
body from losing excess heat
® When an individual sweats a lot, it becomes difficult
© the internal temperature can adversely
to maintain electrolyte balance.
affect the organs, creating the likelihood
of internal damage. °e Excessive sweating can lead to salt depletion
because this electrolyte is lost through sweat.
L) Link To revise homeostasis and heat _
G simi loss methods, see page AG.
Sfp ANSARI EDL SL OLE

3 et a st ee eR Oe eee Ue ee Ue ee le oe ee
me 2k ee Oe ea

Combating hyperthermia Combating dehydration

The most effective way to reduce core body To reverse the effects of dehydration,
temperature when internal heat loss mechanisms an individual must drink plenty of fluids
become ineffective is to cool the body in water. This to restore fluid balance.
promotes convection. The individual should also be
given fluids to help lower the core body temperature. |

} i et el ae fn a a ek ee ee ee

Explain the symptoms and effect on the body of both hyperthermia and dehydration.

47
 Body adaptations te excessive heat
The body adapts to excessive heat during sport and exercise performance. Here are four adaptions:

2) Reduced electrolyte
Gy Increased sweat production concentration insweat
Sweat is produced to help the body to dissipate
the excess heat that is generated through physical This occurs as a reaction to increased sweat
activity. As the exercise intensity increases, the body production. The electrolytes found pndchibctote
has to work harder to meet the demands. This results include sodium, chloride, magnesium, calcium
in more heat being generated by the body, which in and potassium.
turn means that the body has to work hard to get rid © The concentration of electrolytes in sweat
of the excess heat. One of the most effective ways can vary significantly. This is based on
of doing this is by the body producing sweat, which the rate of sweating, state of training and
acts as a cooling mechanism allowing evaporation the state of acclimatisation. The fitter the
to occur. athlete, the lower the concentration of
electrolytes that are lost in sweat. This _
is because the athlete is able to meet
the demands of the environment more. ——_|
effectively.
¢ On average an individual can lose 2-3
litres of fluid per hour when performing
high-intensity exercise. The loss of sodium
and other electrolytes can be significant.
e The greater the exposure to excess heat, |
the more effective the body becomes at —_|
dealing with it, which, over time, reduces
the amount of electrolytes lost through —
sweat.
¢ It is important that electrolytes are
replaced. If this does not happen the
nervous system becomes inhibited. In
extreme cases the sustained loss of _
electrolytes can be fatal.

Increased blood plasma volume 4 | Earlier onset of sweating

Plasma makes up 55 per cent of the blood volume so When training at high temperatures
when this is reduced the volume naturally decreases. the body adapts to excessive heat by
This adaptation occurs when an athlete becomes beginning to sweat sooner than it would
acclimatised to the heat exposure. When training at high at lower temperatures. This allows the
temperatures the body is stimulated to produce more body to prepare for excessive heat
plasma in the blood. This helps the athlete to produce, a and to be able to maintain the body’ Ss
higher VO, max and a greater cardiac output. _ temperature.

ee
ee ee eee
me ee ts eet ce ee od
: " : = — —~f

Explain how the body adapts to maintain body temperature

when performing in excessive heat.

48
 Had a look i | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! Lal

Impact of adaptations to excessive

heat on performance
The way the body deals with excessive heat and the adaptations this causes, can have an effect on both
_ anaerobic and aerobic performance. The intensity of the exercise will have an effect on the impact of
the adaptations.

Aerobic performance Anaerobic performance

Aerobic performance utilises oxygen to Anaerobic performance does not use oxygen to help
help the athlete meet the demands of the the athlete perform at an exceptionally high intensity,
environment. for a very short duration. This is in contrast to
¢ It usually lasts for longer than two minutes. aerobic performance.
Before this period, the body relies on © It usually lasts for less than two minutes.
is the anaerobic energy system and the ° It requires athletes to utilise their fast-twitch
fast-twitch muscle fibres. jmusclehbres. ;
___* With aerobic performance the body ¢ In anaerobic performance, sweat production occurs
produces sweat to maintain homeostasis. but it tends to be short-lived.
— — The amount of sweat produced depends . Due to the short duration of anaerobic performance,
on the intensity of the performance — the body often processes the heat loss mechanisms
the higher the intensity, the greater the towards the end of, or after, the event.
amount of sweat produced.
© The amount of sweat produced is also
_ affected by activity duration: 2-3 litres
of fluid can be lost through sweat with
prolonged intensive aerobic exercise.
® The body naturally expels some
electrolytes in the sweat produced.
However, the greater the exposure to a
rise in temperature, the more effective
the body becomes in reducing the number
of electrolytes lost through sweat. This
means that the athleteis more efficient at_
meeting the environmental demands.

_Keroebic performance and Anaerobic performance and blood

blood plasma plasma
Aerobic performance utilises the During anaerobic performance the body will divert blood
increase in the blood plasma volume flow from the organs towards the working muscles. After
to ensure that effective cardiac the performance, the blood is sent to the skin, away
- functioning continues. The athlete must from the muscles, to help get rid of the excess heat.
_ remain hydrated in prolonged aerobic This affects the working muscles and can cause cramping
a performance to avoid dehydration. because the muscles are deprived of oxygen and nutrients.
| Dehydration has a profound impact on The waste products that are created during anaerobic
- blood plasma because it consists of high exercise cannot be got rid of due to the initial decrease in
__levels of water. blood flow.
a a ot a oe ee
ae a ae a oe a oe or
ee

10000-m race.
- Explain how performing in excessive heat affects performances in a 100-m sprint and a

49
 ‘ are eh Oa ee

Ways of reducing heat loss

away from the muscles to
When an individual is exposed to the cold, the blood flow changes and diverts
reduces the amount of heat
the organs so that the core is protected from the cold for longer. The body
lost from the body using four internal mechanisms.

1) Vasoconstriction and trapping of warm air by body hair

Vasoconstriction is an automatic response that relies on the hypothalamus to detect
a decrease in the temperature. When this occurs the body responds in three ways.

Step 2: The erect

hairs trap the warm
air close to the skin.

Step 3: The blood

flow. in the capillaries
is reduced as the
_body diverts the TEENIE ES NOPE TT ETT OTT PRON
OSI

blood flow to the Step 1: The muscles

|_ central core rather around the root of the
than the extremities. hair on the arms and legs
contract, enabling the
hairs to stand up on end.

Blood vessels

Be Gy shivering. ae tu a SS ene
Similar to vasoconstriction, shivering is also an automatic response, without conscious thought, to
feeling cold.
¢ Shivering occurs as the skeletal muscle makes small movements to generate heat by expanding kinetic
energy.
® |t commonly y occurs when an individual’s core body Me temperature drops.
¢ The purpose of shivering is the body’s attempt to generate heat to raise the internal temperature |
and maintain homeostasis. |
|

et WN BS Mt Tt a MS Oe Oe a PE a ee he ee oe ee ee ue re el Ue Ue Cl le lc CU lle

© Shivering thermogenesis € Non-shivering thermogenesis

_ This is a thermogenic process which This process is slightly different from the other type
involves the involuntary contraction of of shivering as it occurs in the adipose tissue. This
_ muscles, producing heat. This process _involves cellular reactions, which enable energy from -
involves ATP being transferred into free fatty acids to be used throughout the body as heat.
kinetic energy, which results in heat being This process can occur in the body without the individual _-
produced. knowing as there are no physical movements created by
the body. ; ain
sel elleees ciel anes alee i ae i ee

Now try this |

Explain how the body combats heat loss to maintain a constant body temperature during sports performance.

50
 Had a look a Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|

The effects ef extreme cold

_ Extreme cold can have a profound effect on the body during sport and exercise performance.

Hypothermia Frostbite
_ Hypothermia is defined as the lowering of the Frostbite is when exposed skin can freeze when
core body temperature below 35°. the ambient temperature is lowered a few degrees
_ © Hypothermia is often diagnosed using below freezing.
body temperature and also the length of © It causes damage to the skin and tissue by
exposure. prolonged exposure to the cold.
¢ If an individual’s body temperature is ° The body responds to cold temperatures through
between 32°-35° it is classified as mild a process of vasoconstriction of blood vessels
hypothermia. to the extremities as blood is diverted to the
_ © Once a person’s body temperature drops core of the body to supply the organs with
below 32° then it is classified as severe blood.
hypothermia. Symptoms include:
_ Symptoms include: ® tingling
¢ slower breathing rate © burning
¢ lower blood pressure © numbness
_..._.* decrease in heart rate ° red, white, bluish-white or greyish-yellow skin.
° drowsiness.
= 2S se We Re Re Et et oe ee a oe SO On

Why does hypothermia Why does frostbite occur?

_ eccur? When the extremities are exposed to freezing conditions
and are not suitably covered up with protective clothing,
_ Hypothermia occurs when the body
the tissues can begin to die.
temperature is lowered due to
_ prolonged exposure to the cold. © This is because the blood supply to these areas is
reduced, which means that the cells are being deprived
© Hypothermia develops when the
of oxygen.
rate of heat loss from the body
exceeds the rate at which the body is © The fluid in the tissues freezes into ice crystals, which
producing heat. causes significant cellular damage.
© Hypothermia is classified in two parts ° The nose, ears, toes and fingers are prone to
— acute and subacute. superficial frostbite.
© Acute hypothermia is when a body °¢ Deep frostbite begins superficially but can progress
is exposed to the cold for a short from the freezing of the skin to the muscles and
duration. However, the cold stress tendons.
exceeds the body’s ability to maintain
core body temperature despite
maximum heat production.
~ @ In contrast, subacute hypothermia is
when theindividual has been exposed
to the cold for a prolonged period of
time. The body becomes exhausted as
the energy reserves begin to deplete.
e \f the body temperature goes below
29°C, this is classified as chronic
hypothermia. If this is not treated
| quickly it can be fatal.
i
a Gon | oa «6 |S wat 3398 2 Pi ot it ae tt ae ee ee a ee

Explain how the symptoms of both hypothermia and frostbite affect the body.

51
 I ce a

Had alook |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Your Unit 1 exam

Your Unit 1 exam will be set by Pearson and could cover any of the essential content in the unit. You can
revise the unit content in this Revision Guide. This skills section is designed to revise skills that might
_ be needed in your exam.

Exam checklist Check the Pearson website

Before your exam, make sure you: The questions provided in this section are designed
VW) Have a black pen you like and at to demonstrate the skills that might be needed
least one spare in your exam. The details of your actual exam may
change from year to year so always make sure you _
Have double-checked the time and
are up to date. Check the Pearson website for the
date of your exam
Get a good night’s sleep most up-to-date Sample Assessment Material to | |
4 understand the structure of your paper and how
much time you are allowed.

Short-answer questions
Using case studies see page 54 ‘State’ and ‘Name’ questions
see page 53 see page 55

Concise answers v ‘Give’ and ‘Identify’ questions — :

see page 65 Be see page 56

_-——"‘ Describe’ questions |

‘To what extent’ questions——___
7 ae OPT ae
peekese ee | Exam skills _|
aia cee ~ ‘Explain’ questions
‘Evaluate’ questions see page 55

aN
see page S3

Long-answer questions
‘Analyse’ questions”
see page G2 see page 59
‘Assess’ questions
‘Discuss’ questions
see page GO
see page 61

A we We see foe "

Visit the Pearson website and find the page containing the course
materials for BTEC National Sport and Exercise Science. Look at the
latest Unit 1 Sample Assessment Material (SAM) to get an indication of:
e the paper you have to take and whether it is in parts
¢ how much time is allowed
e how many marks are allocated
* what types of questions appear on the paper.

52
 Had a look |_| Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

Using case studies

Here are some examples of skills involved if reading case studies and answering questions
based on them.

Applying knowledge and understanding

Case studies use realistic situations such as individuals in different sporting contexts. Always read
case studies carefully so that you can apply knowledge and understanding about:
° how the body responds to sport and exercise sessions
*° fatigue and how the body recovers from exercise
° the adaptations that occur to the body systems following both short- and long-term exposure to
exercise
° the effects that training and performing in different environments can have on aerobic and
anaerobic performances.

Worked example §
Henry is a 17-year-old male. He took part in a
cycling event that covered 300 miles. The ride was
divided into three stages on three different types
of terrain. Before each stage Henry ate a healthy
meal. During the cycling event Henry consumed
carbohydrate gels at hourly intervals.

Explain why Henry consumes carbohydrate

gels during the 300-mile cycling event.

Henry will have a limited store of carbohydrate

in his muscles. He will need more
carbohydrates during the event to give him the ~
energy to finish each stage. By taking on board SN
more carbohydrates while completing the event | ita =
he will be able to cycle each stage faster
because he will have more energy. | oe
fe)Links Wg ee :oe

To revise explain questions, see page 56.

a ht a x a eS Oe ee ee a le 22 SS Ge ee ae am ET Pt ae at eH Re eet ee a ele
st it Ga we ct
! 3 2 “

—T
Henry uses muscles to carry on sustaining continuous movements

13 without fatigue, enabling him to complete each stage of the race.

Explain when each muscle fibre type is dominant during Henry's

cycling event. P tinks| To revise muscle fibre
. G recruitment, see page 3.
 Short-answer questions
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering questions that require short answers, testing
_ your knowledge and understanding.
Name Give

Eats Short-answer Identify

command words

Describe

{ worked example
Chloe is a 21-year-old international rugby player. Chloe's heart
rate is monitored throughout a match to see how much it varies
when compared to her resting heart rate.

~ Identify and describe the role of different receptors involved in :

increasing Chloe’s heart rate. :

Chloe’s heart rate increases due to the chemoreceptors

detecting an increase in carbon dioxide levels in the
-_ blood. The proprioceptors detect an increase in muscular ~~ a 4
_ contractions. It is the role of the baroreceptors to 4 CS s revise sensory. fm
_ detect a decrease in blood pressure. ; ee see vad: 4 |

| Worked example

Saeed is a 28-year-old male international elite endurance athlete. Three

times a year, before international competitions, he will train at high altitude.

Explain two physiological effects on Saeed of training at altitude. :

There are a number of physiological effects of training at altitude.

The first is an increase in breathing rate and the second is an
increase in heart rate. This is a short-term effect when exposed
_ to altitude. At altitude the body has to work harder to deliver
oxygen to the working muscles. When Saeed returns to sea level,
there will be a higher concentration of haemoglobin in the blood. : nce wher
| _ This means he will be able to take on board more oxygen, which will athlete returns to se
_ enhance his performance as more oxygen will be available without = Soemmnrreeerrermpeereet
having to work any harder. sre
gigs, bs a Be os me Se spe BS To reviseote adap
fe)Links|of the body to gf ss
se altitudes S66)fade “rts ais

Remember that Be
i. se
Now try this|
waeme—AeMoaglol
7 L | |
Using the example of Saeed, explain why it is most beneficial J
]
for an athlete to train at 2400 m above sea level.

54
 Had a look | | Nearly there [| Nailed it! Pe|

‘State’ and ‘Name’ questions

ene: are some examples of skills involved if answering State and Name questions, which might ask for a
definition or example relating to exercise physiology.

}
= worked example

Cezary has developed a twelve-week weightlifting

training programme to train all major muscle
groups. For the first six weeks, he trained each
muscle group twice a week. In the last six weeks, he
increased this to three times a week. During
weightlifting exercises, the muscular system
responds by recruiting muscle fibres so that he is
able to create sufficient force to lift the weight.

State three other responses of Cezary’s muscular

system when carrying out a weight
~ training session.

; responses
You can reviise se resp
tissues.
Increased blood flow to the muscle
1.
Tz of the muscle system to
—~ 2 Increase in temperature of the muscles. training on pages 3-4.
3 Increase in muscle pliability.

=a Worked example
Cezary has really enjoyed his training programme
but after the twelve weeks his coach has become
concerned that he is training too much.

Name two physiological effects that overtraining will

have on Cezary’s body.

You can revise the physiological

1 Insufficient rest periods to repair muscles. effects of overtraining on page 28. —
_.. 2 Excess adrenaline.

in the
Thanai is a 21-year-old swimmer. She is on the verge ofgetting a place t) j You can revise
to stop Links are
national team for which she needs to train a lot. She doesn't want ning
overtrai and
training at her local swimming club but in order to achieve her dream she performance on page 27.
to
needs to move clubs to support her development further. Thanai wants
happy and is training for both teams (three times a week for
keep both coaches
this
her local club and four times a week for the new club). Thanai thinks that
amount of training will enhance her performa nce.

State the impact that this training will have on Thanai’s performance.
 ‘Give’ and ‘Identify questions
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Give and Identify questions. In Give questions
you can provide examples, justifications and/or reasons to a context. In Identify questions you assess
factual information that may require a single word answer although sometimes a few words or a maximum
of a single sentence are required.

Worked example

John is a trail bike rider who has recently broken his arm
during a competition. There are two types of bone cells
that are needed to help the bone reform. These are called
osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

Give a definition of the terms osteoblast and

osteoclast. 2marks fexy

1 Osteoblasts are specialised bone cells that build 7 Nath Site |

ie You can revise osteoblast and at
new bone tissues.
osteoclast activity on page 1
2 Osteoclasts are large cells that destroy bone
- skeletalabanadiaeonned oo,
cells. They reabsorb calcium and play a fundamental . re

role in remodelling.

Worked example

Lauren is John’s partner. She is training for the next

competition and her cardiovascular system is responding to
exercise.

Identify the cardiac cycle sequence in Lauren’s

Systole occurs first followed by diastole.

Se Oo at
@ You can revise th e Carl 4{
Lauren feels her heart rate increasing as she continues to
7Links)system on Pages 9-13 ~ -—
exercise. Give the reason why stroke volume increases during ees ee onie 33.
exercise. 2 marks |S aainaiassiaesibmemeaes= us
i
i

During exercise, blood flow increases quickly to allow &

more oxygen to be carried to the skeletal muscles.

Becky is a marathon runner who is about to compete in her seventh London

Marathon. She is learning about Starling’s law and how it relates to her training.

Identify two responses by Becky's body that form Starlings law.

56
 Had a look ct Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|

‘Describe’ questions
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering a Describe question where
you give an account, or
_ details of ‘something’, or give an account of a ‘process’.
. . i .

Worked example

1 Describe two types of muscle contraction that can

occur during exercise.
2 Describe the energy systems used ina triple jump
mie vs an ice hockey match. i

& | ,
=m Worked example
) MMR You can revise the
|
and energ
y continuum on
E fe) 22 ks|
page Lin system adaptations on
Zz| Richa j s canoeing in his spare time. The sport is very
i rd enjoy
~~~ | demanding and relies heavily on one energy system. es

--.. Describe the term ‘onset of blood lactate accumulation’ (OBLA) and abs cae
what it does to Richard’s body when the levels increase.

__
OBLA is the level above which blood lactate is produced
_.
faster than it can be used aerobically by the body.
This level is termed the lactate threshold. When an athlete
_ such as Richard continues to exercise above the lactate
threshold the hydrogen ions continue to accumulate in
|, the muscle tissue. This causes the muscle to fatigue more
~~~ quickly because it is not able to work effectively. This can
_ also result in intramuscular pain.

ie a a a a ee ee ee ee ee

Liz is a club-level gymnast who has recently returned to the sport after
a six-month break due to dislocating her shoulder during a routine on
the rings. She is now ready to commence training again. Liz and her
coach have created an eight-week training programme which works
on improving the strength in her shoulder joint.
fe)Links|To revise skeletal
CE adaptations, see
page 31 and to revise responses
of the cardiovascular system to
exercise, see page 33.
cag mentee teerertnny

Describe how this training programme would increase the strength in

Liz's bones.

57
 Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

‘Explain’ questions —
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Explain questions, where you show your
of your
understanding by making a point or statement and then providing a justification or expansion
point or statement.

Ml worked example Ea
Table 1 shows the redistribution of blood during exercise.

[Organ At rest (cm? per min) |Maximum effort (cm? per min)
Skeletal muscles 1000 26000

Whole body

When a person exercises there is an increase in COz levels in the

blood, which causes the pH levels in the blood to rise. This is
recognised by the chemoreceptors. Vasodilation occurs in areas that , Paheeneeempeaveronences

require more oxygenated blood such as the working muscles. During Rese
exercise blood is diverted away from the organs that do not need so . fo)Links| Look at pages |
much blood during exercise such as the liver, kidneys and intestines. I-13 to revise |
au the cardiovascular system and _
erat cae es as igi Fe ea ie Sa eae Mug oe Fe Se aA ee 15 to revise sensory —
tors.
Worked example ae.
_ Explain why blood flow to the brain remains the same during
rest and during maximum effort.

In Table 1, the brain is the only organ where distribution of blood

flow remains constant. It is essential that the flow of blood to the
brain is the same during rest and exercise to ensure that the organ
is able to function continuously. This is because the brain is a vital
organ, which is responsible for controlling automatic body functions Een
SaESSeninerenaasapcins

such as breathing, digestion and heartbeat, closely supported by M

the nervous system. Due to the complexity of this organ in sustaining ©
unconscious processes it needs a constant supply of oxygen and
te Look at page 13
F fe) Links to revise changes
nutrients regardless of whether an individual is at rest or exercise. in blood. —
“ela a

TD
at , Suet Bias ded sos i ae

Now try this Bae

uy Mee a a | y

a oY Links ae at page9 to revise cardiac output

: : ; G . and how it changes with exerci: 3 aa =.
Cardiac output increases during physical exercise. Ee MN ARIE i
Explain how intrinsic control mechanisms cause cardiac output to increase during exercise.

58
 Had a look [| Nearly there [| Nailed it! fal

Long-answer questions
_ Here are some examples of skills involved if answering questions that require long answers.

MW worked example }
Show your skills
Consider how your response
Louise is a modern heptathlete who has been competing on the to long-answer questions
world-wide stage for three years. She is in her final preparation phase might show the following
for the Olympics, which includes exposure to altitude training as part qualities: _
of her long-term aerobic training programme. ° demonstrate accurate
_ Evaluate the impact that long-term aerobic training will have on the knowledge and
understanding
efficiency of Louise's respiratory system.
® provide sustained
references to relevant
information in relation to
Improvements to the efficiency of Louvise’s respiratory system the context of the question
will be seen within the first few weeks of aerobic training. The ° show well-developed and
respiratory system becomes more efficient and is able to carry : logical chains of reasoning
_.... more oxygen in the blood to supply the working muscles. This ¢ demonstrate good |
is partly because the muscles around the lungs are stronger organisation, clarity and |
’ _ and able to inflate them to a greater level, which increases lung __use of technical language.
_ Capacity.
Similarly, the blood supply to the alveoli increases as the
capillary density becomes greater. This allows a greater amount
of O2 to be diffused into the blood and CO. to be removed
efficiently, increasing the rate at which gaseous exchange can
occur. The capillary density increases around muscle tissue,
} enabling muscle and tissue diffusion as oxygen is supplied to the é
muscle tissue and the waste products created are carried away.
. Interrial respiration becomes more efficient, which is
| demonstrated by an increase between a-VOz and aVCOz
differences. During long-term aerobic training, Lovise’s
respiratory muscles such as the intercostal, abdominals and
diaphragm will strengthen, allowing for an increased depth of
_... breathing, resulting in a decrease in breathing frequencies. A ’ of)Links biscan revise the
_ further impact is that long-term aerobic training leads to an G respiratory system on
—— ‘ increase in maximal minute ventilation, increased tidal volume, pages 5-7, the energy continuum
and increased vital capacity. All of these increases will help to on page 22, respiratory adaptations
support Louise in her performance because her body will able on page 32 and the impact of
to deliver oxygen to the working muscles more efficiently. In adaptations on performance on
addition, she’ll use less breaths due to the increases found in page 43.
| _ lung volumes and capacities.
All of these identified physiological adaptations as a result of
-—-- long-term aerobic training would result in an increased
[Link] and increased endurance capabilities, which will delay
~~ the onset of blood lactate accumulation. This helps to reduce
respiratory fatigue.

As part of Louise’s modern heptathlon training, she trains under oY inks can revise high
altitude conditions as part of a pre-completion training programme. G altitude and the
responses and adaptations of the
Fvaluate the effect of altitude on Louise's respiratory system when body systems on pages 40-43.
performing at different intensities of physical activity.
 Had alook [|_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [_|

‘Assess’ questions
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Assess questions where you present a careful
consideration of varied factors or events that apply to a specific situation or identify those that are the
_ most important or relevant to arrive at a conclusion.

Worked example |

In the London Olympics 2012, the Men's 400-metre title was won with a time of 43.94
seconds. Steve is a 400-metre runner and is training to improve his performance.

Assess how energy is provided for an athlete such as Steve to runa

_. 400-metre race. a

_ The energy system used is predominately anaerobic. The alactic system

will be used to provide energy for the first 5-10 seconds of exercise.
| This energy system is the first to be used during the first few seconds
of exercise as it is readily available in a short supply. The initial burst of
energy will have come directly from the adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
which is stored in the muscles. The ATP breaks down to provide the initial -
energy for the first few seconds. This occurs because ATP is broken .
down as a phosphate. This then creates ADP +P + energy. Following the
initial 5-10 seconds, the energy system relies on anaerobic glycolysis or
_ the lactic acid system. This system can last from one to three minutes of
intense activity without the presence of oxygen.
During intense exercise the glycogen stored in the muscle provides an
energy source through anaerobic glycolysis. As a result of using this
energy system, lactate is formed. This is because pyruvate is converted
into lactate due to the body being unable to oxidise the hydrogens that
form as part of glycolysis.
Within a 400-metre race, a runner such as Steve is heavily reliant on
anaerobic glycolysis as the main energy source. The longer an athlete
relies on this system the more lactic acid is produced. When lactic acid
__ enters the blood stream it is carried to the liver and is broken down.
_ However, the longer an athlete is exposed to anaerobic glycolysis, the |
more lactic acid is produced. Within high intensity activities, often the SuEESEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEee el
production of lactate happens at a faster rate than the body can break
it down. The increased production of lactic acid results in the pH of the
blood decreasing. A blood pH of 6.4 or lower affects muscle functioning.
Being exposed to low pH levels for a long period of time will prevent
Steve from being able to make repeated muscle contractions. Onset of
blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) will occur within the 400-meter race
as the acidity levels in the blood increases to over 4mmol. Commonly,
it is considered that OBLA occurs when an individual is working between
- 65-90% of their maximum heart rate.

Stuart is a marathon runner. He is keen to improve his performance

to get a faster time. His coach talks about improving his maximal
oxygen consumption.

Assess the impact that maximal oxygen consumption has on Stuart's

performance.

60
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‘Discuss’ questions
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Discuss questions, where you identify the issue,
| situation, problem or argument that is being assessed in the question given, exploring all aspects and
_ investigating fully.

Worked example

Athenia is a keen hockey player who trains three times

| a week. Due to the nature of the sport Athenia’s training
programme consists of both aerobic and anaerobic
exercises, which replicate the energy systems used
throughout a hockey match.

Discuss the effect of long-term aerobic training on

_ Athenia’s respiratory system.

[Sample response extract

__ There are a number of effects that Athenia will
experience after completing a long-term aerobic .
___training programme. Within the first few weeks there |
will be a noticeable improvement in the efficiency of |
the respiratory system. This efficiency will enable
_ the body to take in more oxygen, which in turn will
mean that there is a greater supply of oxygen to
4 the muscles.
The lungs will also adapt, increasing capillary
_.. density in the walls of the alveoli. This increase
promotes a greater gaseous exchange leading to a
higher saturation of oxyhaemoglobin to supply the
working muscles with the nutrients that are needed.
Similarly, like other muscles in the body, the
- respiratory muscles increase in strength the more
they are trained, which increases the efficiency
of breathing by enhancing lung volumes. This then
_ reduces the breathing frequency as efficiency
enhances. These changes positively support
_ Athenia’s hockey performances causing the Ate
=) respiratory You can revise the cardiovascular
pir y system
y to become more efficient, é fe) tinks| eel on Nice 9-13.
enabling an increase in her VOz max. ier ON REPRE
OER RATERS I

You can revise the

Health professionals believe that people such as Athenia, who adopt
a healthy and active lifestyle over a number of years, will gain many e/ cardiovascular system
health benefits. on pages 9-13, energy systems on
if
A
pages 18-22 and cardiovascular
Discuss the impact that Athenia’s endurance activities have on her adaptations on page 33.
cardiovascular system.

61
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‘Analyse’ questions _
you explore in detail
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Analyse questions, where
This may involve breaking
and discover the meaning or essential features of a theme, topic or situation.
To identify separate
something down into its components or examining factors methodically, with detail.
_ factors, say how they are related, and explain how each one contributes to the topic.

! worked example
Olimatou is an experienced marathon runner. She is competing
in the New York Marathon in a few days. However, New York is
currently in the middle of a heatwave, which is causing concern for
a number of athletes.

: Analyse the effects of exposure to excessive heat on

~ Olimatou’s body. P10 marks

The body loses heat through a variety of different ways.

However, when exposed to excessive heat the body can
struggle to get rid of the heat that is generated through
exercise.
If Olimatou is exposed to long periods of excessive heat
_ two responses can occur — hyperthermia and dehydration.
Hyperthermia occurs when the body is not able to
maintain homeostasis as the temperature cannot be
managed. Hyperthermia happens because the body
becomes overexposed to hot and humid conditions. This
overexposure prevents the body being able to lose heat
through convection, conduction, radiation and
evaporation.
Dehydration can also occur as a result of this due to the
amount of fluid lost through sweating. Dehydration will
occur in this case if Olimatou cannot take on more water
than the amount lost through increased sweat production.
As we sweat we lose electrolytes. When an individual
experiences excessive sweating the ions in the body
become lower. The reduction of electrolytes in the body
disrupts the body’s ability to regulate the flow of water
across the cell membrane. This also reduces the levels of
electrolytes found in sweat. ‘ VouUncanteVice™ walt: anne
Links be nel
If Olimatou becomes unable to restore the negative iQ) thermoregulation and
fluid balance, the level of blood plasma will be reduced. ! heat loss on pages 45-46, ; Ic
This in turn will make the blood thicker, which requires responses, adaptation and impact
the cardiovascular system to work harder, increasing of excessive heat on performance
Olimatou’s cardiac output as the heart rate increases. |, Gn pages 42.4. 2 re Zien o£
Z I Psat © cera sy a
se ER PRS EE HR TINTS SOY REN CET

) ‘e/Link
Analyse the effect that overtraining could have on Olimatou’s body. Shah ssroass 27.
on pages 27- 26) ©
SSSR RON

62
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‘Evaluate’ questions
_ Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Evaluate questions, where you review information
before bringing it together to form a conclusion or supported judgement of a subject’s qualities in
_ relation to its context. Drawing on evidence such as strengths, weaknesses, alternative actions, relevant
_ data or information, will all help to write an informed response.

Worked example

Meena is an up and coming golf star. She has enjoyed playing golf
from the age of 7. She is now 12 years old and is the Regional Final
winner. She has just entered the Junior European Championships
where she hopesto come within the top five players, even though
she will be one of the youngest competing.

_ Evaluate the effects of an impact sport and repetitive

~ action sport, such as golf, on the skeletal system of an
adolescent performer like Meena. ;

The sport of golf requires that performers repeatedly

perform the same movements over and over again
throughout training and competitions.
There are a number of positive effects that repetitive
actions have on the skeletal system. A performer who
falls within the adolescent bracket will be undergoing
physiological changes to their skeletal system.
-—-.In the case of Meena, at her age she will have an increased
bone density, which means that she has an increased level
~~ of calcium in the bones. This helps to strengthen and
thicken skeletal bones. This process assists to prevent
injuries because there is a greater level of minerals found
in the spine at this point, which helps to protect against
stress fractures. It is commonly known that adolescents are
prone to osteoporosis. By being involved in sports that ;
require repetitive actions, the conditions that lead to this
occurring can be prevented by greater bone density.
In addition to the strengthening of the bones, the
stability of the joints increases as the ligaments and
tendons become stronger. This also helps to increase ©
j "mus cle tone. Sports such as golf strengthen the
rotator
___ cuff muscles to help prevent injury to the shoulder joint 6)Links hican revise the
such as dislocations, sprains or fractures. As well as the G © skeletal system on |
- pages 1-2, recovery of the musco- —
_.. strengthening of the rotator cuff muscles, Meena’s postural
muscles will increase in strength too, helping to prevent skeletal system on page 26 and |
3 1 an injury to the lower back. This is because the supporting — adaptations of the skeletal system |
muscles will be able to cope with the pressure created in on page 29.
the lumbar spine during a golf swing.

Continue the answer by evaluating what the negative effects of repetitive action of an impact sport on Meena’s
skeletal system would be.
 Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

‘To what extent’ questions

lf answering To what extent questions, you review information, then bring it together to form a
_ judgement or conclusion, providing a balanced and reasoned argument.

Worked example

Bob is a 19-year-old sports student who enjoys taking part in sport and exercise. He has
just started a sports course at college and wants to know more about the endocrine
system as part of his sport and exercise performance.

To what extent does the endocrine system support Bob’s performance?

- The endocrine system consists of a series of organs and tissues that secrete a
range of hormones in response to a change of physical or psychological stress.
_ There are a number of hormones that are produced by the body and secreted in
moments of perceived or physical stress. The first to be discussed is the effect
of adrenaline on Bob’s performance. This hormone is found in the adrenal glands.
Its purpose is to increase breathing, metabolic and heart rate. This assists the
body by increasing the amount of oxygen to the blood to be supplied to the
muscles. This supports the muscles in being able to make repeated contractions
without fatigue.
Noradrenaline is similar to adrenaline in terms of its properties and is also
found within the adrenal glands. The role of this hormone is to act as a
neurotransmitter to relay signals between nerve cells. It is the role of the
neurotransmitters to work with Bob’s body and brain to sustain life.
Cortisol is a hormone that is closely linked with stress. This hormone supresses
| the immune system and increases blood sugar levels within the blood. This is
_ because cortisol assists in improving the metabolism of macronutrients.
level of these 1C-17 to ae te ree
_ Testosterone and oestrogen are found in all humans. However, the
hormones found in the blood will depend on whether the individual is male or endocrine system and
female. As a male, Bob would tend to have a greater amount of testosterone page 35 to revise
whereas women have more oestrogen. This is because testosterone is the male ne adaniallae
endocrine:
sex hormone and is involved in the development of muscle growth, strength Eg ER RO TRITON eae TT aD Se
Sennen |

and development of muscle tissue. In contrast, oestrogen is the female sex

hormone. An abundance of this hormone can inhibit bone resorption.
Human growth hormone (HGH) is produced by the body and secreted by the
pituitary gland. This hormone enhances Bob’s body growth and lengthens bones.
_ This hormone is sometimes taken in tablet form by athletes to assist them with | -——- - ar
their performance. Despite it being produced by the body, it is also considered —
to be a banned substance in a variety of gid nea ah sports when found overa ~< a
all tolerance level. :

Gail is a hockey goalkeeper for her local club. She has noticed that before she ac :
competes in a match her heart rate goes up and she begins to feel nervous. _ to revise te
To what extent does the endocrine system prepare Gail's body for competing in her hockey match?

64
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Concise answers
Here are some examples of skills involved when answering a question concisely. Being concise means
_ answering a question without adding unnecessary information.

a worked example Bae aes

| Roger is 64 years old. He enjoys going for walks ;
| with friends and playing bowls at the local club. é

__... When exercising, Roger's respiratory system plays an

_ important role in gaseous exchange. Describe the : OE can revise the respiratory :
—- structural features of the lungs that assist gaseous ieee ON Agee ai ane
exchange, (eee
r

( sample response extract |

1 The alveoli are small air sacs found in the
lungs. They look like a small broccoli branch —
ye with the branch being the bronchioles and
the head of the broccoli being the sac at
an the end. The alveoli provide a large surface
area to allow the diffusion of gases in and
3 out of the blood.
_ 2 The blood supply surrounding the alveoli is
ao | good as it wraps around the alveoli sac.
~~~. 3 The walls are one-cell thick in the
_ capillaries, which enables the gases to
~~ transferin and out quickly due to the thin
walls and the short distance that they need
to travel for diffusion to occur. '

/- 4. The alveoli in the lungs provide a large

1 surface area to allow the diffusion of gases
| in and out of the blood.
2 There is a large blood supply because of
the capillary network that surrounds each
alveoli.
3 The capillary walls are only one cell-thick,
which means that the rate of diffusion is
~~ high as there is less resistance.
ns apa

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Tepes) wom tment ich «URS TSAR GRR

Explain, using the case study above about Roger, how oxygen is transferred from
the lungs to the working muscles.
a acne
; Be te hee
) You can revise skeletal muscle adaptations on page 31
eescardiovasculara adaptations con LigeiaOfer

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Anatomical language
| Anatomical relates to the structure of the body. You need to understand the terms used to describe
different parts of the body in reference to their correct location.

Anatomical point of reference Superior

Proximal Anterior
(arm)

Midline of body

Posterior

Distal Medial
(arm)

&
Lateral

| Proximal (leg)

Distal (leg) Inferior _

Rm
em

Anatomical language
=
be ie

Towards the front or at the front The kneecap is on the anterior side of the leg
| Posterior | Towards the rear or behind The vertebrae are located on the posterior
side of the body
Away from the midline of the body The shoulder is lateral to the neck
Towards the midline of the body The middle finger is located on the medial
side of the hand
Proximal Near to the origin or point of attachment | The proximal end of the arm joins the
of a limb to the body trunk shoulder
Distal Away (further apart) from the origin
ee
or point |The hand is at the distal end of the arm
.

of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

|

} Bones are deep to the skin ee eee

Lying horizontally on the back Supine position is lying down in anatomical
position, on the back, face and torso upwards.
Prone Lying horizontally on the front Prone position is lying down in anatomical _
position, face and torso facing the floor.

Give examples of sports or exercises that involve the supine

and prone positions.
 Had a look |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! gq

Heart function and anatomy

The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, blood, blood vessels and lymphatic system.
The heart drives blood into and through the arteries to the tissues and working muscles.

Anatomy of the heart Key

= = Oxygenated blood

== Deoxygenated blood
Superior
vena cava
Left
Right pulmonary
_ pulmonary artery
artery
Left
pulmonary
veins

Left atrium

Bicuspid valve
Right Left ventricle
atrium

Myocardium
Pulmonary (heart muscle)
valve
Aortic valve

Tricuspid interventricular
aie valve septum

Inferior
eshiie Epicardium
ventricle
, (outer surface
vena cava Endocardium of myocardium)
per gee
: (inner surface
tendineae
of myocardium)

The chambers of the heart The valves of the heart

Atria: the top chambers (left and right), which Bicuspid valve: separates the left atrium from
collect blood when it enters the heart, pumping the left ventricle — allows the blood to flow
the blood into the ventricles. from the left atrium to the left ventricle, in one
Ventricles: the lower chambers (left and right) direction only.
of the heart, which send blood up to the lungs or Tricuspid valve: separates the right atrium from
around the body. the right ventricle — allows blood to flow from the
interventricular septum: the right side of right atrium to the right ventricle and prevents
the heart is separated from the left by a solid blood from flowing backwards.
___ wall [Link] the interventricular septum. This Semilunar valves (aortic valve and pulmonary
prevents the blood on the right side coming into valve): push blood up and out of the heart.

-
contact with the blood on the left side.

_ Coronary arteries and chordae

tendineae
1. The bicuspid valve separates the left atrium from =
~~ Coronary arteries: twoarteries (left and right)
the left ventricle. Which valve separates the right
that supply blood to the heart.
atrium from the right ventricle?
Chordae tendineae: chord-like tendons
2 What is the function of the interventricular
connected to the bicuspid and tricuspid valves to septum?
prevent the valves turning inside out.
67
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Blood vessel location and anatomy_

Blood vessels are the tubes through which blood flows in the body.

The location of the five main blood vessels

As the heart contracts, blood flows Superior vena cava — Aorta — body’s main artery,
around the body in a complex vein that receives which originates in the left
deoxygenated blood ventricle and carries oxygen-
network of vessels.
from the upper body to ated blood to all parts of
empty into the right the body except the lungs.
atrium of the heart.
Pulmonary artery —
carries deoxygenated
blood from the heart
back to the lungs. It is
the only artery that
carries deoxygenated ___|
blood.

Pulmonary vein —
carries. oxygenated_____|
blood from the lungs
Inferior vena cava — vein that to the left atrium of
receives deoxygenated blood the heart.
from the lower body to empty
into the right atrium of the heart.
a a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Le re ee ee

Anatomy of arteries Anatomy of veins

Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Veins allow venous return (the return of
© Thick muscular walls carry blood at high deoxygenated blood to the heart).
speeds under high pressure. They do not need © They have thinner walls than arteries and a
valves, except where the pulmonary artery relatively large diameter. When blood reaches _
leaves the heart. veins it is flowing slowly and under low
¢ They have two major properties — elasticity pressure.
and contractility. ¢ Contracting muscles push the thin walls of
These properties help to maintain blood pressure the veins inwards to squeeze blood towards
as blood flow changes. the heart.
¢ They branch into smaller arterioles that deliver e As muscle contractions are intermittent, a
blood to the capillaries. number of pocket valves in veins prevent any
backflow when muscles relax. They branch into
venules, connected to the capillary network.
Arterioles
Arterioles have thinner walls than arteries and
control blood distribution by changing diameter.
Venules
This adjusts blood flow to the capillaries in Venules are small vessels that connect
response to differing demands for oxygen, e.g. capillaries to veins. They take blood from the
during exercise. capillaries and transport this deoxygenated blood |
under low pressure to the veins which, in turn,
lead back to the heart. )
a eee crenata ie ence ee i i a a a ee en

Anatomy of capillaries
_ Capillaries connect arteries and veins by uniting
arterioles and venules.
1 What are the roles of the inferior and superior
° They are the smallest of all blood vessels and
vena cava?
allow the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients
required by the body’s cells. 2 Arteries carry blood away from the heart. What is
the role of a vein?
° The pressure of blood is higher than in veins,
but less than in arteries.

68
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Blood composition
The average adult has approximately 4-5 litres of blood.

The role of blood’s components

Blood is composed of red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes), plasma and
platelets (thrombocytes). Each component has its own role.

Platelets (thrombocytes):
* stick together to stop blood loss
through clotting — they stick to
the damaged area to forma
Red blood cells (erythrocytes): temporary plug that seals the
* carry oxygen to all living tissue break
* contain a protein called haemoglobin * are disc-shaped cell fragments
that gives blood its red colour produced in the bone marrow. White blood cells (leucocytes):
* are round, flattened discs with an * fight infection and destroy
indented shape; this gives them a —- i bacteria, attacking viruses and
large surface area, allowing them to germs that enter the body
—. flow easily within plasma. = : * account for less than 1 per cent _
of blood volume
ae = : * originate in bone marrow.

Plasma:
* is a straw-coloured liquid that surrounds
blood cells and carries them around the body
* is approximately 9O per cent water and
=—_——contains-electrolytes-such-as-soedium,;_—____—— oes
| potassium and proteins
_......*_carries_carbon dioxide, dissolved _as_carbonic..
| acid.

Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a drainage network that helps the body rid itself of toxins, waste and excess
fluid. It also forms part of the immune system, transporting lymph around the body. Lymph is a fluid that
contains infection-fighting white blood cells.

in ils Esl tcc Borealis ed

eA licen: arlll inlet ac ila
BS,

4 Describe the function of white blood cells.

~~. 2. Which substance is 90 per cent water? Describe its role.
 Had a look :y Nearly there & Nailed it! [|

Cardiovascular system
The heart is about 12cm long, 9cm wide and Gem thick and is located behind the sternum, tilted to the
left. The heart is made of cardiac muscle and pumps blood through blood vessels.
The right side of the heart The left side of the heart
* Deoxygenated blood enters the relaxed heart The pulmonary vein allows the oxygenated
via the vena cava. blood from the lungs to enter a relaxed heart.
_ © Blood then enters the right atrium. The blood enters the left atrium, which then
® As the right atrium contracts, the tricuspid contracts, pushing blood into the left ventricle.
valve pushes the blood into the right ventricle. As the left ventricle contracts, the bicuspid
¢ As the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes, allowing the blood not to
valve closes. This allows the blood to be re-enter the heart but to go through the
pushed up and out of the heart through the semilunar valve and into the aorta.
semilunar valve and into the pulmonary artery. The aorta is the large artery that allows blood |
© The pulmonary artery takes the blood to the to leave the heart and gotothe rest of the —_ |
lungs for oxygen. body. , s
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Functions
The cardiovascular system has several important functions, particularly during sport and exercise.

Delivery of oxygen and nutrients to body Fight infection — white blood cells
ZY tissues via the bloodstream. More of these / (leucocytes) are essential to fight
are needed during exercise but, when the infection and defend against viruses
cardiovascular system can no longer meet and bacteria. Leucocytes are constantly
these demands, muscle fatigue occurs and produced inside bone marrow and are
performance deteriorates. stored in the blood.

2 Removal of waste products from the tissues

to the kidneys and the liver, and the return
of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the
© Blood clotting is a complex process
during which white blood cells form solid.
clots to cover damaged blood vessels.
lungs. During exercise, muscles produce more The process is made possible by the
carbon dioxide and lactate, which must be constant supply of blood through the
removed to prevent muscle fatigue. cardiovascular system.
Control of blood flow —- the cardiovascular Lungs
system controls heat within the body to
maintain thermal balance during exercise. This Pulmonary oe Pulmonary
ensures that the body does not overheat. artery Pulmonary cain
© Vasodilation of blood vessels near the circulation &II
skin — muscles in the walls of the blood Right side : Left side |
vessels widen allowing more blood to flow of heart of heart |
through during exercise. This decreases |
body temperature as heat within the blood Vena cava Aorta
is carried to the body’s surface.
¢ Vasoconstriction of blood vessels near
Systemic
the skin causes muscles in the walls of
circulation
the blood vessels to contract and blood
vessels to narrow, allowing less blood
flow. This leads to an increase in body
temperature as heat loss reduces when
blood is moved away from the surface.
All body tissues
(non-lung tissues)
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] TRS RE ER. pets
OL. RSSR EE UR NA I. eR eae. ees i Te et oe. Sl ces we ee

Two functions of the cardiovascular system are to clot blood and remove waste. Name
and describe the other functions

70
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Cardiac cycle
The process of the heart filling with blood, followed by a contraction where the
blood is pumped out, is
_ known as the cardiac cycle. The electrical system of the heart is the power source
that makes this possible.
Blood flow through the heart Blood flow and pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood During exercise the systolic blood pressure
| against the walls of the arteries and results from increases as the heart is working harder to supply
_ two forces: more oxygenated blood to the working muscles.
© systolic pressure — the pressure exerted on The diastolic blood pressure stays the same or
the artery walls when the heart contracts and decreases slightly.
forces blood out of the heart and into the When blood pressure is measured, it is written
body with both the systolic and the diastolic pressure
© diastolic pressure — the pressure on the noted. The top number is the systolic pressure
blood vessel walls when the heart is relaxed and the bottom number is the diastolic pressure,
between beats and is filling with blood. for example:
ei = = mmHG

_ Neural control of the cardiac cycle _ The heart's electrical system

e | The heart’s electrical system is made up of three
main parts. To the lungs

S| _ Sinoatrial node (SAN) — a small mass of Blood r eae aoey, ee is

| _ specialised cardiac muscle found in the Sinoatrial | ff Bisod
a wall of the right atrium. It sends out an node (SAN) | Zt ate
| electrical signal to the atrium to contract Right
| and pump blood into the ventricle. atrium i Left
a ® Atrioventricular node (AVN) — positioned Atrioventricular eo
_ in the interventricular septum where the node (AVN)
atria and ventricles meet. It sends an Left
Electrical impulses
impulse to the ventricle that makes the through the Purkinje ventricle
muscle contract causing blood to pump out. fibres, located on
|
es :
Bundle of His and Purkinje
Sienhesr ore
fibres — ie Wau gcace a te
ble ventricle Right
specialist heart muscle cells responsible for Ventaele
transporting the electrical impulses from
AVN, and found in the walls of the ventricles
_and interventricular septum. At the end of
the Bundle of His are thin filaments known
as Purkinje fibres, which allow the ventricle
to contract at regular intervals (i.e. your
a regular heartbeat). This causes the blood
to be pushed out of the heart, either to
the lungs or to the working muscles.

1. Systolic pressure is when the heart contracts. What is diastolic pressure?

| 2. Define the SAN and AVN nodes.
ES es e

7
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s y s
Respirataonrdy anatomyt e m l o c a t i o n _
The respiratory system is responsible for transporting the oxygen from the air you breathe into your
body. This then combines with the food you eat to produce energy.

The location of the respiratery system The process of breathing

Pharynx
Epiglottis

Intercostal
muscles (external)

Section of ribs

intercostal muscles
(internal)

Outer edge of
lung surface
__| Bronchiole

___ Pleural cavity_

Diaphragm Fibrous” t eh fy ka i |

Pleural muscle region fo)Links ierevise gaseous exchange, ie ||

membrane of diaphragm see page 74. Cee cae |
el

Components that support the breathing process

_ Diaphragm - large dome shaped muscle that covers the bottom of the ribcage. At rest, the muscle is |
dome shaped. When contracted, the muscle flattens and pushes the two sides of the ribcage away from
each other. ;
_ Intercostal muscles — located between the ribs so that when they contract the ribs push up and out,
increasing the size of the chest cavity. _ 7 7 ae sil
_ Thoracic cavity — the chest, which houses the respiratory system.
Pleura — membranes around the lungs:
* Visceral — envelopes the lung completely; smooth and slippery; prevents friction between the lungs
and other organs; allows the lungs to move freely during breathing.
¢ Parietal — lines the inner chest wall, which attaches to the chest wall; contains pleura
fluid and
visceral; provides_a-cushion of lubricant for reduced friction... a
a | ane hana ate ae are aM ieee ci Ret te a a
a | sat z ae ene 3 leech dint ia a otagt TN LO

Explain the function of the pleura around the lungs.

12
 Had a look [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! he

Respiratory system functions

_ When we breathe we inhale (inspiration) and exhale (expiration) air.

Inhale (breathing in) Exhale (breathing out)

Rest — the diaphragm will contract and move Rest — the diaphragm returns to the dome shape,
| downwards creating an increased in the size of making the thoracic cavity smaller. This results
. the thoracic cavity, so that air can be forced into in an increase in air pressure within the lungs
| the lungs. allowing air to be exhaled.
_ Exercise — while exercising, the diaphragm and Exercise — to decrease the size of the thoracic
_ intercostal muscles contract, making the ribs cavity the intercostal muscles contract forcing
move up and out resulting in more air being taken air out.
into the lungs.

Carbon
dioxide

tk

Space inside Diaphragm

-Diaph
mien chest decreases

- Respiration - lung volumes

____ Tidal volume— the amount of air breathed in during each breath, depends on demand. Sufficient oxygen |
needed to enable muscles to contract also increases as carbon dioxide is removed. :
Vital capacity — the maximum amount of air that can be breathed in and out in one breath.
Residual volume — the amount of air left in the lungs after an exhalation. There should always be around
1 litre left so that the lungs do not deflate, preventing breathing.

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asoss— a ___—_S __ae______RR__,___R____ON __ES___ONNG_._ ___ O__ ____ __SOO__ SB_
RO Nak

Before Matt takes part in a game of rugby his tidal volume is 500 ml. Forty minutes into the match, his tidal volume
is 650ml.

Explain why Matt's tidal volume has changed after playing rugby for 40 minutes.

73
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! |_|

Gaseous exchange
_ Gaseous exchange is the process by which the body receives oxygen from the air into the blood, and
removes waste carbon dioxide from the blood into the air.

Gaseous exchange Levels of concentration in the

During gaseous exchange one type of gas is lungs
exchanged for another. ° In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from a high
e In the lungs, gaseous exchange occurs by concentration to a lower concentration in the
diffusion between air in the alveoli and blood bloodstream.
in the capillaries surrounding their walls. © In the blood, carbon dioxide diffuses from a
© This process of diffusion delivers oxygen from high concentration to a lower concentration in
the lungs to the bloodstream while removing the lungs.
pare CUS, © This process occurs within the alveoli in the
Blood in
lungs and the capillaries.

Gas 2

Carbon dioxide | 0.04 [=a]

Alveoli

AEP N NPSL NSRP

Diffusion
Diffusion happens when a substance such as oxygen passes through a cell membrane, either to get
into or out of the cell. It occurs where there is a high concentration of a substance on one side of the
membrane moving through the membrane to where the concentration is lower.

The alveoli and capillaries The role of the alveoli and capillaries
¢ Alveoli — tiny thin-walled air sacs The alveoli and capillary walls form a respiratory
found in large numbers in the lungs. membrane with gas on one side and blood flowing past on |
The walls of the alveoli are semi- the other. |
permeable to allow for the gases to ® Blood entering the capillaries from the pulmonary |
pass across. arteries has a lower oxygen concentration and a higher
° Capillaries — tiny blood vessels carbon dioxide concentration than the air in the alveoli.
supplying nutrients to cells and e Oxygen diffuses into the
blood via the surface of the
removing waste materials. The thin
alveoli, through the thin walls of the capillaries and
walls of the capillaries are semi- the red blood cell membrane, and finally latches on to
permeable to allow for the gases to haemoglobin. aes
pass across.
* Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction,
from the blood plasma into the alveoli. Tig

1 Why is it important that the walls of the alveoli and capillaries are semi-permeable? |
2 Describe the process of gaseous exchange in the lungs.

14
 Had a look a Nearly there [| Nailed it! pa

_ Control of breathing in response

to exercise
_ Performing sporting activity demands that the body adapts to supply the cells
with the required amounts
_ of oxygen. The adaptation occurs in the lungs and muscle tissue. Breathing
is triggered by both
_ chemical and neural responses.

Chemical Neural
| _Chemoreceptors = i:
| are sensors that Gensee ain tie dicdie 2) Responsible for
es detect changes = our Brain A ue : involuntary functions
in the levels of such as breathing, heart
oxygen and carbon rate and sneezing
dioxide in the blood
and changes in Neurones in the
4 piivlevels (blood , medulla oblongata
acidity). They eae ;
a eo senda are critical in
message to the | respiration
medulla oblongata. . :
. Medualla
Zs [2] ee ee ae : ;
Respiratory centre of the . Messages cause the
4] ch cd wr
a LAS eal brain that responds to the medals oblongata
ae cha cis to the changes detected by the to initiate an increase
breathing rate, e.g. chemoreceptors in breathing rate in
| during exercise. response to exercise
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Breathing during exercise
!

Describe the mechanisms that occur in response to exercise.

15
 Had alook [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! |_|

Bone anatomy
Long bones are cylindrical and act as a lever. They are found in the limbs, e.g. in the thigh (femur) and in
the upper arm (humerus). They generate the strength and speed to play sport.

Long bones Articular

cartilage
| There are two primary functions of long bones: Cancellous
Periosteum

To support body mass and create large bone

movements. Eviphyseal
(or arawen)
To produce bone marrow, essential for
blood cell production (e.g. platelets).

Epiphysis Diaphysis Epiphysis

(head) Ghat) 9 Tee
Ce a i ee ee ee
ee

Periosteum: tough protective layer of Marrow cavity: contains two types of bone marrow Pe |
the bone, which also contains nerves and 1 Red bone marrow (produces red blood cells,
blood vessels that feed the bone white blood cells and platelets)
_ Articular cartilage: 2 Yellow bone marrow (produces fat and cartilage)
smooth tissue that ~—
covers the end of Epiphysis: rounded end
bones where they of the bone that commonly |
come together to form forms an articulation or
ajoint joint with another bone
"The structure of a long bone
Compact bone: hard ; Diaphysis: central
_ dense bone that shaft or long part
gives strength to the of the bone
patow es of ae ; Cancellous bone: spongy bone
om ee Dae celt that stores red bone marrow in its Growth, or epiphyseal, plate: separates
val 1) ‘honeycomb’ structure and lies within the diaphysis from the epiphysis and is
the compact bone in layers, providing the only place where an increase in bone
the long bone with its elastic strength length can take place

Shallow depression on the surface of the bones, which commonly receives another
articulating bone where a joint is formed
Rounded bump or large rounded prominence, which usually fits into a fossa on
another bone to form a joint
Main portion of the bone
Raised area or projection that can be used to attach connective tissue
Large rounded projection that looks like a raised bump; tuberosities are often
sites for muscle attachment

Perry Ann is a professional tennis player. Explain the role of her long bones when she is
playing.

76
 Had a look |_| Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

Process of bone growth

In a foetus, most skeleton consists of cartilage (tough flexible tissue). As the foetus develops minerals
in the cartilage and bone harden and become less flexible.

Ossification Growth plate

_ Ossification is the process in which bone is ° The growth (or epiphyseal) plate is a disc of
formed. Minerals are laid down in the cartilage cartilage at each end of the long bone, found
and bones become harder and less flexible. It is in children and adolescents.
the process of creating bone from cartilage. ° It separates the diaphysis from the epiphysis
Gaowtiner and is the only place where an increase in bone
In the foetus epiphyseal, length can take place.
plate ¢ Once growing stops, the head (or end) of each
bone fuses with the main shaft (the diaphysis)
to create the epiphyseal line.

Immature bone Mature bone

The role of osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes in bone growth

Osteoclasts Osteoblasts Osteocytes

® Cells that destroy or clean ® Cells that build bone by ® Cells that grow the tissue.
away old bone, replacing bringing calcium to the ¢ They form from osteoblasts
10 per cent of the bone bones. and make up the majority of
each year. ° Created by exercising more, mature bone matter.
¢ Throughout ossification, resulting in stronger bones
parts of the bone are as more demands are placed
reabsorbed, so unnecessary _ upon them. Bone calcium as
calcium is removed via the stores increase to cope with iene
osteoclasts while new layers the demand for calcium. fa)Links|osteoclasts.
of bone tissue are created. ° Activities that build stronger osteoblasts and osteocytes
g bones include load-bearing page 1 and page 29.
See
exercises such as tennis, we aT

netball and running.

t — a |
|

| "Now try
4 ale
1 Describe the process of ossification.
2 Describe the role of the growth plate.

IZ
 —_—

Had alook [|_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Bone remodelling
and mineral uptake
Bones keep growing until the ages of 18 to 30 (depending on the bone). Bones are very much ‘alive’ as
they repair themselves when damaged, grow and produce blood cells.

Bone remodelling
Bone remodelling is the ongoing process of mature bone Bone

tissue being removed and new bone tissue being formed.

It also involves the redistribution of bone tissue to areas
where stress forces are greatest. Osteoclasts break
¢ Osteoclasts break down and clean damaged/mature down old bone
and remove it
bone.
¢ Osteoblasts are the bone-forming cells, which lay
down new bone tissue.
Osteoblasts
To revise osteoclasts and osteoblasts — build new
A bone _ ee
see page | and page 29.

New bone

Uptake of minerals
Calcium and vitamin D are essential in the formation, growth and nemoasi nd of bone tissue.

Calcium Vitamin D 1 !
If the body removes more calcium The body needs vitamin D to enable Osteoporosis = = |
than it replaces, bones will become the absorption of calcium into the Load-bearing
weak and brittle. It is important for bones. Without vitamin D bones will exercises such as
a diet to include food containing become weaker as existing stores tennis, running and
calcium. This is particularly will be used to maintain bone walking help to build
important in young children, structure and cannot be replaced up the bones and
_ adolescents and older people. by new calcium found in the diet. reduce the risk of
osteoporosis. This —
is a medical condition
where the bones —
become brittle and
fragile from loss of |
minerals.

Describe the process of bone remodelling.

18
 Had a look |_| Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

| Location of skeletal bones

|The human skeleton is made of 206 bones held together by connective tissue known as ligaments,
while joints at the junction between bones provide mobility.

Function of the skeletal system

_ The skeletal system is made up of bones, cartilage and joints, as shown below. The function of the
skeletal system is to:
° use the bones to act as levers
_ ° provide attachment for muscles, tendons and ligaments
° produce blood cells from within the bone marrow.

The location of the bones in the skeletal system

ae
Cranium (skull)

Clavicle (collarbone)
— Scapulaula (shoulde r
(shoulder bone)
bone

Humerus (upper arm bone)

Sternum (breastbone)
Rib

Vertebral column (spine)

Radius (main forearm bone) \ Pelvic bones

\ (pubis, ischium, ilium, iliac crest)
Uina (lesser forearm bone)
>

‘2-4 Carpals (wrist bones)

Metacarpals (hand bones)

Phalanges (finger bones)

Femur (thigh bone)

Patella (knee bone)

Tibia (main shinbone)

Fibula (calf bone)

Tarsals_(ankle bones)-
Metatarsals (foot bones) Calcaneous (heel bone)

Phalanges (toe bones)

q | COE will find a detailed view of the bones |i

| in the vertebral column on page 80.
(GALE ARORA cl Nh eae BSP aN ee Te ee eT Ta eo

ee
eel ce ee eo ete

Cover the diagram and name the bones that make up the hands and the feet.

79
 Had a look i Nearly there ze Nailed it La

Axial skeleton
The skeleton can be divided into two groups: the axial skeleton (the long axis of the body) and the
appendicular skeleton (the bones that are attached to this axis). This page revises the axial skeleton
and the vertebral column, which form part of the axial skeleton.

Bones that make up the axial skeleton The spine or vertebral column
The axial skeleton is the axis of the body providing a The vertebral column is commonly known as
core for the limbs to hang from. the spine or backbone and extends from the
The axial skeleton is made up of: base of the cranium to the pelvis, providing
a central axis for the body.
© the skull (including cranium and facial bones)
¢ It is made up of 33 irregular bones
© the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs)
called vertebrae. The vertebrae are held
° the vertebral column.
together by powerful ligaments. These
An axis is an imaginary line that runs through the allow little movement between adjacent
centre of a body or object. The body or object on vertebrae but provide plenty of flexibility —
either side of the axis will be symmetrical. along the spine as a whole.
¢ The vertebral column can be classified into
five sections or regions as shown in the _ |
diagram below.

Cervical vertebrae
(seven)

Thoracic cage
(sternum
;
and Thoracic vertebrae
Vertebral ribs)
(twelve)
column

Lumbar vertebrae
(five fused)
Sacral vertebrae
(five)
Coccygeal vertebrae
a (four fused)
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Curves of the spine

The 33 vertebrae of the spine form a distinctive shape. The normal shape
is a curve in the cervical :
(neck), thoracic (mid back) and lumbar (low back) regions when viewed laterally.
A neutral spine refers to _
a good posture with ; the correct positioning of the three natural curves. - Wh
When the spine
ine iiss viewed
vi |
the front (anterior), it should be completely vertical. : Cees £
St Ge we het mt ee «eet L Q Y fi

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aR [SRR

sinccintiaeeoniansenciiainll wsiciin, |
Name the three main sections that make up the axial skeleton.

80
 Had a look mz Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

Appendicular skeleton
_ The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones that attach to the axial skeleton.

Bones of the appendicular skeleton

_ The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the shoulder girdl e, the
and the lower timbs.- aoe Aspel vic Aidle,e, t the eae limbs

a (oe © ONS ees to)

me

ss Humerus ——— a . =a=

\Z ) Clavicle
(collar bone) =~“ a
sm

' <A he Femur ——_ A

“a is Scapula :
ge v (shoulder blade)

—-++—Radius _— :

eee 2 ss Patella. Da

ty Carpals ;
a “Metacarpals Tibia | Ilium (d)
_| Phalanges ) ance
Fibula / adie
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| a,

a Tarsals ig ing 4 Pubis —_—*> ~ fm

Metatarsals|_ ite Ye «

= Phalanges He i\\\\ Ischium ee

Parts of the appendicular skeleton

_ The appendicular skeleton consists of the following parts.
mbs
t | Shoulder girdle Pelvic girdle ee
Humerus Femur Two clavicles Ilium
Radius Tibia Two scapulae Pubis
Uina Fibula Ischium

Carpals Patella
Metacarpals Tarsals
Phalanges Metatarsals
Phalanges
GO bones in 6O bones in 4 bones in 3 bones that fuse together with age and are known
_ | total (30 in total (30 in total; connect as the innominate bone. The iliac crest is the curved
each arm) each leg) the limbs of the superior border of the ilium.
upper body to The main function of the pelvic girdle is to provide
the thorax a solid base for transmitting the weight of the upper
body. It also provides attachment for the powerful
muscles of the lower back and legs, and protects the
digestive and reproductive organs.

Describe the parts of the pelvic girdle and its functions.

8]
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! |_|

Types of bone
The bones of the body fit into 5 categories: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid.

Long bones Short bones

Features: Features:
° are longer than they are wide ° small
© have growth plates at either end © light
¢ have an outer surface of compact ° strong Metabarear
bone ¢ cube-shaped.
¢ have a spongy inner (cancellous Function: to offer
bone) containing bone marrow. support and stability Carpals
Main function: to provide strength with limited movement.
and speed in the body’s movement. Examples: carpals of
Examples: fibula and tibia (the bones the wrist and tarsals in-
in the lower leg). the ankle.

TS To
:. revise more about long
bones, see page 76. .

Flat bones Irregular bones

_ Features: a strong flattened plate, slightly Features: mainly consist of cancellous bone with _
curved, which provides the base for muscular an outer layer of compact bone, with complex
_ attachment. shapes. see
Function: to protect vital organs as well as Function: irregular bones provide shape and
- providing an attachment for muscles to help protection. -
movement. Examples: the vertebrae.
_ Examples: the sternum, cranium and scapula.
oo —— Spinous process

se tt te Me es ee ee ee ee ee oe

Sesamoid bones
Features: bone inside a tendon where the tendon passes
_ over a joint. Structure of the
_ Function: it provides a smooth surface for the tendon to pokes (neecae) aaa
slide over.
Example: the largest sesamoid bone is the patella in
the knee joint.
me Ee Ro ie a ae A ee ee lee Re st a ee ee ee Oo

Describe the difference in function between a long bone and a short bone.
‘

82
 Had a look gg Nearly there [| Nailed it! ||

Ligaments
| Ligaments are the connective tissue that holds together the 206 bones of the human body. They
keep
the bones in place, connecting and stabilising joints.

_What are ligaments? The location of ligaments

_ Features: ligaments are short \
_ bands of strong, fibrous, flexible
_ tissue. They join bones together
and limit the range of movement at
a joint. — oe cs Tendon
___ Function:
Ligament
¢ primarily to maintain joint (bone to bone)
structure and stability by
holding the bones of a joint in
m= place 3" :
__® slightly elastic so the bones of
the joint can move correctly.
ee

_ Stabilising and restricting joint movement Ligament injury (sprain)

~ Ligaments restrict excessive movement, which a joint is not A sprain is damage to ligaments
| designed to do. Some ligaments also prevent movement in (stretch or tear) whereas a strain is
certain directions. j damage to muscle or tendon.
© Sprains are generally caused by a
sudden twist, impact or fall that
makes the joint move outside its
: : : normal range of movement. They
a oe oe ok a e CH a ae e : commonly occur to the ankle,
| 7. | : wrist, thumb or knee (the parts of
the body that are more at risk in
specific sporting activities).
° The severity of sprains depends on
different factors. More than one
ligament can be damaged at the
same time, and the more ligaments.
affected, the more severe the
injury. Also, whether the ligament is
stretched or torn (either partially
or fully), determines how severe the
injury is.

i]

Increased ligament stretch

An athlete requires stronger tendons and more pliable (stretchy) ligaments to handle, for example,
heavy weights or a longer running distance. lf an athlete lifts progressively heavier weights as part of a
strength-training exercise programme, their muscles will gain strength.
To accommodate this increase, tendons increase their load-bearing capacity relative to the increased
strength of the muscle, while the ligaments become more elastic.
peat

se ee
Ts cme cme: nS ee

— <a

Describe the role of ligaments in the knee joints of a marathon runner.

83
 —_—

Had alook | | Nearly there {| Nailed it! [_|

Classification and structure

of joints
A joint is where two or more bones meet, known as an articulation. There are three types of joint,
classified according to the degree of movement they allow: fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial.

Fibrous Cartilaginous . Synovial

= (fixed) ~ (slightly moveable) £ (freely movable)
These joints form when bones These joints allow slight movement. These joints offer
interlock and overlap during The ends of the bone are covered in the highest level of
early childhood. They are held a smooth, shiny covering known as mobility at a joint and
together by bands of tough, articular or hyaline cartilage, reducing are vital to all sporting
fibrous tissue and are strong friction between the bones. The movements. They make
with no movement (immovable) bones are separated by pads of white up most of the joints
between the bones. fibrocartilage (a tough cartilage that of the limbs. _ 7
_ Example: the bone plates in absorbs considerable loads). Slight Example: hip and {|
your cranium, fixed together to movement is made possible because shoulder.
protect your brain. the pads of cartilage compress. -
Example: the vertebral discs.

Features of synovial joins

Articulating _ Ligament
Synovial joints include the following features:
bone
¢ Joint capsule: a sleeve of tough, fibrous tissue Synovial capsule,
surrounding the joint — it helps to hold the bones in containing synovial |
place and protect the joint. git fluid i ||

_ © Bursa: filled with synovial fluid, these small sacs a Se ys Articular _|

Bursa ( S& Zp 1. or hyaline
cushion the tendons of the muscles and the bones,
preventing friction and wear. cartilage

° Articular cartilage: prevents friction between Synovial

membrane
bones and cushions their ends.
¢ Synovial membrane: encloses fluid and secretes
Articulating Fibrous capsule
fluid.
bone
¢ Synovial fluid: reduces friction by lubricating the
joints and maintains joint stability.
© Ligaments: support the joint and consist of strong,
fibrous connective tissue that provides stability by
joining bone to bone.

1 State the three types of joints.

2 Describe the role of synovial fluid and synovial membrane ina synovial joint.

84
 Had a look |_| Nearly there [| Nailed it! ia

Types and structure of

synovial joints
_ There are six types of synovial joints and each will permit specific movements. When combined, the
_ joints will allow complex techniques, such as a somersault or a tennis serve, to be performed.

©
. Ball and socket Acetabulum of hipbone Hinge joint: allows
joint: the round movement in one
end of one bone direction only (like
fits into a cup- a door hinge).
shaped socket in
the other bone,
Examples:
knee, elbow and
Humerus
5 Uina

CS
Trochlea
allowing movement ankle which only
in all directions. allow movement
Trochlea
Examples: hip and _ of femur forwards and
joint
shoulder. backwards.

Pivot joint: a circular Condyloid joint:

~ bone fits over a peg similar to a ball
of another, allowing and socket joint,
controlled rotational in which a bump
movement. (condyle) on one
Examples: joint of bone sits in the
the atlas and axis in hollow formed by
the neck, allowing another. Movement
the head to move is backwards and
from side to side. forwards. and from
Also the elbow and side to side. Ligaments
spine. often prevent rotation.
4
Examples: wrist and knuckles.

_ . Gliding joint: O Saddie-joint ——___—__—____ =

allows movement shaped like a
over a flat surface saddle with
in all directions, Navicular the other bone
restricted by resting on it.
ligaments or a Second Movement occurs
bony prominence. cuneiform backwards and
Examples: carpals forwards and
Third from side to side.
and tarsals of
cuneiform
wrists and ankles. Example: base of
the thumb. Metacarpal of thumb
ae ae a ee i

Range of movement at synovial joints

Types of movements are determined by each joint’s structure and shape. ) inks} To revise joint
_ Sporting techniques use a combination of joints to allow a wide range of G movements in
movement or technique, often referred to as joint flexibility. Flexibility detail, see pages 97-99.
~ depends on age, the tension of the supporting connective tissue
(tendons) and muscles that surround the joint, as well as the amount of
- soft tissue surrounding the joint.

1 Name the six types of synovial joints and describe the movement that happens at each one.
2 Name the synovial joint in use when the ankle is in the striking phase of kicking a football.
 Functions of the skeletal system _
The skeletal system is the central structure of the body. It provides the framework that the soft
tissues can attach to, allowing the six functions outlined below.

Support —@ Protectionthe j
© The skeletal system gives the body its height, The bones protect vital organs found within
making a person tall or short. the skeleton. For example:
° The bones give the body a distinctive shape — ¢ the cranium protects the brain
so it is not only a sack of muscles and fluids. ® the ribs protect the heart and lungs
® the vertebrae protect the spinal cord.

ee Ce Oe 2 ae eet See eee

2 Se ae ee Si Gee a ee ee oe eee ee eee ee ee ee ee

© Attachment for skeletal muscle Source of blood |

Bones provide the muscles, ligaments and tendons with a place of cell production
attachment. ¢ Some bones contain bone |
marrow, which is essential _
o ae
es T.
endon
to ensure the production
;
Spee |
Scapula = on of red blood cells, white
[be blood cells and platelets. |
¢ The mainbones
responsible for red blood
Biceps brachii cell production are the ©
(flexed) sternum, the vertebrae
Triceps brachii and the pelvis.
(extended) cite aN
Y tinks| See page6O
G to revise more —
about red blood cells, white
tHeertion blood cells and platelets, 7
and page 76 forredand si
oa wn yellow bone marrow. r
Uina sacra AT RE ee

Q Storage of minerals 6 |Movement

¢ The bones store calcium, magnesium and
phosphorous to give to the body.
° They are essential in bone creation and
reabsorption of bone tissue.

| Y Links| To revise the uptake of

G minérals, see page 78.

2 Se Gee We RE et en (6 Oe Ole Ue Oe |OR ii ee ee a a

Notrwythis|
Liz is a triathlete. Describe two of the six functions of Liz's skeleton and how they help her to compete.
 Had a look | Nearly there — Nailed it! he

Muscle types
The human body has three different types of muscle. These all have different functions and are essential
in sport.

Cardiac muscle 2] Smooth muscle

Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. It: Smooth muscle is only found in the walls of the
_ © never stops and works continuously (it is digestive system and in blood vessels. It:
non-fatiguing) © keeps your digestive system working
© is involuntary (you have no conscious control © is involuntary (you have no conscious control
over it) over it)
°® squeezes blood round the body through the ° is controlled by the nervous systems to make
blood vessels when it contracts. sure it keeps functioning
e regulates blood pressure.

| 3] Skeletal muscle Muscle power

= | tf you look at skeletal muscle under a microscope it is stripy or striated ~ There are over G40
because it is made up of a number of long, thin fibres. It: named muscles in
© contracts and as a result pulls on bones, finishing in an action the human body. _
© js voluntary (it is under your conscious control) — the skeletal muscle is They make up
the only muscle type that you have voluntary control over, so is the only approximately
muscle type that fatigues (gets tired) 40 per cent of your
body mass.
ee
° is critical to sport and exercise as it is connected to the skeletal system
via tendons and is primarily responsible for movement
_® is the muscle you would select to train if you were completing a
strength training programme in a gym.

: |Types of muscle

—— es
Now try CC
1 Describe the function of cardiac muscle.
2 Describe the differences between smooth muscle and skeletal muscle.

87
 —_—

Had a look ie Nearly there [| | Nailed it! he

Skeletal muscle fibre types

Skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of muscle fibres and each fibre consists of many smaller
units called myofibrils. The myofibrils run the length of each muscle fibre and give the muscle its stripy
appearance.

Anatomy of the skeletal muscle

Within skeletal muscle the body uses a range Perimysium
of connective tissues, which hold together
Endomysium
the structure of the muscle. There are four
main areas of the skeletal muscle:
Epimysium: connective tissue that
#7 holds the muscle fibres in place and
helps to protect the muscle fibres from
friction from other muscles and bones.
Musele_
fibre
& Fascicle: a bundle of muscle fibres. (cell)
> Perimysium: connective tissue that Fascicle
surrounds each fascicle (group of
muscle fibres).
Epimysium
| 4) Endomysium: a layer of strong
~ connective tissue that acts as an
insulator and covers the surface of
each muscle fibre.

LE EE ——— EAR — SE — IE —— IE COE RES — SD SS —- a — GR — ER —- EE — EN — SRE I —- ES —-SE ——— —D-——— O ———-FES-——E ——-A-SI —— a —__—-_S———- ——-S S —— —

Skeletal muscle fibre types

_ The skeletal muscle fibres have different functions and are not all the same. They can be either slow or
fast twitch. These types of muscle help you with different sporting activities.
:- Strength | Contraction | End vrance —|‘Maximum
use
Type of |
a
‘oop eport «26
san iy

Type | slow | Low Slow High hours 10000m Aerobic

twitch
_| Type lla fast Medium <30 mins 400m Aerobic and
twitch anaerobic
Type IIx fast | High Fast Low <1 mins 100m Anaerobic
twitch

(6)Links|To revise mor

e on fibre
types, see page 92.

i a
et et et Se a et ee ome ee

1 Give one reason why 100-m sprinters recruit Type IIx fast-twitch muscle fibres.
2 Explain one reason why 1500-m runners recruit Type | slow-twitch muscle
fibres.

88
 Had a look [| Nearly there a Nailed it! [|

Neuromuscular contro]
Muscle movements are controlled by the neuromuscular system. The term nevromuscular refers to both
the nervous system and the muscular system.

Nerve impulses and action potential Neuromuscular junction

When you want to exercise you get a message (synapses)
from your brain to the muscles you want to use.
The neuromuscular junction is where the nerve
To do this, nerve impulses (which are an electrical
current) run from the CNS (central nervous system) impulse passes across to the muscle.
_ to the muscles. The signal from the CNS to the The gap between the nerve and the muscle is
_ muscle is the action potential. eee 4G Phat AMIN

as _ Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine)
wv When the nerve transmits its signal, the pre-
| ' _ synaptic membrane releases acetylcholine.
ai = Te ae The release of acetylcholine occurs at the
| | vy : neurotransmitter. This diffuses across the gap
ce ee. cee between the nerve and muscle and creates an
electrical signal. If this signal is big enough the
muscle will contract to produce movement.

The neuromuscular process Nerve types

eal : There are two kinds of nerves:
® sensory neurons (or nerves)
which carry information from
our extremities (the skin) to the ©
central nervous system (the brain
and spinal cord)
® motor neurons (or nerves) which
Presynaptic carry information from our central
terme nervous system to our muscles.

\ @ Action potential
} triggers release of
calcium

a & ares ° 2) Acetylcholine moves

Acetylcholine BsPiak, 6 » across synaptic cleft
reasorbed, to ® oN,
be used again Ves

Describe the neuromuscular junction and the synaptic cleft.

89
 Sliding f i l a m e n t t h e o r y —
stages:
Sliding filament theory explains how muscles produce movement for different actions in three
initiating contraction, contraction and the end of the contraction.

@ Initiating contraction
_ © The nervous system sends impulses to generate action ‘potential.
° If there is sufficient stimulation acetylcholine is released.
© This causes the release of calcium ions.
- © Calcium binds (sticks) to troponin and the myosin binding site is exposed.

2) Contraction
_ © The nervous stimulation of the muscle causes movement.
e As the sarcomeres contract the length of the myofibrils reduces bringing the ends of the muscle
closer together. Remember that a muscle fibre consists of myofibrils. They are made up of smaller
units called sarcomeres, which are the smallest part of the muscle that can contract.
© The H zone in the sarcomere reduces, depending on the force of contraction.
¢ When high levels of calcium are present, myosin can attach to the actin protein filament in the
sarcomere.
-© The myosin makes a cross bridge and pulls on the actin, shortening the muscle.
© Energy for this movement is provided by enzymes called ATPase breaking down ATP.
a a i ee ee

© End of contraction
_ © When muscle contraction is no longer needed the nerve impulses stop, which stops the release of —
calcium.
© Without the influx of calcium, myosin cannot attach to the actin as the site where it attaches is
blocked by tropomyosin.
¢ The action goes back to a resting state, causing the H zone in the sarcomere to return to normal
and the muscle relaxes.

The structure of a sarcomere

| band — the region between A band — the active area where contraction takes place between | band
adjacent A bands, in which ~ the actin filaments and the myosin filaments (the relatively dark
there are only thin filaments area of the sarcomere — contains the thick filaments).
and no thick filaments; each ie a
| band extends across two >
: } 7) Myosin 4
adjacent sarcomeres,

Z line — the area at each

end of separate sarcomeres ——4- SAAAAAMA MARA ANA AR

where the actin filaments “-

are attached. Z-line Z line
Me ee et weswe a ws ws ee |
H zone — the centre of the A band_of each sarcomere
(only thick filaments, no thin filaments).
TR Raw Ea it 7 BR he et ee Re Oo mies 86k MNS we Ea Be gee

Sliding filament theory explains muscle movement. Using this theory, explain how we initiate
muscle contraction.

90
 Had a look [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|

Types of muscle contraction

Muscles can contract in three different ways to produce movement: isometrically, eccentrically and
concentrically.

© Isometite ‘a ‘ef ee Benefits of isometric

az = - ¢ he

These are exercises where the training

__ muscles stay the same length. § ©) You can perform the exercises
The muscle remains in a fixed for longer.
position during the exercise but 4 Isometric training uses body
is contracting, as shown in the ae weight so there is less risk of
"example. or : injury.
The exercises reduce stress on
the joints as there is no impact.

Se See wt ee a we aes Oe Ue ee eee ee cE Ulcer le ee Oe ee ee Ue tl lle ee el

. — = - = - :

a @ Eccentric - - 3) Concentric
When a muscle contracts eccentrically: When a muscle contracts concentrically:
® it lengthens” “a ° it shortens |
| e the origin and insertion move further away © the origin and insertion move closer together.
the muscle is still contracting
© it provides control in downward movement. Origin and insertion
The origin and insertion of a muscle are
where the muscle attaches to the bone. The
origin does not move during contraction but
the insertion does.

Eccentric and concentric rNow trythis|

movements
‘ama
Gym exercises can concentrate on all types of muscle
contraction.
State what type of contraction the plank involves and
describe it.

91
 Muscle fibre type recruitment
The mix of fibres that make up our skeletal muscles varies from person to person, but training can
influence the efficiency of these fibre types. There are three main types, outlined below.
1 Type I fibres
Muscle fibre types and intensity
(slow twitch)
¢ When we were hunter-gatherers we walked for many
e These are used in endurance events
hours stalking prey. When we saw our prey we would
sprint after it to catch it. We have developed and as: they are slow to fatigue (get
adapted to have both slow-twitch fibres and fast- tired).
twitch fibres, which allow us to complete different ¢ They will only contract slowly so
types of exercise at different levels of intensity. would not benefit an athlete in an
Everyone has a mixture of fibre types but some explosive action or sprint.
people naturally have more of one type than another. ° They benefit from an excellent supply |
Training can develop a certain type according to the | of oxygen that allows the muscle to |
needs of your sport or the position you play in. | continually contract at a low intensity.

m2 Sa ot Tt we Gt Re ee SS a Re SM EE Oe ee ee Oe ee ee 1

| 2) Type Ila fibres (fast twitch) Q:Type IIx fibres (fast twitch)
° These fibres contract quickly to produce © These fibres contract rapidly and have the
power and speed. capacity to produce large amounts of force. =
° They fatigue easily as oxygen supply is limited. © They fatigue faster so they are better suited —
® They are used mainly in anaerobic activities to anaerobic activity.
~— for example, an athlete relying on Type lla ¢ They are recruited for higher-intensity, shorter-— |
muscle fibres would be a 400-m runner. duration activities — for example, an athlete
relying on Type IIx muscle fibres would be a-
100-m sprinter.

Recruitment according to activity

Footballers will recruit different muscle fibres Sprinting Walking
_ depending on what position they play. For
example, the pie chart shows the intensity of
exercise for a central defender in football. Jogging
They will largely use slow-twitch muscle fibres
during the walking and jogging phases but
_ will need to recruit fast-twitch fibres during
sprints and changes of direction. If they
require powerful movements, e.g. taking a
penalty, fast-twitch fibres will be needed to
generate the appropriate force.

Natalie is a shot putter and Billy is a triathlete. They will recruit different skeletal muscle
fibre types to compete in their sports.
Explain why they will recruit different muscle fibre types for taking part in their
events.

92
 Had a leok 4 Nearly there [| Nailed it! ba

_ Lecation of skeletal muscles

| The muscles work in conjunction with the skeleton to produce movement in the limbs. This partnership
_ is essential to create gross and fine sporting and exercise movements.

Sternocleidomastoid

Deltoid
Medial and lateral
shoulder rotators
Biceps brachii

Triceps brachii Fectoralis major

Rectus abdominis
Wrist flexors
| Forearm supinators | Obliques
Forearm pronators :
Transverse abdominis (TVA)
+ Thigh

Quadriceps:
e
Rectus
j : ,
femorisH 4
lliopsoas
¢ Vastus medialis
° Vastus lateralis Gaspar eaiis
- | e Vastus intermedius

| Tibialis
=! alee anterior _ :

|
: ; Trapezius

Deltoid
: Triceps brachii
: Rhomboids

:
Erector spinae Latissimus dorsi
Gluteals:
Wrist ¢Gluteus maxmimus
extensors *Gluteus medius
°Gluteus minimus

Thigh
Hamstrings:

Gastrocnemius *Biceps femoris

¢ Semitendinosus
Soleus °Semimembranosus

the muscles in
Two major skeletal muscle groups are the quadriceps and hamstrings. Cover the diagram and name
the upper leg which make up the quadriceps and the hamstrings.

93
 a ee ee eee
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— 2 a —_

Had a look t | Nearly there & Nailed it! | |

Major skeletal muscles

and their function (1)
Each of the major muscles has a very specific function to perform based on their location. You need to
know how these will help towards the performance of different exercises. The muscles below are located
_in the upper body above the chest area.

_ |Triceps brachii Extends lower arm | Outside upper | Humerus and Olecranon Dips, phere UES,
arm scapula process overhead pressing
Deltoids Abducts, flexes Forms cap of Clavicle, Humerus Forward, lateral and
°* posterior and extends shoulder scapula and back-arm raises,
upper arm acromion overhead lifting
° anterior
° medial

Shoulder rotators Provide stability Shoulder joint Scapular Humerus Forward, lateral and
° medial of shoulder joint back-arm raises,
¢ lateral and rotation of overhead lifting
humerus
Pectoralis major Flexes and Large chest Sternum, Humerus All pressing movements
adducts upper muscle clavicle and
arm rib cartilage
Sternocleidomastoid | Rotation of head On both Clavicle Temporal Rotation of head such
sides of neck bone (side of | as looking in different
(cervical skull) directions
vertebrae)
| Biceps brachii Flexion of the Front of upper
| Bicep curl, pull-ups
lower arm at the | arm
elbow
| Wrist flexors Flexion of the Front of Humerus Metacarpal Bouncing a basketball — |
hand at the wrist | forearm
when dribbling
Wrist extensors Extension or Back of Humerus Metacarpal Straightening of wrist
straightening of forearm
hand at wrist
Forearm supinators Supinate the Top and rear of |Humerus Ulna Back spin in racquet
forearm forearm
sports
_ | Forearm pronator Pronate the Top and front Humerus Ulna Top spin in racquet
forearm of forearm
sports
_ | Rhomboids Retraction of the | Upper back Thoracic Scapula Shoulder raise
scapula toward between the vertebra
the vertebral scapula and
column; hold the the vertebral
scapula against column
thoracic cage
_ | Trapezius Elevates and Large triangular Continuous Occipital
| depresses
Shrugging and overhead
muscle at top insertion along bone and
oe scapula lifting
of back acromion all thoracic
vertebrae
Latissimus dorsi Extends and Large muscle Vertebrae and Humerus
adducts lower arm Pull-ups, rowing
covering back iliac crest
movements
of lower ribs

Now try this |

Describe the function of the muscles in the
fo rearm that enable a goalkeeper to
bring it into their chest (palms up). catch a ball and

94
 Had a look [| Nearly there fast Nailed it! ia

Major skeletal muscles

and their function (2)
_ The muscles in the table underneath are located below the chest and in the lower body. These muscles
_ allow you to make some major sporting movements as well as complete everyday functions such as
walking and standing.

__|tnsertion |Exercise/activity
Rectus abdominis Flexion and *Six-pack’ Pubic crest
rotation of muscle running and symphysis | process
lumbar region of down abdomen
vertebral column
Transverse abdominis Provide stability Front and side Anterior iliac Pubic Contracts during most
(TVA) of the spine and of abdomen crest crest and weightlifting as it
pelvis; posture symphysis provides stability to the
back (core strength)
Flexion of hip joint |Lumbar region Lumbar Knee raises, lunges,
(lifting thigh at of spine to top vertebrae squat activation
hip) of thigh (femur)
Quadriceps Extends lower leg | Front of thigh Ilium and femur | Tibia and Squats, knee bends
rectus femoris and flexes thigh
vastus lateralis
vastus medialis
vastus intermedius

Hamstrings Flexes lower leg Back of thigh Ischium and Tibia and Leg curls, straight leg
* semimembranosus and extends thigh femur fibula deadlift
| @. semitendinosus
* biceps femoris
Gastrocnemius Plantar flexion, Large calf Femur Calcaneus Running, jumping and
flexes knee muscle standing on tiptoe
Soleus Plantar flexion Deep to Fibula and tibia |Calcaneus Running and jumping
gastrocnemius
Tibialis anterior Dorsiflexion of Front of tibia Lateral By tendon All running and jumping
foot on lower leg condyle to surface exercises
of medial
cuneiform
Erector spinae Extension of spine | Long muscle Cervical, Cervical, Prime mover of back
running either | thoracic thoracic extension
side of spine and lumbar and lumbar
vertebrae vertebrae

Obliques Lateral flexion of Pubic crest Fleshy strips Oblique curls

trunk and iliac crest | to lower
eight ribs
Gluteals | Extends thigh Large muscle Ilium, sacrum Knee-bending
on buttocks and coccyx movements, cycling,
¢ Gluteus maximus
squatting
¢ Gluteus medius
° Gluteus minimus

os

Identify the location and function of the tibialis anterior.

95
 —_—

Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [_|

Antagonistic muscle pairs

Muscles do not work on their own. Instead they act as a group and when one muscle contracts it relies
on other muscles to support the movement. There are four types of muscles, outlined below.

| 1) Agonist / 63 Antagonist Antagonist muscle action

Muscles work in pairs. While one muscle contracts the Deltoid (synergist)
_ other relaxes to produce movement.
e The muscle that contracts to produce the movement is
called the agonist or prime mover.
¢ The other muscle in the pair that relaxes to allow the
agonist to contract is called the antagonist. If it did not
relax, movement could not take place. Antagonists exert oe —
a ‘braking’ control over the movement.

Agonist and antagonist in movement

The photo opposite shows the upwards phase of a
bicep curl. The antagonistic pair here would be the
biceps and triceps.
At this upward point of the movement:
® the agonist would be the bicep as it contracts to 7Abdominals _
flex the elbow «== (fixator)

© the antagonist would be the tricep as it is relaxed.

In the downward phase of the movement:
© the agonist would be the tricep as it contracts as
the forearm lowers
¢ the antagonist role would be taken on by the bicep,
as it contracts eccentrically to control the lowering
of the weight.
SA te 5 Se SF i SE ot WH Bee ie? Te eR eS ee SEE ES SE ee St ee ES eS Ue UL US Ut Ure Ue Ulu CUS lo

© Synergist muscles > Fixator muscles

These muscles work with other muscles to These muscles stabilise the agonist so they can
_ produce movement. perform the required movement.
¢ They help to control the range of motion of an ° They also help to reduce any unwanted
exercise so injuries are less likely. movement so the agonist can work more
° Synergist muscles will contract during the effectively.
exercise but are not the prime movers. ¢ In the photo of the bicep curl, the deltoid
¢ In the photo of the bicep curl, the muscles muscles will stabilise the arm so the exercise
in the forearm, shoulder and chest will act as concentrates on the biceps brachii.
synergists. |
ia mee St We RN ee ee Oe lt Oe Oe Oe Oe Oe oe et 8 i St A Me A es 6S el CU Oe oer ma 2 fst ee wh

Now try this

State the agonist and antagonist muscles (67Links|Look at page ]:

used in the downward phase of a squat and og 91 to revise f—
describe their actions. Ee t.
ways in which muscles
contract (isometrically,
sir =
concentrically and
€ccentrically),

96
 Hada look {_| Nearly there [| Nailed it [

Types of movement (1)

_ Each synovial joint in the body enables different types of muscle
movement depending on the type of
joint being mobilised. Angular movements are those in which the
body or a limb is bent to change the
_ angle between the two parts involved in the movement.

Flexion and extension Types of flexion and extension

_ Flexion is the bending of the joint to bring the
=
bones closer together. Shoulder
UIGer flexion:Hemton: faiciig
raisi Shoulder extension:
arm at shoulder joint lowering arm at
Extension is the extending or straightening of \\ shoulder joint
SG
the joint to increase the angle and move the Flexion
_ bones further away.

Extension
_ Hyperextension eas
\

7 Flexion

Hip flexion: moving —- Hip extension: moving —

femur forwards, femur backwards,
a Flexion £7 reducing angle- : increasing the angle
YY between thigh and between thigh and
a anterior torso ___anterior torso

Lateral flexion _ | : Plantar flexion and dorsiflexion

Dorsiflexion

Ce
Axis of ankle
J) rotation

- Horizontal flexion and extension Abduction and adduction

| Abduction is the movement of a limb away from
Horizontal Horizontal the midline of the body.
flexion ExIeGsIOn Adduction is the movement
: of a limb towards the midline
of the body.

_ Abduction

Midline
1 tryee
this

|
Explain the joint movement produced by the elbow joint during a press-up.

97
 RB ee a — —"

Had alook| | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Circular movements involve rotation around an axis or in an arc. Special movements are unique to only
one or two joints and do not fit into other categories.

Rotation and circumduction Pronation and supination

A neutral position when walking is to position
Supination Pronation the feet where the joint follows the midline of
the leg. This should follow through as the heel
lifts off the floor and the front of the foot
pushes you forward. People who move away
from this midline pronate or supinate.
¢ People who pronate have ankles that roll
inwards during walking or running.
¢ People who supinate have ankles that roll
outwards during walking or running.

Rotation Circumduction Orthotic insoles

Athletes who experience pronation or |

supination can use adapted insolesin
their sports footwear to help adjust and
improve their walking or running gait.

_ Cireumduction usually happens at the shoulder or hip

as the circular movement must come from the joint.

—— a ee ee
ss ee sms ems es

Protraction and retraction — ied Elevation and depression — ee |

Elevation Depression

a
ews
AS:

Retraction :

State and describe one gym exercise that would

include elevation of the shoulder joint.

98
 Had a look |_| Nearly there [| Nailed it! Go

Range of movement
at synovial joints
_ Sporting techniques use a combination of joints to allow for a wide range of movement or varying
technique. It is important that you can break down these techniques and identify the specific
movements at each joint.

Movement available at synovial joint

Movement _ ‘|Description __ce | Sporting example
_ | Flexion To bend the limb, reducing the angle at At the knee when you prepare to kick a
| the joint football or rugby ball
_ | Extension To straighten a limb, increasing the angle | At the elbow when you shoot in netball
at the joint
_| Plantar flexion | A movement that points the toes At the ankle when jumping to shoot in
downwards by straightening the ankle basketball
Dorsiflexion A movement that brings the top of the When you perform a toe raise exercise at
«| foot towards the lower leg the ankle
Adduction Movement towards the body Lowering an outstretched arm, holding a
weight, towards the midline of the body
: é during a workout .
_ |Abduction Movement away from the body At the hip during a side step in
gymnastics ‘
__| Inversion Involves inward rotation of the foot, When you dribble a football
| turning it inwards and sideways
Eversion The opposite of inversion; it involves the | In cricket, where a batter steps forward
outward rotation of the foot, turning it to strike a ball and the trailing foot gets
outwards and sideways rotated and dragged behind
Angular motion about an axis A golfer’s hip when performing a drive
shot or the humerus rotating medially
when the hand enters the water in breast
stroke

Circumduction A circular movement that combines At the shoulder joint during an overarm
flexion, extension, adduction and bowl in cricket
abduction

An inward rotation of the forearm so that When a spin bowler delivers a ball in
the palm of the hand is facing backwards cricket or a topspin forehand in tennis
and downwards

Supination An outward rotation of the forearm A right hand action in a hockey flick
so that the palm of the hand is facing
forwards and upwards
Depression —_| Movement of the shoulders downwards When carrying heavy weights, arms
i pointing straight down
‘Elevation — Movement of the shoulders upwards When raising arms straight above head in
gymastics

Hyperextension Involves movement beyond the normal At the spine when a cricketer arches
anatomical position in a direction their back when approaching the crease
opposite to flexion to bowl

choice.
Describe four types of joint movement and give an example for each using a sport or activity of your
|
99
 —_—

Had a look re Nearly there ie Nailed it! [|

Planes of movement
There are
To better understand movement, the body is divided into three imaginary lines called planes.
three different planes in which we move. The planes separate areas of the body and the movements
in
that take place in them. Most sporting movements are complex and will therefore combine movements
different planes.

Planes of movement iaical

The diagram opposite shows how the t
three planes (sagittal, frontal and
transverse) dissect different areas
of the body.

Transverse
plane

wv low
Transverse “ Sagittal
axis axis

f) For more information

G on the sagittal, frontal |
and transverse planes see page 101. —

Frontal Sagittal
plane plane

©) Frontal plane 2) Sagittal plane .

¢ The frontal plane goes through the body to ° The sagittal plane goes straight through the
separate the front and back of the body. body, front to back, splitting the body from
° Movements will be the sideways actions of the nose to the belly button. It therefore
adduction and abduction. divides the body into left and right sections.
¢ The movement of the arms when a gymnast ° Movements will be the up and down actions of
presents at the start of a routine would be an flexion and extension.
example of movement in the frontal plane. * This includes many movements such as walking,
pushing and squatting.
Se St ee ee Se oe eR OK NS

© Transverse plane now trythis| Penne

° This plane divides the body in half. This creates a
two sections, top and bottom. A gymnast starts their routine by going from a
¢ Movements are rotational including pronation standing position to extending their leg out in
and supination. front and pointing their toe.
¢ Moving your head from side to side would be Which plane have they moved in? Describe the plane.
an example of a movement in this plane.

100
 Had a look . | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|

_ Types of movement in each plane

Each of the planes of movement are associated with certain types of movement
.
Sagittal plane Sporting movement in the sagittal
Most sporting movements will be in the plane
sagittal plane as they involve flexion = err
and extension. Flexion and extension
_ movements happen in most team
_ sports.

For a main kicker in a Rugby Union team, the

following movements are all in the sagittal plane:
° flexion will occur at the hip joint to perform
the kick
° at the point when they make contact with the
ball their knee is flexed
¢ in the action of follow through they will extend
the knee to increase the accuracy of the kick
and control the direction the ball moves in
when leaving the foot.
SS a me ee Ee ee ae at a a ee ee Oe eo UU lee OO OCC oss

Frontal plane Transverse plane

Movements in the frontal plane involve abduction Rotational movements occur at the hip and
_ and adduction and will generally be movements shoulder, which are ball and socket joints. The
of the arms or legs away from the midline of the transverse plane separates the top and bottom
body. . half of the body and can include any sort of
twisting motion.

Gree) oekaki mht}

_ |dentify and describe a sports skill or that which moves through the frontal plane.

| | 101
 —_—

Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_|

Phases of movement.
Sporting movements are made up of three phases: preparation, execution and follow through.

Analysis of a sporting movement

During a basketball shot, the muscles operating at the shoulder and elbow have roles that allow the
basketball player to complete the action shown below.

" _ Preparation phase (Point A)

© The agonist muscles are anterior deltoid and the bicep.
¢ The antagonists will stay relaxed to allow the agonists to contract.
¢ The agonists will experience concentric contractions and produce
flexion at the shoulder and elbow. : —4
® The concentric contractions allow the basketball player to aim at
the basket to make an accurate shot. >

Execution phase (Point B)

© The agonist muscles are anterior deltoid and the triceps.
© The shoulder remains flexed due to the movement continuing forward
as the player takes the shot.
¢ The antagonists will stay relaxed to allow the agonists to contract.

_Follow through phase (following Point B)

As the player follows through on the shot, concentric contractions in
_ the agonists produce flexion at the shoulder and extension at the elbow.
_ These contractions allow the basketball player to complete the follow
through and ensure the ball follows the line they have aimed for towards
the basket.

Identifying muscles and joints involved in sporting actions

| Movement |Muscles
at A - | Muscles at
Agonist — anterior deltoid Agonist — anterior deltoid
Antagonist — latissimus dorsi Antagonist — latissimus dorsi
Agonist — bicep | Agonist — triceps
extension Antagonist — triceps Antagonist — bicep
_Other muscles will act as synergists and fixators to stabilise the shoulder joint, maximising the force
generated and increasing the accuracy of the movement.
a EW SRT ee a A Ree es ee

[| Now try this

Analyse the role of the muscles operating at the knee and hip that allow a
gymnast to move from standing to a squat position.

102
 Had a look || Nearly there | | Nailed it! [|

Body sections for analysis

There are three major sections to the body that are
involved in movement analysis: upper
body, trunk
_ and lower body. Most actions in sport and exercise require
movements in all three sections during
_ different phases of the movement.

Sections of the body

_ When examining the phases of a sporting Upper body
_ movement, it is useful to look at the different
_ body sections separately so you can carry out a
_ detailed analysis.

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__ Analysing movement Interrelationship of the

_ You can analyse the movements an archer’s trunk goes muscular and skeletal systems
~ through when drawing the bow and aiming the arrow:
Being able to break down movement into
° the trunk will rotate to face the target as the feet
smaller body parts makes it easier to analyse
will be at a right angle to the target board
the chosen sporting or exercise movement
e the upper body will experience flexion and during the three phases.
extension in the arms to produce movement to
draw the bow
| ® the lower body will not move during this action. Movement
For each of the phases and body areas
you should revise:
¢ the types of bone involved in
movement — see page 62
the role and function of the muscles
involved in movement and the types of
contraction taking place — see pages
92, 94, 95
the type of joints involved in
movement — see pages 84, 99
the type of movement occurring, such
as flexion — see pages 97, 98
the planes of movement that are
involved — see pages 100, 101.

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Identify the two sections of the body that experience movement in the gymnastic movement called the crucifix.

103
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Movement efficiency
Every movement an athlete makes requires energy. As athletes refine their performances they look at
ways to make their movements more efficient so they use less energy.

Transfer of movement across body Transfer of loads and

segments maintaining force
The javelin throw below demonstrates how energy is In the javelin throw, load is transferred
transferred from the back foot to the front foot with from the back foot and the hip rotates
energy moving through the upper body, trunk and lower to transfer load to the midline. The final
body in the overhand throwing motion of the javelin. phase brings the load through onto the
front foot and the hip continues to rotate
to face forwards in the direction of the
throw.
© Force has to be maintained throughout
this movement to generate the power
to throw the javelin at maximum speed. _
¢ This transfer of loads also helps
maintain movement efficiency as
one particular area will not become
overworked.

Kinetic chain Dynamic (balanced) stability at

A kinetic chain is a series of joint movements joints and mobility at other joints — |
contributing to an overall complex movement. © Static and dynamic balance are basic skills
* Movement of one joint affects the movement needed in most sports activities. Ensuring
of another. your joints are stable will provide you with
e Joints have specific biomechanical movements. a platform to perform complicated sporting —
¢ These movements are based on joint structure, movements.
function and the other joints around them. ° All of the synovial joints in the skeletal
¢ Muscles, bones, joints and nerves all work system have functions to perform. Joints like
together to create movement. the shoulder and hip need greater mobility
© Every movement that is made will have an to produce major sporting movements like
effect on the kinetic chain. running. Other joints create stability which
° If one part of the chain is not working generates power, e.g. irregular joints in the
effectively it will affect the other parts. vertebrae.
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Mechanical efficiency Muscle balance

Mechanical efficiency describes how effectively Muscle balance reduces the risk of injury and
you move. To be efficient, you need to use as ensures that muscles in an antagonist pair are
little energy as possible in every movement. worked equally. |
If an athlete wants to improve their sporting ¢ If one of the muscles in the pair is overworked —
performance they will reduce their energy input to this makes it overactive and could lead to
achieve a greater output.
injuries because one muscle in the pair is
For example, swimmers study videos of stronger.
themselves performing in a race and study their ¢ When one muscle is weaker than the other it
_ stroke technique to see if they can become more can create bad posture, which will affect the
streamlined in the water. mobility at some joints. ="
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Describe the importance of muscle balance in an antagonist pair.

104
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Your Unit 2 exam

Your Unit 2 exam will be set by Pearson and could cover any of the essential content in the unit.
You can
_ revise the unit content in this Revision Guide. This skills section is designed to revise skills that might
be needed in your exam.
Concise answers Using case studies Short-answer questions
see page 118 See page 106 , see page 107

‘To what extent’ questions

see page 117 / State’ and ‘Name’ questions
see page 1068

‘Evaluate’ questions
see page 116 ee ‘Give’ and ‘Identify’ questions
Exam skills see page 109
| ‘Analyse’ questions Pe ne
—- see page 115
‘Describe’ questions
‘Discuss’ questions see page 110
see page 114

‘Assess’ questions ‘Explain’ questions

= + : see page 113 Long-answer questions see page 111
see page 112

Exam checklist Check the Pearson website

Before your exam, make sure you: The questions provided in this section are
a” ‘Have a black pen you like and at least one designed to demonstrate the skills that might
spare be needed in your exam. The details of your
Have double-checked the time and date ~actual exam may change from year to year so |
always make sure you are up to date. Check
of your exam
the Pearson website for the most up-to-date
Get a good night’s sleep.
Sample Assessment Material to understand
the structure of your paper and how much
time you are allowed.

Visit the Pearson website and find the page containing the course materials
for BTEC National Sport and Exercise Science. Look at the latest Unit 2 Sample
Assessment Material (SAM) to get an indication of:
e the paper you have to take and whether it is in parts
e how much time is allowed
e how many marks are allocated
e what types of questions appear on the paper.

105
 Using case studies
Some of the questions in your exam may relate to a case study.

Applying knowledge and understanding

content of this
Case studies are used so that you can apply your knowledge and understanding of the
unit to sport and exercise situations or movements. For example:
¢ key features of the cardiovascular, respiratory, skeletal and muscular systems
° factors that impact on the functions of the systems
© theories that help to explain movement
° effectiveness of the body in producing sport and exercise movements
e the effects of anatomical systems on movement.

ee
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oe

| Worked example |

Fareed is a long jumper and Connie is a marathon

runner. They will recruit different skeletal muscle bres and Co wil re
fibre types to competein their sports. muscle fibres A Mav : =
Explain why different muscle fibre types would be
recruited when taking part in the high jump and
marathon.

Fareed and Connie will recruit different

muscle fibre types due to the demands of the
_ different activities they compete in. Fareed
will reervit fast-twitch muscle fibres to gain
_ the explosive muscle contractions needed
_ to jump forwards as far as he can. Connie
would require slow-twitch muscle fibres to :
_ allow her muscles to use oxygen and complete
sustained muscle contractions over the P ; : 2.
PF eerathan detance. cm Look at page 88 to revise the content | —
up , oe covered in this question. There is more —
about ea iSiias on page WW.

Now try this ious ;

Sarah is a goalkeeper for her college football team. In a clash
with an opposing striker she has fractured her humerus.
Sarah is keen to get back to playing as soon as possible.

Describe the process of bone remodelling.

R ‘.
Revise page 75 to —
answer this question.
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Short-answer questions
_ Here are some examples of skills involved if answering questions that
require short answers, testing
_ your knowledge and understanding.
:
State

les: Name
eee

Short-answer
command words

Explain Give

a Describe

[ worked example

| The table below shows an athlete's tidal volume as they

take part in a game of football.
Tidal volume before Tidal volume after 45
taking part in football | minutes of playing football
450ml Pe ge
__ Explain why the athlete's tidal volume has changed after 45 minutes of
playing football. 4 ;
plbeaeia See page 73 to
aE
y.. .5.. rasnonse extrac revise the respiratory
system and tidal volume.

1 Tidal volume increases after taking part in football for 45

minutes.
2 The athlete had a tidal volume of 450ml before exercise and
after playing 45 minutes of football their tidal volume was
an 600ml. Their body needed more oxygen to play football.

Tidal volume increases as there is a greater demand for oxygen

due to the athlete playing football.
_ Therefore the amount of air taken in one breath increases
~~ from the resting value to make sure there is enough oxygen to
allow the muscles to contract repeatedly. This means that the
~~ footballer’s tidal volume increases to remove carbon dioxide
which is a waste product of exercise. The increase in tidal
volume will enable the footballer to compete at a higher level
_ for longer. Their body will be able to take in more oxygen,
| _ which it can use to produce energy aerobically.
TU BRE RK 0

tryhis
_ ee ae ae ee ee a ee ee

ow Explain why different muscle fibre types would be recruited when taking part in the javelin and a 5-km open water
swimming race.

107
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‘State’ and ‘Name’ questions

Here are some examples of skills involved if answering State and Name questions, which might ask you
to give a definition or example. You need to recall facts or features relating to a feature of anatomy and
physiology such as the structure, function or location of an aspect of a body system.

Worked example
State the location and function of the Sinoatrial
Node (SAN).

Location is in the upper wall of the right atrium.

The function is to act as a pacemaker to
regulate the heart beat.

example ee
Worked

Name the muscles in the hamstring group of

muscles
Semitendinosus
2 Biceps femoris
3 Semimembranosus

_ State the function of the biceps brachii in the upward

phase of a bicep curl.

fo)Links Look at page 72 to revise ———— —

t Now trythis
State the location and function of the diaphragm. the location and functions
|
of the respiratory system components.
SS

108
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Give’ and Identify questions

Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Give and Identify questions.

Give questions

Me Worked examples Fe

peek
1 Give the meaning of the following anatomical terms:
a) medial
Towards the middle of the body.

b) distal
Away from the midline of the body or the point of attachment.

2 Give an example of a valve in the heart.

Bicuspid valve.

3 Give one reason why the intercostal muscles are important in the process of é

ea inspiration.
_ The external intercostal muscles contract to pull the ribcage outwards and
~_~create space in the thoracic cavity.

4 Give one type of movement that can take place in the sagittal plane. :
24 Flexion.
,

Identify questions
ey ——— ee Se

a! Worked examples
~~ 1 Identify the type of muscle found in the heart.
Cardiac muscle.

_. 2. Identify the blood vessel that delivers deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
|

Vena cava.

_ 3 Identify the type ofjoint found in the hip and shoulder.

_. Ball and socket.

” 1

) ; ) Look at
S| fe)Links a yar:
| to revise the process of
Identify the mineral that is essential in the process of bone growth and remodelling. bone growth.

109
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‘Describe’ questions
you give an account
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Describe questions where
or details of something. This can include giving an account of a process or a descripti on of a structure,
function or system.

David plays basketball in a National League

team. His team travels to Spain to play in an
outdoor tournament in July.

Describe how the cardiovascular system helps

to prevent the body from overheating in hot
environments.

David’s arterioles will vasodilate when he

is playing in hot temperatures. This will
make the arterioles at the skin’s surface
- open. Blood moves closer to the skin’s <p
surface, which allows the heat loss from > fo)Links|Look at page 70 to revise ;
_ the blood to the air through the sweat ; FeaeE a, conte : of blood flow asa |
evaporating. os € cardiovascular system.
safe cen tren nates antec pn es
erenconmmreoecsner rm!

Y worked example
Describe the process of gaseous exchange in the lungs.

-. Gaseous exchange is when oxygen moves from the lungs

_ into the blood and carbon dioxide moves from the blood to
_ the lungs. This happens because in the lungs oxygen moves
from a high concentration to a low concentration in the
bloodstream. In the blood, carbon dioxide diffuses from a
_ high concentration to a low concentration in the lungs. This
all takes place in the alveoli in the lungs and the capillaries. < Look at page 74
Both the alveoli and capillary walls are semi-permeable to CES to revise gaseous
let gases pass across them. exchange. |

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Pow
trythis
Describe how antagonistic muscle pairs produce movement.

Look at page 96 to revise 8

antagonist muscle pairs. —
Ve ER race ATE IRR aEGREE RRNA

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‘Explain’ questions
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Explain questions where you provide a detailed
answer, clearly demonstrating your understanding. You need to make a point and then link the
_ statement to an example or justification.

| ' Worked example

Georgia throws the javelin and her friend Saskia runs the 5000 m.
They will recruit different skeletal muscle fibre types to complete
their sports.

Explain why Georgia and Saskia will recruit different muscle fibre
types when taking part in javelin and the 5000 m.

Georgia and Saskia will need to recruit different types

of muscle fibre to match the demands of their events.
Georgia will need a fast, explosive muscle contraction to
__ throw the javelin as far as she can and will therefore use
——._ fast-twitch muscle fibres. Saskia will recruit slow-twitch
fibres to allow her to have sustained muscle contractions - Look at page 88 to
ORES: on
~~ over the whole 5000 m. revise muscle fibre types.

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sere |e

“a Worked example |
Explain the three classifications of joints.

Fixed joints do not move and are designed to

protect, for example, the cranium. Cartilaginous
joints are slightly moveable, like the vertebral
column. Their movement is functional but also
protects the structures inside the joint. Synovial ra) Look at page 64 to revise
| joints are freely moveable and allow most sporting _ fg) Links|classification of joints.
_. movements to happen, e.g. the shoulder and hip. : mei

Spelling, punctuation and grammar

grammar.
Make sure that your answers are clear, using accurate spelling, punctuation and
anterior, visceral,
| Co Spelling: you should know how to spell key terms, for example cartilaginous,
thermoregulation, appendicular.
he to put
Grammar: you should think about how yeu structure longer answers and use Merearap
— together your response.
is clear.
Punctuation: use commas and full stops in sentences so your meaning
eee
ra i ne
| oar

wythis
rotr|
fo) inks Look at page 83 to revise ligaments.
Explain the role of ligaments in the skeletal system.

lll
 —_—

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Long-answer questions
‘to what extent’.
Long-answer questions may ask you to analyse, assess, evaluate, discuss or ask
Part of a good response to a long-answer question is shown below.

Worked example

Figure 1 shows an athlete

performing the end phase
of a triple jump.
Analyse the required
movements at the hip,
knee and ankle to achieve
the position shown at C
during the follow through
phase of the jump.

20 marks

_ The movements of the hip, knee and ankle will need to happen
simultaneously to produce the movement shown in Figure 1.
_ The hip is a ball and socket joint, which is formed by the
articulation of the femur and pelvis. The hip allows a great range
of movement. As the bones move to get into the position at
_ point C, flexion will occur in the hip. This will allow the triple
jumper to straighten the leg out and reach as far forward as
_ possible into the sand to gain a higher score. The muscles that
create flexion at the hip are hip flexors and as such are the
- agonist muscles. The antagonists are the gluteals, which must
relax to allow the hip flexors to contract. As the hip flexors Show voce skills
contract, they shorten pulling on the bone (femur) attached Consider how your response —
to the muscles’ insertion point. The muscle contraction will be to a long-answer question
concentric as there is movement at the hip. ) might show the following —
The knee is a hinge joint. The joint is formed by articulation of é qalties: wat
the femur, fibula and tibia. Only movement in the sagittal plane is identify appropriate
possible. Extension occurs at the knee to allow the triple jumper structures and functions | _
_ to stretch his legs as far forward as possible. | demonstrate accurate and
The muscle that creates extension at the knee is the quadriceps, | thorough knowledge
which are the agonist muscles. The hamstrings are the antagonist , apply knowledge to the |
and will therefore relax. Concentric contractions happen in the context of the question |
quadriceps to pull on the tibia, which is attached tothe muscle == use specialist language _ :
insertion point. This allows the muscle to straighten out the knee. consistently and fluently.

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Create a table with detail that

would enable you to evaluate
the role of the muscles
operating at the hip and knee
that allow an athlete to move
from standing (position A) to Revise movement on pages 94
a lunge position (position B). to help you answer this ques:
Coren

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‘Assess’ questions
Here. are some examples of skills involved if answering Assess questions where you present
a careful
| consideration of anatomical facts or events that apply to a specific situation. This could involve
_ identifying the most important information to help you arrive at a conclusion.

Assess how the planes dissect different areas of the body

~ and highlight, with examples, the movement available
~ in each plane.

_ The frontal plane goes through the body and separates

it into front and back. The movement in this plane is
_ adduction and abduction. A star jump would be an
-—... example of movement in this plane.
| The sagittal plane goes through the body through the
/ midline giving left and right sections. Movement in this
_ plane is flexion and extension. Most sporting movements
are in the sagittal plane and include running.
—.... The transverse plane divides the body in half, making : Look at pages 100 and 101 to
_ a top and bottom. Movements in this plane include fe)Links|revise planes of movement.
>= rotational movement. Turning your head to head a ball
into the goal would be movement in the transverse plane.

Read the question

Always read each question carefully before you start to answer it.
° Some questions may relate to movements or actions that you are less familiar with.
¢ The question may include informative background. —-

Assess how sliding filament theory explains the process of muscle

You can revise this
contraction.
theory on page 90.

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‘Discuss questions _
the issue,
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Discuss questions where you identify
in the question given, exploring all aspects and
situation, problem or argument that is being assessed
investigating fully. .

. worked example
Discuss how the functions of the cardiovascular
system enable athletes to perform at the highest
level. 10 marks

_ The cardiovascular system has five main

_ functions, which allow us to take part in sport
and exercise activities on a regular basis. One
of the main functions is to deliver oxygen and
nutrients to the parts of our body that need
it the most. As we exercise more, our bodies
demand more oxygen in the muscles and the
cardiovascular system delivers it.
Exercise also makes us produce carbon
dioxide and lactate. We need to remove
these from the body to ensure we can carry
on exercising. Exercise produces heat and
our cardiovascular system controls our
temperature through vasodilation, which is
where the blood vessels open up to let heat
escape. We also direct blood to the working
muscles during exercise and away from areas
that don’t need it.
White blood cells fight infections and diseases
50 we don’t get ill and can continue to
exercise.
Finally, our blood is able to clot if we get a
cut. This is important in team sports as it
means that we will be able to carry on playing - fed)Links|You can revise the functions of the - t
and not bleed to death. cardiovascular system on page 70.

Continue the answer above by adding additional sentences to the third and fourth paragraphs about white blood
cells and blood clotting. Each sentence should draw a conclusion as to how the body performs these functions.

114
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‘Analyse’ questions
| Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Analyse questions, where you explore
in detail
and discover the meaning or essential features of a theme, topic or situation. This may involve
breaking
| something down into its components or examining factors methodically, with detail. To identify
separate
_ factors, say how they are related, and explain how each one contributes to the topic.

=m Worked example

Andy Murray
~~ |preparing to defend
his title at the
~~ | Rio 2016 Olympics

Analyse the role of the muscles operating at the shoulder,

trunk and elbow when Andy strikes the tennis ball
in the picture above. :

Striking phase
Joint Movement | Agonist Type of ‘
contraction
|

ll al
flexion major .
fe)Links|Look at pages 94-95 to
revise the role and function
of muscles involved in movement
.
obliques
When Andy goes to strike the ball his elbow will be
flexed and the biceps brachii will be the agonist in the
movement. This allows him to meet the bounce of the
ball.
——. His shoulder joint will move through horizontal flexion
as he moves from the preparatory phase to striking the
-—- ball and the pectoralis will now be the agonist muscle.
__ The trunk will rotate to generate the power in the
shot. The external obliques will be the agonist in this
movement.
_ All of the agonist muscles will contract concentrically to
~~ produce the movement.

BY Now try this|

Analyse the role of the muscles operating at the shoulder, trunk and
elbow for Andy to prepare to strike the tennis ball in the picture above.

115
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‘Evaluate’ questions
review information
Here are some examples of skills involved if answering Evaluate questions, where you
a subjeche qualities in
and bring it together to form a conclusion or come to a supported judgement of
Drawing on evidence such as strengths, weaknesses, alternative actions, relevant
relation to its context.
data or information, will all help to write an informed response.

Evaluate how the skeleton allows the ranges of movement

necessary to be made from picture A to picture B at the Past 3 seer
knee, hip and shoulder.

“Sample response extras

All movements are in the sagittal plane.
Knee
The knee is a hinge joint. The joint is formed by
the femur, fibula and tibia. Picture A highlights
flexion in the knee and picture B shows extension.
The knee joint will extend as the athlete moves
from the bottom of the squat to the anatomical
positon.
Hip
_ The hip is a ball and socket joint. The joint is
formed by the articulation of the femur and pelvis.
Picture A highlights flexion at the hip and picture
B shows [Link] femur is at a right angle in
picture A and then moves to become straight as
the athlete pushes through to stand up.
Shoulder
The shoulder is a ball and socket joint. The joint
is formed by the movement of the humerus and
scapula. The barbell remains above the athlete’s
j
of)Links hican revise movement
head the whole time so both picture A and B G planes and types on pages
highlight adduction at the joint. 100-101.

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Evaluate the types of movement available in each plane of movement giving sporting examples.

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‘To what extent’ questions

_ If answering “To what extent’ questions, you review information then bring it together to form a judgement
or conclusion, providing a balanced and reasoned argument.

== Worked example
The typical composition of blood is plasma (55%) white blood cells
and platelets (<1%) and red blood cells (45%).
To what extent does the composition of blood support sport and

The largest component of the blood is the plasma, which is

_ a mixture of water, sugar, fat, protein, and salts. The main %
| job of the plasma is to move blood cells through the body. -
_... When we exercise, we need blood to flow to the muscles
_ that are exercising as quickly as possible.
Red blood cells are the second largest component,
which are produced in the bone marrow and carry oxygen
around the body. They contain special proteins called
haemoglobin. When we start exercising, oxygen attaches to |
_ the haemoglobin and is transported to the muscles we are
__ using. Waste products are transported away from the area
_ | in a similar way.
~ Platelets help the blood to clot. If we cut ourselves during
- a hockey match, for example, the platelets would group
_ around the area of the cut. They would then form a clot
that blocks the hole where the cut is, helping to stop the
bleeding.
—_.. White blood cells provide protection from illness and
infection. They make antibodies that fight foreign bodies
~~ when they enter our bodies. If someone on the football
team had a cold, the others training with them would be
protected from catching it, due to their white blood cells.

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To what extent does a 100-m sprinter rely on the neuromuscular control of muscle contraction to gain a quick start
~~}

off the blocks?

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 —

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Concise answers
Here are some examples of skills involved when answering a question concisely. Being concise means
answering the question without adding unnecessary information.

! Worked examples

William is a long-distance swimmer. He takes part in training using free weights to perform
bicep curls as part of his training programme.

1 Identify the type of muscle William will be using during his long-distance
swimming.
Slow twitch or Type |.

2 Describe the type of muscle William will be using during his long-distance
swimming. a
Slow twitch or Type | muscle fibres, as they are slow to contract but have a high
resistance to fatique.

13 Explain how William’s appendicular skeleton allows the range of movement necessary at the —
shoulder and wrist for him to adopt the correct technique needed to carry out a bicep curl.

__ William uses his appendicular skeleton to carry out the bicep curl. William uses
_ the appendicular skeleton’s condyloid joint in his wrist and the ball and socket
_ joint in his shoulder, the hinge in his elbow, the vertebrae in his spine and the ball
and socket joints in the hip. The joints in the appendicular skeleton are synovial
and contain synovial fluid, except the joints in the vertebrae, which are slightly
_ moveable or cartilaginous. William’s bones in the appendicular skeleton articulate
to allow the bicep curl to occur. The articulating bones are in the arm and
shoulder, The movements in the appendicular skeleton happen at different planes.
Planes include transverse, sagittal and median. The movements at the shoulder | Saiaiaiiianieisceiies ors
and wrist are flexion, extension, supination and pronation.
a

_ William’s wrist is a condyloid joint. The joint is formed by the articulation of the
radius, ulna, carpals. The wrist moves in the transverse plane. William’s wrist will
be supinated to hold the weight as he performs the bicep curl.
William’s shoulder is a ball and socket joint. The joint is formed by the articulation
of the scapula, clavicle and humerus. Although a great range of movement is
possible at the shoulder due to the shape made by the articulating bones, to a a
achieve the bicep curl, there is no movement at the shoulder. Its role is to
stabilise the body during the exercise. a

Now try this ee a

Explain the benefits to William of using free weights training to improve
his long-distance swimming performance.
Ensure that you include key information and that your answer is concise.

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Types of motivation
Motivation is what makes a sports performer continue to want to participate in their sport.

Intrinsic motivation ;
There are three parts to intrinsic motivation.
Accomplishments — athletes are motivated
= to improve performance and become the
best.
€) Stimulation — athletes experience the
¥ ‘adrenaline rush’ that is often referred to in
sport. It makes athletes feel good.
3] Knowledge - athletes wish to improve their
' knowledge to make their own performance
even better and master new skills or new
sports.

_ Extrinsic motivation
_ This is being motivated by external There are two parts to extrinsic motivation.
rewards such as money, trophies, praise or Tangible rewards — these are rewards that are _
recognition. All these are rewards that can w physical, e.g. athletes win money or trophies.
__encourage athletes to participate, push their
intangible rewards — these are rewards that
_ bodies to become the best and keep going
' are non-physical, e.g. athletes win praise or
until they succeed.
recognition.
|
ae

- The dangers of extrinsic motivation Semen dtemttgateyeptecennises SM

Anyone receiving too much extrinsic motivation
_ will be less motivated by intrinsic motivation. For
____ example, excessive payments can lead to an athlete
_ participating for money only — and if rewards are given
__. too easily, they will fail to keep an athlete interested.

Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation

Many athletes are motivated by a mix of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation. They want to perform
well, feel pride and get the adrenaline rush, at the
same time as wanting to win a medal. For example,
a football player wants to win the league but also
_wants to feel the pride of playing well and winning
a game.

Libby has recently moved from her local netball team to one a bit further away. The team is well known for
being very successful and winning lots of trophies, which has resulted in them being awarded additional
funding and grants.

What might this tell us about Libby's type of motivation?

119
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Need achievement theory _

Need achievement theory was proposed by Atkinson in 1964. The theory explains why some individuals
are more motivated to succeed than others.

Motivation
High Need
Atkinson proposed that motivation is
to Achieve
determined by an athlete’s personality and (NACH)
their drive to succeed. He considered how an
v Athletes with a
athlete’s personality, along with the situation Tendency to
that they are in, keeps them motivated to Approach
succeed — even if at first they failed. Success (TAS) High Need
Low Need to
He used two categories for athletes: Avoid Failure to Avoid
(Low NAF) Failure (NAF)
») Need to achieve success athletes
w (NACH). Athletes with a
Tendency to |
| 2 Need to avoid failure athletes (NAF). Avoid Failure
Low Need to
Achieve (Low
NACH)

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Achieve success Avoid failure

Need to achieve success athletes (NACH): Need to avoid failure athletes (NAF):
® conceal avoidance behaviour ¢ exhibit avoidance behaviour
© are not afraid to fail ® are afraid to fail
* are persistent © give up easily
_ ® look for challenges © avoid challenges
© take risks © don’t take risks
© value feedback © do not want feedback
° attribute performance to internal factors. ° attribute performance to external factors.

Re ee ee RE IE a eR Ce ee

NACH and NAF

High NACH - athletes who need to achieve High NAF — athletes who want to avoid failing
success, no matter what. at all costs.
Low NACH -— athletes who do not need to Low NAF - athletes who are not afraid of
achieve success. failure.

Explain why an athlete with a high need to succeed and a low need to
avoid failure will have the highest level of motivation.

120
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Achievement goal theory (AGT)

| Achievement goal theory was proposed by Nicholls in 1984 and 1989, and Dweck and Leggett in 1988.
The theory suggests that goals can be used to lead to differing responses.
Achievement goal theory is split into two
‘orientations’ for success: Orientation
‘Orientation’ for the purpose of achievement goal
= | é3 Task orientation.
theory is defined as an athlete’s basic attitude, —
belief or feelings in relation to sports participation.
— 2) Ego or outcome orientation.

Task orientation Ego or outcome orientation

This is also known as mastery orientation. This is sometimes called social comparison
orientation.

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Task or ego?
Is one type of orientation better for motivation than the other? The debate carries on about this.
Traditionally, task-orientated athletes can be seen to have:
° increased levels of effort and persistence
© reduced levels of disappointment or frustration
© reduced fear of failure.
This is because they feel more in control of their situation and their goals.
Ego-orientated athletes can:
° display lower levels of perceived competence, effort and persistence
° attribute any failure to more unstable, external sources.
This could be a result of the athlete feeling less in control over the goal.

Write a paragraph to explain your own ‘orientation’ in relation to achievement

goal theory.

| | ‘121
 Had a look ‘ey Nearly there i: Nailed it! pie

Self-determination theory (SDT) |

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation developed by two psychologists, Edward L.
Deci and Richard M. Ryan (1985, 2000).

SDT The uses of SDT

This theory: SDT can help sport psychologists to understand:
® considers the motivation behind ° why some athletes stick to exercise regimes
choices ® why some athletes drop out from sport
° suggests athletes are motivated ® how to maintain psychological well-being in coaches and
to grow and change because of athletes.
their own individual psychological SDT can help sportspeople to:
behaviours
¢ master challenging skills and gain new experiences
® focuses on intrinsic motivation —
° develop a cohesive sense of self.
sources of motivation from within
an athlete, such as a need to gain For example:
knowledge or independence Louise is a gymnast. She had been struggling with her training _
® assumes athletes are actively programme and was considering quitting the sport. Her coach
directed towards growth. used SDT theory to help her to feel better about training and __
her ability as a gymnast. By using SDT, Louise’s coach was
able to add new challenges to her training programme and
fe)Links| DD ee Ge allow additional time for her to focus on the skills she was less
L motivation, see eee : Sa
proficient in.
page 119.
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Psychological needs
SDT states there are three key psychological needs which must be met if an athlete is to stay motivated. |

. Competence — our need _

wy to successfully complete Three basic
a task to the required/ psychological
desired quality needs of humans
}
i
— . Relatedness - our need
uy to belong/have close
relationships with others

Autonomy — our need to have

y —_choice_or control over what is
happening in our lives

Shaun has suffered a knee injury while training for a marathon and is having physiotherapy
to get him back on track. 4
How milthe self-determination theory be used to explain how Shaun pushes himself to continue training
for the 4
marathon? pond

122
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Weiner's attribution theory

Attribution theory can be used to explain success or failure in sport (Weiner’s attribution theory,
1974).
Reasons for success or failure in sport
_ Attribution refers to the different reasons that an athlete or coach may give to explain
an event or
_ outcome. An athlete or a coach might explain success or failure in terms of three
categories.

©) causality
For example:

| used great skill to curl There | didn’t put in

the ball into the top corner enough effort.
and score that goal.

External ;
The player | was against
That goal was a ‘fluke’. was just too good.

Co 3
Stability Causality Control
Does the reason | Is the reason:
come from something:
Internal? Under the
participant’s control?
External? Not under the
participant’s control?

Using attribution theory 3 |Control

The three categories can help sports For example:
coaches to understand motivation and
future expectations of success and failure. | trained really hard to win
For example, a gymnast who attributes Under the race and get gold.
their points victory to stable, internal and control
controllable factors, is more likely to feel The other runners weren’t
confident and motivated to carry on with Not under as good as | was.
gymnastics because they believe their control
__| successful performance will be repeated.

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ihe aus dn your
Jim is a hockey player and hasn't won a game with his team for 6 weeks. What
atement falls into.
main reason could Jim give for the lack of winning?

123
 Had a look [| Nearly there & Nailed it! [|

Motivational environment
The motivational climate can affect an athlete both positively and negatively.
Influence of a coach on motivation
A coach has the biggest influence over an athlete’s motivation. A coach's actions significantly relate to
an athlete’s behaviour, enjoyment and continuation with an activity.

Mastery climate | Competitive climate

In this climate the emphasis is on teamwork and In this climate mistakes will be punished. a
|cooperation. — . ‘ aryl. Leads to athletes putting in less effort and
dS Leads to success. ultimately a lack of ability.
| d This motivation environment focuses on the & This motivation environment focuses on outcome.
mastering of tasks. & Athletes fear punishment will occur if they don’t
dS Improves an athlete’s attitude, effort levels win a game/competition.
and learning techniques. Athletes are encouraged to compete, with only
dS Athletes receive positive reinforcement. the best athletes receiving attention.

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TARGET
Coaches can use the ‘TARGET’ approach to keep athletes motivated: :
Task — use a range of tasks to keep the athlete involved in learning and decision making. :
Authority — allow athletes to monitor and evaluate themselves as well as their progress and to make
_ their own decisions.
Reward — offer rewards that focus on an athlete’s improvements.
_ Grouping — allow athletes to work in groups to develop skills.
Evaluation — asks the question: has anindividual improved? fo ore Aa
Timing — ensure timing of activities is effective to allow all of the above conditions to interact effectively.

1 Describe a positive motivational climate and the impact it will have on an athlete.
2 Describe a negative motivational climate and the impact it will have on an athlete.

124
 Had a look |_| Nearly there [| Nailed it! zt

Influencing motivation
Motivation is influenced by family and peers, personality and physical environment.

Personality traits and social Family and peers

learning Family and peers includes anyone who could
_ An athlete’s personality traits will influence influence an athlete’s decisions.
_ motivation, falling into one of the below ° An athlete’s wish to make family or peers
categories: proud can provide all the intrinsic motivation
_ © the need to achieve success (NACH) needed for them to achieve and be successful.
_ © the need to avoid failure (NAF). ° An athlete’s motivation may also be negatively
influenced. Wanting to appear ‘cool’ among
An athlete’s social learning will also influence
peers might not include a sport commitment
motivation. All behaviour is learned. If a young
and this could result in an athlete dropping out
_ athlete sees something being modelled,
of sport and becoming demotivated.
_ they believe it is acceptable. For example, a
_ professional athlete who does not train may make An athlete is more likely to participate
_ a young athlete feel that this is acceptable, which if they have:
in turn can lead to demotivation. ° family/peer encouragement
© positive experiences with family members or
fo)Links Ne revise NACH and NAF peers
S€e€ page 120, and to revise ° increased confidence due to a family member
social learning, see page 139. or friend’s influence
© someone to join in with.

The physical environment

~ Not being able to access good-quality sports
facilities or equipment easily can become
_ demotivating. Using out-of-date or broken
_ equipment can also discourage young athletes.
‘There are many sports where people cannot
_ afford the costs. For example, being unable to
use tennis courts, which are not in use, leads
__to fewer people being motivated or able to.
_ play tennis. Golf is another sport which can be
expensive, as can horse riding and figure skating.
_ However, football is widely available — pitches are
_ in most parks, cost nothing and can be used at
_ any time. Therefore, the motivation to play may
remain high as it is easy to access, with little
_ cost associated.

Ray is 14 and loves to play cricket. What might affect his motivation to get involved and stay involved?
List three factors.

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Over-motivation and its signs.

Motivation in sport is usually seen as a benefit but t here are times when motivation levels can become
too high, even dangerous, and this is known as over-motivation.

Signs of over-motivation
When an athlete is over-motivated, they overtrain because of the pressure to perform at a high level.
This can lead to many physical and psychological issues for the athlete.
Loss of love for sport Overtraining

Training more than . - poet Training addiction

ml
normal and necessary —~__

Boredom pe Social withdrawal

Lack of enjoyment Mood swings

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Overtraining Training addiction

| Overtraining is an excessive training load that the Over-motivation can lead to training addiction.
_ athlete cannot cope with. Athletes feel that they Athletes addicted to training can: r
need to train more and more and therefore will over-
° become addicted to the feeling created by _
_ train. Rather than leading to a better performance, the endorphins released when exercising
this can have the opposite effect. Strength and
experience health problems including
_ endurance can actually decrease. Ultimately, over-
training can lead to burnout and injury. decreasing the feeling of pain, eating
disorders and withdrawal symptoms

a
To revise the dangers of overtraining, claim that they do not need to sleep, rest
see page 127. or eat — and see this as healthy behaviour.

Social withdrawal
Social withdrawal can happen when an
Tackling over-motivation
athlete is suffering from training addiction. To tackle over-motivation a sportsperson could set:
The athlete is too motivated by the desire realistic goals — e.g. identify appropriate
_ to win and be the best so their focus is on intensities and durations for training sessions
training, quite possibly at the expense of * boundaries - e.g. do not take on additional
relationships with friends and family. It can training or take part in extra competitions
_ lead to an athlete becoming isolated, and * rest and relaxation periods —¢.g. spend -
_ depressed. 2 hours with friends or family one evening.

ORL __ PS ___.___OSL __F»_ A___RR_ E__RN.__U__ S_ ae epee

1. How might a basketball coach recognise over-motivation in one of their players?

2 Suggest two ways the coach could help the athlete to overcome this.

126
 Had a leok [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! by

Effects of over-motivation
_ When an athlete is over-motivated and overtraining, the effects can be spotted by a coach. These may
include burnout, injury, a severe drop in performance and even overconfidence.

Decrement (or drop) in performance Over-confidence

Decrement happens when athletes are so over- Overconfidence is the difference between
motivated that their training is not effective. It can perception and performance. It may be seen
_ be known as staleness. as arrogance.
° The athlete can no longer maintain or achieve a ° Overconfidence can lead to failure, although
previous level of performance. to be successful, athletes must believe they
¢ Decrement in performance can lead to mood can do something.
swings and depression. ° Overconfident athletes can become
Tackling decrement in performance complacent, leading them to perform at a
Over-motivation must be addressed so that an
lower level.
athlete can get the most from their training. For Tackling overconfidence
_ example, a weightlifter who trains too frequently Correct performance information is crucial.
_ or at too high an intensity will see a decrease in For example, a 100-m sprinter will understand
- their sports performance. Training programmes must their performance as the stop watch does
be updated regularly and made interesting for not lie. It is important for athletes to remain
ae
the athlete. The athlete should be excited by the confident but to be realistic about their ability
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Burnout Injury
_ Burnout is a chronic physical and mental Injuries can be physical or psychological, for example:
_ state leading to a reduced sense of ¢ physical damage such as fractures, torn ligaments
~-accomplishment, a devaluing of, or and tendon damage
resentment towards, the sport. Burnout: © psychological damage such as when an athlete
® can happen when an athlete keeps trying becomes stressed, withdrawn or depressed.
_to achieve the demands of training and
competition despite being unsuccessful
by trying harder each time — over-
motivation leads to overtraining
© can increase stress levels — this is
dangerous as increased stress levels are
associated with injury
e can lead to physical and emotional
exhaustion and athletes giving up.
Tackling burnout
Foran athlete to perform at the best of
their ability throughout their career they
need to reduce the risk of burnout. A tennis
player suffering from burnout should look to Tackling injury
adjust the training programme to include
To overcome an injury effectively, athletes need to
rest and recuperation time. It is just as
understand the timescale for their recovery and how
important for an athlete to train as it is to
to best continue training without causing further injury
_ make time to see their friends and family.
or delaying their recovery time.
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1 How can over-motivation lead to an athlete becoming injured?
2 Howcan over-motivation lead to burnout?
3 When might decrement in performance occur?

127
 p e r f o r m a n c e t h e o r i e s (1 )
Arousal
Arousal is the level of readiness of an athlete to perform. It can have both a positive and a negative
effect on performance. Certain theories explore these effects.

Drive theory
High
Drive theory was devised by Hull in 1943 and
adapted by Spence and Spence in 1966. It
states that the relationship between arousal and
performance is linear — they increase at the same
rate. As arousal increases, so does performance.
Drive theory is challenged by some who claim Performance
that:
© when arousal reaches a very high level, Low $$$ $$ >
performance decreases Low becpaits mg) s ibe om
© novices do not perform well under pressure —
their skill level decreases under pressure
© experienced athletes perform well under
pressure due to their superior skills and ability
to manage stress effectively.

-Inverted-U hypothesis ; a —s
Maxi ul
This hypothesis was proposed by Yerkes aoe st a ate
and Dodson in 1908. It states that:
® the relationship between arousal and
performance has an optimal point;
in other words, when arousal is at an
optimal level, performance will be at
its highest
¢ when arousal is too low or too high,
performance will be lower. Performance

| Poor Poor \ \ —
: | | performance performance \ \
oor
Low Moderate High
(under-aroused) (optimally aroused) (over-aroused)
Emotional arousal

Pros and cons of arousal

ey)The positive impact of arousal in both & The negative impact of arousal is that there
theories is that performance gets better as it is an optimal level and when it isn’t being
increases, achieved performance is poor.

Now try this

Using drive theory and inverted-U hypothesis, explain how an elite athlete may perform
in a cup final match at the
start of the game, after his team has scored a goal and then when the oppositio
n has scored a goal to equalise.

128
 Had a look [| Nearly there {| Nailed it! La]

| Arousal performance theories (2)

_ Iwo further theories of the relationship between arousal and performance are the catastrophe
theory
(Hardy and Fazey, 1987) and individual zones ofGadi functioning (IZOF, initially developed
by the
psychologist Juri Hanin in the 1970s).

Catastrophe theory A
_ Arousal affects performance in a similar fashion High
to the inverted-U theory (page 128) unless an
_ athlete has high levels of cognitive anxiety.
_ Cognitive anxiety refers to negative thoughts,
_ hervousness or worry experienced in certain
_ situations. Symptoms include concentration
problems, fear and bad decision-making.

Performance

Physiological arousal

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a | individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF)

_This theory expands on all the theories by arguing that everyone
(i.e. ditferent personality types, participating in different sports) has
_ different optimal arousal levels. Everyone can
Athlete A
- remain in the zone for a period of time during ———
; | which they can perform at a higher level for Athlete B pon
longer. Pe ss
Zone of best
Athlete Cc performance

Zone of best
performance ~

M To revise inverted U hypothesis,

a iow
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- What are the key differences between IZOF and catastrophe theory?

129
 = ow :

Changes in arousal
Arousal can bring both benefits and drawbacks to sporting performance.

Improvements or Changes in attentional focus

decrements in performance Differing states of arousal can enhance or detract from
focus. For example, in ice hockey, if the centre player
Arousal can be positive as well as
has an optimal level of arousal, they will be able to pass
negative — it depends on an athlete’s
the puck and know their positioning and that of their team
perception of it:
mates. However, as soon as arousal becomes heightened,
ey) If changes due to arousal are seen as the centre can only focus on the player they are passing to.
positive, the effect on performance
will be positive. This is known as C Moderate
‘psyching up a performer’. A High arousal B Low arousal (optimal) arousal
gwen
& If changes due to arousal are seen as ‘
- 1
{

negative, the effect on performance A

{
\
will be negative. This is known as {
{
‘psyching out a performer’. t
t
t
{
t
{
{
{
Increase in stress and {
\

anxiety levels Seer{

wre
ererr
ae
=- 4

Increased arousal can lead to increased

_ stress and a state of anxiety. This
increases somatic and cognitive
anxiety. An athlete’s reaction will lead to Attentional Attentional field Optimal attentional
this being either positive or negative. tield becomes too is too broad and the field
r narrow athlete can concentrate
on fewer relevant cues

£) To revise different types of

G anxiety, see pages 132 and 133. _

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Experience of flow states ‘Choking’

Flow is also known as being in the ‘zone’. ‘Choking’ is a form of underperformance. This can
When in the zone, an athlete is totally happen when:
submerged in their sport or activity. They —
* an athlete loses their nerve
feel alert and strong. Performance seems
controlled and the athlete feels at the peak * an athlete or team fails to win despite being = = :
favourites to win.
of their performance.
Often this is a result of the enormity of the situation
rather than the difficulty of the task. For example, a
tennis player serving for the match in a Wimbledon final.
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Explain how different levels of arousal might affect a gymnast’s performance

when they are just about to compete in
an important event.

130
 Had alook |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Stress
_ Stress is defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) as ‘a pattern of negative physiological states and
psychological responses occurring in situations where people perceive threats to their well-being, which
_ they may be unable to meet’.

The four-stage stress process

This process identifies how stress affects performance.

| @

Demand
Demand is placed
upon an athlete.
For example, a @
footballer is taking
= | a penalty in the Perceptions
| World Cup final. Demand is perceived as
ao positive (e.g. a uname’ cs
. challenge) or negative
_ (e.g. a threat). If the Increased arousal
| demand is perceived aS |jevels
ii negative the athlete will {¢ at stage 2, the mee eer
begin to feel that they stress was perceived
a cannot achieve this. For as positive, it will be 4) |
. example, the footballer eystress (increased Outcomes
al will believe they are motivation), but if it was If eustress was evident
| going to miss the perceived as negative it at stage 3, performance
. penalty. will be distress (worry). would be increased. If
For example, the player distress was evident at
may begin to worry and stage 3, performance
g panic. would be reduced. For
example, the player may
S miss the penalty.

_ Eustress Dis eis

| This is good or positive This is bad or negative
| stress. 8 Eustress a ates: :
. Ey improves performance : ? ee ciel os
| > short term
|

a
re)

nervousness
3

ey) increases intrinsic can be short or long

. | MO tivation
eS Distress term
aa & focuses an athlete's @ athletes believe _
attention on their Level of stress they can’t meet the
an sport.
demands of the sport
or situation.

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to win the game.

Explain the process that a snooker player will go through when trying to pot the black ball
Complete this for eustress and distress.

| 7 131
 Had a look a Nearly there & _ Nailed it! ba

Anxiety
Anxiety is defined as a feeling of worry, nervousness or a lack of ease. There are different types
of anxiety.

State anxiety Trait anxiety

This type of anxiety: This type of anxiety:
¢ is a short-term mood state that ° is part of an athlete’s personality
changes frequently ® can lead to them becoming worried, fearful or anxious in many
¢ is an athlete’s emotional situations.
response to a situation that Athletes with high trait anxiety view more situations as
they perceive as threatening threatening compared to those with a lower trait anxiety.
¢ varies from situation to situation. This leads to these athletes responding with a higher state
anxiety.
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Competitive anxiety
Changing levels of
This is faced by nearly every athlete at some point.
anxiety a
At the start of a World Cup
football final, a footballer may
have higher levels of state
anxiety, which will decrease once
the whistle has blown andthe
game has begun. State anxiety
levels may increase again when _
the opposition scores a goal and
can be at their highest level when | — |
faced with a penalty shoot-out.

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Multidimensional anxiety theory — (Martens, 1990)

This theory focuses on the division between cognitive anxiety
Cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety. It predicts:
= ran}=F
> The relationship between cognitive anxiety and
performance will be negative. :
The relationship between somatic anxiety and
2.) performance will be an inverted-U.
Performance
ee ore _ As performance begins, somatic anxiety should
Low ee Same ey ' decline but cognitive anxiety will sets high mgplirtoesle: if |
Low High confidence is low. ae
Arousal/Anxiety
‘
ey Links For mer omn cognative
g and ae 2
somatic anxiety, see page 139. Fam mm m= mu om me oe

Sam is training hard and would like to become a professional sprinter. Before races, he
gets very nervous i
and anxious.

1 What type of anxiety might Sam be experiencing? How do you know this?
2 Howwill the multidimensional theory relate to Sam?

132
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! {|

| Anxiety: Emotions and behaviours

Anxiety is shown in different emotional and behavioural symptoms.

_Three levels of anxiety @ Cognitive

in their book Inside Sport Psychology,
This is a particular thought process that the
Karageorghis and Terry (2007) put forward three athlete is going through. For example:
_ levels at which anxiety is recognised:
© fear ® easily irritated
1° cognitive
° feeling rushed ° defeatist self-talk
2 somatic
® lack of concentration ¢ negative thoughts.
3 behavioural.
© indecision

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(2) somatic &) Behavioural

This relates to the physical response of an This relates to the behavioural pattern of the
~~ athlete. For example: athlete. For example:
° increased blood pressure © covering face with hands
¢ increased breathing rate ® avoiding eye contact
© increased heart rate (pounding heart) ° biting fingernails
® increased sweating ° lethargic movements.
° increased body temperatures
¢ vomiting
¢ diarrhoea
_ © frequent need to urinate
® dry mouth
_ © adrenaline rush.

Reversal theory
Cognitive and somatic
_ Reversal theory (Apter 19682 and 1989, Kerr 1990)
links personality, emotion and behaviour. Arousal affects anxiety
performance dependent upon an athlete’s interpretation Cognitive anxiety can be thought of
of their arousal. The theory recognises that athletes have as ‘worrying about something’.
a preferred level of arousal — this can be: Somatic anxiety relates to the
© exciting and enjoyable — this aids performance awareness and perception of
® unpleasant and anxious — this decreases performance. physiological changes (such as
increases in heart rate, sweating and
~ For example, a basketballer playing in the NBA finals may
increased body heat) when an athlete
_ be very anxious before the start of a game but as they
starts to play sport.
begin to play this will reverse into feeling excited and
_ enjoying the game.
a ee ae ee ee ee

trythis
(Now Think of a recent competitive sports fixture in which you've taken part. Make brief notes of the levels of anxiety that
you went through and how they affected your performance.

133
 —_—

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Sources of stress
Athletes can be in similar situations yet respond with entirely different individual levels of stress and
anxiety. Sources of stress can be internal or external. Internal stress involves things that we think
about. External stress involves factors in the environment.

Internal External
Internal sources of stress can include: External sources of stress can include:
e lack of sleep © the environment — e.g. too noisy or too quiet
° being a perfectionist ¢ major life events — e.g. death of a loved one
* being too self-critical *® negativity — e.g. rudeness from others
* illness ° financial issues
e infection © daily issues — e.g. how you get to training or a
® anxiety game
© low self-esteem ® training schedules.

° fear
® unrealistic expectations.
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Personal, occupational and environment

Stress can also come from other factors, which can be internal or external:
° Personal factors — e.g. from people who are significant in our lives such as friends, family and
partners. Lifestyle factors like health and finance can also be sources of stress.
Occupation — stress related to your job, e.g. lack of job satisfaction or unemployment. Ina sporting
situation, having a disagreement with a coach or a manager and being dropped from the team could
lead to you suffering from stress.
Sports environments — there are two key aspects of sport performance that cause stress: how
important the event is and how uncertain an athlete is about it.
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Sarah wants to join a Zumba class that runs twice a week.

What stresses might Sarah face while:

3
(a) making her decision to attend the classes?
) ae
(b) continuing to attend the classes?

134
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Symptoms of stress and anxiety

Symptoms from the impact of stress and anxiety on sports performance can manifest themselves in
_ different ways.

Biological symptoms - fight or flight

The sympathetic nervous system The parasympathetic nervous system

This is the ‘fight or flight’ response. It impacts This helps an athlete to relax by:
_ the body physiologically by: ° decreasing the heart rate, breathing rate and
* increasing adrenaline, heart rate, breathing body temperature
rate, body temperature and muscle tension ¢ slowing the metabolism
° diverting the blood to the muscles ¢ making the muscles relax.
© giving an athlete a ‘dry mouth’.

= An athlete will begin to relax at the end of

An athlete will decide if the race is the race. The body will decrease breathing
threatening or not. For example, at the rate, ghee and heart rate.
start of a race the body will respond by
baal breathing, increasing heart rate, GE, To revise the two different types of stress,
increasing temperature and a dry mouth. eustress and distress, see ager 12

-
Cognitive, somatic and behavioural symptoms

Cognitive — mental concerns

Somatic — physical
and worries, which can reduce
symptoms, €.g. increased
an athlete’s performance and
pulse rate, blood pressure
also lead to risk of injury
and muscle tension

Behavioural — e.g. poor While many people

communication, fidgeting see the symptoms of
and rushing, which can stress as negative,
lead to poor sporting
an athlete’s body
performance
needs some of these
responses to meet the
demands of sport.

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You could think about an athlete
f-
such as Nicola Adams before
Explain the symptoms of stress and anxiety that a boxer might her gold medal boxing match at
feel before an Olympic gold medal boxing match. the London 2012 Olympics.
#.

135
 Had a look |_| Nearly there & Nailed it! bel

Positive consequences of
stress and anxiety
Stress and anxiety don’t have to be negative — they can have positive consequences.

The benefits
Stress and anxiety can:
® be beneficial to performance
® jncrease concentration
® lead to higher levels of performance
e enable athletes to make critical decisions.
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The six positive consequences of stress and anxiety ae

Positive mental state: e.g. self-confidence and arousal — if mental state improves, performance
will increase.
Increase of self-confidence: arousal and self-belief can make the athlete believe they are good
enough to reach their goal, leading to a positive impact on performance. ) i
Improvement in performance: a positive mental state and increase in self-confidence will_
decrease cognitive anxiety, i.e. the athlete will experience a decrease in nervousness,
apprehension and worry. The athlete will focus on positive feelings, which will lead to decreased
muscle tension and improved movement coordination. This can all contribute to an increase in
sports performance.
Increased energy: stress and anxiety will cause an increase in adrenalin to be released, making
the body feel like it has more energy, which athletes can use to improve their sports performance.
Increased motivation: arousal will make the athlete more motivated and, in turn, more stimulated
and able to perform. Increased motivation can lead an athlete to try more complex skills and
techniques, which can increase their sports performance. :

0900
000 increased focus: a positive mental state will make the athlete more focused on their
allow their performance to improve. The athlete will want to take part and perform
their ability.
sport and —
to the best of

— oe Ee Ses ee 3

Identify how each of the six positive effects of stress and anxiety could impact on your performa
nce in sport.

136
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! {|

Negative consequences of
| stress and anxiety
The negative consequences of stress and anxiety can be highly detrimental to sporting performanc
e.
The dangers
Stress and anxiety can:
_ © lead to feelings of real pain
© reduce concentration
© lead to lower levels of performance
° lead to rash decisions being made
¢ lead to injury to the athlete or injury to another athlete.

al

ae
The five negative consequences of stress and anxiety
|
|
| Negative mental Loss of self-confidence: too much
| ' State: e.g. worry and 7 worry can make the athlete believe
e- apprehension— if worry _ they are not good enough to reach
becomes too great, their goal, leading to a negative
4 performance will suffer. _ impact on performance.

et 3] Decrement in performance: Possible injury: high levels of

| ' negative mental state and stress and anxiety can cause the
oss of self-confidence --.. body to release higher levels. --
will heighten cognitive of cortisol (a hormone that is
anxiety, i.e. the athlete — released in high levels during
| will experience increased stressful situations). In turn, this
nervousness, apprehension has a catabolic effect on the
and worry. The athlete | all body meaning that tissue, such as
responds by focusing on eo, muscle, is made weaker and the
negative feelings leading risk of muscle injury is increased.
to hyper-elevated muscle Stress and anxiety can also lead
tension and lack of movement to a lack of focus and this, in
coordination. This can all turn, can lead to poor technique,
contribute to a drop in making mistakes and sustaining
performance. injuries (€.g. a mistimed tackle).

_ Aggression: stress can cause aggression :

¥ (both physical and verbal) and, conversely,
aa aggression can cause stress.

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Identify how each of the five negative effects of stress and anxiety could impact on your performan
| particular sport.

137
 Had alook [|_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! {_|

Types of aggression
Aggression can be both positive and negative. There are several types of aggression.

Assertive behaviour
with
Assertive behaviour is very different from aggressive behaviour because the individual is playing
emotion and within the rules of the game.

There is a clear
goal.

The force used os es

islegitimate. =

Instrumental (or channelled) Hostile aggression

) aggression This type of aggression: |
_ This is a show of aggressive behaviour in pursuit ° inflicts harm on an opponent (physical or
of a non-aggressive goal. For example, a boxer psychological)
will intend to hurt their opponent but they do so © is also known as reactive aggression because
as a necessary part of winning the fight. it often happens in response to an incident
¢ It often occurs in contact sports. ® can be accompanied by anger
® Most sports aggression is instrumental. ° is not used to reach a non-aggressive goal
° is never within the rules of the sport.

Relational aggression
_ This is a non-physical form of aggression usually
aimed at causing another person psychological
or emotional harm. The most common forms are:
® spreading rumours
° forming cliques to exclude certain team
members
* refusing to befriend a new team member.

Hostile aggression and assertion should not be confused. Outline the main differences between the
two.

138
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AG ed J

Theories of aggression
_| Aggression is a behaviour with the intention of harming or injuring someone else. Here are
four theories
of aggression and its causes.

Instinct theory (Freud, 1950; Social learning (Bandura, 1977)

Lorenz, 1966)

Frustration-aggression theory Saher Gat

|
t
Aggression theories
Adapted frustration-
. (Dollard et al, 1939) aggression theory
sd a i ee ee ee SS

1) Instinct theory | 2 Social learning

_ Features are: This theory states that:
- Ree eet is learned
athletes have an aggressive instinct ® aggression from role
__® instinct builds up until it can be released models displaying poor behaviour
¢ release is through aggression towards someone else or * this behaviour is likely to be copied.
through the socially acceptable medium of sport For example, if a child watches a
_ © release
is called ‘catharsis’. footballer on TV tackling an opponent
from behind, and he does not get a
Critics of instinct theory yellow card, and his parents cheer, they
are likely to think they can copy this
While we often relate to this idea, there is little behaviour in theie Ountmacshee:
research-based evidence to support the instinct theory
so it is rarely used to explain causes of aggression.

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98 Frustration-aggression theory Critics of the frustration-

This theory states that: aggression theory
e aggression is a result of frustration
© frustration always leads to aggression.
_ For example, a goal shooter being beaten to the ball
by the goalkeeper all the time in netball becomes
___ frustrated. They will then become angry and may push
the goalkeeper over when going for the ball.
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a4 Adapted frustration-aggression theory

_This is a revised version of frustration-aggression theory
_ with elements of social learning theory. It states that:
-® aggression is a result of frustration
© frustration leads to anger and arousal
°¢ when anger and arousal are not controlled, aggression
occurs
e an athlete will only become aggressive if the aggressive
behaviour is condoned by a respected role model, for
Nite a coach or parent.
ee ee ee ee ee
ee eT

John is a basketball player. During an important game, he keeps missing shots.

During a lay-up John runs into an opponent, pushes him and knocks him over.

Which theory does John’s behaviour in the basketball game relate to?
139
 Had a look i Nearly there & Nailed it! Lf

Self-confidence
goals. —
Selt-confidence means trusting yourself and believing in your own ability to perform and achieve your

Constructs of sport confidence Consequences of sport

‘Constructs’ means all the things that make up confidence
sport confidence including: These are linked to ‘ABCs’:
¢ decision-making skills e affect
¢ physical skills ¢ behaviour
* anticipatory skills ¢ cognition.
¢ the capacity to learn and develop. If the athlete has higher levels of
confidence, they are more likely to:
* have a more positive effect (or
emotion)
¢ try harder (behaviour)
Vealey's ° pay close attention to their sport
multidimensional to keep improving (cognition). ~~
model of sport
confidence (2001)
\

Sources of sport confidence

* Previous success can help increase levels
of self-confidence for future events — the Factors influencing sport confidence _
athlete believes they can repeat their These include:
_ Success. e personality (e.g. athlete’s levels of optimism) =
¢ An athlete’s belief that they are more ° demographics (e.g. social background)
talented than opponents can also build ° organisational structure (e.g. the coach’s behaviour, —__
confidence, partly because they feel they the level of competition and the motivational
have a competitive advantage. climate).

I ee ee ee ee ae ee

Further sources of sport confidence

| Weinberg and Gould (2011) outlined nine sources of sport confidence:
Coaches’ leadership, trust in their decisions—
Mastery: developing and improving skills.
and a belief in their ability.
Demonstration of ability by winning and by
Vicarious experiences: mare others do
‘ outperforming opponents.
well. ee {Wl we
Physical and mental preparation: focused on
Fasting comfortable in the environment
goals and prepared to give your all.
where you will perform. — a
Self-presentation: feeling good about
Situational favourableness: feeling that all is—
yourself and your physical appearance,
going well and that you are eS the bit
weight, etc.
of luck needed to succeed. —
Social support, e.g. from peers, family and
coaches.

a alee eel ee nn
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bre

List three sources which give you sports confidence and explain why they do so.

140
 Had a look a Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|

Impact of self-confidence
—.
|
|

- }

|
|
Self-confidence impacts on an athlete’s sport and exercise performance in significant
|
}
ways.
Impact of self-confidence
| Self-confidence can:
The positive impact of self-confidence
© arouse positive emotions Athletes with a high level of self-confidence are keen to
take on responsibility. For example, in a game of hockey
® improve concentration
they might take responsibility for set pieces (influencing
_ © increase effort and influence game game strategy) because they feel they have paid
- --strategy. attention to the positions and behaviours of team mates
{

_ Different levels of self-confidence can (aided by high concentration), which allows them high
_ impact performance in positive and levels of self-confidence to enable the team’s success.
| negative ways.

| Optimal self-confidence Low self-confidence

| If an athlete has an optimal level of self-confidence, they Athletes with lower levels of confidence:
a) are confident that they will meet their goals and will ® tend to believe that they ‘can’t’ rather
| strive to do so. than they ‘can’, so their performance is
= likely to decrease
® experience decreased performance,
which affects their psychological well-
being leading to self-doubt, anxiety and
indecisiveness
© have increased risk of injury as a result
of lacking confidence as they begin to
miss relevant information because they
are not paying enough attention to
instructions or what is going on around —
them.

my
|
|
|

ae.

en) cst ee at

Overconfidence
Gender differences
‘{f athletes are overconfident, they tend Sources of confidence can differ between men and
to display an unrealistic confidence,
women:
which does not necessarily reflect their
¢ some male athletes claim that outperforming their
actual ability. There is a strong chance
alrani
yikes
er competitors gives them a source of confidence
that perform ance will decrease due to
|cea missing relevant information and paying less e some female athletes report that self-
attention. This can affect psychological development and improvement are a source of
ee
i well-being and increase injury risk. confidence.

ecmD What effect can optimal self-confidence and low self-confidence have on performa
nce? List two examples for each.

| 141
 —_—

Had a look ze Nearly there [| Nailed it! al

d p e r f o r m a n c e _
Expectations an
Athletes often have high expectations of themselves, as do their coaches, and this can have an influence
on their performance.

Expectations of self Great expectations

An athlete’s high expectations Positive expectations lead to positive outcomes. Expecting to
of themselves can lead to great beat a tough opponent can lead to exceptional performance.
confidence and success.
e If they have high expectations,
it is likely these are based on
a perception of competence
(a feeling that they are good
at something) and these high
expectations are likely to enhance
levels of confidence.
e If confidence is enhanced in this
way, the athlete is likely to display
more determination and effort
towards achieving their goals.
However, once an athlete begins to
doubt themselves, they begin to lose
control.

Expectations of the coach

The expectations of a coach can
have a huge impact on an athlete’s
or team’s performance. What a coach
expects of their athlete or team will
affect their behaviour towards the
team and, in return, the behaviour of
the team.

Appropriate expectations
A coach's high expectations of their athlete or team can lead to great success. However, sports
coaches should always set realistic expectations, particularly when working with young athletes.
In this case, their expectations should be age-appropriate and should be child- rather than adult-
centred. An understanding of child development is essential too. .
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Suzanne has been training hard and has reached the semi-finals of her local badminton league's
cup competition ;
Her competitor is tipped to win the cup. ; e
Discuss Suzanne's expectations of herself and her coach's expectations and how they might affect
her performance

142
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self-efficacy
Self-efficacy has been defined by Albert Bandura as being ‘belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific
_ situations or accomplish a task’. An athlete’s sense of self-efficacy can play a big part in how they
_ approach goals, tasks and challenges.

_ Bandura’s self-efficacy theory How the theory works

4g Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1973) is part of The self-efficacy theory tells us that efficacy expectations
| the self-system and takes into account: will be created by:
ee attitudes ° verbal persuasion
_ © cognitive skills ¢ vicarious experiences
ee abilities. *® emotional arousal
|This considers how people perceive * performance accomplishments.
| situations and feskoud,te them: Selt- These increase the chances of heightened athletic
a eee is. an athlete S belief in their own _ performance. Each leads to an athlete’s belief in their own
= ilities to achieve success. ability and high expectations of their own performance.

_ Bandura’s theory in action

-— | Werbal persuasion
_ | Other people’s encouragement of an
_| athlete (e.g. a coach telling an athlete they
can succeed).

Vicarious experiences
| Experiences gained through someone else,
- €@.g. watching someone in a similar position
to yourself who is performing successfully,
and drawing confidence from it.
Efficacy
expectations

Emotional arousal
Emotional reaction to something or =
someone.

Performance accomplishments An athlete who shows strong self-efficacy is

Recent successes are a strong source of likely to do very well. Their performance will
confidence. probably improve due to a strong belief in
their own abilities.

| , 143
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_|

ipplication of Bandura'’s
self-efficacy theory
As an athlete’s ability in a sport increases, 50 does their self-efficacy — a belief in their own abilities.

High self-efficacy Low self-efficacy

Athletes with a high sense of self-efficacy will: Athletes with a low sense of self-efficacy will:
ey) look for challenges &) use avoidance behaviours
ey) believe their ability is the reason for their & give up easily
ede reates & become anxious when faced with difficult tasks
eS attribute their success to their effort. & attribute failure to internal factors.

Putting it into practice

High self-efficacy
° Verbally persuaded
by peers and manager
as the sportsperson
has performed well in
training.
¢ Has vicarious
experiences from
seeing a peer perform
well.
© Emotionally reacts
to events — é€.g.
the situation of a
goalkeeper being
sent off.
° Expects to perform to
a good standard as has
practised in training.

Ferformance will depend on prior expe

rience leading to
high or low self-efficacy. For example,
an athlete ite
on the performance of a replacement
goalkeeper.

Consider thi i |:
Scarlett plays for the local basketball team. Her friend has asked if she will from me S aes L
play a game of netball as her team is down one player. an both SP deste ph L
as ae he OW R

How might this affect Scarlett’s self-efficacy? efficacy.

Septet eee RSE len eEeRacee

144
 Had a look t | Nearly there len Nailed it! |_|

self-esteem
Self-esteem refers to how much you like or value yourself. Valuing your own abilities
is the key to being
a great athlete.

What is self-esteem? Boosting self-esteem

In a sporting context, self-esteem is how valuable an Developing, increasing and mastering
_ athlete considers themselves to be. An athlete with new skills can increase self-esteem. For
_ high levels of self-esteem and confidence in their own example, when a child learns to ride a
_ abilities can enjoy an improved performance. Sport is bicycle or catch a ball for the first time
a positive way to increase self-esteem. This can also they can have a self-esteem boost.
_ have a positive effect on an athlete in a non-sporting Similarly, going to an aerobics class for
environment. For example, playing regular sport can lead the first time and taking part fully can
_ to higher levels of confidence in academic ability and increase self-esteem.
therefore better exam results.
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_ High self-esteem
High self-esteem in sport leads to:
_ © a feeling of security in the skills required for
the sport
° high levels of confidence in the techniques
— required for the sport
© positive relationships with team mates,
coaches, manager etc.
° the ability to listen and accept feedback
© the ability to respond positively to challenges
a and to adapt to changes
a desire and willingness to learn new skills.

Low self-esteem The drawbacks of low self-esteem

Low self-esteem can come from an athlete Low self-esteem is linked to:
believing they are unfit and unable due to body ® higher levels of anxiety, depression and
image. Once people start an exercise programme, different fears
there is a 50 per cent chance they will have © a lowered mood state and poor health
stopped exercising within six months. Low self- behaviours (such as exercise avoidance)
_ esteem is often part of the reason for this young people finding it-difficult to make the
cropcubsciveniasracresult of negative social transition to adult life in sport without facing
Bc aeons. significant difficulties.

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Joshua is about to join a local badminton club for the first time.

What positive impact could this have on his self-esteem?

| 145
 —

Had alook |_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! |_|

Dweck’s theory |
Carol Dweck’s theory (Dweck, 1998, 2012) explores ‘fixed’ and ‘growth’ mindsets and can be applied
to sport environments. Athletes are encouraged to develop their own growth mindsets in order to
increase their motivation, self-efficacy and productivity.

Fixed mindset Growth mindset

Athletes with a fixed mindset tend to believe Athletes with a growth mindset believe that
that their qualities (for example, their talent, intelligence and talent can grow. Therefore, they
intelligence and personality) are set in stone. have a love of learning and are more likely to:
They worry about how they appear to others and & rise to the challenge

are more likely to: dS be resilient and keep going, even when things
& avoid challenges are tough
& give up easily when faced with difficult dS thrive and develop as a result of difficult
challenges times, both personal and sporting
& react badly when faced with difficult periods, dS discuss their weaknesses openly
e.g. injury or performance slumps, with a high Ey) be open to suggestions about how to improve —
stress response
Ey) appreciate talent but also recognise that
rh try to hide their weaknesses trom others dedication and effort are the way to master
& ignore helpful feedback skills
& believe that only talent will lead to success — ey admire and be inspired by other athistes'
Sjenaon Le : Rig eecate. 4
and therefore don’t value effort
& be threatened by other athletes’ success.

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10000 hours practice Learned helplessness

The more athletes practise a skill, the more they will be An athlete who has learned helplessness
able to perform it to a high standard. believes that a situation is outside of their
* An athlete practising for 10000 hours is likely to have control. They give up easily as they don’t
had a growth mindset before they started practising. feel they can do anything to make the
* An athlete with a fixed mindset is not likely to be situation better. This may make them:
willing to spend 10000 hours practising. * avoid certain situations
Success needs a growth mindset and the desire to *° choose unachievable tasks to give them
practise 10000 hours to perfect skills and techniques. the excuse for failure
° be less likely to solve problems.
Ultimately, it can lead to a reduced
The critics performance level.
The figure of 10000 hours is not backed up by
concrete evidence. In studies of international elite
youth football players, none of them reported a
figure close to the 10000-hour ‘rule’. :

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Notrwythis|
a a a

Explain the ideal mindset for an athlete to achieve their potential and to reach their goal of performing at the
eo)
Olympic games.
|

146
 Had a leok . | Nearly there [| Nailed it! ba

Application of Dweck’s theory

_ When applying Dweck’s theory it is considered that athletes need a growth mindset
to improve their
sport and exercise performance. An athlete’s attitude towards effort versus talent can have
a significant
impact on their development.

Talent versus effort

_ Athletes can have natural talent that makes them great but without the right mindset they will not
be
willing to learn, improve and develop their skills.

Athletes with fixed mindsets believe Athletes with growth mindsets believe their natural talent
that natural talent cannot be can be improved. They continually learn to be the best they
_ improved. They are likely to give up can in their sport. They increase their effort, leading to a
_ when their natural ability fails them. higher level of motivation to carry on and overcome problems.
Fixed mindset = Natural talent Growth mindset = Effort + Hard work

The mindset of an elite athlete The impact of mindset

Athletes with a fixed mindset tend to:
&) have lower levels of performance
&) plateau earlier
&) achieve less in their career.

Athletes with a growth mindset tend to enjoy:

> higher levels of achievement
sa better overall sense of psychological well--
being.

ee ee ee

Mindset and success

There are many talented athletes but without the
willingness to put effort into training, they won't
improve and they won't learn.
Wayne Rooney was scouted at a young age due
to his talent. Without his personal effort to learn
“and improve with a growth mindset, he would not
have made it to a professional level and to be a
captain of England.

Cotrwythis
What is needed to turn a talented amateur sportsperson into an elite athlete?

147
 Had a look a Nearly there & Nailed it! La |

Resilience
situations. It can be described as
Resilience is the ability to deal with, or recover quickly from, difficult
toughness or ‘bouncing back’.

Why is resilience Overcoming adversity

im portant? It is important for athletes to have high levels of Boies
when they need to overcome adversity such as injury, burnout,
Resilience is important in sport.
a slump in performance or during a career transition.
Athletes must be able to respond
Overcoming adversity can mean winning against the odds.
positively to a negative situation.
Their resilience will determine
how well they deal with difficult
situations. For example, an athlete
should not give up after losing a
game. They must continue to work
hard for their next game, stay
positive and try to win.

Resilience and success

Michael Jordan was left out
from his high school basketball
team but he did not let this
affect him. He went on to
become one of the greatest
basketball players of all time.

Injury Burnout st ee a 4
Injury can be difficult for an athlete. Not being Burnout is a state of complete mental, physical
able to take part in the sport they love can be and emotional exhaustion, which leads to a
very hard. However, athletes with a high level of reduced sense of accomplishment or even a
resilience do not see injury as a problem. Rather resentment of sport. Taking care of an athlete’s
_ they view it as an opportunity for growth and physical and emotional health can build resilience
development, especially if they stay positive, and prevent burnout. In turn, increased resilience
accept social support and are motivated to stick will mean an athlete can recover from burnout
with rehabilitation programmes. more quickly.

Slump in form Transitions

Competitive athletes sometimes experience a Transitions can be stressful situations. Moving
significant and long-term drop in performance from one age group in a netball team to the next
— or slump. However, a slump in form doesn’t or from one team to another are examples of
have to be negative. Athletes who regard it as a transitions. Athletes who look after their physical
positive, by giving them clear areas to work on, and mental well-being will have more resilience
have a higher level of resilience. They are able when they make the transition from one stage to
to remain positive, bounce back quickly from the the next.
slump, and learn from the experience.
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Michelle has been working hard to improve her tennis skills. She has decided to move to a new club where a
coach can help her to improve more. e_

How will Michelle's resilience affect her move?

148
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Perfectionism
Perfectionism can be seen as an athlete’s obsessive desire to achieve exceptionally
high standards
_ through over-critical reviews of their own performance.

Perfectionist behaviour Traits of a perfectionist

_ Perfectionist athletes want a faultless Common characteristics among high level athletes
performance and are unwilling to accept include:
_ standards other than those that are pertect. * wanting a flawless performance
_ They see hard work and dedication as the price ° having exceedingly high standards
of success. They can be very critical of others
° being extremely hard on themselves — and
_ — especially if others don’t live up to their
sometimes on others
standards. This can have a negative impact on
_ group dynamics and team cohesion. ° practising over and over to become perfect.

Functional perfectionism
_ Functional perfectionism is sometimes called adaptive perfectionism.

Perfectionism can
| be positive. os

_—— ae An athlete can enjoy the

-" | challenge of perfecting
the skills and techniques
of their sport.

An athlete who focuses

on improving and wanting
to be perfect can develop
self-confidence and high
self-esteem.

Dysfunctional perfectionism Impact of perfectionism on performance

_ Sometimes called maladaptive The quest for perfection can:
_ perfectionism, perfectionism can be yy motivate athletes to work hard and demonstrate
negative. It can lead to obsessive commitment levels that ultimately lead to an improved
_ compulsiveness and an unrealistic desire performance
from the athlete ke Eyy, Be achieve make athletes risk-averse and scared of making
Somer ng Eves, SI0Ply Jon POPBIPe- mistakes, leading to decreases in performance
When they find they cannot achieve their
make perfectionist athletes put off doing difficult things,
| goals, athletes suffering with dysfunctional
reducing their chances of enhancing performance.
perfectionism can experience mental
health issues, e.g. depression. Overall, In general, functional perfectionism is thought
dysfunctional perfectionism can be to enhance performance whereas dysfunctional
unhealthy and detract from the athlete’s perfectionism is thought to decrease performance and
progressive training regime. lead to negative lifestyle behaviours and attitudes.
oe a oO Oo Oe ee ee te ee oe ee ee ee ek

[ro ythis
trw ss
Andrew is a basketball player. He has been trying to improve his skills ready for the startoftheseason.

What traits might Andrew display in his strive for perfectionism?

149
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1an’s group development

_ Tuckman (1965) suggests that some groups are more effective than others and that a group must go through
four developmental stages to become a team. The length of time spent at each stage and the order of
which they go through them, can depend on the complexity of the situation, or the egos that are involved.

_Tuckman’s four stages Serene) ee, ee G} rorming petite aint

Tuckman listed four development stages that a group goes his stage
This t. i often characterised b y
is
through to enable it to progress. individual group members determining
who else is in the group and what their —
Forming
Nepming role may be. Individuals also begin to
assess the strengths and weaknesses
of other members and start to test
| Stages of group formation the relationships of others in the
group. 7 ‘ eee
Performing
Storming

2) storming €) Norming
_ Commonly in the storming phase: Following the storming phase:
© conflict between individuals in the group occurs ¢ the group members begin to cooperate with —
¢ smaller group alliances begin to form to each other, and to work as a team, as they
challenge the authority of the leader so that move towards a common goal
individuals can obtain roles that they consider © group satisfaction increases at this point as
to be more important task achievement increases
® the formal group leader takes on more of a © the group members become more involved in
guidance and decision-making role. the decision-making process.

4 Performing Going back a stage

This final stage involves the team: It is important to remember that a team may
® progressing and functioning effectively to well revert back to an earlier stage even if
achieve their goal in an atmosphere of trust they have visited it before. This commonly
and flexibility happens if a key member leaves and a group
° working without conflict to ensure that the will revert back to the storming stage to
shared objectives and goals are achieved. acquire a new key member.
Commonly, at this stage, there is little need
for external supervision as the team members
are happy to make their own decisions and take |
responsibility for them.

Paul is leading a group that is exploring how effective the training methods are at his cricket club. He is
finding
that some individuals are very unwilling to cooperate.

What stage of group development would you say Paul’s group is at and why?

150
 Had a look E| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! ha

Group effectiveness
_ Theories such as the Ringelmann effect and social loafing attempt to explain
what makes a group
_ work effectively. Ringelmann first investigated this in 1913 and it was later devised by Bibb
Latane,
_ Kipling Williams and Stephen Harkins (1979).

- Ringelmann effect
| The Ringelmann effect explains
_ that as group size increases, the
____ individual productivity decreases.
Therefore, it often takes longer for
the group to achieve their goal. The
_ loss in productivity often stems from
a decreasein motivation and not
_ because of poor task coordination
_ by the leader. The Ringelmann
_ effect occurs when individuals
_are not accountable for their own
{ performance.
As a group gets larger,
_ athletes can sometimes hide behind
____ their peers and not get noticed...

==

Social loafing Interactive groups

Social loafing is closely linked to the Ringelmann effect Interactive groups rely on team members
and was devised by Bibb Latane, Kipling Williams and working together to achieve shared goals.
Stephen Harkins (1979). . A successful performance is characterised
__ © The concept of social loafing refers to individuals by good interaction and coordination __
who do not put in 100 per cent when working in a between members. An example of this would
team-based situation. be netball.
¢ Similar to the Ringelmann effect, it is also attributed
to a loss in individual motivation. This can happen Coactive teams
when an individual feels like their contributions are Coactive teams require individuals to be
not considered or are unimportant. successful in order to contribute to a
Individuals who display social loafing tend to be team success. An example of this would
afraid of failure, anxious and lack confidence. be a team in the Ryder Cup where team
Players can feel like this if they do not think that mates have no direct interaction during the
they can make a useful contribution to the team performance.
performance.
@ This can lead to players not wanting to participate.
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|

The relationship between cohesion and performance

____ The relationship is two-way, or circular.

Increase in
|performance

List three characteristics of someone who displays social loafing tendencies.

151
 Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Carron’s model of cohesion

Carron’s conceptual model looks at the factors affecting team cohesion.

_Carron’s conceptual model of cohesion

In 1985, Carron developed a model to demonstrate four factors, which it claims affect team cohesion.

Leadership factors
Team factors .

Factors affecting cohesion

f

Personal factors Reo’ Environmental factors

Team factors 2.) Leadership factors

© The length of time that a team has been ® A coach’s leadership and communication style ___|
together can have a significant impact on the can have a significant impact on cohesion.
cohesion of the group. © It is important that the coach understands ~ |
° Teams that are together for a long time athletes’ personalities to get the best out of
experience successes and failures and form a the team.
closer bond because of it.

3) Personal factors 4 Environmental factors

¢ The mix of individual characters can affect team * Groups that are closer together geographically |
_ cohesion. All team players are relied on to _ tend to have better cohesion. io ath
be motivated and to achieve agreed aims and ° It is easier to meet up and interact as a group
objectives. when team members live close to each other.
° The model suggests that the group will be ° The greater the opportunity to meet up the
more cohesive if members are from a similar stronger the relationships tend to be.
background, possess similar attitudes and
show comparable levels of commitment. Demographics
° Carron suggests that these elements enhance
‘Demographically’ means sharing a similar
group satisfaction.
social and financial background.

Task and social cohesion

Cohesion means the tendency for a group to stick together to pursue its goals and objectives.
® Task cohesion is how well team members work together to achieve common goals and objectives. |
High levels of task cohesion usually mean higher levels of team role acceptance and task )
interdependence, and this can increase team performance.
* Social cohesion is how much team members tend to like each other’s company. More socially
cohesive teams tend to provide greater levels of social support, have a stronger sense of team *
identity, and are more comfortable with clear communication.
Collectively, these improve team performance and can increase athletes’ well-being.
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In a sporting context, describe four elements that are needed to \

| z | |
ensure that team cohesion is effective.

152
 Had a look | Nearly there » Nailed it! | |

Types of leader
Effective leaders in the sporting world possess different leadership styles and qualities.

Qualities and behaviour

Effective leaders can adapt to different situations, whether it is with their players, fans or the media.
_ These qualities and behaviours contribute to making an effective leader.

Confidence — displays confidence in

others, empowering them to make Self-discipline — behaves
decisions and assess their own ; appropriately at all times; leads
capabilities by example

intelligence — a sound
Qualities of a good
understanding of the sport ee leader Optioven = Fo=ivessas
| $0 that when elements are enthusiastic about what the
not working, they take action “group. can-achieve, even when
to enhance performance, performances are not so good.
including tactical changes A negative or defeatist. outlook
such as formation or can quickly lead to a drop in
Patience — individuals need time to individual motivation
amending roles in set pieces
develop their skills, especially if the
team is not performing to the best of
its ability

_ Prescribed or emergent?
_ Prescribed leaders are appointed by Emergent leaders gain support and respect from others
a higher authority. An example of this over time. Often these leaders are appointed because
__ is Eddie Jones, who was appointed as they have specific leadership skills or are highly skilful in
_ England Rugby Coach by the RFU. their sport. A common example of this is someone who is
”
appointed captain of a team.

ie. ae an ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

- Autocratic or democratic?
Autocratic leaders tend to: Democratic leaders:
© be inflexible in their approach ¢ will only make decisions once group members have
° use terms such as ‘do this’ to been consulted
dictate to the group what roles they © encourage group involvement
play e are more relaxed, taking into account the thoughts and
® not seek the opinion of others and feelings of others
rarely get involved on a personal level e ask questions such as ‘Do you think this could work?’
____with individuals in the group. e make the final decisions based on the information
_ This type of leadership commonly results collected from the team along with their own thoughts.
_ in passive team members. This can The team members are independent and are able to
cause conflict when the leader e nee work together well, even when the leader is not
present as individuals have a tendency to present.
be more aggressive towards one another.

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a r

1 What is the difference between a prescribed and an emergent leader?

2 Explain the key differences between an autocratic and a democratic leader.

153
 Had a look |_| Nearly there x Nailed it! Bol

ra i’ s m o d e l of l e a d e r s h i p
Chelladu
Chelladurai (1978) created a multidimensional model of leadership, which looks at how a team's
performance and satisfaction is determined by the leader’s behaviour in a particular situation.

Chelladurai’s model
Antecedents Leader behaviour VOnsegquences

@E Situational characteristics ——p 4 |Required behaviour

: Performance and
==
Leader characteristics Q Actual behaviour
q PB ~ satisfaction

© ververcrracrraics
characteristics > Q reeves
Preferred behaviour
venacour ——

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Antecedents ——-_———-> Leader behaviour —_——> Consequences

_ Chelladurai stated that there In the model Chelladurai outlines The final element outlined in
_ are three factors that interact three leader behaviours, which the model is consequences.
to determine the behaviour are [Link] the antecedents.
elicited by the leader. These
are termed antecedents.

1) Situational Performance and.

4) Required behaviour
w= characteristics satisfaction
Factors such as environmental Focuses on how the leader This element explains that if
conditions, the type of sport should behave in particular the behaviours are met then:
(interactive or coactive), the situations. It is important to
number of team members, time high performance should
note that the leader’s behaviour
constraints and the strength of occur
may be dictated by a strategy.
the opposition are considered. enhancement of athletes’
satisfaction should occur.
2) Leader characteristics 5 Actual behaviour However, within the model:
Considerations made for the The way the leader chooses performance and
skill, experience and personality to act in a given situation. The satisfaction can impact the
of the leader. Leadership style experience and competence of behaviour of the leader
would also play a part here, the leader greatly impacts the symbolised by the multi-
€.g. are they autocratic or effectiveness of this. directional arrow
democratic leaders? the manner in which the
leader behaves is heavily
© Member
6 Preferred behaviour reliant on the experience
P characteristics
_ These are factors relating and competence of the |
Based on what the group or
to the members such as leader. ;
individual wants the leader to do.
age, gender, motivation, The leadership style preferred by
competence and experience. the group is closely linked to the
member characteristics .
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. 76 LINC MOGE! apoy :

Consider the following examples using Chelladurai’s multidimensional model of r | .

leadership:
1 The captain of an international sports team.
2 Acoach introducing 8-year-olds to gymnastics for the first time.
How would both leaders ensure that the teams perform at their best level, while
maintaining group member satisfaction?
 Had alook | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! ||

Team focus and commitment

Effective leaders help groups and teams apply appropriate attentional focus, commitment and
determination to sport and exercise performance.

Attentional focus
In 1976, Nideffer created a two-dimensional model to explain the attentional demands in sport. The diagram
| below shows how Nideffer’s model demonstrates the importance of performers getting the right focus. The
model highlights the importance of being able to switch from one type of attention to another.

External
Broad-external:
Narrow-external:
Midfield hockey player
Striking a hockey ball
looking for a pass
under. pressure from.
that will lead to
opposition
scoring a goal
Broad < - Narrow
Broad-internal:
Planning and analysing
Narrow-internal:
a game plan based on
Controlling an emotional
~ what the opposition is
state or rehearsing a
doing; outlining where the
performance such as
strengths are in the team
taking a penalty shot
and how to further
expose weaknesses
Internal

_ Much skill is needed to maintain focus and also to switch focus effortlessly. An individual’s ability to
_ adjust their focus will depend on their playing experience and the level at which they are exposed. For
example, an international hockey player can adapt their focus based on the game demands whereas a
_ recreational player may struggle to change as the game play adapts.
”

Commitment and determination How is commitment different from

_ In the 1990s, research was carried out determination?
to investigate the concept of sports Commitment is a desire to remain involved.
_ commitment by assessing the performer’s
Determination involves a desire to achieve a
motivation (Schmidt and Stein, 1991). The
specified goal or outcome, e.g. to finish in the top
study defined sports commitment as a
five in the league.
motivational force that reflects a person’s
_ desire and determination to continue Commitment is the effort shown by a performer to
participating in the sport. The outcomes of ensure that they have the opportunity to achieve their
- the study recognise that sports commitment goal. The concept still applies within a coactive sport
is a dynamic psychological state, which can when individuals often have to rely on themselves.
adapt over time. The study suggests that Commitment and determination are key in ensuring
athletes are the best they can be, even without the
_ sports performer commitment influences
luxury of team mates’ support when performances are
~ behaviour in terms of effort and persistence.
poor.
|
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tee ees
eel ee we ee ee eon

1 Describe the importance of attentional focus within a basketball team.

recreational tennis
2 Outline the differences between commitment and determination, and their impact within a
team and an international tennis team.

155
 Had a look [| Nearly there Po Nailed it! [|

Aims of psychological
interventions
Psychological interventions are used to support athletes to change specific behaviours or feelings that
might be adversely affecting their sporting performance.

When to use psychological intervention

The particular intervention strategy used will depend on the sport and the type of issue the athlete
is experiencing. Commonly in sport, activities are used to adapt an emotional state, behaviour and
feelings. More recently, psychological interventions have been applied to enhance the rehabilitation of
athletes with injuries.
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Psychological intervention to boost key characteristics
|
The purpose of psychological interventions is to challenge a specific behaviour or feeling to assist the
|
performer to develop key characteristics needed for successful sports performance.
High motivation Self-regulation of arousal levels |
1) Motivation can have a profound effect 2) Athletes must be able to.control_their arousal.
on sports performance. Psychological levels. The inverted-U hypothesis highlights
interventions can help to enhance the effects of the level of arousal_on
motivation by reducing the anxiety \ performance. If arousal is too high or too low
surrounding a performance through a then performance will be reduced. Therefore,
series of techniques. it is essential that an individual is able to
control their arousal levels so that their
fo) Links revise motivation, performance is not adversely affected.
SEE pages 119-127. P
f) WB To revise the
G inverted-U hypothesis,
see page 126.
Key characteristics
of successful sports
Positive thoughts
me? Research demonstrates that
performers
sportspeople who have a
positive outlook prior to training gee High levels of self-confidence
or events will often do better i Q Athletes need high levels of self- |
than their opponents who are confidence. Within interactive sports,
not mentally prepared for the e.g. football, athletes will have team
challenge. mates and a coaching team who boost
their confidence. However, coactive
oPLinks I revise performers, e.g. golfers, are largely
G theories competing on their [Link] it could be
pert ormance argued that they will require a greater
of arousal-
level of self-confidence. Psychological
relationships, see pages
S
e

interventions can be adapted to meet |

128-30, for positive the demands of the sport and the |
consequences of stress individual needs of the athlete.
and anxiety see page 136, Too much or too little self-confidence
for impact of self-esteem, can have a detrimental effect on
see page 145. performance because athletes can.
overestimate or underestimate their
abilities and make poor decisions.

fo) Links To revise self-confidence

,
see pages 140-141,
‘
FORLAEN CANS eee
nen fp me

Identify, and briefly describe, the four key characteristics of successful sports performers.

16ea
 Had a look | Nearly there i Nailed it! "

Performance profiling
Performance profiling is a technique that can raise a performer’s self-awareness and help the athlete
and coach understand their vision and set interventions to achieve improved performance.

Introducing performance profiling

Performance profiling is used to build an athlete’s training programme. It is commonly used with elite
performers to ensure that realistic goal-setting strategies are implemented to improve an athlete’s
intrinsic motivation. When these are applied correctly, the intervention can help the athlete to focus on
key aspects of their performance. It can also ensure that the athlete undertakes training that enhances
the areas that most need it.

The five stages of performance profiling

Identify and define key qualities for

_ performance — athletes are asked what
attributes they feel are important for
successful performance. This is also referred —! Profile the practitioner’s perceptions of
to as eliciting constructs. 2) the athlete’s levels and profile the athlete’s
perceptions of their levels — this is an
assessment between the coach and the
Discuss the practitioner’s and the athlete’s athlete. Twenty qualities are selected and
© protiles — the results are interpreted and rated from O-10. This stage can be referred
areas of perceived strengths and weaknesses to as assessing constructs.
are identified, leading to a discussion between »
the coach and the athlete to utilise the
results from the assessment.
alg The results are used to agree on goals and
how they will be achieved — the coach and
athlete establish goals that should lead to an
_ Repeat the profiling to monitor progress — improvement in performance.
wy performance. profiling is repeated on a regular
, basis to check that progress is being made on
achieving the goals identified in step 4.

Successful performance profiling

Performance profiling, when used correctly, is
often an effective tool to raise a performer's self-
awareness at both recreational and elite levels
and to ensure they embrace different programmes
of intervention. As a tool, it can help coaches
to obtain a more detailed understanding of the
athlete’s vision of what a champion performance
is. It is important that the coach and the athlete
understand that it is common for there to be
disagreements of opinion between them and that
this is acceptable.

William is a 200-m sprinter. His coach suggests that they use performance profiling to develop his training
programme and to set goals.
Describe the five stages of performance profiling William’s coach would use to help develop his training programme.

157
 ‘i Applying performance profiling —
Performance profiling can be used to identify psychological strengths and weaknesses, aS well as to
provide the motivation to improve performance through goal setting. When repeated, it can be used to
monitor and evaluate progress.

Fundamentals of performance profiling

The process of performance profiling is unique because it
embraces the viewpoints of both the athlete and the coach.
The responses are then collated to produce a visual map of
performance. The visual nature
of this helps athletes and coaches
_ to identify psychological strengths and weaknesses. ©

Psychological profile
- Here is an example of a psychological _
profile of a hockey player (a defender).
- The conclusions that can be drawn from ~
the profile are that:
© the performer is situationally aware
_® the performer is motivated to
perform well.
_ There are a number of
differences that are highlighted
in this example, e.g. the =>
_ performer believes that they
are a good team player,
although the coach has not
_ ranked this very highly. Other
areas of significant differences
are imagery, competiveness
-and pain tolerance. The =
differences seen by the coach

@@@@ Coach's perception

ME Athlete’s perception

- Motivation and goal setting -— ; i te ss cr ee

_ The discussion between the coach and the athlete about the outcomeof the psychological profiling can _
be used as a motivational tool to highlight strengths. Additionally, the athlete will have the opportunity
_to formulate goals to address some areas of weakness. When the process is repeated, the athlete’s
=. —s-—_
progress can be monitored and evaluated.

Use the profile above to outline the strengths, weaknesses and significant differences between the
athlete's
perception and the coach's perception.

158
 Had a look [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! bai

Goal timescales and types

Effective goal setting is classified by duration and type. It can be used to motivate improved
pertormance and to support athletes who are experiencing injury or performance setbacks, or if they are
feeling unable to meet the demands of the sport.

How does goal setting work? Goal timescales

Goals can be used to help break down the barriers that When establishing goals, it is important to
athletes can experience and provide a motivating tool break them down into three timescales.
in order to achieve them. ° Short term — these are normally focused
© It is important that goals are coherent and linked on the immediate future and should last
together, ensuring that they are progressive over a for a day to a maximum of a month.
specific amount of time. ¢ Medium term — these last from a
° The goals established within short-, medium- and month through to six months and should
long-term time frames should flow from one to progress the concepts outlined in the
3 another and should lead to achieving the long term short-term goals.
E a. ° Long term — this goal is established
° It is important that the goals are not a series of first. An athlete needs to decide on the
generic statements or that any of them focus on destination prior to planning the route.
a totally different element that is not linked to the The timespan of a long-term goal entirely
a long-term aim. : depends on the nature of the goal
| ES To revise more on goal although it is often from 6 months plus.
za setting see page 160.
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Goal types
|
_ Goals are notonly classified by their duration but also by their type, as shown below.

| Characteristics
is |Focused on a result such as winning a race or a match. This type of goal is
considered to be the least effective way of enhancing long-term athletic motivation
_| due to its short-term nature.
e ce Focused on performance by comparing past performances. The goals are
| individualised to the athlete and do not rely on others performing well to achieve
_ | them. This makes goal achievement more likely.
_ | Focused on what the athlete needs to do to improve their performance. This goal
| type is often said to enhance motivation because it works on a specific area that
_ | needs developing.
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Mastery goals Competitive goals

These focus on improvement and self- These focus on demonstrating superiority over opponents,
challenge and require athletes to ensuring that they are not outperformed. Goals like this
surpass their previous performance. can damage motivation because an athlete may not be able
Some psychologists argue that this type to ensure that the goal is achieved due to the varying
of goal setting is the most effective for strength of the opposition.
enhancing motivation because the athlete
' 2)rinks revise more on mastery ae
_—
is more in control over whether the
goals are achieved or not. G competitive goals, see page : |

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Now try this

1 State the three durations of goal setting.
2 Outline the key characteristics of each goal-setting type.

159
 —

Had alook |_| Nearly there {_| Nailed it! |_|

Principles of goal setting

Goal setting provides a template to structure and measure an individual’s achievements over a specified
period of time. It is an effective motivational tool to support all types of athlete, whether they are
returning from injury or wanting to progress to the next level in their sport.

Principles of goal setting

For goal setting to be successful it is essential that the athlete engages with the process. This
enhances ownership and commitment to achieving the agreed goals. Goal setting should be a flexible
process in which goals can be adapted as situations change following a review process.
H
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SMARTS goals
Outcome, process, performance, mastery and competitive goals should conform to the SMARTS
acronym. St ae
Sarah is a triathlete and she’s working with her coach to set herself some performance goals.
Her goals need to be SMARTS.

_ Specific — clearly state what is to be achieved, e.g. Sarah will increase her aerobic endurance.
Measurable — the desired outcome can be measured, e.g. Sarah will use the multi-stage fitness test to
record her aerobic endurance.
_ Action orientated — the outcome needs to be something that Sarah can achieve, e.g. Sarah can improve | |
her multi-stage fitness score within G weeks by scoring one level higher.
Realistic — the goal is possible within the time and conditions available, e.g. Sarah can realistically
expect to increase her aerobic endurance in G weeks.
Timescale— the goal can be met within a stated period of time, e.g. Sarah will carry out the multi-stage i |
3
it again in 6 weeks.
fitness test at the start of the process and repeat
Self-determined— the goal needs to be something Sarah will want to achieve, e.g. Sarah will want to
improve her aerobic endurance so that she can perform better in triathlete competitions. Bay

Mastery goals: approach and Competitive goals: approach and

avoidance avoidance
These goals focus on self-challenge and These goals focus on demonstrating
improvement, or at least not doing any worse than superiority over another athlete, or not being
a previous performance. There are two types of this outperformed. There are two types of this
goal. goal.
°¢ Mastery approach (or MAp) goals focus on ¢ Performance approach (or PAp) goals can
performing a task well and outperforming previous improve motivation, especially when an
personal achievements (e.g. setting new personal athlete feels more competent, and have
best times, learning a new skill). They tend to been shown to enhance performance in
create the highest levels of intrinsic motivation competitive situations.
and can have positive effects on performance. ° Performance avoidance (or PAv) goals are
° Mastery avoidance (or MAv) goals focus on not widely recognised as the worst type of goal
making mistakes or not letting your performance as they focus heavily on negative aspects of
drop from previous levels. These goals can have sport and can create higher levels of stress
negative effects on an athlete’s well-being but do _ and anxiety and lower levels of motivation as
not always decrease performance. a result. Te Slog ea
me MS Mes ie st ee ss =e

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ae a Fee ma =e ne

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Ea Se HE SF SE SS SE EE SS Se es se

——
= oe RS Se i eS ee ee Ue hl

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Apply the principles of goal setting to devise short-, medium- and long-term goals for a
recreational 37-year-old rugby player who is struggling to keep up with team mates.

160
 Typesof
Athletes and coaches use different types of imagery in a variety of
ways to enhance sport and exercise
performance.

What does ‘imagery’ mean? Using the senses

Imagery means creating an image in your mind,
It is suggested that the most effective forms
_ without actually physically practising the skill
or of imagery use a selection of the body senses
_ technique. It involves you repeatedly visualising
including:
__yourself carrying out a particular skill or action.
_ An example of this would be making the perfect 1) visual
_ serve in tennis. The athlete visualises this
| happening, including how they feel as the racket 2) auditory
—| makes contact with the ball. The athlete then
_ recreates the image over and over ae in their 89 kinaesthetic.
~ mind, focusing on a successful serve.
,
’ THE | 8 SS See foe Ss 6 se oo as
ae
We i wes Bie
.
meee at ae Mek wel me Ce
nee E
oe ne | were TES Sa Be ies i be oe = TE Ce SF Be mee eee

Qu Visual imagery
|Visual imagery can
c be divided into two
“| types: ~
© Internal imagery — this involves
visualising yourself doing something
and_concentrating on how the activity -
feels.
External imagery — this involves
visualising yourself doing something
as if you were watching it on a film.
_ This helps to develop an awareness
of how the activity looks.

o Auditory imagery = 3) Kinaesthetic imagery

_Using this sense relies on the imagery to focus The focus of this imagery is on how the movement _
| on the sounds that are associated with the feels without actually performing the movement.
- sporting movement. An example of this would be An example of this would be the athlete imagining
__ the sound made asa tennis ball hits the strings in the weight of the racket in their hand and the
the centre of the racket. feedback felt in the wrist when they hit the ball.
wwe] ere ee a a a ne ee ee ee

Now
trythis Using a putting shot in golf as an example, explain how visual, auditory and kinaesthetic senses can be used to
_ support both internal and external imagery.

161
 —

Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [_|

Uses of imagery |
Imagery has beneficial effects on performance across a range of different sports.

Why use imagery in sport?

Imagery and injury
Across a range of different sports, imagery
is used by sports psychologists, coaches More recently, imagery has been incorporated
_ and athletes to assist a performer to into rehabilitation to support an athlete who is
develop into the best possible athlete returning from injury. Here are two ways it is used:
that they can be. It is common practice for to reduce any anxiety that may be felt,
specialists working with elite-level athletes particularly if the athlete has been off injured
_ to use the psychological technique of for a substantial amount of time Vie ea
imagery, along with other interventions, to Ww to go back to the point prior to the athlete
mentally prepare a performer prior to a being injured and create a positive thought
competition. process.

en ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee a ee ee ee ee i ee ee

The effects of imagery

It is widely documented that imagery can be used in a variety of situations to varying effects. —
Influencing self-confidence —
using imagery, the athlete
can-experience feelings of
success without actually
performing the movement and 3]
lee Reduction of anxiety and PER AIFS Teast imagining goals = imagery |
y stress — these feelings are often Bor : een eeh See o are can be used to create the
to achieve a successful _
experienced in varying degrees by mental-experience of the
athletes. Imagery, used with other perionnance. athlete achieving their goal.
interventions such as breathing / In-turn, this influences self
exercises, can help to control confidence because the
anxiety, stress and arousal levels. athlete can see and believe —___|

eas
that the goal is achievable.

——
Pre-performance routines —
Mental rehearsal - 4) at this point, imagery
@Q through the process : can help the athlete in ~
of imagery, the athlete : their mental preparation
will be able to mentally as they can rehearse ~~
practise an element of the performance without
their performance before physically completing the Py
performing the task. technique or skill.

Describe the effects that imagery can have on sporting performance.

162
. | Had a look t | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! ha

Types of self-talk
_ Self-talk and listening to your own messages can have a major impact on what you can or cannot achieve.

Positive and negative self-talk characteristics

_ Self-talk can be categorised in two ways.

_ Positive s elf-talk Negative self-talk

Ss Enables the athlete &) Damaging to athletic

to manage situations performance.
effectively. &) Difficult to avoid/control.
ro eS Solutions directed. & Problem focused.
) Concentrates on composing Negative emotions, i.e.
focus. frustration, anxiety or fear
x L& Used as a motivational tool. often mean athletes talk to
themselves negatively.
. ® Essential for performance
a that an athlete can talk Tactical preparation is
to themselves positively destroyed by negative self-
to support themselves in talk.
achieving the best possible Fear of failure can also
performance. contribute to this.
BN Must be practised regularly Fear of success can also cause
so that it becomes a negative thought processes
~ common habitual part of for what the heightened
preparation. success might mean.
ry Can be used to refocus 6) Reduces an athlete’s self-
athletes when performances control.
do not go to plan. & Results in poor performance
as the tactical preparation
cannot be put into practice.

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-*Self-talk in practice
As a sports performer you will have said to yourself ‘You can do this!’ or ‘Come onl!’ while participating
in sport. These two phrases can be very effective at helping an athlete to refocus and get back on
track.
For example: A cricketer is having a terrible innings. Every ball is hit incorrectly or missed, resulting in
them leaving balls that would normally be attempted. It is at this point where positive self-talk could be
_ used by the cricketer, thinking back to a time of scoring 50+ in a match. The cricketer concentrates on
- the flight of the ball, how it spins in the air, where the fielders are standing, analysing the gaps, focusing
__on the grip of the bat and how it felt when the ball was struck. This helps the cricketer to refocus on
successful performances as opposed to ones that have not gone to plan.

Explain the differences between positive and negative self-talk.

163
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Uses of self-talk
Seatitalk ia used in a variety of aifferent aports for different purposes, including to enhance seit-
confidence, control arousal and support pre-performance routines.

Self-confidence Arousal control

Seiftalk can help to enhance an athlete's self Seif-tailk cam hee to requiate arousal. it can
oonticence by inatilling the belief that the athlete inersase arousal levels if individuals tend to
ean ao it, be pessimistic. ff can neduce arousal levels
® Positive aetitalk can help the athlete to create by diminishing the andety that-an athlete can
Positive thought processes and believe expenence. Cus words or positive phrases are
that they are able to carry out a svocessful YSOa aS a NS-direction fool fo prevent:
perfonnanoe, ® the athiete overanalysing negative aspects of
* tt can also help the athlete to focus and PrOMOUS Performances
therefore reavoe the impact of negative * arousal levels going past the optimum point,
thoughts or emotions that the athlete may be witch can lead to a negative effect on
feeling. performance outcomes.
* Such feelings often relate to previous in contrast, athietes who are fearful prior to
perfonnances when things have not gone to performing cam use cus words or phrases to:
wan, Using positive aelftalk hela to diminish ® increase arousal levels
the impact of negative thoughts feelings and
® promote a feciing of self belief.
increases the athlete's confidence by instilling
a ‘can achieve’ attitude,
reise the impact of a on
9) Links es
e performance, see nis 126-3Q |

Pre-performance routines
Seiktalk can be used as part of a
pre-perfonnance routine to support an
athiete in achieving the best in their
performance. The type of selfitalk
used at this point would be positive
or inatroctional setfitalk.
* Positive selfitalk is used bo
help motivate athletes prior to
participating in the performance. At
elite level this ia a common part of
a pre-perfonnance routine.
* Contrasting to positive setfitalk,
inatructional self-talk focuses on a
series of instructions for an athlete
to rehearse and focus on prior to,
and during, a competitive aituation.

_ Pater is an elite gymnast but latelyhes

h Daan ander perform NQ in competitions.

Explain, using examples, how selftalk could be used to su pport Peter

as he prepares for, and takes Dart in, his next
competitive event.

164
 Had a look a Nearly there i Nailed it! [|

Relaxation techniques
_ Relaxation is an arousal control technique. It helps to keep arousal within the optimum range
to assist
athletes in performing their best in sport and exercise, ensuring their arousal is not too
high or too low.
_Mind to muscle relaxation
_ This concept involves training the mind to recognise muscle tension so that it can be released
and a
| relaxation state returned to. Examples of this include progressive muscular relaxation (PMR), mind to
_ muscle techniques (imagery) and breathing control.

Progressive muscular
Autogenic techniques
relaxation (PMR)
Autogenic training is a form of self-hypnosis where
_ When an athlete is over-aroused they the athlete creates a feeling of warmth and heaviness
can experience significant muscle
throughout the muscles. The athlete uses a series of
tension, which can be uncomfortable sentences or statements to focus their attention on the
- when the muscle is used. This can warm and heavy feelings.
~ decrease coordination and so hinder
performance Autogenic programmes consist of 6 stages:
® Muscle tension reduces the
length of muscle fibres, reducing
the muscle flexibility or range of
movement.
¢ PMR combats this by making the
athlete aware of where they feel
muscles are tight through the
relaxation phase. _
e Athletes learn to tell the
difference between the muscle
state of tension and relaxation.
To do this, the athlete tenses and
relaxes muscles throughout the
body for five seconds, while taking
iaeerperesdis. =|
¢ The process is then repeated while
the athlete moves from one muscle
group to another until all muscles
have been tensed and relaxed.
This tool is used most effectively
in coactive sports where an athlete Autogenic training can take time to learn as the athlete
needs to remain calm and relaxed has to practise effective self-hypnosis.
_ id dard 770"
_ during their performance. An example
of this could be in snooker or darts.
feb)Links berevise imagery, see pages 161-62.

Sa

= So ee a oe

——
Breathing control
Athletes need to use breathing control when they experience increased pressure in sporting situations.
and, in some
This is because when an increase in pressure is experienced, it alters breathing patterns
Breathing
cases, é] athletes may hold their breath. This contributes to an increase in muscle tension.
in sports that allow the participa nt to take a break.
control is considered to be most effective
ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Ee
ERS a me oe

exercise.
Explain two techniques that can be used to control arousal in sport and

165
 i

Hadalook §$Nearlythere | Nailedit!|

Energising techniques
cnergismg techniques,
mi sometimes known 25 “psyching up’. are Strategics used to boost am athiste
psychologically. Attict]es look zt ways to hele themselves be performaence-ready.

Use of energising imagery

imagery can be used to decrease srousal end amicty bet H can also be used to increase arousal. This
Ss Often achieves by using emotiwe high-energy images such ¢s 2 hand, forceful tactic in rugby or images
of success. for exemple. being the frst person to cross the fmish ime im 2 race. Another type of image
that can be used is one that a taigh levels of effort. for example, achieving = new personal best
Such as lifting 2 new one-repetition maximum

Listening to music Pep talks

Music can increase arousal. it can: Pep teks are brief talks given to @ performer
© Shift the performer's attention ewey from Dy 2 Coach, manager Certam or team mate.
feelings of tiredness The purpose of the talk is to exhance the
* imcrease the performer's body tempersture. athicte’s confidence. aliowing them to believe
heart rate and breathing rate. Mm TSSSNSS, Mating them more aeternnmed to
SUC CSS.

Increased breathing rate Positive statements

The ability of athletes to cortrol their brest! ma cam
have « These can be used as a stand-alone
significant impact on performance. tt is possible to control
TSownque Or 2 part of 2 series of
your breathing rate to help to control arousal levels.
(Somes to enhance arousal.
Nowever, it can also be increased in 2 similar way to
* Fositive stetements should be
enhance arousal levels. The type of sport that the sthiete
personal, positive, short. clear.
iS involved in will depend on i — Oe il TSENG Trees neca emotional and simile.
to be slow or fast. For eampie, darts pizyer will
ss == ;
Tawe 2 Siow breathing rate wherees = swimme : need tT .
* TOSiiwe Statements are less commonly
r wil od =
Sester Dresthing rate. ___ USSG
ie ™
i Sport 25 = stand-
: sione
Sormnque. however, E & common
praciice to fing them within 2 pre-
fg)Links To révse breathing control, see page 165. performance arousal SrOsrammTe

166
 Had a leok | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! bit

Your Unit 3 set task

Unit 3 will be assessed through a task, which will be set by Pearson. In this assessed task you
will
focus on an individual or team that require guidance on psychological interventions in response
to
psychological factors that are impacting on their performance. You will interpret the psychological
factors affecting them, apply psychological theories and suggest psychological interventions.

Revising your skills

Your assessed task could cover any of the essential content in the unit. You can revise the unit content
in this Revision Guide. This skills section is designed to revise skills that might be needed in your
assessed task. The section uses selected content and outcomes to provide an example of ways of
applying your skills.
Reviewing psychological
Understanding key term factors and theories in context
See page 168 See page 169

~ Making revision notes

Recommending psychological See page 170
interventions set task skills
See page 173

Interpreting psychological factors

Applying psychological theories See page 171
iz See page 172

Workflow Check the Pearson

The process of interpreting psychological factors and applying website
psychological theories to give guidance on psychological
This section is designed to
interventions to individuals or teams might follow these steps: demonstrate the skills that
Relate your learning to psychological factors and theories might be needed in your
in context, considering: assessed task. The details of
psychological factors that influence performance in the actual assessed task may
sport and exercise activities change from year to year so
psychological theories in relation to sport and exercise always make sure you are up
activities to date. Check the Pearson
different types of psychological interventions website for the most up-to-
date Sample Assessment
possible connections between the behaviour of teams/
Material to get an idea
individuals and their performance
of the structure of your
possible connections between psychological theories assessed task and what this
and performance in sport and exercise contexts requires of you.
CA Interpret psychological factors
Apply psychological theories
Recommend psychological interventions

Visit the Pearson website and find the page containing the course materials for BTEC National Sport and Exercise
Science. Look at the latest Unit 3 Sample Assessment Material for an indication of:
e the structure of your set task, and whether it is divided into parts
— e ~how much time you are allowed for the task, or different parts of the task
¢ what briefing or stimulus material might be provided to you
° any notes you might have to make and whether you are allowed to take selected notes into your supervised
assessment
e the questions you are required to answer and how to format your responses.
167
 Had a look z Nearly there [| Nailed it! be

Understanding key terms

The explanation of key terms below will help you to demonstrate the skills you need for your Unit 3
assessment.

Key term
Analyse Give reasons or evidence to:
® support an opinion or decision
® prove your points are right or reasonable.
Evaluate Draw on varied information, themes or concepts to consider wider aspects such as:
strengths and weaknesses
advantages or disadvantages
alternative actions
relevance or significance. F -
The evaluation should lead to a supported judgement in relationship to the context.
This will often be in a conclusion. =
Interpretation Draw the meaning, purpose or qualities of something from a stimulus.
Intervention An action performed to bring about change in people or teams.
Justification or | Give reasons or evidence to:
rationalisation | ¢ support an opinion and/or decision
® prove something right or reasonable.
| Psychological Examples are motivation, anxiety, arousal, stress, self-confidence, mindset, —
factors aggression.
Important to the matter in hand. | qf
Recommend Put forward someone or something with approval as being suitable for a particular —|
purpose or role.

For a sport of your choice, give an example of how an individual’s performance might be
influenced by one of the |
psychological factors.

168
 Hada look | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Psychological factors and

theories in context
Read the information about psychological factors that are impacting on an individual’s performanc
e,
along with psychological theories that might apply. Then consider possible psychological interventions.

Individual performance profile: Kane, aged 14

° Talented footballer, plays for school and local
Successful at football Enjoys competition and
team, scouted and given a contract for local
Premier League football club. « SUCCESS.

Relishes competition, enjoys challenge of

competing against the best footballers and
Experiences likes the feeling of success.
_ physiological effects. Alm» On day of a game, feels positive and excited.
Believes he will play well; heart thumps; palms Theories of motivation:
Theories of self- get sweaty; butterflies in stomach. These need achievement
confidence: Bandura’s disappear when game starts and his focus is theory: need to achieve
self-efficacy theory: completely on playing. success (nAch) and need
performance Finds when opponents are very good he bE to avoid failure (Naf).
accomplishments, performs to a higher level and enjoys playing
efficacy expectations, and winning more than normal.
Experiences positive
athletic performance. Starts to make slight errors, leading to a and negative impacts of
err ceecnanannseetener!
feeling of worry before games motivation and arousal.
Theories of arousal- Gets worried about playing 2-3 days before Pressure has tipped him
performance relationship: a premiership game and starts to doubt his into making mistakes.
drive theory, catastrophe ability. He’s not sure that he’s good enough May be issues with
theory, inverted-U gy to play for a professional club and spends time stress, anxiety, self-
hypothesis. E thinking about whether he will make mistakes. efficacy and motivation.
ae “© Sometimes struggles to eat or sleep properly
7 and wakes regularly in night, doubting football Experiencing
Negative consequences ability. anxiety and stress.
of stress and anxiety. Before matches,he shakes and makes more

ae
saan mistakes because he’s only focusing on Stress: the four-
Anxiety: state and opponent in front of him. He knows he plays stage process;
better when opponents are very good and he

ep
trait; cognitive, eustress and distress
somatic, behavioural ™ knows that the worries he has before the game
and competitive.
will start to go.
Theories on anxiety:
Following a match, his coach tells him he will be multidimensional
moved to a different position for the next game anxiety theory and
Experiences the impact as he has made too many mistakes and seems reversal theory.
of psychological factors to be worrying too much before playing. Kane
on performance and agrees and talks about his feelings of doubt.
accepts the need
° The coach suggest sports psychology support
for psychological
rd and Kane agrees it may be beneficial.
intervention.

Psychological factors, theories

and interventions
Cotrwythis
Suggest three psychological interventions that might
The information provided on this page is to be used with Kane to improve his performance.
help you practise your skills. For the format of
your actual assessment, look at the Sample
Consider the principles behind psychological 3
Assessment Material on the Pearson website.
interventions and select possible interventions
that are relevant to the psychological factors.

169
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! ||

Making revision notes

tt ia useful to make structured revision notes on key areas of Unit 3 content. ; Pe |

Paychological factors that influence Psychological theories im relation to

performance in sport and exercise activities sport and exercise achwines

Key areas aS psycrciogical intervention

te consider

Poasible connections between

peychological theories and performance Possible comnections between the
in sport and exercise contexts
behaviour of teams{indiwiduals and their
__ perfonmance

Making notes
Structure your notes so they are clear to
Three main theories on the arousal-performance ~
use. For example:
relationship.
*® use headings to structure your thinking
1 Drive theory (Hull, 1943 and Spence and
® use bullets to keep your points brief and Spence, 1966)
focused.
© states there is a reiationship
between
As you make notes, consider how they might
arousal and performance and 2s arousal
relate in different contexts of individuals,
increase so does performance. Z
teams and sports. The extract opposite
gives an example of notes on the theories of 2 Inverted-U Hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, ~
the arousal-performance relationship. 1308)
In your actual assessment, you may bee © states that as levels of arousal increase so |
allowed to use some notes you have made. If does performance up to an optimum point
30, there may be restrictions on the length and then performance decreases.
and type of notes that are allowed. Check 3 Catastrophe
theory (Hardy and Frazey,
with your tutoror look at the most up-to- 1987)
date Sample Assessment Material on the ° suggests that an increase in cognitive
Pearson website for details. State anxiety will increase low levels of
arousal but will have a negative impact on * |
performance at high levels of arousal. a]
peicsasie amen ==

SSL SS ee ee ee ee

Notrwythis
Choose an area to consider from the spidergram
above. Note the headings you would use to
structure your notes.

170
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [| Nailed itt [|

Interpreting psychological
=
: @
@

q factors
| AS. part of your assessment, you will be given information about an individual or team
that requires
guidance on psychological interventions in response to psychological factors
that are impacting on their
—_~
| performance. Here are some examples of skills involved when interpreting psycholo
gical factors that
_ Impact on an individual or team.
= }

| For sill if interpreting the psychological factors that impact on Kane (page
169), consider how
_ you will:
_ © identify positive and negative psychological factors
_ © interpret the impact of psychological factors in a relevant way
_ © show the significance of each psychological factor and its effect on Kane’s football performance.

gq
One reason why Kane could be worried before a match is
sz the pressure of being watched. It is possible that Kane
|__ may be suffering from anxiety. | know this because he is
"worrying because of minor mistakes that he has made
4 when playing.
|_ The multidimensional anxiety theory and reversal theory
~—.. explain how anxiety can affect performance. Anxiety has
_ three levels. These are cognitive, somatic and behavioural.
~~ Cognitive anxiety is the thought process of an athlete. —
- Kane may be suffering from this as he is worrying before
_ games. He may also be suffering from somatic anxiety
because he is getting sweating palms and butterflies in his
stomach, and is shaking before matches. These different
levels of anxiety can affect performance, which would be
_ described as behavioural and may lead to some of Kane’s
_.... reactions before, during and after a game.
_ Kane may also be suffering from state anxiety because
_ this is not something that has been occurring long term
and only seems to have started as a result of being
accepted into a Premiership football club.
_..._ He may also be suffering from competitive anxiety. | know .
this because he is beginning to doubt his own ability. All
—-. athletes have a perceived level of ability and Kane will be
no different. Therefore, as soon as he begins to believe
~~ he isn’t good enough his stress levels will elevate and he
will become very anxious before, during and after games.
This will affect his performance and | would suggest that
|_ this is a major part of the cause of the errors that are mere

L) To revise multidimensional anxiety

and to
| | adie
eee CES theory look at page 132
oe 137.
_ revise anxiety look at pages 132-

__ Assess the impact of another psychological factor on Kane (see page 169).

171
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i Applying psychological theories |

Here are some examples of skills involved when applying pscyhological theories to psychological factors
experienced by an individual or team.

For example, if analysing how psychological theories can account for Kane’s experiences (page 169),
_ consider how you will:
¢ show detailed knowledge of psychological theories
© apply appropriate psychological theory to each identified psychological factor, with supporting
justification
® take an analytical approach that links theory to the factors identified with Kane.

__ theory. This states that the relationship between

_ arousal and performance is linear and that they
increase at the same rate. It also states that as
arousal increases so does performance.
In terms of Kane, as he gets into a game, his
_ pertormance increases. | know this because he
_ focuses on playing when the game starts and he
_ performs to a higher level when the opponents are
very good.
- The theory goes on to suggest that when arousal
reaches a very high level, performance decreases.
_ This may be what is happening to Kane. His arousal
levels may be increasing significantly due to high
levels of anxiety and this may lead to a poorer
performance and therefore this could explain the
errors that he is making.
- The theory does suggest that the more experienced
an athlete is, the better they perform under pressure
while novices do not perform well under pressure.
| believe that since joining the Premiership football Ble a os ee ee
club that Kane has reverted back to being a novice. ‘none 9 iS See ae
This may explain his performance and the reason for
his mistakes. Kane may simply need time to adjust
os __ to the level he is playing at, which can be helped
by sport psychology interventions. However, it is
also possible that Kane is psychologically unable to
perform at such a high level and simply chokes.

: : esac an

«Use a different psychological theory to analyse the factors that are - Y per ,
impacting on Kane (see page 169). look at page:
‘ 126-29,
EP .
(PESTER ence

172
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| Recommending psychological
| interventions
_ Here are some examples of skills involved when recommending
psychological interventions for an individual
or team.

_ For example, if asked to recommend psychological interventions to address

Kane’s needs (page 169)
| and how they might be implemented, justifying any recommendations, consider
how you will:
| * show detailed knowledge of principles behind psychological interven
tions
© select psychological interventions that are relevant to Kane and each identified
psychological factor
_ © provide detailed justification for the selected interventions and priorities, showing
clear application
| to addressing Kane’s needs.

| would recommend that Kane works on controlling his

emotions by using imagery. This involves him imagining
an error he made in his last game for his Premiership
_ club and then breathing deeply. As he breathes
_ deeply, he should change the image from him making
___ the error to not making the error and being successful
_with the skill he was trying to perform. For example,
____ if he tried to pick out a long pass but had started to
_ struggle with this and it wasn’t getting to his team
-— mate, he should visualise it and then, while breathing
_ deeply, change it so that the ball does reach his
ey target.
| As Kane has performed the error in the past, he knows
how it feels to be in the situation where the error
—.... occurred and how it felt to cope with this. Therefore,
m \2 by using imagery, he can replace the negative image
—— with a positive image, dealing with any negative
‘thoughts and imaging performing successfully.
If Kane uses this, he can slowly start to replace the
negative feelings that might take over inside his head
and have positive images. This intervention might help
him to believe in his own ability again and develop his
_ self-confidence to perform to a higher standard.
By controlling his emotions, Kane is likely to perform
better and not be affected badly by high levels of
arousal thus performing like a top performer rather
than as a novice.

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fe?Links Nirevise
Now

| Recommend another psychological intervention to address Kane's needs interventions,

look at pages 161-166.
a Ld (see page 169).
a

173
 Had alook |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

n d h y d r a t i o n
Nutrition a
All activity stimulates the body’s need for fuel and fluid. Knowing which nutrients the body requires,
along with their different functions, forms the basis for the science of nutrition.

Diet, food and nutrients

Water
The term diet refers to what you eat, or your
Water is an important nutrient that is often
usual eating habits and food consumption.
overlooked.
Your body takes in energy and nutrients from
the foods you consume to keep you alive and e |t is essential for cell function.
healthy. Food is any substance derived from e It is involved in the metabolic reactions that
plants and animals containing a combination of break down the food you eat.
the following nutrients: ¢ |t is a main component of blood and helps to
® carbohydrate © minerals deliver nutrients to the cells.
© fat ® fibre ° It helps to remove waste products through
® protein © water. urine. ae
e vitamins It helps to regulate the body’s temperature. _ 1

| Food intake and choice

When aiming to formulate realistic and achievable dietary plans for individuals, you need to be aware
of —
the following factors. —_s
Cost Appearance

Health considerations be Climate

Cooking skills
Emotions
Time of day —
Family influences Bete CS
Factors that affect Peers ; ai —

food intake and

Existing diet-related diseases
a a choice

Availability
Location y.
Training demands Religious beliefs

Appetite Health claims Season of the year pega dale sass Sk:

Nutrient categories Food categories

Nutrients in food are categorised Foods are often categorised based on their macronutrient
according to the relative amounts content as being rich in one of the following:
required by the body as either: ® carbohydrate
® macronutrients (carbohydrate, * protein - cag a |
fat and protein), or efat :
. |
® micronutrients (vitamins and
minerals). For example, bread is categorised as a carbohydrate-rich food,
meat as a protein-rich food and butter as a fat-rich food.
were oe Se ee eee ee ee eo
a

Notrwythis|
cr oe See ne

Jot down all the foods you have eaten in the last 24 hours. Can you
classify these foods into groups based on their macronutrient content?

174
;| Had a look [| Nearly there [| Nailed it! a

Nutritional measurements
Energy is obtained from foods eaten. It is used to support basal metabolic rate, the minimum amount
| of energy required to sustain the body’s vital functions, and all activity carried out at work and leisure.

| Energy Measurements
q Energy is measured in calories or joules. As both 1 calorie (cal) = 4.2 joules (J)
Z units are very small they are multiplied by 1000 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.2 kilojoules (kJ)
and referred to as kilocalories (the UK system)
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1000 calories (cal)
3 or kilojoules (the metric or international system).
1 kilojoule (kJ) = 1000 joules (J)

UK Eatwell Guide
The Guide’s recommended daily amounts of energy or calories in the diet for sedentary adults are:
Women = 2000kcal = all food + all drinks
a
Men = 2500kcal = all food + all drinks
a
| . | | (ISR 3 me ms we mee - 7 =m i MM et Mt aa hi ae a ae ee hl

_ Energy sources Converting units of energy

a _Macronutrients are the energy-providing nutrients
of the diet. Kilocalories (kcal)
_ Energy content of macronutrients:
___® 1g protein provides 4kcal or 17 kJ
© 1g carbohydrate provides 4kcal or 17 kJ
© 1g fat provides Dkcal or 37 kJ Calories (cal)

:
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_._ Calculating energy in food

a ! worked example
The energy and macronutrient data in a rice pudding pot:

[Typical values | (Per100g) _| (Per120g pot) _

511ks/121kcal
|

1 Calculate the energy content coming from

| : carbohydrate in a 120g pot of rice pudding.
2 What percentage of energy (calories) comes from fat
ina 120g pot?
1 19.6 X 4 = 76.4kcal
RE | 2 3x9 = 27kcal (27 + 121.4) x 100 = 22% ,

Look at the food labels of five of your favourite foods:

1 Calculate the energy content (calories) that comes from carbohydrate.
2 Calculate the percentage of energy (calories) that comes from fat.

175
 Had a look [| Nearly there é@ Nailed it! [|

Recommended daily allowance

(RDA)
Dietary standards have been used in the UK since the Second World War.

Recommended daily allowance (RDA)

The first nutritional standards focused on an RDA that

aimed at preventing nutritional deficiencies by

recommending a certain amount of each nutrient

revised to establish dietary reference values of

Number
people
bad i - ,
(DRVs —- see below). Nutrient requirements

Lower reference [Estimated average Reference

nutrient intake requirement nutrient intake
(LRNI) (EAR) (RNI)

Dietary reference values (DRVs)

DRVs are a series of estimates of energy and nutrients needed by different groups of healthy people in
the UK population. They include:

Reference nutrient intake (RNI) — the ® Estimated average

amount of a nutrient that is enough to requirement (EAR) — most
ensure that the needs of nearly all the
/ widely used value in assessing
population (97.5%)-are met, energy requirement. Many
individuals require more than
the EAR and many require less.
For example:
Women = 2000 kcal
Men = 2500kcal
Dietary reference
values (DRVs)

4) Safe intake (Sl) — a term used to indicate

| Lower reference nutrient intake
the intake of a nutrient where there
= (LRNI) — the amount of a nutrient that
is insufficient scientific information. It
is enough for only the small number
of people who have low requirements represents an intake that is thought to be
(2.5%). The majority of the population adequate for most people’s needs but not
will need more. so high as to cause undesirable effects on
health,

iat oe eR

Look at the normal distribution curve of nutrient requirements in a population indicating where DRVs fall. In respect
©
of energy and different nutrients, state where you might expect athletes to fall. Justify your answer. |
 Had a look el Nearly there |_| Nailed it! Ei

4 Wietabolism
Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that occur within the body in order to maintain
life.
Metabolism
Anabolism is the build-up of substances. Catabolism is the breakdown of substances. Metabolism
is a
combination of the two.

Catabolism

Metabolism

4 .

" Anabolism

____Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) The Harris—Benedict equation

Basal metabolic rate reflects the energy This equation is used to calculate BMR. It takes into
=x required to maintain body systems account sex, weight, height and age of the individual.
and control body temperature at rest. MALES:
_ Prediction equations, like the 66.5 + (13.75 X weight in kg) + (5.0 x height in cm)
_ Harris—Benedict equation, can be used ~ (6.76 X age in years)
to estimate BMR. FEMALES:
655.1 + (9.56 X weight in kg) + (1.65 x height in cm)
— (4.68 X age in years)

Total daily energy requirements

( Worked exam ple To predict total energy requirements (TER)a physical.
activity level (PAL) needs to be applied.
Bobby is a 20-year-old male athlete, weighs The following PALs are applied to the Harris—Benedict
62kg and is 178 cm tall. equation:

TER = BMR Xx 1.2

yy ~ Calculate his BMR.

r BMR=G6.5 + (13.75 x 62) Light exercise (1-3 days per week) |TER = BMR X 1.375
a + (5.0 X 178) Moderate exercise (3-5 days per
— (6.76 X 20) week)
"—- BMR = 66.5 + 852.5 + 890 Heavy exercise (6-7 days per
- | — 135.2 week)
_ . BMR = 1673.6 rounded up to Very heavy exercise (twice per TER = BMR X 1.9
ss 1674 calories day/extra heavy workouts)

NS een ee eee er eee

Bobby trains twice a day, six days per week,

1 Calculate his total energy requirement.

2 Doyou think his energy requirements are likely to be constant or vary from day to day?
3 What practical considerations does this have for him trying to meet his energy requirements on a day-to-day basis?

177
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_|

Energy balance
Energy balance is achieved when the amount of energy taken in as food and drink (energy intake)
equals the amount of energy expended (energy expenditure).

Energy balance

Energy expenditure Dietary thermogenesis —

Energy intake is the energy taken in Energy expenditure has is the energy expended
from food and drink. 4 components: above RMR for digesting,
resting metabolic rate absorbing, transporting
= (RMR) and storing food.
Adaptive thermogenesis
2) dietary thermogenesis
is energy expended as a
result of environmental —
© physical activity
or physiological
4 adaptive thermogenesis. stresses, €.g. a change
in temperature that may
make you shiver, or stress
that makes you fidget.
DSB

Factors influencing resting metabolic rate (RMR)

An increase in RMR can result from: A decrease in RMR can result from:
lean body mass © older age
physical activity and exercise ¢ lower height
growth and development e fat mass
being male e starvation and dieting
stress ® sedentary living
digestion © being female.
younger age
greater height
certain drugs such as stimulants, caffeine and smoking.
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Notrwythis
Describe the concept of energy balance.
(a) How does this relate to weight loss or weight gain?
(b) What is the significance of energy intake and energy expenditure?

170Q
 Had a look a Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

|. Body
ocy weiweight, BMI and body
composition
5 Athletes and regular exercisers are often concerned with body
weight and body composition.
Body weight Body mass index
_ Body weight, also known as body mass, is usually An individual’s BMI can be calculated by dividing
i measured in kilograms. Body mass is classified their weight, in kilograms, by the square of their
_ using the body mass index (BMI). height, in metres (kg/m).
q

- (
f

apa eral eraser ane eine eee a i en ee ee

Calculating body mass index Body composition

- _ An adult athlete who weighs GOkg and whose Body composition refers to total body weight,
. height is 1.75m will have a BMI of 20.25 and which is made up of lean body mass and body fat.

_fange. include:
© skinfolds
BMI = 62 kg + (1.75 m2)
° (BIA) Bioelectrical impedance analysis
= 62 + 3.0625
=-20-25 ° dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry
® underwater weighing.

- Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)

BIA is a technique used to assess body composition. It is quick, easy and non-invasive. It involves
. attaching electrodes to different parts of the body and then passing a small electric current through the
_ body. Lean tissue contains a large amount of water. This provides a lower impedance than tissues such
as bone and fat, allowing body composition to be estimated.
BIA can also be carried out using specially designed bathroom scales, but these may only send the
current through the lower part of the body.
- For BIA results to be accurate, subjects must be fully hydrated, and abstain from exercise and
substances that have a diuretic effect (alcohol and caffeine) for at least 24 hours before testing.

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I Nowtrythis Some athletes strive to achieve an optimum body composition.

~ To do so some will need to gain weight, while others might need
~ tolose weight. What do you think might be the advantages and
disadvantages of striving to achieve an optimum body composition?

179
Unit 13 ma
ay
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Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Macronutrients: Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates form the body’s most readily available source of energy.

Rice Pizza Recommended daily intakes

Nemes aie Breakfast The pie chart below indicates the total
cereal calorie intake that should be derived
Tinned from carbohydrate.
ae Scones 15% 55%
ne
aaa protein carbohydrate
Dried
fruits ae Carbohydrates ;
Sandwich
30%
Orange fats
juice Plain, sweet
or savoury
Fresh fruit Com biscuits
Potatoes Lentils

oes

Simple and complex carbohydrates

_ Carbohydrate foods are classically divided into two basic types: simple and complex. All carbohydrate
consumed ends up as glucose to provide energy. Glucose is used to produce adenosine triphosphate _
_ (ATP), the compound required for muscle contraction.
_ Simple carbohydrates are essentially Longer chains of simple sugar units, like
sugars. They are formed from single sugars ’ starch, are called complex carbohydrates
units (monosaccharides) or double sugars or polysaccharides. These allow large
units (disaccharides). They are easily quantities of glucose to be stored, such
digested and easily absorbed providing a as starch in the cell of plants, and provide
quick energy source. a slower release of energy over prolonged
periods.

Glycaemic index (GI)

The glycaemic index is a rating that describes how quickly a food containing carbohydrate increases
blood glucose after eating. The Gl of a food is determined by its composition — macronutrient and fibre
content — and how it is processed and cooked.

_ High GI foods: Low Gl foods:

¢ are broken down quickly ® are broken down slowly
_ © cause a rapid rise in blood glucose ° cause a gradual rise in blood glucose
° are useful in promoting optimal recovery after * help control appetite
exercise e promote better blood glucose control and
_ © stimulate insulin release and replenishment of more stable energy levels.
muscle glycogen stores.
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[No ythis|
trw
An athlete has approached you, confused about their carbohydrate intake. Write
down some pointers for them, explaining the role that carbohydrate plays in the
body and how the different classifications of carbohydrate have implications for
the athlete's exercise performance.

180
' Had a look [| Nearly there = Nailed it! ha

Carbohydrate RDA
| ae best approach to achieve an adequate carbohydrate intake is to eat at regular
intervals and ensure
all meals and snacks are centred around starchy carbohydrate foods. These
should preferably be
; unrefined starchy carbohydrate foods such as wholegrain n rice,
ri i
bread and pasta, which in hi
. amounts of fibre and micronutrients. i $ Ture Sa
| Carbohydrates — recommended daily amounts (RDA)
1 The average sedentary individual will require around 5O per cent of total daily calorie intake to be
j supplied by carbohydrates, of which the majority should be from starchy sources. This should be around:
_ -* 250 grams per day for females
¢ 300 grams per day for males.
7 Physical activity and training increases total daily calorie requirements by up to GO-70 per cent. A
_ good way to calculate requirements to cover individual activity levels is for it to be assessed relative to
q _ body weight.

_ ae daily activity Carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight (g)

|
a
| = :
7 = Seu
a Fa ‘act ov
_ To meet high requirements for carbohydrates, athletes might need to spread their intake across five to
| ‘Six smaller meals and snacks throughout the day and consume more sugary sources of carbohydrate than
is advised for the sedentary population.

; ”
.
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x Calculating requirements
| A female 400-m freestyle swimmer is in training to qualify for the Great Britain
Olympic squad. She has 11 pool sessions per week of approximately 2 hours,
made up of early morning or early evenings. In addition, she does 3 land-based
sessions per week, focused on core and strength training, with 1 rest day per
week. Her current weight is 72 kg.
She is training more than 3 hours each day, so on most days she is likely to
need between 8 to 10g of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight.
Therefore, her daily carbohydrate intake goal equals between:
; 8x 72 =576
q and
10x 72=720
So between 576g to 720g per day.

What factors might you need to consider in planning a day’s menu for this athlete
in order to meet her carbohydrate requirements?

181
 Had alook [|_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Macronutrients: Fats
Fat is an essential nutrient in the diet but, for health benefits, dietary experts recommend that we
reduce our fat intake and choose better types of fat.

Basic structure of fats Types of fatty acid

When fats are digested and absorbed they break Fatty acids contain chains of carbon atoms
down to glycerol and fatty acids. to which hydrogen atoms attach. The number

ue
of hydrogen atoms relative to the number of
carbon atoms determines whether a fatty acid is
Fatty acid
classified as saturated or unsaturated.
H ' ' H
_aycer_| {=} Fatty acid
H—C—C—H H—C=>=C—H

H H
jcommie
Edie ct
Fatty acid Saturated Unsaturated

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Functions of fat Unsaturated fatty acids can be of two kinds:

monounsaturated and polyunsaturated.
Fats are a concentrated source of energy. Animal
fats are a source of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, Trans-unsaturated fats or trans-fatty acids
E and K. Remember that: are unsaturated fatty acids found in hardened
vegetable oils, most margarines, commercial
1 gram of fat provides 9 calories of energy.
baked foods and most fried foods. An excess of
these fats is thought to raise cholesterol levels.

Recommended daily allowance

Type of fat in our diet
All fatty foods in our diet are a mixture of the
(RDA)
fatty acid types. 30-35 per cent of total calorie intake should
© Fatty foods that contain mostly saturated be derived from fat. Athletes are discouraged
fatty acids are generally solid at room from chronic fat restriction below 20 per cent
temperature, such as butter and lard.
of total energy — this is often associated with
reduced nutrient intake, particularly fat-soluble
Fatty foods composed mainly of unsaturated
vitamins and essential fatty acids. Government
fatty acids are usually liquid at room
guidelines recommend: :
temperature such as vegetable oils.
° 70 grams of fat per day for the average |
female |
¢ 90 grams per day for the average male. |
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Good fats versus bad fats

d avocados d walnuts &) fatty meat &) fried food & cakes and biscuits
& salmon & olive oil & hard cheese & ice cream ; :

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ythis
trw
"No
Harris is an endurance athlete keen to cut out all dietary fat to decrease his already low body fat and improve
his performance.

Is it appropriate for him to do this? Support your answer and develop suitable guidance for him.

182
f Had a look [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [|
|

IWiacronutrients: Protein
Proteins are essential to maintaining optimal health and physical performance.

{ Functions of protein Amino acids (AAs)

: Proteins have an energy value of 4kcal or The smallest units of protein are amino acids. Different
17kJ per gram. proteins contain different numbers and combinations of
i Protein: amino acids. There are 20 AAs and the body needs all
® builds body tissue of them to be present for protein synthesis to occur.
| ° repairs body tissue Essential and non-essential
: ° is an energy source. There are eight essential amino acids (EAAs) and
12 non-essential amino acids. The body is unable
Daily protein to manufacture the EAAs so they must be provided
through the diet. As long as the EAAs are present,
Unlike carbohydrate and fat, excess
the body can synthesise the non-essential amino
protein is not stored in the body, so
acids.
daily protein ingestion is required.

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__ Protein foods — high biological Protein foods — low biological

____value/complete value/incom plete
| The foods below contain all eight essential The foods below are lacking in one or more of
amino acids: the essential amino acids:
: ° eggs ¢ milk and dairy © pulses © cereals
— ® meat ° soya. ° rice ° nuts
m | © fish ° pasta © seeds.
| © bread

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Protein — recommended daily amounts (RDA)

© Protein intake should represent 12-15 per cent of total daily energy intake.
© Active individuals have higher requirements.
e The type of activity will influence protein requirements.
Nutrition experts do not generally recommend protein intakes above 2 g/kg body weight but higher
_ intakes may be indicated for short periods during intensified training or energy restriction.
Type of activity | Protein
per kilogram of body weight (g)
Mainly sedentary
| Mainly endurance
____ | Mainly strength

a ae eet ee oe ee ee ee eS

~~ What are the recommended protein requirements for an individual who weighs 70kg if they were:
day
{ | (a) asedentary office worker who has a 15-minute walk to work and back each
(b) a physical education teacher in training for a marathon
(c) a tennis player playing on the professional circuit?
Provide a justification for your answer.

183
 Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Micronutrients:
Fat-soluble vitamins
A balanced and varied diet with an adequate energy content should supply sufficient intake of all
micronutrients. Micronutrients are made up of vitamins and minerals. Vitamins can be split into two
categories: fat soluble and water soluble.

Fat soluble vitamins Common features

These include: Fat-soluble vitamins:
© vitamin A © are found in fatty or oily parts of
° vitamin D foods
e vitamin E © are absorbed and transported in the
© vitamin K. lymphatic system
® can accumulate in the liver and
Most vitamins required to maintain health cannot be
adipose tissue.
produced by the body and must be supplied by the
diet. However, vitamin D is synthesised by the action of Large amounts of fat-soluble vitamins can
sunlight on the skin, and vitamin K can be produced by be harmful to health.
bacteria in the large intestine.

Vitamin A — the facts Vitamin D — the facts

Adult RDI: males 70Oug, females GOOug, Adult RDI: no RDI set for adults.
pregnancy +100 yg, lactation +350ug. Required for: bone mineralisation and immune
Required for: visual processes, connective system function. ae
tissue, immune response. Found in: dairy produce, oily fish, eggs and liver.
Found in: liver, oily fish, eggs, carrots, red Problems of deficiency: rickets in children and
peppers, tomatoes and green vegetables. osteomalacia in adults.
- Problems
ofdeficiency? night blindness.

Vitamin E — the facts Vitamin K — the facts

Adult RDI: males Sma, females Gmg. Adult RDI: no RNI set.
Required for: protecting cells from Required for: clotting of blood.
free radical damage. Found in: green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils,
Found in: vegetable oils, nuts and €ggs, meat and dairy produce.
seeds. PROBISMBTSMASREIEHEY!
poor blood clotting.
Problems SFABHCIGREY impaired
- coordination.

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How can you ensure that a female vegetarian athlete achieves adequate intakes of fat-soluble vitamins?

IRA
 Had a look a Nearly there [| Nailed it! |_|

Micronutrients:
Water-soluble vitamins
Vitamins are vital, non-caloric nutrients required in very small amounts and as such are classed
as
micronutrients.

| Water-soluble vitamins Common features

These include: Water-soluble vitamins:
° vitamin B group, including folic acid * cannot be produced by your body
® vitamin C. ® are excreted via urine if there is an excess of them
° need to be taken in daily as the body has a limited supply
*° are easily destroyed by food processing and preparation.

a ee ee eee ee

_ Water-soluble vitamins — the facts

_ Specific vitamins have specific functions and are required in differing amounts. Individual requirements
_ are determined by age, sex, state of health and levels of physical activity.

Vitamin Bl Vitamin B2
Adult RDI: 0.4 mg/1 O00 kcal Adult RDI: males 1.3 mg, * ze
Required for: metabolism of female 1.0mg, pregnancy + Vitamin B,
fat, carbohydrate and alcohol 0.3 mg, lactation +O.5mg AguE Oh 6.6mqg/1 000 kcal,
Found in: whole grains, meat, Required for: carbohydrate lactation +2.3mg
pulses, nuts, milk and yeast metabolism, vision, skin health Beaumeemen carbohydrate and
extract Ss and nervous system function fat alee oad ;
Found in: liver, dairy produce, Found in: meat, dairy produce
neurological problems meat, fortified cereal, eggs and eggs
Povis cS
and yeast extract

‘Vitamin B12
dermatitis, diarrhoea and

Adult RDI:
Adult KDI? 1.5 1.5 1g, eee a
lactation +O.5ug
Required for: red blood
cell formation and central
nervous system function ye ° °
Vitamin B,
REET meat. dairy | Water-soluble vitamins Adult RDI: 15g
Required for: protein
produce, eggs, fortified Pan
metabolism and red
cereals and yeast Ss
blood cell formation
extract

|
Found in: meat, whole
Problems
ofdeficiency: grains, pulses, nuts and
pernicious anaemia and
neurological problems Vitamin C fortified cereals
Adult RDI: 40mg, pregnancy +10 mg,
lactation +30mg rare
Folic acid
Adult RDI: 200 ug, pregnancy +100yg Required for: connective tissue
Required for: regulation of growth of cells, formation, iron absorption and wound
; healing |
including red blood cells
Found in: pulses, green leafy vegetables, Found in: green leafy vegetables, citrus
and soft fruit, potatoes
wholegrain and fortified cereals
anaemia and Fabian a si aaneie ea scurvy,
diarrhoea
bleeding gums, poor wound healing,
weakness and fatigue

basis.
Draw up a list of guidelines to ensure an athlete achieves adequate intakes of water-soluble vitamins on a daily

185
 Had alook {| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! {_|

Micronutrients: Minerals
Minerals are essential to health and form important components of the body such as bone, connective
tissue, enzymes and hormones. Some play essential roles in nerve function and muscle contraction;
others regulate fluid balance.

Common features Iron — the facts

Minerals: Adult RDI: males 8.7 mg, females 14.8mg,
© are non-caloric females (50+ years old) &.7mg.
© are required in small or trace amounts Required for: haemoglobin and myoglobin
formation and enzyme component.
¢ levels are controlled by absorption and secretion.
Found in: red meat and offal, eggs, dark
green vegetables, breakfast cereals, pulses
and dried fruit. soos
PROBISMSISRARNCIEHEY! anaemia and fatigue. |
Haemoglobin is the protein molecule in red
blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs
to the body’s tissues and returns carbon —
dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.
Myoglobin is a red protein, containing
haemoglobin that carries and stores oxygen
in muscle cells.

Sodium -— the facts Potassium — the facts

Adult RDI: 1.6g. Adult RDI: 3.54. : a
Required for: neuromuscular transmission, fluid Required for: neuromuscular transmission, fluid
and acid-base balance. and acid-base balance.
Found in: salt, cheese, meat, fish, tinned Found in: meat, dairy produce, vegetables,
vegetables and salted nuts and savoury snacks. cereals, nuts and fruit and fruit juices.
Problems
of deficiency: hyponatraemia. Problems
|of deficiency: hypokalaemia.
Hyponatremia is a condition that occurs when Hypokalemia is a condition of below normal levels
the level of sodium in the blood is abnormally low. of potassium in the blood.
GAN a nt Set ee me eS ee bo = ime = ia eS Rt Be et st ae ew i a me Ee ee me es a it et 2 it Be ee Se See

Calcium — the facts Salt or sodium chloride - the facts

_ Adult RDI: males 700mg, females 700mg, Adult RDI: no more than 6g.
lactation +550mg. Required for: maintaining fluid balance, muscle
Required for: bone and tooth structure, nerve contraction and nerve transmission.
conduction and blood clotting.
Found in: smoked meat and fish, cheese, soy —__
Found in: dairy produce, white bread, tinned fish sauce, pickles, salami.
with bones and pulses.
Problems/of deficiency: hyponatremia.
Problems
of deficiency: stunted growth in
children, osteoporosis in adults. Salt can raise blood pressure and increase the
risk of heart disease if taken in excess.
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et

In the context of sport, exercise and health what role do minerals play?

186
 Had a look er Nearly there |_| Nailed it! ie|

Fibre
_ Fibre is a complex carbohydrate that resists digestion by the stomach and small intestine and
aids the
transit of food through the digestive system.
High-fibre foods Adult recommended daily intake (RDI)
Fibre is found in:
¢ wholegrain cereals
¢ wholemeal and wholegrain.
____ breads
° wholewheat pasta
_ © wholegrain rice
© pulses — peas, beans,
lentils
- © fruit
e vegetables.

a |Why do we need fibre in a balanced diet?

= Provides bulk to the diet, aiding Reduces blood cholesterol
. peristalsis (transit of food through (protecting against heart disease)
the digestive system) Protects against bowel
‘sre Ws disease, including cancer
of the colon

e te Fibre in the diet

: Increases satiety Gike
a feeling of fullness), Reduces constipation
: assisting weight and combats irritable

= control Regulates blood sugar bowel syndrome

; 7 (protecting against diabetes)

i
| Types of fibre
|g ; .
Increasing
‘
your tae
fibre beaile
: Soluble fibre can be found in oats, rye,
_ barley, peas, beans, lentils, fruits and OD-CANINCTeASe YOUr NDTE AILAKe VY
: _ vegetables and is important in the control ey) eating a wide variety of unrefined foods
1 of blood giucose and cholesterol. dS eating potatoes in their skins
Insoluble fibre is found in wholewheat & adding beans, lentils and peas to soups,
| bread, rice and pasta, wholegrain breakfast casseroles, salads, pasta and rice dishes
cereals, fruits and vegetables and is & avoiding peeling vegetables

sz AALS RR Ea Zed ca chad ey eating 5+ servings of fruit and vegetables each

disorders. tia)
> | ;
gz ee Sage ee eer (enemas & choosing wholegrain breakfast cereals
| ae tific terr Hoe ee = ey switching to wholewheat pasta and wholegrain
I: ca. Ae i SE AER Se Oe rice.

Pi Dietary guidelines from the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition advise adults to achieve a daily fibre intake
of around 30g per day.

What practical guidance for meals and snacks would you recommend should be adopted to try to achieve this target
intake?
 Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|
———.

Hadalook |

Fluid intake
to the body.
Water is one of the most important. and most overlooked, nutrients essential

Function of water Monitoring }

Water is essential to the body hydration
Severe
because it: Urine colour charts dehydration 4
® helps carry nutrients and oxygen
to cells
are a simple way
of monitoring
L
regulates body temperature hydration status.
removes waste products
Dehydration
protects and cushions orgams
helps convert food to energy
is a lange component of blood.
the brain and muscle.

Urine-chart 4}

Maintaining water balance Warning signs of dehydration

A sedentary individual requires 2—2.5 litres These include: 7 ee
of fluid per day: * lack of energy and early fatigue during exercise
e 10 per cent of daily fluid requirements come * feeling hot and clammy
from the metabolic processes that nelease . flushed skin

water within the body

reduced urine output
® 90 per cent is derived from the diet.
nausea
Water is lost from the body through:
headache —
® urine
disorientation
° faeces shortness of breath.
® evaporation from the skin
® expired breath.

Fluid requirements Thermoregulation during exercise

Normal fluid requirements are in the region of: Thermoregulation is the ability to keep body
e 30-35 ml per kilogram of body weight per day temperature constant. Fluid replacement
or strategies become more important the greater
the:
® 1ml per calorie of enengy requirement.
® frequency
High levels of activity, and hot and humid
* intensity
conditions, can lead to higher fiuid losses so
more fluid intake will be needed. * duration of activities.

“You have been appointed the sports CllNUOCHDOMST TO 2oh0 cal rugby union team. The
atalaealtetcaltit-aaitatn tite?
~~

coach has asked you to draw up 2 plan to monitor hydration status in the players.

What would you include in your plan and wity?

188
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [| Nailed it! [|

Water is considered an adequate fluid suitable for most exercise, but some sports drinks may be
useful if exercising at higher intensities for longer durations. There are three types of sports drink:
hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic.

__ Types of sports drink = @ Hypotonic drinks. aa

. Most sports drinks provide three nutrients: Hypotonic drinks:
° carbohydrates to replace energy ° are more diluted than isotonic or hypertonic drinks
° water to replace fluid e < 4 per cent carbohydrate
° electrolytes to replace minerals lost in ® usually contain sodium
Wear. ® are easily absorbed and well tolerated.
eo blood,
Electrolytes are salts dissolved in the
SU ch as sodium and potassium Although water is adequate for non-endurance training
or when sweat losses are small, these drinks may
encourage fluid replacement through enhanced taste.
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manera rreen —fee —(Sia

s 2) Isotonic drinks €> Hypertonic drinks

Isotonic drinks: Hypertonic drinks:
© are 4-8 per cent carbohydrate ® are more concentrated than isotonic or
© usually contain sodium hypotonic drinks
; © are quickly absorbed into bloodstream ° > & per cent carbohydrate
' ° are useful when exercise has been ° usually contain sodium
4 prolonged or during warmer weather. ° are absorbed more slowly.

q It's best to avoid carbonated fluids during or Hypertonic drinks are good for
after exercise as they make you feel full and carbohydrate replenishment, but not
a SO you consume less fluid than required to L ideal for optimal rehydration — best used
achieve effective rehydration. in the recovery stage after exercise.

Speed of rehydration Hyperhydration or water intoxication

Starting exercise well hydrated and Hyperhydration:
keeping a large fluid volume in the ® occurs in most cases due to consuming too much water to
gut facilitates rehydration, but the try to avoid dehydration
effectiveness of fluid-replacement ° can lead to hyponatremia.
OOO _ strategies during and after exercise,
q is helped by drinking fluids that are: It is thought starting exercise in a hyperhydrated state can
© still improve thermoregulation, improving heat dissipation and exercise
© cool performance, but this area of sports science research needs
further investigation and hyperhydration is not without side effects.
® of reasonable volume
© not too concentrated
© contain sodium Dehydration and hypernatremia
-_—~e palatable. — ; Dehydration occurs when there is a deficit of water in the
a _ body. This leads to disruption of metabolic processes.
~~ Unpleasant symptoms experienced Dehydration is also a cause for hypernatremia.
_ When drinking during exercise usually Hypernatremia is caused by elevated sodium levels in the
mean rehydration has started too late = biged. It is not usually caused by excess sodium, but by a
and the body is already dehydrated. deficit of water in the body.

ee Pe a a ES “a we i wes nr a ee i ee ee
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rwow trythis| Consider factors that can help

What practical advice can a sports nutritionist give athletes to ‘ hinder ney quickly fluids are
ensure adequate hydration during exercise? absorbed during and after exercise.

189
 Had a look = Nearly there [| Nailed it! aay

Digestion
Before the body can make use of the energy and nutrients contained in food and fluids, it has to break
them down through the processes of digestion and absorption.

Main functions of digestion Breakdown of food

The body has to perform three main functions when it is Digestion is a multi-stage process
digesting and absorbing nutrients and fluids. following the ingestion (eating) of
raw materials (food). |
Absorption of Mechanical and chemical elements
1) Toning 2 nutrients and are involved in the process,
nue which leads to enzymes in the gut
: breaking down the larger chemical
SURSHOnE compounds in food into smaller
compounds, which are absorbed by
the body.
| Excretion of waste products

P i

Absorption of nutrients and fluid Excretion of waste products |

¢ This is the movement of digested food from your This. is the removal of potentially
stomach and small intestine into the body tissues and poisonous end-products from
blood. metabolism, normally in urine and
© Absorption happens in the villi lining the small intestine. faeces. The main organs of excretion
Each villus has a network of capillaries to absorb are:
nutrients quickly. © the kidneys, through which urine is
¢ Amino acids (from proteins) and glucose (from eliminated
carbohydrates) enter your bloodstream directly. ° the large intestine, through which —-
¢ Fatty acids and glycerol (from fats) are taken up by the solid or semi-solid waste (faeces) is |
~ lymphatic system. expelled. a |

_ Timing of digestion of Dis

macronutrients and absorption
of fluid
The precise timing of digestion and absorption
depends upon the food eaten and its complexity
of structure. It also varies for individuals but:
° it usually takes between 24 and 72 hours
* it takes 6-6 hours for food to pass through
the stomach and small intestine
° carbohydrates are digested quickest
° protein takes a little longer
© fat takes the longest time
© digestion is slowed by a high-fibre content.

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estion,
SEE page 191,
List the main functions of digestion and briefly explain each one.

190
 Had a look [| Nearly there ion Nailed it! ha

_ Digestion and absorption

_ Before the body can make use of the energy and nutrients that food contains it has to be broken down
by the digestive system.

The process of digestion and absorption

The digestive system changes food into useable substances for the body.

Teeth — hold, tear

and chew foods

Tongue — moves food mass

Salivary glands — into a small, soft ball (bolus)
secrete juices into to the back of the mouth
the mouth where it is swallowed

Oesophagus = food passageway

Liver — produces between mouth and stomach (the
t
juice called bile action of peristalsis moves food
along)

Gail bladder — stores bile Stomach — receives food,

_ until needed for digestion churns it and adds gastric
juices to it, resulting in a
liquid called chyme
Pancreas — produces digestive
juices to further break down
food in digestion

Large intestine — stores

unused solid substances
after water is removed
Small intestine — absorbs
5 usable food substances, which
Rectum — holds solid — are sent to all parts of the
waste and controls its | body by blood vessels
release from the body

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Redistribution of blood flow

While the body is digesting, there is a redistribution of blood flow. The passage of food through the
digestive system results in increased blood flow to the stomach and intestines. This increase is met by
the diversion of blood primarily from skeletal muscle tissue.

ome wet ee ee) ee

Match the statement in column B with the part of the digestive system in column A to best describe its function.
Column A Column B
1 Teeth A_ produces digestive juices that contain bile.
2 Stomach B_ stores unused solid substances after water is removed.
3 Liver C churns food into a liquid called chyme.
4 Large intestine D the tube that connects your mouth to your stomach.
5 Oesophagus E crush and grind food to mix it with saliva.

19]
 Had a look a Nearly there & Nailed it! [|

Blood sugar control

The body requires blood sugar to be kept within narrow limits, which happens through the hormonal
control of blood sugar and glycogen synthesis.

Blood sugar (glucose) Hormonal control of blood sugar

The body requires glucose in order to create The hormones insulin and glucagon control blood
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP demand will sugar levels.
fluctuate, and therefore the body regulates the * High blood sugar levels — when glucose levels
availability of glucose to maximise its energy- increase, the pancreas releases less glucagon
making potential. and more insulin, which targets the liver.
Normal blood sugar (glucose) levels are * Low blood sugar levels — when glucose levels
3.5-5.5 mmol/L. decrease, the pancreas releases less insulin
and more glucagon, which targets the liver.

Insulin, glucagon and the liver Control of glycogen synthesis |

The liver acts as a storehouse for glycogen, the Glycogen is a crucial source of ree for
storage form of glucose. fuelling activity. = —
¢ Insulin is released as a result of an increase ¢ 80 per cent of glycogen is stored in the
in glucose levels, and therefore promotes the muscles; the rest is stored in the liver, witha
conversion of glucose into glycogen, where small amount of circulating blood glucose.
excess glucose can be stored in the liver for a ® Carbohydrate is stored as glycogen in limited
later date. amounts — approximately 375-475 grams in ___}
* Glucagon is released as a result of a decrease the average adult, equivalent to ee
in glucose levels, and therefore promotes 1500-2 O00 kcal. +
the conversion of glycogen into glucose for °® Day-to-day stores are influenced by dietary
release into the bloodstream to increase carbohydrate intake and levels of physical
circulating blood glucose. activity or training.
¢ Regular exercise encourages the muscles to
adapt to store more glycogen — an important
training adaptation particularly in endurance-
type sports.

Food to maximise glycogen Timing of food intake

synthesis The timing of food intake can maximise glycogen
Certain food types will maximise glycogen synthesis. For example, post-exercise, athletes
synthesis, for example, energy bars or are advised to eat high-carbohydrate, low-fat
gels — these are a concentrated source of Snacks aS soon as possible and ideally within the
carbohydrate. Athletes will often eat easy-to-
first half-hour after training or competing. They
digest, smaller portions, more frequently, which should eat another carbohydrate-rich meal within
contain high-carbohydrate and low-fat. These the next two hours.
snacks could be jelly babies and bananas. Drinks
that are high in carbohydrate are also a good
choice to help maximise glycogen recovery.
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Draw up a simple table to help you remember how

blood glucose is regulated.

192
 Had a look t | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! Lar

Water balance control

_ The amount of water in the blood must be kept more or less constant to avoid cell damage.

Fluid balance Hormonal control of

Fluid balance is the balance of the input and output of fluids
fluid balance
_ in the body to allow metabolic processes to function.
This is achieved by anti-diuretic
Water is gained from:
hormone (ADH). The more ADH, the
° diet — food and drink consumed more water is absorbed. The total
© cellular respiration. fluid volume fluctuates by less than
Water is lost through: 1 per cent, and fluid loss should be
See
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© sweat balanced by fluid intake.

e urine
© faeces
© expired breath.

| The control of fluid balance

Water content of Water content of

~~ The hypothalamus blood = too low
blood = too high
relays a message to
—the-pitvitary-giand-to- Lots of salt eaten or lots Lots of fluids drunk or little
ae ADH. of sweating (dehydration) sweating (hyperhydration)

Pituitary Pituitary
releases Water content releases small
lots of ADH of blood = normal amount of ADH

Higher volume of Lower volume of

aS
MR\ai
ill
Ba water passes water passes
into blood into blood
an
Ce

Higher volume of Lower volume of

water reabsorbed water reabsorbed
by kidneys by kidney

Smaller volume of Higher volume of

concentrated urine dilute urine
passed to the bladder passed to the bladder

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= a a = a mt ae am f ‘

Draw up a simple table to help you remember how

water balance is regulated.

193
 ——t

Had alook [|_| Nearly there | | Nailed it! |_|

Balanced diet
Performance in, and recovery from, exercise are enhanced by optimal nutrition.

A balanced diet for athletes

A balanced diet intake for health and well-being provides the correct amounts of nutrients without
excess or deficiency. For most sports:
® carbohydrate requirements are likely to contribute around 55 per cent of total energy
© protein around 15 per cent
¢ fat around 30 per cent.
Taking additional vitamins and minerals through supplements will not improve the performance in athletes
whose diet is already adequate and varied. When thinking about a balanced diet for an athlete you need
to consider:
¢ the physiological demands of the sport
¢ the phase of training : a 1 ae ee
® the individual athlete’s needs.
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~ A simple guide to eating for health and well-being

_ Healthy eating is the pursuit of a balanced diet to support health and reduce the risks of chronic disease.
Cut back on your fat intake, particularly Eat plenty of foods with a high ;
fat from saturated sources. starch and fibre content. Eat sugary foods wisely,
although they can help
Eat the correct amount to - meet energy requirements. —
maintain a healthy body weight. Eating for health
Use salt sparingly
Enjoy your food and do and well-being ana reauce
not become obsessed with your reliance on
your diet or dieting. convenience and
; Consider your cooking Ensure adequate intakes of | seeks cots
\f you drink alcohol, keep methods. carstully te vitamins and minerals by eating “ONY F
Ane : yatt : ze . : foods_
within sensible limits. optimise nutrient intake. a wide variety of foods.

Using the Eatwell Guide to plan healthy meals

The food
and snacks ts
The Eatwell Guide principles should form the solid foundations on which athletes Py*
can build more specific nutritional strategies to support training and competition. The food pyramid
The e Eatwell Guide
U recommends you: you: eee
in the USA to
° eat at least five portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables each day convey the same
* base meals on starchy carbohydrates such as potatoes, bread, rice, pasta messages as the
* choose wholegrain versions where possible Eatwell Guide in
*® include dairy or dairy alternatives (such as soya drinks) the UK. It showed
° choose lower fat and lower sugar options where possible the recommended
number of
* eat some beans, pulses, fish, eggs, meat and other proteins each day
servings to be
(including two portions of fish each week, one of which should be oily)
eaten each day |
* choose unsaturated oils and spreads and eat in small amounts
from each food
© if consuming foods and drinks high in fat, salt or sugar have these less group. This was
often and in small amounts
Teplaced bythe |
° drink 6-8 cups or glasses of fluid each day. “MyPlate” guide.

Jot down all the foods you have eaten in the last 24 hours. Assess your intake in
line with the Eatwell Guide principles and write a short report on your findings.

194
 Had a look [| Nearly there rm Nailed it! |_|

Impact of food preparation

; The effect of food preparation on its nutritional composition will vary depending on the
i characteristics of the food and the food preparation processes followed.

; Good- Natural Nutrients in food

, quality food ‘
: ood Nutrient content in food can be altered by
é To optimise nutrient felltactes setheden which generally reduce
‘|
“y
|| availabi
e
lity choose:
ege water-
dbdinaembaiectind
.

© heat
:
© light
of: Foods that are lightly processed °o xygen.

: Cooking methods Juicing

|To optimise nutrient availability try: By juicing, natural liquids, vitamins and minerals
ey steaming are extracted from raw fruit and vegetables,
ey) stir-frying stripping away any solid matter and leaving the
liquid only. Juices are best consumed immediately
iz ‘microwaving
after making them.
&> juicing.
Juicing is a good way of:
| However, nutrients in foods can be
consuming fruit and vegetables if you do not
| reduced by:
like eating them whole
| & boiling, as it can reduce micronutrients & using up spoilt fruit and vegetables
as these get washed out — a process
SS making it easy and quick for the body to
known as leaching
digest and absorb nutrients.
& frying/roasting, as it can make foods
However:
i ~ fatty.
_ Other cookina methods include: &) fibre is lost in the pulp, though you can add
| ° a ? some pulp back to the juice to include it
rillin
° : ki it is likely to be more expensive as it requires
pet a lot of fruit and vegetables per serving
° curing.
& if you drink too many juices you may consume
too many calories.
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Raw foods
A raw food diet, or raw foodism, involves However, a raw food diet can present
only eating uncooked and unprocessed foods. challenges of:
_ Potential benefits include: achieving an adequate energy intake as a
&) higher vitamin intake result of a bulky diet
| ss higher mineral intake & food safety issues.
| & lower salt and sugar intake, compared with
foods that have been processed.

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‘Some nutrient loss is a consequence of almost all food preparation processes.

What advice would you give to someone looking to optimise the nutrient content of their diet, particularly from the
point of view of optimising their micronutrient intake?

195
 Had alook | | Nearly there [| Nailed it! |_|

Benefits of a balanced diet |

Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in dietary intake all produce potentially negative impacts on
health that can lead to a range of dietary-related disorders.

Objectives of a healthy diet

A healthy diet can:
® provide adequate energy and nutrients to maintain normal physiological functioning, allowing growth
and replacement of body tissues
¢ improve the immune system and offer protection against chronic diseases such as obesity, type 2
diabetes, coronary heart disease, cancer and osteoporosis
¢ help athletes to maintain a healthy body weight.

Nutrient targets
Healthy eating principles aim to help the population meet dietary targets, which can prevent chronic
disease. Nutrient targets for the UK population in order to eat a balanced diet are set out in the table
below.

Total fat

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Fibre

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Disorders of excess Disorders of deficiency

Obesity Type 2 Osteoporosis (lack of Anaemia
“ diabetes calcium and vitamin D) (lack of
iron)

Disorders of
| Disorders of
excess
| deficiency |
Certain types
Coronary
of cancer
heart
Seurvy (lack of vitamin C)
disease

Notrwythis|
|
|'
'

Match the statement in column B with the nutrient in column A to best describe the nutrient target for the UK
population.

Carbohydrate 50% of total energy

Fat Less than 35% of total energy
Protein 30g per day
Fibre No more than 11% of total energy =
D>
=uhwWwn
Saturated fat Less
Wee
mon than 15% of total energy

196
 Had a look | Nearly there - Nailed it! baa

i Eating disorders
| People with an eating disorder often display a gross disruption of eating behaviour in
which they
Geliberately. and dangerously manipulate diet and body weight. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
CAEN
are
3 psychiatric disorders because they are accompanied by other emotional disturbances.

_ Anorexia nervosa
This disorder:
* is a dangerous condition that can lead to serious ill health or even death
* usually occurs in teenage years, but can start at any age.

| Irregular or ceased Fear of being fat Under-eating = :

5 | menstrual cycle SBME Gaifou 2
a (in women) iS)

symptoms
5? cn Abuse of laxatives ee pees to. stop losing
3 or other weight- welgit evenswet
= ze loss tablets Excessive exercise Excessive weight loss below a healthy weight

_ Bulimia nervosa
_ This disorder may start in the mid-teens, but it is not usually present until the mid-twenties. Most
sufferers are likely to be of normal weight, making the condition easier to hide.

3 | Worrying more and Binge eating

more about weight Feeling guilty about weight
and eating patterns while
staying within a normal
weight range
| symptoms
i Irregular menstrual cycle os Use and abuse of laxatives
(in women)
2
Self-induced vomiting

Y |

Binge eating disorder Eating disorders and sportspeople

; People who experience binge eating Sportspeople may be more likely to suffer an eating
| disorders feel compelled to regularly disorder because of:
3 _ overeat. It can develop in young e having to meet a weight category
| adults, but does not often present until © training for long periods of time
_ sufferers are in their 30s and 40s. Men
© following a strict diet programme
are equally as likely as women to suffer
° possibly struggling with self-esteem and self-confidence
from this eating disorder.
issues (which could lead to an eating disorder)
_ Symptoms include: :
the sport promoting a certain body type, e.g.
_———- ® ~consuming large quantities of food gymnastics and dance
ever short time periods -
© a belief that low body fat increases sports
° eating even when not hungry performance.
° being overweight.

=
[No ythis
trw
) There is a higher incidence of eating disorders in those who participate in sport. Kelly is 18 and is an ice skater.
_— She has been competing since she was 12 years old and now represents her country in international events.

Why do you think she might be at risk of an eating disorder?

197
 Had alook |_| Nearly there | | Nailed it! [_|

Nutritional strategies
Athletes should pay careful attention to foods that can enhance, not hinder, their preparation for, ;
participation in and recovery from training and competition. Carbohydrate loading and increased protein
intake are two strategies.

Nutritional strategies to support athletic performance

Every sport will have different considerations when developing nutritional strategies to support
sport and exercise performance. There should be no conflict between eating for health and eating for
performance.

The physiological demands of The rules of the sport and

the sport and the intensity at ‘ the opportunities to develop
which it is played = strategies around them

Factors .
oie Participation in qualifying
Sport-specific body composition rounds and developing optimal
or weight requirements recovery strategies

Carbohydrate loading Increased protein intake

The aim of carbohydrate loading is to increase © Active individuals do have higher protein
the muscles’ capacity to store glycogen above requirements, generally between 1.2-2.0 grams
their normal level. This is useful for endurance per kilogram of body weight per day.
events lasting up to 90 minutes such as: ¢ Normal protein requirements are in the range
¢ marathon running of O.75-1.0 grams per kilogram of body
© triathlon _ weight per day.
® endurance swimming. e Athletes in strength- and power-based
sports often believe they need to eat large
The amount of glycogen stored is related to:
amounts of protein foods to build muscle and
© carbohydrate eaten in the diet
increase strength and power, but this is often
¢ level and intensity of training and competition. not necessary and can only be achieved by
Carbohydrate loading will not increase endurance appropriate training.
capacity unless you are a highly conditioned ° Eating a normal varied diet and meeting
athlete. energy requirements should provide sufficient
protein for most athletes.
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Problems of a high protein intake

* Some high-protein foods are high in animal fats considered bad for long-term health.
_ © They suppress appetite leaving no desire to meet carbohydrate requirements.
¢ High protein intake has been linked with dehydration.
° Supplementation with protein powders, shakes and bars requires careful consideration due to
contamination risk.

SS a ee — — oe ae eee ee ees a a ees ae a ee ee —

Devise a carbohydrate loading strategy for a triathlete undertaking his

first Olympic distance triathlon who is looking to reduce his training in
the week before his event.

198
 Had a lock I | Nearly there sea) Nailed it! a |

Weight loss and gain

Most athletes are concerned about attaining or maintaining an optimal body weight.

_Weight-controlled sports
® Controlling weight in some sports may present a challenge to achieving a nutritionally adequate diet.
| For some sports, weight control may be crucial For some sports, weight categories may apply
d _ to optimising performance such as in: such as in:
f ® endurance running © boxing
; * gymnastics ° weightlifting
— ® diving ® mixed martial arts
: _ © horse racing. © judo
’ © rowing.

: Inappropriate weight loss strategies Sensible weight loss

Athletes may resort to using poor weight loss methods strategies
i _ including:
area nding Ideally athletes would compete at their —
ga ae fasting normal weight, but when weight loss is
» | & skipping meals required they should:
a i &) laxative abuse SS set realistic weight loss/body
| & bingeing and purging composition targets
i &) intentional dehydration. ey) ideally address weight management
issues in the off season
® create a negative energy balance
(SOO-1 000 kcals per day)
ey maintain sufficient carbohydrate intake
Ey decrease fat intake
& ensure adequate protein intake
ey) maintain nutritional balance particularly
in terms of micronutrients (RNIs)
ey maintain a high fluid intake
ey) consider increasing aerobic exercise.

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i
Weight gain
- When athletes talk about weight gain they usually mean lean mass (muscle) gain. This generally requires
_ the implementation of a progressive strength training programme supported by an adequate diet.
Note that rates of weight/muscle gain are dependent on genetics and body type. When weight gain is
_ required, athletes should:
7 | SS set realistic weight gair/body composition targets
A 1 & create a positive energy balance (500-1000 kcals per day)
| & aim for a protein intake between 1.4-1.7g per kilogram body weight per day.
. | A high-protein diet, or supplementing with amino acids, will not automatically lead to great increases in
muscle size or strength.
per eer et ee
ma maa 6

weight, lose weight or

Most athletes are concerned about weight management, whether it is the need to gain
fasting to achieve their
maintain a current weight. What advice would you give an endurance athlete who is using
benefits of adopting your suggestion s.
preferred race weight? State the potential

199
 Had a look |_| Nearly there pes Nailed it! fa

Nutrition for sports events

Different sports require different dietary plans or strategies to optimise performance.

Endurance events Glycogen loading

From a dietary perspective, there are many factors to
This involves increased
consider when preparing for and competing in an endurance
carbohydrate intake
event such as long-distance running or cycling.
(in the form of pasta,
iaah Sel iii lial oh rice and cereals)
age
and
athlete’s energy and intense the event, the
fluid stores more depleted the stores Use of glycogen decreased training for
Ve (carbohydrate) approximately three days
loading pre- prior to competition.
event
Factors
: Use of energy
Piernig soba supplements
well-tested
pre-event meal Starting event fully hydrated and
consuming fluids during event

Strength and power sports Sports requiring strength and

As well as meeting energy demands, nutritional strategies endurance
!
- for strength and power sports such as sprints, shot
Some sports require high levels of both —

put, long jump, weightlifting and gymnastics, support the

strength and endurance, such as rowing,
maintenance and development of lean body mass.
wrestling, open water swimming, cycling
_ Factors include: and cross-country skiing. Key nutrients
® carbohydrate requirements are not likely to be as in all cases are carbohydrate and fluid. S
—

great as they are for endurance events, but are still Sports drinks can also provide a source
important of energy as well as fluid during endurance
® promoting an anabolic environment (where events. a a
carbohydrates and protein are combined) after Nutrient demands are dictated by:
exercise to increase protein synthesis and promote ¢ the specific nature of the sport |
muscle development
© the individual athletes.
© avoiding excessive protein intake.
Ss Ms we Be eR it Th A Et a Et Te Mt tt Ch a ee ee a a et oe ee ee ee le ee le le ee lel

Weight category and controlled events

In events such as gymnastics and figure skating, leanness or a specific weight may be important for
optimal performance.
Fewer calories means Calei af mises fe
|
ium and iron inta r
fewer nutrients consumed
oie
2
reported as inadequate habe |
|

Adequate fluid intake is | Factors to consider

important to maintain —2—__——a
concentration for the technical
Healthy eating principles should
demands of the event
be applied, but greater emphasis
Adequate protein and
may be needed in respect of low
carbohydrate intake
fat intake
should be achieved

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1 What factors are likely to impact on the nutritional requirements of a team sport such as rugby union?
2 What strategies would you put into place to optimise individual and team performance?

200
 Nutritional supplements and aids
Supplements can be broken down into two main categories — nutrient or dietary supplements and
nutritional ergogenic aids.

Definitions :
° Nutrient or dietary supplements help Sup P lement claims
athletes to meet their overall nutritional Products available make convincing claims such as:
needs, either by providing a practical ° better recovery
alternative to food or by helping to ° increased strength and size
meet higher than average requirements © loss of body fat
for nutrients, such as carbohydrate and
® enhanced immune function.
protein.
How does an athlete decide whether to invest in
° Nutritional ergogenic aids aim to
these products or whether it is better to invest
enhance performance through effects on
_time, money and effort in other aspects of sports |
energy, body composition and alertness.
science support?

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Cost is often high

Can contain substances
harmful to health pe
Vast array of products

The challenges of
Can present a doping ae oll supplement use The manufacture, processing,
risk labelling and marketing of
products is poorly regulated

Products make
convincing claims

_ Nutrient or dietary supplements Nutritional ergogenic aids

Some athletes find these types of products useful to help Common nutritional ergogenic aids
meet nutritional goals during particularly demanding periods are thought to enhance performance
of training and ccmpetition. above and beyond what would
normally be expected. These include:
Multivitamin and mineral Sports drinks ¥ 4
supplements Energy gels and ° caffeine
glucose tablets ® creatine

Nutrient ® beetroot juice.

Carbohydrate ee
loaders and supplements
powders Sports bars fo)Links berevise caffeine,
Protein supplements Liquid meal replacements creatine and beetroot
juice, see pages 203-206.

‘eo To revise more on nutrient

vagodtinaleSee Magee202.

Se Eee |e ee mi tk tt Ht BE RE Et hi et a ie me

a
Your local council runs a multi-sport talent development programme. They have asked you to run
workshop on supplement use in sport. At the start of the presentatio n it would be useful to set the scene in
terms of definitions, claims and challenges of supplemen t use.

Outline how you would set the scene for the presentation.

201
 Had a look a Nearly there ce Nailed it! [|

Supplement use
Supplements should be effective, safe and legal. Athletes must know how and when to use
them to maximum benefit to support nutrition goals. If used in the correct way (time and amount)
supplements can assist athletes to train and compete at their best. However, poor regulation of
the supplement industry means marketing hype often overstates unproven benefits.
Supplement efficacy Supplement safety and legality
Relatively few supplements on the market that claim If you are considering supplement use, if
ergogenic benefits in terms of enhanced performance the claims sound too good to be true, be
are supported by sound scientific evidence. Even if cautious. Ask the following questions:
there is sound evidence for a supplement, it may not e {s it a banned substance?
cover all situations specific to a sport or event. ° What are the perceived benefits?
© What does the weight of scientific
Supplements and the young athlete evidence suggest?
Supplement use is generally not justified for ° Is the research from a genuine,
athletes under the age of 18 years who are thought. | independent source?
to be able to make performance gains through: © Does the research apply to the sport?
* maturation in age Are there any contraindications for use?
* gaining greater experience in their sport. Are there any side effects?

2 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

Benefits and risks of supplement use

Supplement use requires assessment and advice by a registered sports nutritionist and/or medical
practitioner. If choosing to use supplements athletes must balance potential benefits and risks,
particularly of anti-doping rule violations.
Benefits include: Risks include:
Ey May assist the athlete to & Poor regulation of the supplement industry means marketing
achieve optimal nutritional hype often overstates unproven benefits.
requirements. &) Will not compensate for consistently poor food choices.
ey May provide a short-term &) Athletes often follow hearsay about supplement use, and take
solution for a nutrient deficiency them in larger doses than is sensible.
until a dietary solution can be
&) A significant number of supplements on the market have been
implemented.
found to contain doping agents that will cause an athlete to
ey May be useful when travelling, fail a drugs test.
especially to countries where
& A significant number of supplements on the market have
food culture and practices are
been found to be contaminated with undesirable items,
very different from home.
such as animal faeces and glass, due to poor manufacturing
processes.

identify situations in which the use of supplements might bejustified

and develop a simple guide to assessing safe supplement use.

202
‘ Had a look [| | Nearly there | | Nailed it
G

Caffeine
. Where supplements have been shown to have a performance benefit their ethical use remains
; _ controversial and is a matter of personal choice for the athlete. Caffeine is beneficial for high-intensity
exercise of prolonged duration including team sports such as soccer, field hockey and rowing,
but
enhancement in performance is thought to be specific to trained athletes.

Caffeine Concerns with caffeine use

Sources of caffeine in the diet include: The following side effects may occur:
© coffee (most common) ® anxiety and over-arousal
° tea ¢ tremor
© chocolate drinks ¢ increased heart rate
: ® cola drinks ° gastrointestinal distress
. °® energy drinks ° sleep disturbance.
a * specialist sports foods — drinks, bars, gels and sweets. The effect of caffeine on sleep, even at
| __— Coffee and/or caffeine are often reported to be diuretics, low levels of intake, may interfere with
_ suggesting that consumption of large quantities could lead _—_—the ability to recover between training
_____ to poor hydration prior to and during exercise. However, sessions, or multi-day competitions.
current scientific literature does not support an immediate
____.. diuretic effect following caffeine ingestion.

_ Effects of caffeine Guidelines for caffeine use

_ Caffeine is rapidly absorbed and transported to body Caffeine is more powerful when consumed in
_— tissues and organs, causing a variety of effects. an anhydrous state (capsule/tablet form), as
4 ° It peaks in the blood in 1-2 hours. compared to being consumed as coffee.
7 e The effects vary between individuals with both Although caffeine is likely to enhance
positive and negative influences, so decisions performance in most people, some could
to incorporate caffeine into nutritional strategies be non-responders and some could have
should always be carefully considered. negative responses.
Effects of caffeine include: Guidelines for use include:
‘ e alterations to the central nervous system that e Aim to use the lowest effective dose —
j influence perception of effort or fatigue ergogenic effects have been reported with
as little as 3 mg/kg body weight taken
e stimulation of adrenaline
1 hour before exercise.
® effects on the heart
© release of free fatty acids. = Practise
i h use of f caffeine
the caffei t ies
strategies iin
training and lower level competition.
Recent research shows that caffeine causes its
e Watch for symptoms of overuse such as
| major effect by reducing the actual or perceived headaches, nausea, insomnia.
fatigue that occurs when activity is undertaken over a
prolonged period.
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ee — Se ee ee See ee ee ee ee ee
ee

_ Acute caffeine intake

- Remember the effects of acute caffeine intake follow a U-shaped curve, in that although low to
moderate doses (3-6 mg/kg body weight) produce positive effects and a sense of well-being, the
effects of higher doses can be negative.

SE —_S— SE —_ES ——_—— —_S—_ — — S—-

seen) cieee_— ied sey. Sune__SIN _sas___h_n__ ee __sun sash sanh_ St _ph _ un_—_R__s00—_ Eh SE —_ES —_SS__ EF.

into the
{ What factors would you take into account when considering the suitability of introducing caffeine
nutritional strategies of a middle-dis tance runner?

203
 Had alook [| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Creatine and branch chain _

amino acids
Creatine is a naturally occurring compound found in the brain and skeletal muscle resulting from dietary
intake and endogenous synthesis from amino acids.

Creatine supplementation
© Creatine monohydrate is the most common source of creatine used in commercially available
supplements.
® Muscle creatine content varies between individuals, mostly likely due to age, gender and fibre type.
* Supplementation has been shown to enhance performance in exercise involving repeated sprints or
bouts of high-intensity exercise divided by short recovery periods.
¢ It may benefit athletes undertaking resistance training to build lean body mass.
° Different protocols have been shown to result in performance enhancement — either as an acute _
loading protocol or chronic use.
° Creatine uptake into the muscle may be boosted by simultaneous intake of a carbohydrate-rich meal
or snack.
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Points of caution with creatine use Branch chain amino acids (BCAA)
It is advised that creatine supplementation BCAAs are essential amino acids that cannot be
is limited to experienced and well-developed synthesised by the body and must be obtained
athletes. from dietary sources. a
estoaiohdss Increased Performance benefits include: - |
eno tinkniout risk of muscle ¢ a stimulant for muscle protein synthesis
Set © preventing muscle protein breakdown and ae +
strains and
tears
reducing markers of exercise-induced muscle
Potential damage
Gastrointestinal
problems °® may slow down the transport of tryptophan
discomfort or to the brain, reducing the production of
Weight gain of
an increase in pea serotonin, thereby lessening perception of
headaches P kg fatigue.

Branch chain amino acid supplementation

Branch chain amino acids may be of benefit to those on tight energy budgets with potential to:
* promote muscle protein synthesis
* minimise muscle protein breakdown without a substantial calorie load. |
Dosage: protocols investigating the effects of supplementation have used a wide range of dosing
strategies. To get maximal benefits for muscle protein synthesis and recovery, a dose of BCAAs that
provides around 2-3 leucine is advised.
Incorporating BCAA supplementation into an athlete’s nutrition strategy should always be considered on :
an individual basis and guidance should be sought from a registered sports nutritionist. Se

Notrwythis
Brett is 16 years old and has just started using the gym on a regular basis. He has a poor diet, failing to eat
regularly and relying on convenience foods and snacks with a high fat and sugar content. He is considering the
use of creatine and branch chain amino acid supplements to speed his progress towards increasing his muscle
mass and size.

What advice would you offer Brett?

204
 Had a look | Nearly there head Nailed it! her

sports foods
Sports drinks, energy gels/glucose tablets, protein shakes and powders, and liquid meal replacements
_ can be classed as sports foods.

Practical uses of sports foods Energy gels

_ Sports foods can be a practical choice to Energy gels provide an easy to consume and
meet sports nutrition goals. Caution should be quickly digestible source of carbohydrate.
_ exercised in using these foods inappropriately
They:
_ at the expense of a well-planned, well-balanced
¢ have a much higher concentration of
_ diet.
carbohydrate than sports drinks
Sports foods could be used when:
® contain multiple transportable carbohydrates,
_ © access to food is limited, e.g. when travelling allowing higher rates of carbohydrate
® energy and nutritional requirements are absorption
exceptionally high during intense periods of © provide a compact source of fuel for endurance
training athletes during exercise lasting more than 90
* gastrointestinal issues make it hard to minutes, €.g. cycling, triathlons and marathons
consume normal foods and drink. e should be consumed with water or other
dilute fluids to reduce overall carbohydrate
Timing for sports food intake concentration, lessening the risk of
gastrointestinal disturbance.
© Timing of protein intake may be more
important than the total amount consumed.
© Spreading protein consumption across the
day, including it in meals and snacks, will
produce multiple spikes in muscle protein
synthesis.
© Eating protein in the hour following exercise
can help to prolong the protein synthesis
~ response, helping to promote muscle gains
and minimise muscle breakdown.
Cd

Protein shakes and powders When to use protein shakes and powders
Protein supplements can be classified: Sports foods are a costly alternative to common food
¢ as providing protein only and fluid options and are best used for specific conditions
rather than as an everyday snack to support overall
® as a combination of protein and
energy needs.
carbohydrate
© as a supplement containing additional
Training load Daily energy
ergogenic ingredients such as and goals requirements
creatine, specific amino acids,
proposed fat burners or vitamins and
Base
: decision
nis
minerals.
or U :
- They are typically based on:

Usual diet Fost-exercise appetite

‘esti
and budget
wieeee.
© soy protein.
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foods.
Describe some situations when athletes might benefit the most from the use of sports

205
 Had alook |_| Nearly there | | Nailed it! ||

Vitamin supplements,
beetroot juice and diuretics
Vitamin supplements and beetroot juice can be used to support nutritional strategies. While not
recommended, the use of diuretics is also explored below.

Vitamin supplements When to use vitamins

Inadequate vitamin and mineral intakes Supplementation may be justified:
that result in a deficiency will impair e when food intolerances exist that limit food selection
health and performance. However, there © during prolonged reductions iin energy intake or
is no evidence that vitamins will enhance nutrient density of dietary intake, ¢.g. an extended
performance except in situations where a period of travel, where access to food, particularly
pre-existing deficiency exists. Supplements healthy nutrient-rich food, is limited
do not contain the array of phytochemicals
® during a period of energy restriction to support ___ f
found in foods that promote health
weight loss or maintenance.
benefits and large doses of antioxidant
vitamin supplements (vitamins A, C and E)
may be counterproductive because they Diuretics SC
can disturb the body’s own antioxidant Naturally occurring diuretics include alcohol and caffeine.
system. Diuretics increase urine production. Some athletes use ———
Athletes at risk of vitamin and mineral them to:
deficiency include those who: ® flush out residue from steroids = = a
® reqularly restrict energy intake ® shed water as a temporary weight-loss tool in sports
® lack sufficient variety in their diet. with weight categories.

Beetroot juice How effective is beetroot juice? ==

Beetroot is a relatively new nutritional Precise conditions in which nitrate may be
supplement, which is rich in nitrate. Following performance enhancing have yet to be fully
ingestion, nitrate is converted to nitrite established.
and stored and circulated in the blood. In The efficacy of nitrate use might depend on
conditions of low oxygen availability, nitrite individual factors such as:
can be converted into nitric oxide, which
° age and overall diet
plays a number of roles in vascular and
metabolic control. ® health and fitness status
* From a health perspective, dietary ® nature, intensity and duration of the exercise
nitrate supplementation increases plasma * dose and duration of the nitrate supplementation.
nitrite concentration and reduces resting Side effects of supplementation can include:
blood pressure. ® mild gut discomfort in some people
* From an exercise perspective, nitrate ® pink coloured urine and stools (which are harmless).
supplementation reduces the oxygen cost
lt appears that inactive and recreationally active |
of submaximal exercise and can enhance
individuals enjoy greater performance improvements =
exercise tolerance.
than elite athletes.

Explain which type of athlete might benefit from beetroot supplementation and justify its use.

206
 Nutritional supplements and
competition regulations
}
Indiscriminate
. . °
use of supplements is unwise and athletes are encouraged to be cautious with their use
even where benefits are proven.

Risk of contamination The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

Before deciding to use any WADA was established with the aim of developing consistency
supplement, an athlete and/or to anti-doping policies and regulation within sports
their coach should carry out a organisations and governments globally.
cost—benefit analysis. They should
FARA

weigh up the potential performance

_ benefits against the costs, not Caffeine and the World Anti-Doping Code
only financial but also any adverse Caffeine was removed from the WADA Prohibited List
_ effects on health and performance in 2004. This acknowledged that caffeine enhances
and the likelihood of contamination performance in small doses similar to everyday consumption,
with banned or other undesirable and that monitoring caffeine use via urinary caffeine
_ substances. concentrations was not reliable.

The World Anti-Doping Code

The World Anti-Doping Code and the implications of strict liability mean an athlete is rigidly held
_ responsible for any prohibited substance found in their system.
_ Athletes should be advised to be cautious and vigilant about supplement use and consider that diet,
lifestyle and training should all be optimised before turning to supplements.
The code aims to foster consistency among anti-doping organisations in various areas including:
° testing
© laboratories
© therapeutic use exemptions (TUEs)
° list of prohibited substances and methods
° protection of privacy and personal information.

List of prohibited substances and Checking sports supplements

~methods 7
WADA publishes an annual List of Prohibited
Substances and Methods, so you should
always keep up to date with their website
[Link].
- The list identifies the substances and methods/
__ quantities prohibited in and out of competition,
and in particular sports. The substances and
_ methods on the list are classified by different
_ categories (for example, steroids, stimulants,
gene doping). amperes

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pi —sanns-— scam neet—ena—~ 1 —a

Josh is an academy-level rugby league player who tells you he is taking a

nutritional supplement with which you are not familiar.

What advice would you give Josh about using this supplement?

207
 Had a look |_| Nearly there & Nailed it! Ei

Phased nutritional intake

Good nutritional practices are important in allowing the body to adapt and to deliver performance
improvements required from training.

Nutrition to support training and competition

Several factors need to be considered when developing decent eating habits and nutritional strategies
to support training and competition:
; Ensuring a ene
Types of Timing of meals and snacks Baeneed chet were
Maintaining sufficien
food eaten ~
OE ye fluid intake

Encouraging adequate
— micronutrient intakes,
Minimising the risk seactettie ed sabato! especially for athletes +4)
injury and illness who are energy
restricted

The problems of travelling to Promoting long-term health

training and competition venues

Varied dietary habits eine .

ee “ :
Nutritional requirements for different sports
Timing
ata
of food intake eos
and athletes will vary according to: Periodisation represents the organised division
© type of sport and training methods of the eralrera your, Many athletes new aacre
periodised nutrition programmes aligned with
undertaken aia? Seale
periodised programmes of training.
© intensity of training or competition This aimeitotprepanctathintes ter
¢ duration of training or competition
¢ achievement of an optimum improvement in
© frequency of training or competition
performance
pastoluingetatuccand Stnes> level: ° a definite peak in the competition season
¢ main competitions within that peak.

Performance nutrition strategies

The Eatwell Guide principles can be used to plan meals. They form the foundations on which to
develop more specific performance nutrition strategies such as:
eating sufficient carbohydrate and starting refuelling as soon as possible after training
°* more frequent meals and snacks
® carrying snacks and fluids in kit bag at all times
good fluid intake — aim to just stay ahead of thirst
using rest days to eat well to recover from the stresses of training and competition.

ca leanne rere cee ee ee ee a a a a a ee eee

Tow
trythis
Elite athletes can often spend in excess of 20 hours training per week.

What nutritional guidelines would you suggest to ensure an athlete stays free of injury and illness throughout their
training and competitive season?

208
 Pre-event nutritional intake
___. Many of the nutritional principles of preparing for a competition mirror those
of the training diet.
Aims and characteristics of a pre-event meal
"i Taking part in a competition is not the time to experiment with new foods
or supplements.
4 The aims of a pre-event meal are to:
_ © top up muscle and liver glycogen stores
° ensure adequate hydration.

a Made up of familiar foods Ae Rich in carbohydrate

of Not too high

Moderate amount
a in fibre of protein

=
< | Contains fluids = :
a Low in fat

Timing of intake
Intake of food and fluids should be timed
Preparing for an endurance event
_ carefully prior to taking part in an event. Larger In events lasting longer than 90 minutes
meals take longer to digest and being nervous athletes are advised to:
- can result in delayed digestion. © reduce training in the week leading up to the
: © Solid foods can usually be consumed with event
2 comfort up to 2 hours before an event. include a rest day
_ ® Liquid meals or carbohydrate drinks can be consume more carbohydrate and flvid than
7 consumed up to 30-6O minutes before. normal.
ee an a ae ee en a a ee ee i a a eee ee ee |

Starting a competition adequately hydrated

Athletes should ensure adequate hydration before the start of a competition. They should:
: | ° begin fully hydrated by keeping on top of hydration status at all times
~ e drink 510 mi/kg body weight in the 2-4 hours prior to exercise, aiming to achieve urine that is pale
yellow in colour (if passing urine does not occur during this time, top up by sipping an additional
2-3 mV/kg body weight in the half hour before exercise)
e practise fluid-replacement strategies during training.
ne ee ae ae ee ee ee
ma a ee oe ot ee

[You have been approached by a novice half marathon runner regarding pre-event nutrition strategies.

Outline the nutritional features to be considered when advising on appropriate pre-race meals or snacks.

209
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_|

Nutritio na l in ta ke d u r i n g an e v e n t
When, what and how much to consume during an event will depend on the type, intensity and duration of
the event, but the nutrients likely to be of most concern are carbohydrate and fluid.

Fluids
When thinking about fluid intake during an event, consider the following.
© Sweat rates vary during exercise dependent on the type, intensity, duration, fitness level and |

environmental conditions.
*® Ideally, athletes should aim to drink sufficient fluids to replace sweat losses or to, at least, minimise
t Oa <2 per cen t loss of body Yy weight.
g RTE
* Consumption strategies must take into account the rules and regulations of
the sport. A loss of 1kg body
weight represents

|
© Taking account of fluids consumed and urine produced, and measurement of pre-
approximately a
and post-exercise body weight, can help athletes to estimate sweat losses.
1 litre sweat loss.
¢ Athletes will typically consume O.4-0.6 litres of fluid per hour.
* Training should be used to practise fluid replacement strategies during events.
Bw RSC SS SS CS TS TT Ce te Eee eee

Ensuring better hydration during The problems of over-hydration —

events While it is inevitable for most athletes to
¢ Palatable, flavoured drinks lead to higher intake of develop a fivid deficit during exencioe and
fet events, there has become an increasing issue
among recreational performers regarding
¢ When hot, cold drinks can reduce core temperature.
over-hydration resulting in a condition
¢ Starting exercise adequately hydrated facilitates known as hyponatremia (blood sodium
better absorption of fluid consumed later. <135 mmol/L). lf untreated hyponatremia can
result in death.
Symptoms of hyponatremia include:
® nausea
© vomiting
_* weight gain_
© bloating
© headache
® confusion
* respiratory distress
°—seizvre
© loss of consciousness.
ee ee

What enant ee bohkediaie? What about sodium?

lf training or competition lasts longer than To help avoid muscle cramps, sodium should be
60 minutes, additional carbohydrate in the form
|
consumed when: |
of drinks provides benefits in terms of glycogen ® large sweat losses occur > 1.2 litre per
conservation. During endurance or ultra-endurance hour
events lasting longer than 4 hours, solid foods may
° the athlete's sweat is known to contain high
be required, €.g. energy bars or gels that provide a
levels of salt
more concentrated source of carbohydrate.
° it is an endurance event likely to exceed
two hours.
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Now try this

What practical advice could you give a recreational runner aiming
to complete their first marathon in a time of4 hours?

210
 Post-event nutritional intake
Good nutrition can make its greatest contribution in aiding recovery between training sessions and
competition.

Post-exercise nutrition Suitable nutrition

strategies Foods and drinks suitable for refuelling and
Sound nutrition has its biggest impact in rehydrating poet-exercise/event:
supporting athletes to train consistently ° fresh, dried or tinned fruit
and effectively to achieve desired * cereal bars, rice cakes, breadsticks or popcorn
| adaptations. Developing post-training * fruit juice or smoothies
| strategies are equally as important as ° milkshakes or yoghurt drinks
_ post-event/competition strategies.
(aay * rice pudding pots
*° fig rolls or jaffa cakes
° currant teacakes, scones, fruitcake or gingerbread

ein
‘ciate e muffins or bagels
° fruit gums or jelly beans
© commercial or homemade sports drinks.

Post-exercise refuelling
Athletes should refuel as soon as possible after each workout or competition. They should ensure they
__are organised as the longer refueling is delayed, the longer it will take to fully refuel.

If exercise has been intense, opt

Small, frequent meals and snacks
for favourite meals and snacks as
__at regular intervals may help to
they are much more likely to be
. maximise glycogen synthesis.
consumed.
Post-exercise
refuelling
Consume the next carbohydrate-
Consume carbohydrate-rich rich meal within 2 hours.
foods (at least 50g).

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oan | coven:

Post-exercise/event rehydration
Frequent trips to the toilet to pass plentiful quantities of pale-coloured urine are an indicator of good
hydration, but small quantities of dark-coloured urine indicate poor hydration.
Drinks containing
carbohydrate will assist
Rehydration should
glycogen replenishment.
start immediately.
Post-exercise rehydration
considerations
se © Choose palatable drinks
Aim to. replace fluid as they are much more
losses 1.5 times in first Use weight and urine checks to likely to be consumed.
2 hours of recovery ; monitor hydration status.

mn Mm at an me Et a a a a at rel le Ue OU
De ae ee ee

rides she frequently fails to recover

Gemmaisa talented cyclist putting in many hours of training. After her long
optimally, claiming she is too disorganised to do so.
strategies around food.
Draw up a tick list of suggestions for Gemma to ensure she develops better post-training recovery

2i)
Ye Ve |
Writ 4¢
Had a look = Nearly there a ‘Nailed it! ki

Your Unit 13 set task

Unit 13 will be assessed through a task, which will be set by Pearson. In this assessed task you will
focus on an individual that requires guidance on nutrition in response to their personal and training
needs that are impacting on their performance. You will be assessed on your ability to interpret, modify
and recommend a nutritional programme for the individual.

Revising your skills

Your assessed task could cover any of the essential content in the unit. You can revise the unit content
in this Revision Guide. This skills section is designed to revise skills that might be needed in your
assessed task. The section uses selected content and outcomes to provide an example of ways of
applying your skills.

Reviewing nutritional information

Understanding key terms 9¢e pages 214
Reviewing nutritional needs
See pages 213 ro
Fisee
See page 215

Set task skills

Recommending nutritional guidance, ——_| Making revision notes
based on phase of training See page 216
See page 219-220

Modifying a nutritional programme, based Interpreting a nutritional programme

on nutritional strategies, in relation to the in relation to health and well-being
individual's sporting event See page 217
See page 218
=e 8 a BR 72 ae Gam ae mee et ta Ge Co | Me Re RE Mi Es Se Se Bt Ss we Be Ne Ss Ee eH Re eR SE Pe Se ae we

Workflow Check the Pearson website

The process of interpreting, modifying and This section is designed to demonstrate
recommending a nutritional programme to give the skills that might be needed in your
guidance to an individual in response to personal assessed task. The details of your actual
and training needs that are impacting on their assessed task may change from year to
pertormance might follow these steps: year so always make sure you are up to
Review an individual’s nutritional programme date. Check the Pearson website for the
and nutrition needs most up-to-date Sample Assessment
Interpret an individual’s nutritional Material to get an idea of the structure of
programme in relation to intake for health your assessed task and what this requires
and well-being of you.
Modify a nutritional programme, based
on nutritional strategies, in relation to an
individual’s sporting event
Recommend nutritional guidance for an
individual based on their phase of training.
= A Se A A A RT Te

Notrwythis|
Visit the Pearson website and find the page containing the course materials for BTEC National Sport and Exercise
Science. Look at the latest Unit 13 Sample Assessment Material for an indication of:
¢ The structure of your set task, and whether it is divided into parts
¢ How much time you are allowed for the task, or different parts of the task
¢ What briefing or stimulus material might be provided to you
e Any notes you might have to make and whether you are allowed to take selected notes into your supervised
assessment
¢ The questions you are required to answer and how to format your responses.

212
 Understanding key terms
_ The explanation of key terms below will help you to demonstrate the skills you need for your Unit 13
assessment.

|Definition —
| AASSEtons Any aleetation in fe structure or Figeion ofREE,
| Function An act, process or series of processes that serve a
purpose.
Advice or information aimed at resolving something.
_ | Interpretation Drawing the meaning, purpose or qualities of something
from a stimulus.
Justification or Give reasons or evidence to:
rationalisation © support an opinion and/or decision
® prove something right or reasonable.
| To make partial or minor changes to something.
_| Phase of event A distinct stage of a sporting event. z
Recommend Put forward someone or something with approval as being
ie suitable for a particular purpose or role.
State_ Give a definition or example. Give an answer to a ;
calculation.
| Strategies A method or plan to bring about a desired outcome, such
as the achievement of a goal or a solution to a problem.

al oT
Mf +
|

b
od

zi 4
2s et a MR ae ht he a ee i ee ee ee

7
ioe
a

for each phase of the event.

For a sport of your choice, give one piece of nutritional guidance
=

213
 Had a look [| Nearly there % Nailed it! EE
Bsa

Reviewing nutritional information

To give an individual guidance on nutrition in response to their personal and training needs that are
impacting on their performance, you need to use your skills to interpret the nutritional information that
relates to them. Review the information below, then assess how confident you are in calculating different
nutritional requirements.

Extract from Jay’s nutritional record — Monday

Breakfast 7—Sam
¢ 3 weetabix crushed with a third of a pint. of full-fat soya mik
¢ 1 tablespoon of unprocessed bran
° 1 sliced apple
Lunch 12—1pm
¢ 2 small wholemeal pitta breads with hummus
® 6 olives
¢ half an avocado
© handful of cherry tomatoes
© 1 small pot of yogurt
Dinner 5pm
© chick pea curry with wholegrain rice
© large green salad
Fluids through the day
© 1 cup of herbal tea
© 1 hot chocolate made with soya milk
Snacks throughout the day
¢ 1 small packet of dried fruit
¢ 2 small bananas
Calories: 1993 kcal
Macronutrients:
306g carbohydrate
69g protein
64g fat
45 g fibre
Training on Monday: 10-k run at Gpm

Nutritional programmes
The information provided on this page is to help you practise
your skills. For the format of your actual assessment, look at
the Sample Assessment Material on the Pearson website.
|

Notrwythis|
___ UT __ VEE, ih. Se ee a ee) a ae Same SOSA __ RA _—_ A _ SE ___S.___A__ NA _ ae eee eee ees geae |

Check how prepared you are to interpret nutritional information by assessing how confident you are in each area
below.
1. | can calculate a client's requirements for:
(a) energy (b) carbohydrate (c) protein (d) fluid
2. 1am aware of how the demands ofdifferent sports might influence them:
(a) high intensity (b) low intensity (c) individual sport (d) team sport

214
 Reviewing nutritional needs
If you know an individual’s nutritional programme along with their personal and sporting details,
you
can use your skills to evaluate nutritional guidance that is needed to meet their personal, training and
performance needs. Review the information below, then estimate Jay’s fluid requirements.

Extract from Jay's personal and

_ performance
Personal and performance
Nee
|
eae
: record
Age: 25 years old information
_ Gender: Male The information provided on this page is to
help you practise your skills. For the format of
. Height: 176cm
your actual assessment, look at the Sample
Weight: G5kg Assessment Material on the Pearson website.
a
BIA: 20%
Activity levels: High
Training for next sporting event: ,
First marathon
Typical running per week:
60-90 km, early evening
iy
*
Sep
| Typical weekly gym sessions:
aa
i
pe
Phase of training:
_ Pre-event, 6 weeks away from taking part
Marathon taking place:
_ On a Saturday at 10 am

Estimating energy requirements Estimating carbohydrate

To estimate energy requirements, you first need requirements
to calculate basal metabolic rate and then apply a As Jay is in heavy training he is likely to have a high
physical activity level. Using the Harris-Benedict requirement for carbohydrate. If you assume he is
equation for calculating BMR Jay’s BMR is: training between 1-2 hours most days of the week
66.5 + (13.75 x 65) + (5.0 X 176) — (6.76 X 25) he would have a likely carbohydrate requirement of
66.5 + 893.75 + 680 — 169 6-7g per kilogram of body weight per day:
— 1840.25 — 169 6 X 65 = 390g
- = 1671.25 kcal 7X65 = 455g
Jay’s activity level is high so to estimate his total As a percentage of his overall energy requirement
daily energy requirement a physical activity factor this would represent 54-63%.
of 1.725 should be applied giving him a total daily 390 x 4 = 1560 455 x 4 = 1620
energy requirement of: 1560
-— = 0.54 1820
papa _ oes
1671.25 X 1.725 = 2883 kcal 2883
0.54 x 100 = 54 0.63 xX 100 = 63
ae
| ae a a ey
ae ae ee ee

9)tints i revise calculating

ee

Estimating protein requirements energy requirements,

r kg of | Calculation CG
‘Type ofactivity | Protein pe (g) look at page 180,
| body weight (g) carbohydrate requirements, page 164,
_ |Mainly endurance (1.2 x 65) - (1.4 x 65) protein requirements, page 166,
T6= S81 fluid requirements page 191.
A te es so oe ee eo a er le ee ee hee

Estimate Jay’s fluid requirements.

215
 Hadalook| | Nearly there | | Nailedaa| |

Making revision notes

It is useful to make focused revision notes and te apply your learning te AitFrencerrtt seaming events,
phases and nutritional programmes. Below are some factors to consider lin your meties,.

Carbohydrate
Eneray
requirements Notes
requirements .
~ Fretein lit your actiual arsesrsment, you ‘may be
ee / requirements allowed ta Use Some mothe yeow thave
Nutritional maces. If sa, tithence nay the restrictions
Eatwell Guide —-——— programme Orr tite leerngtith amd ype oF motes that
recommendations for health and are allowed, Chreckk witth your tutor or
lo@k att tithe most uptodate Sample
|
eS well-being = fm requirements
40 Agwesssment:
; Wietkential| om tthe Rearson
ae weelrssitice ferry cteticailts,.
ae «
Digestion and x
absorption Fluid requirements

Nutrient Nutrient Intake

requirements and timing Ptraseee Qi tromainting:

Timing of meals, iva / | ,

snacks and drinks ~ x WD ST Spreeeattiic: emeeenit nuttrritian

Modif ying a tie ot ts ami

Temperature and —— aieiciaattes a nutritional »~—— "tenn! ssuppappterrmesrites
type of food / fluid | programme
en eae and cdiumation
Impact on digestion and Qf syeeartze qucerrtt
ee &.

absorption of nutrients Environment the event le

and fluide held in e.g, high altitude,
hot/cold climate

Different phases of training may require linpact of intensity. and diinaitinr

different types of food, calorie intake, timings Of Aiffeoreerrt: peitamerss

ia
ie - a
| Recommending |
nutritional guidance based |
| on phase of training |
bikisiiindimadiitead ea area

Digestion and absorption ef nutrients and

fivids within the phase of training,

Now try this

Complete some notes on the Eatwell Guide recommendations
for health and wellbeing. Consider how the principles might
support nutritional strategies for training for different kinds of
sporting events in different phases,
 Had a look | | Nearly there | Nailed it! az]

Interpreting a nutritional
programme
rere are some examples 8 skills involved it asked to interpret a nutritional programme in relation
to
nutritional intake for health and well-being, It refers to the example of Jay (pages 214-215) and to the
Eatwell Guide principles of nutrition for health and well-being.

Interpreting a nutritional programme

When responding to a nutritional programme, consider how you will give a detailed interpretation of:
* the food intake with specific relevance to the requirements for health and well-being for the client
* the fluid intake with specific relevance to the reavirements for health and well-being for the client —
* the nutritional programme, making reference to tactors affecting digestion and absorption of
nutrients and fivids,

t
onse extxac
SZariple resp

The Eatwell Guide shows the different types

ot foods and drinks individuals should consume
and in what proportions to obtain a healthy,
balanced diet. In order to eat in line with the
Eatwell Guide, Jay should aim to:
© eat at least 5 portions of a variety of fruit
and vegetables every day
* base his meals on potatoes, bread, rice,
pasta or other starchy carbohydrates,
choosing wholegrain versions where
possible
* have some dairy or dairy alternatives,
choosing lower fat and lower sugar options
where possible
* eat some beans, pulses, fish, eggs, meat
and other proteins (including 2 portions
of fish every week, one of which should be
oily)
* choose unsaturated oils and spreads and
consume these in small amounts
© drink at least 6-8 cups/giasses of fluid a
day.
For health reasons, where foods and drinks
high in fat, salt or sugar are consumed he
should have these less often arid in small
amounts.

— rc cin imme sms, ia, aa, RA SS O_O _ SSS _ SL _

t

Using the information in the sample response

extract above, continue the answer to provide an
interpretation of the factors affecting digestion
and absorption of nutrients and fluids.

217
 Had alook |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

Modifying a nutritional
programme
Here are some examples of skills involved if asked to suggest modifications to a client’s nutritional
programme to programme, based on nutritional strategies, in relation to their sporting event. It relates to
_ the example of Jay (pages 214-215) and his marathon.

Suggesting modifications
When suggesting modifications of the nutritional programme:
Propose nutritional modifications and strategies that demonstrate relevance to the client’s
sporting event.
Support the proposed modifications with justifications that are relevant to the client’s sporting event.
Propose modifications of the nutritional programme making reference to the impact of factors
affecting digestion and absorption of nutrients and fluids.

we Bt Ree ee sa oa |= = 2 we SS Se (25 et Se si aR = Ge mae i oe me am Mee ma ee St 2 et Et 2 a a ee ee Ue Ce

"Sample response OxtESE

_ For Jay, the following suggestions can be made- .
to increase energy and carbohydrate intake and |
_ reduce fibre intake:
Remove unprocessed bran from breakfast and
add a glass of fruit juice and a teaspoon of
honey or sugar on the cereal.
Include a banana smoothie made from soya
milk, banana and yoghurt either after the
training session or as a Snack between meals.
Test out and consume sports drinks
(homemade or commercial) during long
training sessions. eT PA TRE STE ONTO

Include carbohydrate-rich desserts with

evening meal such as soya ice cream, fog)Links Mirevise the factors to consider
yoghurt, rice pudding or custard with tinned when optimising nutritional plans in
frult or fresh frult. relation to a sporting event, see pages 209-211.
ence

ccrIID
a mas BAR SE SE A YE CTS Sa et St FA ht wt i Bet ae oS me oe (6 COO

Improve the sample response extract above. Provide more

justification for the proposed modifications and suggest others.
Ensure you make sufficient reference to the impact of factors that
affect digestion and absorption of nutrients and fluids.

218
—
een
Nutritional guidance for pre-event
_ Here are some examples of skills involved if asked to recomm
end nutritional guidance based on an
indivi dual’s phase of training. It relates to the example of Jay
_ of training for a marathon.
(pages 214-215) and his pre-event phase

Nutritional guidance for phase of training

Consider how you will:
* Demonstrate specific relevance of nutritional guidance to the phase of the individual’
s sporting event.
¢ Make specific reference to the impact on the individual of factors affecting digestion
and
Ee
|
es
|Re
eas
7woe absorption of nutrients and fluids based on their phase of training.

eae

aun

A
— During the week prior to the event, Jay should aim to gradually reduce
’ his training and increase his carbohydrate intake. The aim of carbohydrate
a loading is to increase the muscles’ capacity to store glycogen above their ©
. normal level — useful for an endurance event lasting > 9O minutes such as
a _ Jay’s marathon. It should also help to delay the onset of fatigue, commonly |
44 referred to in the marathon as ‘hitting the wall’.
__ Jay’s carbohydrate loading guide:

ae Ee a aa Well tested pre-race meal

& — Although Jay will be following a high-carbohydrate diet to maximise his
- body’s glycogen levels in the week before the race, it is also important that
~~~. a good source of carbohydrate is consumed in the hours before the race,
as liver glycogen stores will have become depleted overnight. Starting the
event with low liver glycogen stores can lead to early hypoglycaemia (low
blood glucose levels) during the event. Jay should aim for his pre-event
; _ meal to be based on low/moderate glycaemic index carbohydrate foods, 3
. | 3-4 hours before the race using familiar, well-tolerated foods. Jay will also :
need to pay attention to his fluid intake and he may want to adhere to the
_. following regime aiming to consume approximately 5—7 mV/kg BM 4 hours
before, possibly followed up by between 2-3mV/kg BM 2 hours before
dependent on urine colour and output.
=
; > —s SO lO Ot Oc Ole Oe Oe at ee at RE Sa me a we EE ae ae ee eS CU [C6

Following on from the sample answer above,

_ draw up a sample high-carbohydrate menu plan
_ for Jay to follow in the days leading up to the race
and formulate a pre-event meal for him.
 Had a look a Nearly there | | Nailed it! et}

g u i d a n c e fo r d u r i n g —
Nutritional
and post-event
When recommending nutritional guidance for an individual based on their phase of training, this may
reflect pre-event, during event, or post-event training. The extracts from answers below recommend
nutritional guidance that could improve sporting performance for Jay if the phase of training had,
instead, been during or after the event.

During the race, sports drinks and gels

may help Jay to meet his nutritional needs.
These will provide CHO and electrolytes. _ ,
Typically, a carbohydrate intake of 30-60g rug If providing guidance for Jay during the race, 3)
per hour is suitable. The consumption of nutritional challenges would include avoiding
carbohydrate and electrolyte-based fluids can ~ dehydration, hyponatremia and ‘hitting the wall’. 7 |

provide a good fluid and carbohydrate supply ee ee

simultaneously. The inclusion of carbohydrate : ieee |
rts foods or ergogenic
and electrolytes facilitates absorption of fluid The Celech aly oee aoe |
eee , aids Jay might use could also be included in
iin the body, so less ;is lost through Ae 9 response, a well as sports drinks an d gels.

If providing guidance for Jay after the

Perce Cust event, nutritional challenges would include “S§
After the race, Jay should aim to eat ~ replenishing carbohydrate stores and fluid. ie
foods with a high glycaemic index i iti lil deena iia
as this has been shown to speed It would be useful also to comment on the optimal
up the replenishment of the body’s composition of the drink. This should be a G-8%
carbohydrate stores when compared carbohydrate concentration (6-8g carbohydrate per
to low-glycaemic index foods. It has ag 100 ml of fluid) with the inclusion of some electrolytes
:

_ been shown that during the first 30 (i.e. sodium and potassium). A higher concentration will
mins after exercise, the body is able provide more energy, but can hinder the delivery of
to restore carbohydrate supplies at f---—
fluid to the body.
its fastest rate. After 2 hours, the
rate of carbohydrate replenishment
in the body slows down. Therefore, To develop the answer further, an ideal strategy for E #
to aid recovery of energy stores in Jay would be to consume a recovery drink, as soon )
the body it is important to consume as possible (it is important that this is within 30 ; : p
carbohydrate in the form of a liquid minutes after the race has ended), followed by a
or solid within the first 30 mins or at high-carbohydrate meal (at least 200g carbohydrate) 7 —
least the first 2 hours after exercise. within 2 hours after the race. This should be based
on foods with a moderate to high glycaemic index to
enhance the recovery of glycogen stores in the body.

“2 Se St SF eS St Se se ee a a a Se a ee oe ee [os or os om

“New trythis ~~ You could consider -—

Follow on from the guidance above to provide further nutritional Supplements with ergogenic
recommendations for Jay as part of his race-day strategies. Properties, such as caffeine
and beetroot. :

220
 Answers

Unit 1: Sport and Exercise breathing rhythm. When Dionne exercises, CO, levels in
the blood increase, which decreases the pH; in order to help
Physiology remove these waste products the body will increase the rate of
1 Osteoblast and osteoclast activity breathing to draw in more oxygen. Nerve impulses are sent to
the intercostal muscles and diaphragm to stimulate contraction
Example answer: and increase her breathing rate. Breathing may also be controlled
The programme will help Julie to increase her bone stren gth as
by chemoreceptors within the aorta and carotid arteries, which
it includes weight-bearing exercise such as running and weight monitor chemical changes, including the concentration of O, and
training. This stimulates the bones to take up more minerals, CO, and pH of the blood. If oxygen saturation within the blood
such as calcium, which is deposited within the bone from the falls below 90 per cent this signals an increase in the breathing
blood. This then increases the osteoblast activity and these cells rate. In order for Dionne to maintain her performance, she
create more bone tissue, which results in increased bone density needs to breathe more quickly to not only take in more O,, but
and strength. to exhale more CO). If the supply of oxygen is insufficient this
will cause a build-up of CO, and a decrease in blood pH and
2 Synovial fluid
performance.
Example answer:
Sport/exercise: running 6 Respiratory muscles
1 The synovial fluid within the joint capsule becomes less Example answer:
viscous when warmed, which provides a friction-free During exercise, the sympathetic nerve will signal to increase the
environment allowing for ease of movement. It also acts as a heart rate and noradrenaline will be secreted. The cardiac cycle
shock absorber during vigorous exercise. Exercise increases will speed up, increasing the heart rate, to allow for sufficient
the production of synovial fluid within the joint and the blood to circulate.
synovial fluid acts to lubricate the joints and to reduce The volume of blood filling the atria and ventricles will increase,
friction during movement. along with systolic blood pressure, in order to meet the demands
2 The fluid is warmed and becomes less viscous, which aids in of exercise by transporting sufficient oxygen and nutrients to the
joint mobility and range of movement. Exercise is essential to working muscles and removing carbon dioxide. Vasodilation of
mobilise the joints and to avoid joint stiffness. the arterioles will occur, which will lead to increasing the blood
3 Synovial fluid enables movement, which in turn increases flow to the working muscles. Vasoconstriction will also occur to
blood flow to the tissues around the joint, which delivers other regions of the body, such as the digestive system, which will
nutrients and keeps the joint healthy. decrease the blood flow.

3 Muscle fibre recruitment Z Respiratory skeletal muscles

Example answer: Example answer:
Type I muscle fibres contract less forcefully and a little slower During intense physical exercise, additional muscles assist the
than TypeII fast-twitch fibres, reaching peak power more slowly diaphragm and the intercostal muscles during inhalation due to
too. Also they are highly resistant to fatigue so they have good the greater oxygen demands. As breathing rate increases, so too
endurance. This is why you can work submaximally and without does their contribution. During inhalation, in addition to the
fatigue during activities such as jogging, cycling or lifting light diaphragm and intercostal muscles, the sternocleidomastoid and
weights. scalene muscles (anterior, mid and posterior) act to aid in lifting
the top portion of the ribcage. This increases the thoracic cavity
4 Muscles: Exercise effects
size and further decreases pressure within the lungs.
Example answer:
Due to the increased breathing rate during exercise, other
During exercise the blood flow to the working muscles increases,
accessory muscles contribute to breathing out. Rather than being
the blood vessels dilate improving oxygen and nutrient supply
a passive process as it is at rest, this requires forcible exhalation.
to tissues and waste removal (lactic acid/CO,) is stimulated. The
In addition to the internal intercostal muscles pulling the ribcage
increased blood flow also allows for oxygen demand to be met
downwards and inwards during exhalation, the rectus abdominus
and improves performance and cardiovascular fitness.
and transverse abdominus act to pull the lower portion of the
The temperature of muscles alters during exercise due to the ribcage downwards, which forces exhalation and increases the
fact that when they contract they produce heat. The increased
pressure within the lungs.
blood flow also increases the temperature and pliability of
muscles, which in turn aids in improving flexibility and range of 8 Respiratory volume
motion. This will help with Tommy’s martial arts performance Example answer:
and recovery, as improved elasticity of muscle aids performance, During exercise tidal volume increases as Gina’s breaths become
recovery and reduces delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). deeper to help accommodate the increased demand for oxygen.
Overload from endurance exercise creates stress on muscles, Gina’s minute ventilation, the volume of gas she breathes in and
which creates micro-tears that repair and rebuild the muscle. out per minute, is a product of the frequency of breaths and the
Training improvements are made if the body has sufficient rest tidal volume, and this increases as the breathing rate increases.
to repair. During exercise, when body temperature increases along with
5 Control of breathing rate an increased level of CO, and a decreased pH, O, is more easily
released from haemoglobin due to the increased oxygen demand.
Example answer: The oxygen-dissociation curve will shift to the right and the
When Dionne exercises she needs to take in more O, to help partial pressure decreases as oxygen saturation of haemoglobin
produce energy for the working muscles, so her breathing rate decreases.
alters subconsciously in response to the increased demand
for O,. The medulla oblongata subconsciously controls the

221
 9 Heart rate, cardiac output and 13 Changes in blood
stroke volume Example answer:
As exercise begins, the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated
Example answer:
and acts to vasodilate the blood vessels directed to the skeletal
Before Bradley even starts his race, his body is starting to prepare
muscle and respiratory system. This acts to redistribute and
him for it. As he is thinking about his race this will stimulate his
direct more blood to the exercising muscles — known as shunting.
sympathetic nervous system to release adrenaline. The adrenaline
While this happens, the blood vessels in the skin and digestive
is a hormone that works to increase your heart rate. This happens
organs vasoconstrict. Once the additional blood flow is no longer
in anticipation of what is about to come and helps to get the
required, the parasympathestic nervous system reverses these
blood circulating more quickly. As athletes may have a low
actions.
resting heart rate, they need this anticipatory rise to help increase
The increased blood flow allows for an increased diffusion rate
their heart rate. In addition, he will also experience an increase in
where O, diffuses from the blood stream (high concentration)
his stroke volume; this will lead to an increased cardiac output.
and into tissue (low concentration). As during exercise CO) is
10 Starling’s law produced and O, demand increases, the body’s response is to
increase breathing rate and cardiac output to ensure supply
Example answer:
Starling’s law indicates the relationship between the stretch of meets demand, maximising potential for gaseous exchange and
cardiac muscle or pressure and the stroke volume. So, as Frank diffusion. As we exercise, our muscles use oxygen and this results
exercises, more blood will fill his heart; as there is a greater volume
in an increased a-VO, diff as more oxygen is removed from the
of blood in the ventricles the cardiac muscle becomes stretched. capillaries. This is enhanced in trained athletes and increased
He will also have a rise in blood pressure as the diastole phase is capillarisation allows for increased diffusion and an enhanced
increased to allow for the greater volume of blood filling the heart. ability to extract O, from the blood.
As the cardiac muscle in his heart is stretched and lengthened, this As we exercise, where the oxygen supply is insufficient, the blood
means that it can shorten to a larger degree, and so the cardiac becomes more acidic as the amount of CO, produced increases
muscle can contract more powerfully and pump a larger volume and bicarbonate (HCO;) and hydrogen (H*) ions are produced
of blood out of his heart with each beat. This will increase Frank’s and accumulate — this lowers the pH. Exhaling CO, acts to lower
stroke volume and contribute to cardiac output. the pH and the bicarbonate also acts as a buffer to prevent sharp
increases in H*. This helps to maintain the pH between 7.35—7.45
ll Blood pressure as well as creating a suitable environment for transporting
Example answer: oxygen.
When exercise starts, Sally’s blood pressure will increase. The
14 Motor unit recruitment
baroreceptors will detect this and stimulate the sympathetic
nervous system (SNS), which is a branch of the autonomic Example answer:
nervous system (ANS), to increase Sally’s blood pressure and To create a movement, signals travel from the central nervous
cause her arterioles to vasodilate. The increased diameter of system through nerve cells, called motor neurons, as motor
her blood vessels will decrease the resistance to blood flow. In impulses. Each motor neuron has its main body within the
addition, as the blood will be warmed due to exercise, this will central nervous system with axons carrying signals to the
also help decrease viscosity and resistance to flow. Her heart effectors in the muscle fibres to produce muscular contractions.
rate will rise in response to exercise, increasing the number of This makes up a motor unit; when a motor neuron is activated,
pumps per minute, which therefore increases cardiac output. all of the muscle fibres it innervates are stimulated to contract.
Sally’s blood pressure will only increase if the resistance to flow A neuron contacts a muscle at the neuromuscular junction
is increased. If the cardiac output increases but resistance to flow where a chemical neurotransmitter called acetylcholine (Ach)
stays the same (no vasodilation) then blood pressure will increase. is released from the neuron to stimulate the muscle cell. This
neurotransmitter travels across the synaptic cleft and is received
12 Cardiac cycle by the motor end plate in the muscle. The electrical impulse
Example answer: spreads rapidly along the muscle membrane creating an action
The heart is stimulated to contract by a nerve impulse called an potential.
action potential. The size principle indicates that as motor unit recruitment is
The sinoatrial node (the heart’s internal pacemaker, which is in relative to the force production required, the more motor neurons
the upper right atrium) sends impulses to the walls of the atria, activated, the more muscle fibres are stimulated and therefore
stimulating them to contract and causing both atria to push the stronger the muscle contraction. During a 1RM, more motor
blood into their respective ventricles. Their contractions are not units will need to be recruited; this will mean that more action
powerful but help improve the heart’s efficiency by forcing blood potentials are fired in order to create a stronger contraction to lift
into ventricles. the weight. Summation of the action potentials, which repeatedly
The atrioventricular node in the lower right atrium receives arrive before a twitch has been completed so the twitches overlap,
the signal and this travels to the bundles of His, which carry produces a greater force to lift the weight. If the action potentials
impulses to stimulate ventricular contraction. Atrial contraction are constant and rapidly fired, tension within the muscle rises
is complete at the time the ventricle contraction begins and smoothly and gradually plateaus creating tetanus, as in when we
a resting phase begins in the atria at the same time that a hold a position like the plank.
contraction phase begins in the ventricles.
The impulse spreads through the ventricular walls via the 15 Sensory receptors
Purkinje fibres causing them to contract. After the ventricles Example answer:
have contracted, all chambers relax for a short period as they fill When Ella exercises there are mechanisms that sense changes
with blood. This process ensures coordinated contractions that in her body to ensure performance remains unaffected and to
produce a heartbeat — the impulses spread through cardiac tissue prevent injury. When the muscle contracts, the muscle spindle
like a wave. senses a change in length, which is communicated via signals
The active phase of the cycle is called systole (contracting) and to the CNS. This helps to regulate muscle contraction in order
the resting period, diastole. At rest one heartbeat or cardiac cycle to increase the strength of a contraction or to relax the muscle.
takes 0.8 seconds. In addition, when the muscle lengthens, the muscle spindle is
The frequency of the cardiac cycle is known as the heart rate, stretched, which sends signals to the CNS; this triggers action
which is typically expressed as beats per minute.

999
potentials and results in increased motor unit recruitment
and 19 ATP-PC system
greater force of contraction in order to decrease the speed
at
which the muscle is being stretched. This acts as a protective Example answer:
response to avoid overstretching, known as the stretch reflex. The ATP-PC system will involve Raj eating food, which is broken
down and stored as ATP in the muscle. An enzyme, ATPase,
16 Adrenaline, noradrenaline and breaks down the high energy bond between 2 phosphates, which
cortisol releases energy for muscle contraction. This then leaves ADP
Example answer:
and P, which needs more P to resynthesise ATP. Creatine kinase
When Tara starts to exercise, she will release adrenaline and breaks the high energy bond between creatine and its phosphate
noradrenaline, and the concentration of both hormones in the and creates energy for the resynthesis of ATP as the phosphate
blood will increase. As the intensity of exercise increases, these then joins ADP. This process is a coupled reaction as energy is
used and created.
hormones will act to to stimulate the contraction of cardiac
This system will provide immediate energy for the muscles for the
muscle, which increases her heart rate and her cardiac output.
This will lead to increased peripheral resistance within the blood muscle contractions Raj needs to complete the sprint.
The ATP-PC system is appropriate for Raj as the sprints he
vessels, with an overall effect of increased blood flow, to support
is completing over 60 metres are short duration, less than 10
the increased oxygen demands during exercise.
seconds, and require high levels of power and force to ensure
Also, increased dilation of bronchioles from the smooth muscle
that he moves quickly over the distance. The 3-minute rest
relaxation helps with increasing breathing rate and depth,
time between sprints will allow for the ATP-PC stores to be
increasing oxygen transportation to working muscles.
replenished aerobically before the next sprint.
Furthermore, there is increased glycogenolysis, where glycogen
in the liver is transformed into glucose, which is released into the 20 Lactate system (anaerobic glycolysis)
blood, meaning there is increased fuel for exercise. Example answer:
lZ7 Testosterone, human growth Energy is produced anaerobically via the lactate energy system.
The fuel is carbohydrate, stored in muscles and liver as glycogen,
hormone and oestrogen which is converted by the enzyme, glycogen phosphorylase,
Example answer: into glucose. The glucose then is broken down by the enzyme
Grant has a high volume — 5 days a week and 8 sets per lift — phosphofructokinase to pyruvic acid and energy is released at
and a high intensity of exercise at 85-100% 1RM. Therefore, this point, creating 2 ATP molecules. However, due to the lack
he is likely to increase testosterone secretion, increasing protein of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted by the enzyme lactose
anabolism and leading to improved muscle size, strength and dehydrogenase into lactic acid and this is the by-product of the
power. As the load is heavy and he will be using large muscle lactate system. Some activities that would predominately use this
groups for the deadlift, squat and bench press, in addition to a system are a 400-metre run and a 1000-metre cycling time trial.
relatively high training frequency at 5 days a week, this will also
elevate HGH levels and lead to hypertrophy as well as help with
21 Aerobic system (aerobic glycolysis)
utilisation of fats for fuel and growth and repair. Example answer:
Sally also has a high volume of training, which has recently The advantages are that (any two of the following):
increased and still aims for quite a high intensity, so she may * there is a large amount of ATP re-synthesised using this system
experience some elevation in growth hormone release, which * it can supply ATP for long duration at sub-maximal intensity
will help use fats for fuel and lead to muscle hypertrophy. There ¢ there are no harmful by-products from the chemical reactions.
may be a stight increase in testosterone, though not significant The disadvantages are that:
due to her sex. However, Sally may be at risk of amenorrhoea * due to the need for oxygen, the system cannot re-synthesise
as her training volume increases, which may affect bone density. ATP immediately during exercise as there is a delay while
As decreased oestrogen production limits osteoclast activity and oxygen is transported to the muscles
bone reabsorption, decreasing bone density, this may lead to this system cannot provide ATP while working at high
osteoporosis. intensities as oxygen is not delivered in time to the working
muscles, therefore anaerobic systems are used.
18 Energy sources
22 The energy continuum
Example answer:
The energy sources available are ATP, PC, blood glucose, Example answer:
glycogen and fatty acids. Danny is experiencing OBLA. The primary contribution of
ATP is needed for muscle activation. When ATP is broken energy production appears to be from the lactate system, as
down to adenosine di-phosphate (ADP) and phosphate (P), it the burning sensation is from a build-up of lactate in his blood
releases energy for muscular action. It is the immediate source stream, which is affecting the oxygen availability to his muscles.
As the oxygen is limited, energy production of ATP is lessened
for muscular actions. Phosphocreatine (PC) is stored within the
and this will eventually lead to increased fatigue and the point
muscle sarcoplasm and contains high energy bonds and aids in
where Danny may have to reduce the intensity of exercise to
the reformation of ATP. When PC is broken down to P and Cr,
allow his oxygen availability to increase and help remove the
the energy released is used to reform ATP from ADP and P.
lactate.
Blood glucose refers to the concentration of glucose that is
transported within the blood to supply energy to the body. It is 23 Causes of fatigue
derived from the diet and acts as the primary source of energy. Example answer:
When the concentration level drops, glucagon is released from the When we exercise, sometimes the intensity or duration means
pancreas, which breaks down the stored glycogen within the liver we cannot produce sufficient ATP to meet the exercise demand
to elevate the level for transport to the working muscles. and maintain performance. Once the CP stores are depleted,
Another option is to use fatty acids released from the the body utilises blood glucose and then converts glycogen
adipose tissue to provide ATP. They are broken down via from the liver and muscles to glucose. Once these supplies are
gluconeogenesis, again to maintain blood glucose levels, and are exhausted, after 2 hours the rate of ATP production decreases
a high-yield energy compound at 9 kcal per gram. and supply to muscle will limit force and power production,
reducing performance. During high-intensity exercise, the
blood concentration of lactic acid increases as a by-product of

223
 anaerobic ATP production, resulting in OBLA and a decrease 27 Overtraining and performance
in pH. Carbon dioxide also builds up as the decreased pH of Example answer:
blood inhibits oxygen binding to Hb and reduces enzyme activity
In response to the increased volume of training over 6 days a
for ATP production. This will limit performance and may affect
week, the potential for increased intensity as Malala tries to keep
neural signalling. pace with the older, faster athletes and the monotony of lots of
Increases in H* and lowered pH contribute to decreased release
continuous running, it is likely she is suffering from overtraining
of Ca* required for muscle contraction. Additionally, the
syndrome. Her constant colds, loss of periods and struggle to get
availability of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is depleted,
through training are the impact of overtraining on her body. She
affecting the nerve signalling and preventing the action potential
is likely to be overly fatigued from the increased training and this
reaching the muscle and stimulating it to contract, preventing the
may lead to decreased immune function, hence the constant cold.
muscle functioning effectively.
As her periods have ceased, this may in the long term lead to
24 Energy systems recovery osteoporosis, though because she is also a runner she may suffer
from an overuse injury in the near future.
Example answer:
Excess post-oxygen consumption (EPOC) occurs after exercise, 28 Physiological effects of overtraining
where heavy breathing continues even though exercise has
Example answer:
stopped, in order to elevate oxygen levels where there is a deficit.
Andy is experiencing an imbalance in his endocrine system and
The extra oxygen availability acts to repay the oxygen debt and
his ratio of testosterone to cortisol has decreased, which is an
increases the rate of O, delivery to muscles, which is available to
indicator of insufficient recovery and can lead to the breakdown
break down LA, replenish ATP, CP and glycogen and repay O,
of muscle tissue. His resting cortisol levels have increased, which
borrowed from haemoglobin and myoglobin (oxygen stores in
decreases his immune response and can mean he is more likely to
muscle).
become ill. When cortisol increases this can increase blood lactate
25 Nutrition for recovery levels, which can also lead to muscle soreness.
As his sympathetic nervous system activity has increased, his
Example answer:
resting adrenaline and noradrenaline have increased his heart
Following intense exercise, Naseem’s body’s energy stores
rate and blood pressure, which can lead to poor sleeping patterns
are depleted and she needs to replenish them. By eating
and insufficient rest and recovery from his training. Incomplete
carbohydrate-rich foods soon after exercise, she can break this
recovery causes tissue inflammation and CNS fatigue. Inadequate
down to help replenish muscle glycogen levels, maximising
repair of tissues prior to the next bout of training also increases
efficient muscle refuelling and supporting recovery. It is
Andy’s susceptibility to injury and in the long term can lead to
advantageous to choose carbohydrate drinks/gels with a high
chronic muscle soreness, decreased sympathetic nervous system
GI so that glucose is absorbed by the muscle and liver cells as
activity and increased fatigue.
quickly as possible. Additionally, to promote muscle recovery
and growth post-workout, protein consumption promotes 29 Skeletal adaptations to exercise
protein synthesis, including gains in muscle mass and strength,
Example answer:
and repair of muscle damage. A post-workout protein shake
Bone remodelling occurs when both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
can offer sufficient protein and carbohydrate for recovery. It is
are activated. Bone remodelling starts with osteoclasts breaking
recommended that Naseem intakes approximately 10—20 g of
down the bone to make way for new, stronger bone. When blood
high-quality protein and | g of carbohydrate per kg body mass
calcium concentration is lowered, this stimulates osteoclast
in the hour following exercise. For example, 450 ml orange juice
activity and bone reabsorption, which causes calcium to
provides 50 g of carbohydrate for refuelling, and 500 ml low-
leave the bone and move into the blood. When blood calcium
fat milk provides 10g of protein and 50g of carbohydrate for
concentration is high, this stimulates osteoblast and osteocyte
refuelling and rebuilding. A larger meal should be eaten within
activity and causes calcium to be deposited and stored within
the next two hours as it will take 24-48 hours to re-establish
bone adding to the bone matrix. Osteoblast activity is increased
glycogen stores after a bout of glycogen depleting exercise.
in response to loading bone during weight-bearing exercise,
To rehydrate and replace the fluids and electrolytes lost in sweat,
where calcium in the blood is absorbed and encourages bone
within the 2 hours after exercise, Naseem should consume a
formation. Greater physical stress placed on a bone results in
volume of fluids equal to 1.5 times the amount of fluid lost.
The replacement of electrolytes lost, particularly sodium, is also more bone building by osteoblasts. The cycle of breaking down
bones and building bones continues as bones remodel.
needed, via electrolyte rehydration products or high-sodium
foods. Water will hydrate Naseem well, though isotonic and 30 Muscular system adaptations
hypotonic drinks may provide faster hydration and replacement
Example answer:
of electrolytes.
Jamal should be completing training to improve muscular
26 Musculoskeletal recovery hypertrophy, as he will need to increase his muscular size to enter
Example answer: the bodybuilding competition. As he is an experienced gym user,
he should be using 70-100 per cent of his one repetition maximum,
When Martin’s body has undergone intense strenuous exercise,
for 3-6 sets of 8-12 repetitions, with 2-3 minutes between each
changes occur within a tendon that increase its cross-sectional
set. Due to his experience, Jamal is probably used to short-term
area, including an increase in collagen fibre diameter, an increase
accumulation of fluid in his muscles and ‘the pump’, so he is
in the number of collagen fibrils, and an increase in density of
collagen fibrils. looking to improve the cross-sectional area of his muscles, which
involves an increase of proteins within the muscle and increased
Physical activity encourages deposition of calcium within
muscle fibre diameter. Additionally, he will experience an increase
bone and can reduce any effects of inadequate dietary calcium.
in strength and the tone of his postural muscles will also improve,
Increases in bone mass, bone mineral content and bone mineral
density occur in practically all bones of the skeleton in response which will help with his exercise technique.
to high-intensity resistance exercise. 31 Skeletal muscle adaptations
Micro-tears from training sessions do not fully repair when
Example answer:
recovery is insufficient. So, if Martin does not rest enough
In response to Mason’s regular cardiovascular exercise from his
between training sessions, his body will not fully repair the
football, the mitochondrial density within his muscle would be
muscles. This may happen from overtraining, not taking enough
increased, allowing for increased use of fat as fuel for exercise,
rest between exercise sessions or poor scheduling.

224
and the ability to prolong endurance performance. Therefore,
* Adrenaline will increase during intense exercise increasing
he will be able to perform for the 90 minutes, The myoglob
in cardiac output, boosting blood flow to muscles and mobilising
stores within his muscles will increase, adapting to the demands
blood sugar and glycogen breakdown to support the fuel for
of regular exercise. This means that there is more myoglobin
Kate’s training sessions.
and oxygen transported to the mitochondria, which aids the
* Noradrenaline vasoconstricts the arterioles, which increases
breakdown of triglycerides in the mitochondria and preserves the
blood pressure and blood flow.
stores of glycogen within his muscles.
Increased resting cortisol levels reflect adaptation to long-term
As he has been undertaking cardiovascular and muscular
resistance training and may be in response to the micro-tears
endurance training for a number of years, the capillarisation incurred from resistance training and the increased need for
will allow for increased oxygen delivery to his muscles. There are tissue repair and anti-inflammatory effects.
adaptations to the muscle fibre types as regular training results
in more specific and efficient muscle fibre recruitment of Type I 36 Energy system adaptations
fibres, relative to the cardiovascular training. This means fewer Example answer:
action potentials are required to produce submaximal forces to Due to the enhanced capillarisation from training, there is an
sustain performance. increased facility to store oxygen within the muscle, causing
myoglobin to increase. The increased O, availability, along with
32 Respiratory adaptations
an increase in mitochondria, enables increased O, consumption
Example answer: within the muscle. In addition to the increased glycogen and
As Ian continues to play tennis regularly, his respiratory muscles, triglyceride stores, this ensures a constant supply of energy to
diaphragm and intercostal muscles will become strengthened prolong exercise and performance.
as he breathes more deeply so that his chest cavity can expand
more. In addition, the accessory muscles used in inhalation 3Z Aerobic adaptations
(sternocleidomastoid and scalene) and in exhalation (rectus Example answer:
abdominus and transverse abdominus) become stronger, which Due to sufficient energy supply, lactate threshold will be reached
helps increase the volume of oxygen inhaled and carbon dioxide at a higher exercise intensity. The lactate produced increases H*
removed. concentration and decreases pH, which will eventually prevent
enzyme activity and hinder performance. When this happens,
33 Cardiovascular adaptations bicarbonate is released acting as a lactate buffer to delay the
Example answer: effects of the by-products and help prolong exercise performance,
If exercise is prolonged, blood composition is altered and blood increasing tolerance of lactate.
plasma volume decreases from lost fluids (sweating), which can
increase blood pressure. The increased blood pressure draws 38 Measuring effects of training
water from the vascular system into the muscles, attempting to Example answer:
sustain O, supply. As blood also becomes thicker when plasma VO,max is generally measured by a maximal treadmill test in
decreases, the increased viscosity hinders the transport of O,, a laboratory, using a Douglas bag and a gas analyser to collect
which in turn leads to lowered pH in response to the reduced O, expired air. Cardiovascular exercise and circuit training can
availability. Due to these increases in resistance, blood pressure increase VO, max, as long as the athlete achieves 60% HR for
increases. If fluids are not replaced performance level will drop. a minimum of 20 minutes. By increasing VO, max, this will
improve the aerobic energy system’s efficiency and endurance
34 Nervous system adaptations performance.
Example answer:
Exercise leads to more precise and efficient motor unit
39 Measuring strength and endurance
recruitment patterns as less neural activity is required to Example answer:
produce any level of submaximal force. There is also increased The 15RM can be used within training programmes more
synchronisation of motor unit recruitment so the amount of time regularly than the 1RM and can also be used to determine
that maximal force output can be sustained increases. So, when whether progression has occurred and modification of training
performing resistance training, strength will improve. is needed to ensure further adaptation. However, there is
Exercise training may also lead to an increased number of insufficient normative data available to compare results.
vesicles that store the neurotransmitter acetylchloline. This
increase will allow for a greater amount of neurotransmitter
40 High altitude
secretion (acetylcholine) at the neuromuscular junction, Example answer:
The purpose of training at altitude is to enable the body to
increasing prospective for action potentials and leading to greater
become more effective at utilising oxygen when at sea level. When
force production from the increased firing rate.
at altitude an athlete has an increased level of carbon dioxide in
As a result of exercise training, this improves neuromuscular
the blood due to a decrease in the oxygen pressure present when
connection and enhances the ability to recruit motor units during
at altitude. To combat this, chemoreceptors in the brain increase
an exercise. This may reduce the sensitivity of the Golgi tendon
the athlete’s breathing rate to assist the body in getting rid of
organs and reduce nervous inhibition to allow for greater force
the excess carbon dioxide and increase the level of oxygen in the
production and increased strength.
blood.
35 Endocrine adaptations When at altitude, the haemoglobin levels are lower when
compared to the measurements taken at sea level. Once an
Example answer — any two of the following:
athlete has returned to sea level, the haemoglobin in the blood
* In response to high-intensity resistance training involving
will be able to carry more oxygen than it could prior to altitude
large muscle groups, for multiple sets and short rest intervals,
acclimatisation.
testosterone release increases. If Kate consumes a meal before
At altitude, erythropoietin levels increase which stimulates the
exercising, testosterone levels in her blood decrease due to
production of red blood cells, resulting in more red blood cells
the increased uptake within the muscles, enhancing protein
per mmol of blood. This enhances the athlete’s ability to be able
synthesis.
to carry more oxygen to the working muscles per unit of blood.
* Human growth hormone (HGH) secretion also increases
When an athlete returns to sea level, the extra red blood cells help
in response to this style of training and promotes increased
athletes to carry more oxygen per unit of blood, which supports
muscle size, strength and power, and additionally aids recovery
aerobic respiration in the cells.
from training with tissue repair and remodelling post-exercise.
225
 41 Response to high altitude as a by-product of anaerobic work enhancing the speed at which
OBLA occurs. The enhanced capillary network helps to get rid of
Example answer: the by-products created as a result of anaerobic performances.
There are a number of changes that occur when an individual
is exposed to high altitude. The first change to be described is 44 Equivalent altitude adaptations at
altitude sickness. This occurs when an athlete has a fast ascent sea level
to high altitude, preventing acclimatisation from occurring. A
further response is hypoxia, which occurs as result of a decrease Example answer:
in oxygen levels within the muscle tissues. 1 A hypoxic chamber is a sealed room that is used to re-create
Increased breathing rate is another body response to high the effects of altitude training through a controlled process
altitude. This happens because the pressure of oxygen is lower without actually ever leaving sea level. The room has varying
so that the respiratory system has to work hard to supply the levels of control, which can be manipulated, such as oxygen
muscles and organs with oxygen. Additionally, there is also an levels, air temperature and humidity levels. By adapting these
increase in carbon dioxide as a result of a decrease in oxygen conditions, the athlete becomes more efficient when exposed
to performance conditions.
levels.
Similarly to the breathing rate, an individual’s heart rate also 2 Example answer:
increases to over 100 beats per minute. After exposure to high This principle suggests that athletes who carry out daily tasks
altitude, there is a decrease in the maximum heart rate and a and sleep above sea level gain similar benefits to training at
lower cardiac output. altitude without having to endure the negative effects of such
The final response elicited is a reduced VO, max. This can have training. The principle suggests that athletes should then
a significant effect on endurance events until acclimatisation undertake their training as close to sea level as possible.
occurs. However, when an athlete returns from high altitude, the In order for this training principle to be effective, the athlete
cardiovascular system becomes more efficient, which results in an needs to be exposed to altitude conditions for a minimum
increased VO, max. of 12 hours a day, for at least a three-week period. If the
timeframe is less than this then the effect of sleeping high and
42 Adaption to high altitude training low is significantly reduced.
Example answer:
1 Red blood cell production. More red blood cells are created 45 Thermoregulation
in the bone marrow to help the body acclimatise to the Example answer:
reduction in oxygen levels found at high altitude. The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that acts as the body’s
2 Haemoglobin concentration increases as a result of an thermostat. This is supported by a group of specialised neurons,
increase of red blood cell production. This protein is which help the hypothalamus to control the body’s temperature
responsible for transporting oxygen around the body so a maintaining homeostasis. However, when the core body
greater level of haemoglobin is needed to be able to absorb temperature increases, the hypothalamus detects the increase in
more oxygen when the oxygen pressure is lower. temperature in the blood. The hypothalamus sends impulses to
3 There is an increase in the number of capillaries found in the the skin and encourages sweating to occur.
blood network. The new capillaries are formed to supply the
muscles and organs with oxygen. The new blood vessels help 46 Homeostasis and heat loss methods
to distribute oxygen effectively when at altitude. Example answer:
4 The number of mitochondria increases to enable the body to In a hot climate, swimmers’ bodies use convection to help carry
generate more energy so that the body can work effectively away body heat. This occurs when cool water flows over the skin |
when oxygen levels are reduced. and heat is transferred to the water from the skin and taken away. |
The swimmer uses conduction to transfer heat from their body to
43 Impact of altitude adaptations on the water by swimming in cooler water. A swimmer transfers heat |
performance from their body to the sides of the swimming pool by radiation.
Example answer: In hot climates, a swimmer will breathe out more water vapour |
There are a few effects that are the same for both aerobic due to performing in this hot environment; the water breathed
and anaerobic performances. These include an increase in out is evaporated and their body heat is transferred into the
the production of erythropoietin (EPO), which is a hormone surrounding environment.
that increases the number of red blood cells in the body when
47 Body responses to excessive heat :
exposed to high altitude. In anaerobic performance, little oxygen
is used by the body. However, the red blood cells adjust to the Example answer: |
lower amount of oxygen in the air. The increase in EPO enables The symptoms of hyperthermia include excessive sweating, |
the body to become more efficient at sending oxygen to the headaches, nausea, dizziness and hyperventilation. Hyperthermia
working muscles. A further similarity is that the haemoglobin causes the skin to become dry and hot due to the body not being
concentration also increases, which supports both aerobic and able to produce sweat or any other heat loss mechanism. An
anaerobic performances. increase in the internal temperature can adversely affect organ
The number of capillaries is used to enhance the blood network. function and cause internal damage.
However, the function of the capillaries changes depending on Symptoms of dehydration include tiredness, irritability,
whether they are required for aerobic or anaerobic performances. fainting, muscle cramps and loss of performance. The effect of
Within anaerobic performance the additional capillaries help to dehydration on the body is a reduction in the level of plasma in
get rid of the waste products that have been generated through the blood. This is needed to maintain cardiovascular functioning.
anaerobic exercise. When an individual sweats a lot, it becomes difficult to maintain
The number of mitochondria found in the cells increases to assist an electrolyte balance due to an increase in salt depletion, which
the athlete with anaerobic exercise. In contrast, the mitochondria can cause a cramping sensation within the muscles.
assists the athlete to create energy alongside oxidative enzymes 48 Body adaptions to excessive heat
to ensure that muscle fibres are supplied with oxygen so that
Example answer:
they can keep performing. Within anaerobic performances, the
The first adaptation to be discussed is an increase in sweat
oxidative enzymes work closely with Type Ila a muscle fibres and
production. Sweat is generated to expel excessive heat, which
the mitochondria to ensure they are able to produce powerful, fast
is generated through sport and exercise sessions. As exercise
contractions in the absence of oxygen. Lactic acid is produced
9B
intensifies, the body has to work hard to keep up with
the 51 The effects of extreme cold
training demands. Extra heat is then generated by the body,
which means it has to work additionally hard to get rid of the Example answer:
excess heat. This is when sweat is produced, which helps cool the Symptoms of hypothermia include a slower breathing rate, lower
skin as the moisture is evaporated. blood pressure, decrease in heart rate and drowsiness.
This is closely linked with the second adaptation: reduced Hypothermia affects the body as it becomes unable to maintain
concentration of electrolytes in sweat. This occurs as a result of a core body temperature due to the cold stress exceeding the
increased sweating. body’s ability to produce heat. As exposure continues, the body
The third adaptation is an increase in blood plasma volume. can become exhausted, as energy reserves are depleted, further
Exposure to high temperature stimulates the body to produce inhibiting the body’s ability to generate heat.
more plasma. Symptoms of frostbite include a burning sensation, tingling,
The fourth effect is an earlier onset of sweating. This happens as numbness, changes in skin colouring (red, white, blueish-white or
the body tries to acclimatise to the excess heat, both internally greyish-yellow). The effects of the damage vary depending on the
and externally. The sweating mechanism is a method of heat length of exposure and the rate at which the tissues are warmed
loss using evaporation to cool down the skin as the moisture is back up.
absorbed by the atmosphere. 52 Your Unit 1 exam
49 Impact of adaptations to excessive Individual notes on the Unit 1 exam, always referring to the
heat on performance latest Sample Assessment Material on the Pearson website for an
indication of assessment details.
Example answer:
Excessive heat has a variety of impacts on aerobic and anaerobic 53 Using case studies
conditions. Specifically related to aerobic performance (10000m), Example answer:
the body will produce sweat to maintain homeostasis. The Henry uses the slow-twitch muscle fibres, Type I, for the duration
amount of sweat produced will depend on the intensity of the of the event to provide sustained energy.
performance. The duration of the activity will also affect the He uses Type IIa fast twitch when he needs to increase his speed
amount of sweat produced. The greater the exposure to aerobic to climb a hill during the stages of the event.
exercise and a rise in temperature, the more effective the body He would use Type IIx fast twitch when he needs to increase his
becomes in ensuring that the number of electrolytes lost though speed to overtake an opponent or to get into position for the end
sweat is reduced. Aerobic performance utilises the increase of a stage sprint finish.
in blood plasma volume to ensure that cardiac functioning
continues to be effective. 54 Short-answer questions
In contrast, anaerobic performance (100-m sprint) requires athletes Example answer:
to work at an exceptionally high intensity for a very short duration For most athletes, 2400m above sea level is an optimum level
of time, commonly less than 2 minutes. Sweat production with at which to train without experiencing any of the ill effects of
anaerobic performance is often short-lived; commonly, sweating altitude training. The athlete will still be able to obtain the gains
occurs after the event is finished. This is because the body cools that altitude training provides. However, exposure to altitude
down by circulating blood through the skin due to the excess heat at this level is commonly longer than it would be if training at
that has been generated while taking part in the high-intensity 5000m above sea level.
activity. During anaerobic activity, muscles are deprived of oxygen
and other autrients; this creates a collection of waste products to be
55 State’ and ‘Name’ questions
present within the muscles, It is difficult during anaerobic exercise Example answer:
to get rid of the waste products due to the initial decrease in blood By training seven times a week, it is likely that Thanai will be
flow. However, once the event is over the body can then concentrate suffering from overtraining which means that her body will
on reducing the effect the waste products have on the body. become unable to recover adequately during rest periods. Thanai
will experience tiredness, lack of motivation and trouble sleeping
50 Ways of reducing heat loss if she is subjected to overtraining. This can have a detrimental
Example answer: effect on her performance levels as she becomes fatigued, which
To prevent heat loss during sport and exercise performance, the may result in an increase in post-exercise recovery. She may
body is able to divert the flow of blood as the temperature of the also become susceptible to injury as the body is not given a
body changes. When an individual is exposed to the cold, the sufficient rest period to allow it to recover. A further impact will
blood flow changes and diverts from the muscles to the organs so be a decrease in immune functioning — this can cause Thanai
that the core is protected from the cold for longer. This is called to become ill as her white blood cell count is reduced during a
vasoconstriction. In addition to this, the hypothalamus in the period of overtraining.
brain can detect a decrease in the core body temperature. When 56 ‘Give’ and ‘Identify questions
this occurs, the hairs on a person’s arms and/or legs stand on end
Example answer:
to trap in warm air. This is caused by the muscles around the hair
1 Stroke volume increases.
root contracting, allowing the hairs to stand on end. The blood
2 Increased blood volume to fill the heart.
flow in the capillaries decreases as the blood flow is diverted away
from the extremities. 57 ‘Describe’ questions
The second and third methods are related to shivering. There Example answer:
are two types of shivering: shivering thermogenesis and non- By participating in a long-term exercise regime, the rate of
shivering thermogenesis. Shivering: thermogenesis is the process skeletal ageing will decrease. Liz’s bone mass will increase with
that involves involuntary contractions of muscles to generate long-term exercise. However, the density of the bones will depend
heat. This process requires ATP to be transferred to kinetic on an adequate supply of calcium.
energy, resulting in heat being produced in the body. When training, the osteoblasts assist in reshaping the bones,
The third method of heat loss is shivering thermogenesis, whereas osteoclasts break down the tissue to allow new growth
which occurs in the fat tissue within the body. This shivering to occur. As the skeletal system ages, osteoclast activity increases,
type relies on cellular reactions occurring, enabling free fatty breaking down the bone tissue to release the calcium and other
acids to be used throughout the body as heat. This process can minerals into the blood stream. Liz’s training programme is
occur without the individual realising as there are no physical heavily based on weight-bearing exercises, which stimulates the
movements generated by the body.
221
 activity of osteoblasts, which in turn suppresses the osteoclast 61 ‘Discuss’ questions
activity. This helps to maintain a healthy bone density. This will
Answers might include the following points:
support Liz in being able to withstand the stress placed on her
* Endurance activities work at submaximal levels below the
body during her fitness regime. OBLA workload.
58 ‘Explain’ questions * Commonly, endurance-based activities work between 60-85%
of maximal exercise.
Example answer:
* This activity type assists in causing aerobic adaptions to the
There is an increase in venous return as a result of more blood
cardiovascular system, increasing its efficiency.
entering the heart. This causes the right atrium to stretch as
* Through endurance training, the heart will increase in size
there is an increase in blood volume. The ventricles also stretch,
and strength, in addition to the elasticity of the myocardium
causing an increase in the volume of blood filling the chamber.
increasing as the heart becomes more efficient.
The force of the contraction increases as the heart also gets
* This enables stroke volume to increase because the heart is able
stronger and is able to force more blood out per beat than it
to supply the body with more oxygenated blood per beat. As a
could previously. This results in an increase in stroke volume.
further consequence, this promotes an increased cardiac output.
During an exercise session, the body temperature increases which
The effect of an increased stroke volume results in a decreased
in turn increases the individual’s heart rate as the body attempts
resting heart rate because the heart has become more efficient
to lose the heat generated by exercise. The increase in temperature
through aerobic training by increasing the strength of
also causes an increase in the speed of nerve impulses to assist
contractions in the atria and ventricles.
the body to lose the excess heat generated.
* This reduces the individual’s blood pressure as there are fewer
59 Long-answer questions beats needed per minute.
* Other effects include an increase in blood volume and
Answers might include the following points:
As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, which haemoglobin levels within the blood. This enables the blood
causes a drop in oxygen levels. By training at altitude, it allows to carry a higher number of oxygen particles within the blood,
athletes to become more efficient at absorbing oxygen. This occurs which supports the body to make continued contractions,
when the athlete becomes acclimatised to the altitude conditions. limiting the effect of OLBA.
A decrease in oxygen levels causes the chemoreceptors in the brain 62 ‘Analyse’ questions
to become more responsive to an increase of carbon dioxide within
Answers might include the following points:
the blood. It is the role of the chemoreceptors to increase the
Overtraining occurs beyond normal tolerance limits. This
breathing rate as the body works hard to restore gaseous exchange
means that the body is not able to recover adequately during
to a normal level. This is because less oxygen is available at high
rest periods. There are a number of physiological effects of
altitude and there is a decrease in the amount of haemoglobin
overtraining, which include an imbalance of the endocrine
found in the blood. When an athlete trains at 5000m above sea
level, haemoglobin levels are reduced to roughly 70 per cent, which
system. Exercise through overtraining requires a constant
input of the endocrine system to release hormones to control
is significantly different from the 98 per cent found at sea level. It is
important that an athlete goes through an acclimatisation process
normal body functions. When an individual is overtraining, the
as the lack of oxygen can impair physical activity. endocrine system is disrupted resulting in a chemical imbalance
The respiratory system responds to an increase in an individual’s from hormones that are produced in the body. Overtraining can
breathing rate causing an impairment of gaseous exchange in the cause some hormones to be produced in abundance as well as
lungs as the increase in ventilation occurs under environmental having the reverse effect on other necessary hormones, resulting
stress. The athlete’s VO, max is reduced during high altitude in not enough being produced. Two of the hormones produced in
as on average an athlete will lose 2 per cent for every 300m abundance are adrenaline and cortisol. Adrenaline and cortisol
above 1500m from sea level. The decrease in VO, max adversely levels create a suppressed immune system, which impacts the
affects performance when at altitude, due to the decrease in number of white blood cells produced by the body. It is these
haemoglobin levels in the blood. Blood volumes increase to make cells that are used to fight infections. When the immune system is
the athlete able to combat the reduced levels of oxygen pressure suppressed it means that the athlete is susceptible to picking up
in the atmosphere at altitude. New capillaries are formed to bugs as the body is run down and in a state of physical fatigue.
support the body with the gaseous exchange process to increase Overtraining causes insufficient rest periods that enable muscles to
the rate of diffusion in the blood. The effect that this will have on repair following the physical stresses that training has on the body.
aerobic performance is that the athlete will be able to perform for The impact of overtraining on the body and performance
a longer period of time without experiencing fatigue. can be assessed in a variety of ways. The first is the decline
in performance. This is as a result of athletes feeling sluggish
60 ‘Assess’ questions and fatigued, which causes a prolonged recovery following
Answers might include the following points: competitive events.
Maximal oxygen consumption is a measure of a person’s When an athlete overtrains, they become susceptible to injury
ability to inhale and use oxygen. This is known as aerobic because there is insufficient rest periods, which inhibits the
capacity. recovery of body tissues increasing the risk of injury. Depending
To test maximal oxygen consumption, Stuart needs to on the nature of the sport, it is not uncommon for overuse
participate in a VO, max test. This will give Stuart and his injuries to occur because of microtraumas to the muscle, bone
coach a baseline result as to his current maximal oxygen and connective tissues.
consumption. A final effect of overtraining is a disruption to an athlete’s sleep
Stuart performs in an aerobic event, so he is more likely to pattern, which can contribute to a hormonal imbalance. It is
have higher maximal oxygen consumption when compared important that an athlete has a good sleep pattern because this
to a predominately anaerobic event (such as a sprint over 100 gives the body a chance to recover and repair itself. When this
metres). This helps him to take up more oxygen in his lungs, process is disturbed, it can contribute to a longer recovery period.
due to an increase in the depth of breathing, and an increased
in the rate of oxygen diffusion in the blood.
63 ‘Evaluate’ questions
* The higher Stuart’s maximal oxygen consumption is, the better The continuation of the answer might include the following
his marathon performance will become. He will be able to work points:
at a higher intensity for a longer period of time, reducing the Within repetitive sports, it is possible that an athlete can
time that it takes him to complete the course. become at risk from osteoarthritis due to the repetitive nature.

29R
Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease that is caused by the
loss 67 Heart function and anatomy
of bone tissue or wear and tear of the articular cartilage
found
at the end of long bones. If a performer does not have a good Example answer:
technique, this can increase the risk of injury to the articular 1 The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right
cartilage causing it to deteriorate quicker. This will cause pain ventricle.
and swelling, which will limit joint movement. A further negative 2 The function of the interventricular septum is to prevent the
effect is overuse or chronic injuries, which are common in blood on the right side of the heart from coming into contact
repetitive sport actions. An athlete is likely to sustain injuries with the blood on the left side of the heart.
when they perform in repetitive sports because the strain placed
on the tissues is directed to a specific area which causes weakness
68 Blood vessel location and anatomy
in the surrounding tissues. Example answer:
1 The role of the inferior vena cava is to return deoxygenated
64 ‘To what extent’ questions blood to the right atrium from the lower body. The role of
Answers might include the following points: the superior vena cava is to return deoxygenated blood to the
Prior to exercise it is common for an individual’s heart rate to right atrium from the head and upper body.
increase. This is because the body secretes a number of hormones 2 The role of the vein is to allow venous return (the return of
to help to prepare it for exercise. This is termed the anticipatory deoxygenated blood to the heart).
response. This response is caused by adrenaline. This hormone 69 Blood composition
is found in the adrenal glands. The hormone is secreted to
Example answer:
prepare the body to initiate a body response. This is termed the
1. The function of white blood cells is to fight infection, destroy
fight or flight response as the body responds to a physical or
bacteria, attack viruses and fight germs that enter the body.
psychological stress. For Gail, this hormone is secreted to help
2 Plasma is 90 per cent water and its role is to surround the
prepare the body for exercise by increasing breathing and heart
blood cells to carry them around the body.
rate. Adrenaline increases the amount of oxygen that is absorbed
by the blood. This then supplies the muscles with oxygen to 70 Cardiovascular system
enable them to make continued contractions without fatigue.
Any two other functions of the cardiovascular system from:
Another hormone that is released during the anticipatory phase ¢ deliver oxygen/nutrients
is noradrenaline. The role of this hormone is to relay signals * blood flow (vasoconstriction, vasodilation)
between nerve cells, which assists the muscles to make sustained * fight infection.
contractions. This hormone also contributes to a constriction of
the blood vessels, enabling the blood to flow through the vessels Zi Cardiac cycle
under a higher amount of pressure, increasing Gail’s blood Example answer:
pressure. Additionally, cortisol is a hormone that is closely linked 1 Diastolic pressure is when the heart muscle relaxes.
to stress. This hormone is secreted by the body at times where a 2 SAN is the sinoatrial node. It sends out an electrical signal to
physical or psychological stress is perceived. Gail may experience the atrium to contract and pump blood into the ventricle.
symptoms of anxiety during periods in a match due to the AVN is the atrioventricular node. It sends an impulse to the
perceptions of stress being initiated such as during a short corner ventricle that causes the muscle to contract and blood to
or in a penalty situation. Seemingly, an athlete may experience pump out.
feelings of nervousness prior to competing as the heart rate
increases, stimulating the nerve receptors in the body. 12 Respiratory system location and
The amount of hormones being secreted is dependent on the anatomy
intensity of the activity and the individual’s belief that they can Example answer:
meet the demands of the situation. The greater the hormone levels,
Pleura is the membrane around the lungs. Visceral pleura
the higher Gail’s heart rate will be and the more nervous she will envelopes the lung completely. It is smooth and slippery, prevents
perceive herself being. Seemingly, as the duration of the activity friction between the lungs and other organs, as well as allowing
increases the body begins to adapt to the environmental demands the lungs to move freely during breathing. Parietal pleura lines
and hormone levels can decrease over the time of exposure. the inner chest wall and contains pleura fluid and visceral. It
65 Concise answers provides a cushion of lubricant for reduced friction.

Example answer: 73 Respiratory system functions

Oxygen enters Roger’s lungs and is absorbed from the alveoli to the Example answer:
capillaries network into the arteries. The oxygenated blood is then Matt’s tidal volume has increased as there is a greater demand
transported to Roger’s heart where it is pumped to the working for oxygen due to exercise. The amount of air in one breath
muscles so that muscle movement can occur during walking or increases to make sure there is sufficient oxygen to enable muscle
bowls. The oxygenated blood transfuses into the muscle tissue and contraction. Tidal volume also increases as the body needs to
is swapped with carbon dioxide as this is absorbed by the blood. remove carbon dioxide.
The de-oxygenated blood is then pumped back to Roger's heart,
and then to the lungs. Once carbon dioxide is transferred into the 74 Gaseous exchange
lungs it is expelled through respiration as Roger breathes out. Example answer:
1 The walls of the alveoli and capillaries are semi-permeable to
Unit 2: Functional Anatomy allow gases to pass across.
2 Gaseous exchange is the process of oxygen moving from the
66 Anatomical language lungs into the blood and carbon dioxide moving from the
Example answer: blood into the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from a high
Supine position — lying horizontally with the face and torso concentration to a lower concentration in the bloodstream. In
facing up: sit-ups and swimming backstroke. the blood, carbon dioxide diffuses from a high concentration
Prone position — lying horizontally with the face and torso facing to a lower concentration in the lungs — the process occurs
down: press ups and swimming front crawl. within the alveoli and capillaries.

229
 75 Control of breathing in response to 83 Ligaments
exercise Example answer:
The knee ligaments of a marathon runner will provide stability
Example answer:
and restrict excessive movement for which the joint is not.
Mechanisms that occur in response to exercise:
designed. The knee joint is designed to bend forwards and
* muscle cell respiration increases — more oxygen is used up and
backwards, not sideways. The ligaments prevent the knee joint
CO, rises (the brain detects the increased levels and a signal is
moving from side to side and causing inappropriate movement,
sent to the lungs)
which could lead to an injury.
* breathing rate increases and the volume of air in each breath
increases, meaning more gaseous exchange takes place 84 Classification and structure of joints
the brain sends a signal to the heart to pump more blood to the
Example answer:
lungs for gaseous exchange — more oxygenated blood gets to
1. Three types of joints:
the muscles and more CO, is removed.
* fibrous
76 Bone anatomy * cartilaginous
* synovial.
Example answer:
2 The role of synovial fluid is to reduce friction by lubrication
Long bones support Perry Ann’s body mass and allow her to
and maintain joint stability. The role of the synovial
create large movements when playing tennis. Long bones are
membrane is to enclose fluid and secrete fluid.
found in the limbs (femur — legs; radius, ulna and humerus —
arms). The long bones are cylindrical and act as levers. When she 85 Types and structure of synovial
performs a serve, her humerus, radius and ulna enable her to hit
the ball with power due to the leverage effect of these long bones.
joints
These long bones generate strength to hit the ball and speed to Example answer:
move around the court. 1 Six types of synovial joint and their movement:
* ball and socket, movement in all directions
17 Process of bone growth * hinge, allows movement in one direction only
Example answer: * gliding, allows movement over a flat surface in all
1 Ossification is the process by which bone is formed. Minerals directions, restricted by ligaments or a bony prominence
are laid down in the cartilage and bones become harder and * condyloid, movement is backwards and forwards and from
less flexible. Put simply, it is the process of creating bone from side to side
cartilage. ¢ saddle, movement occurs backwards and forwards and
2 The growth, or epiphyseal plate, separates the diaphysis from from side to side
the epiphysis and is the only place where an increase in bone * pivot, controlled rotational movement.
length can take place. Once growing stops, the head (or end) 2 Synovial joint in use when the ankle is in the striking phase
of each bone fuses with the main shaft. of kicking a football: hinge.

78 Bone remodelling and mineral 86 Functions of the skeletal system

uptake Example answer (any two from):
Example answer: ¢ Support — the skeletal system gives Liz her shape; this allows
Bone remodelling is the ongoing process of mature bone tissue her to be able to stay on a bike while cycling, keep upright
being removed and new bone tissue being formed. It also involves when she runs and keep her shape when swimming.
the redistribution of bone tissue to areas where stress forces are Protection — Liz’s bones protect her vital organs when she is
greatest. Osteoclasts break down and clean damaged/mature cycling. If she fell off her bike her cranium would protect her
bone while osteoblasts, the bone-forming cells, lay down new brain and her ribs would help to protect her lungs.
bone tissue. * Attachment for skeletal muscle — Liz’s bones provide her
muscles, ligaments and tendons with a place of attachment.
79 Location of skeletal bones This means that when she moves her leg to pedal her bike, her
¢ Hand bones: metacarpals; finger bones/phalanges muscles produce movement, her muscles can contract and the
¢ Foot bones: metatarsals; toe bones/phalanges. ligaments and tendons allow the bones to move.
Source of blood production — some of Liz’s bones contain
80 Axial skeleton bone marrow, which ensures production of red blood cells.
* skull Red blood cells carry oxygen, which is delivered to the working
* thoracic cage (sternum and ribs) muscles during Liz’s triathlon. A good oxygen supply will
* vertebral column. enable Liz to perform for longer without suffering from fatigue.
* Store of minerals — Liz’s bones store calcium, magnesium and
81 Appendicular skeleton phosphorous. These minerals are used to regrow bone; this allows
Example answer: The pelvic girdle is made of three bones: the Liz’s bones to grow stronger and be less prone to fractures.
ilium, pubis and ischium. These fuse together with age and are * Movement — Liz’s muscles are attached to bones. When they
known as the innominate bone. The iliac crest is the curved superior contract, the bone acts as a lever and produces movement.
border of the ilium. The main function of the pelvic girdle is to These movements allow Liz to complete the skills she needs to
provide a solid base for transmitting the weight of the upper body. enable her to swim, cycle and run.
It also provides attachment for the powerful muscles of the lower
back and legs, and protects the digestive and reproductive organs. 87 Muscle types
Example answer:
82 Types of bone 1 The function of cardiac muscle in the heart is to continuously
Example answer: contract to create a heartbeat and squeeze blood through the
The difference in function between a long and short bone is that blood vessels. This type of muscle does not fatigue.
a long bone is designed to offer strength and speed in the body’s 2 Smooth muscle is only found in the walls of the digestive
movements, whereas a short bone offers support and stability system and in blood vessels. It is involuntary (you have no
with little movement of the bone. conscious control over it) and is controlled by the nervous

927)
 systems to make sure it keeps functioning. Skeletal muscle is
made up of a number of long, thin fibres, It contracts, which 96 Antagonistic muscle pairs
pulls on your bones to produce movement, and is voluntary * Agonist — quadriceps group or gluteals
(it is under your conscious control). * Concentric contraction — the muscle shortens to produce
flexion, which bends the knee.
88 Skeletal muscle fibre types * Antagonist — hamstring group
Example answer: * Eccentric contraction — the muscle lengthens, which allows the
1 Type IIx muscle fibres have a high contraction speed that can knee to flex/bend.
produce powerful movements.
2 Type I muscle fibres have a slow contraction speed, which 97 Types of movement (1)
produce sustained movements over long periods of time. Example answer:
Flexion at the elbow joint during a press-up allows the arm to
89 Neuromuscular control bend as the chest lowers to the floor to produce the downward
Example answer: phase. Extension of the elbow joint allows the arm to straighten,
The neuromuscular junction is where the nerve impulse passes lifting the body away from the floor and completing the upward
across to the muscle. The gap between the nerve and the muscle is phase of the press-up.
called the synaptic cleft.
98 Types of movement (2)
90 Sliding filament theory Example answer:
Example answer: Shoulder raise or front dumbbell raise. The shoulder performs
The nervous system sends impulses to generate action potential. elevation which allows the arm to be lifted in front to raise the
If there is sufficient stimulation acetylcholine is released. This dumbbell upwards. The dumbbells start in front of your thighs
causes the release of calcium. Calcium binds (sticks) to troponin with your palms facing down, the arms are kept straight and
and the myosin binding site is exposed, initiating the contraction. lifted up to complete the movement.

91 Types of muscle contraction 99 Range of movement at synovial joints

Example answer: Example answer:
Isometric contraction — this is an exercise where the muscles stay Flexion — to bend the limb, reducing the angle at the joint, e.g. at
the same length. The muscle remains in a fixed position during the knee when you prepare to kick a penalty in football.
the exercise but is contracting. Extension — to straighten a limb, increasing the angle at the joint,
e.g. at the elbow when you throw the ball in from the sideline in
92 Muscle fibre type recruitment football.
Example answer: Adduction — movement towards the body, e.g. at the hip when
The athletes will need to recruit different muscle fibre types to you kick the ball across your body to shoot at the goal.
match the demands of the two activities. Natalie will require a Abduction — movement away from the body, e.g. at the hip
short, powerful muscle contraction to throw the shot put as far as during a side step while dodging in football.
she can, so would recruit Type IIx fast-twitch muscle fibres. They 100 Planes of movement
contract quickly to produce power and speed. However, they can
Example answer:
fatigue easily as oxygen supply is limited.
Sagittal — the sagittal plane goes straight through the body, front
Billy would require predominantly slow-twitch fibres to allow for
to back, splitting the body from the nose to the belly button. It
sustained fnuscle contractions over the three different activities
therefore divides the body into left and right sections.
in a triathlon, as they are slow to fatigue. However, as they will
Movements will be the up and down actions of flexion and
only contract slowly, there would be no benefit to an athlete
extension. This includes many movements such as walking,
in an explosive action or sprint. Slow-twitch fibres benefit
pushing and squatting.
from an excellent supply of oxygen, which allows the muscle to
continually contract at a low intensity. 101 Types of movement in each plane
93 Location of skeletal muscles Example answer:
By performing a star jump, the arms and legs move through the
Quadriceps:
frontal plane. Movements in the frontal plane commonly involve
¢ rectus femoris
abduction and adduction of the hip and shoulder, and include
¢ vastus medialis
movements of the arms or legs away from the midline of the body.
¢ vastus lateralis
¢ vastus intermedius. 102 Phases of movement
Hamstrings:
Muscles used when moving down into the squat
* biceps femoris
Knee | Flexion Agonist — quadriceps group
¢ semitendinosus
Concentric contraction
¢ semimembranosus.
Antagonist — hamstring group
94 Major skeletal muscles and their Agonist — gluteals
Concentric contraction
function (1)
Antagonist — hip flexors
Example answer:
The forearm supinator’s will turn the palms upwards to allow the 103 Body sections for analysis
goalkeeper to catch the ball and bring it into their chest. Two sections of the body that experience movement in the
95 Major skeletal muscles and their gymnastic movement called the crucifix: upper body and trunk.

function (2) 104 Movement efficiency

Location: front of tibia on lower leg. Muscle balance reduces the risk of injury and ensures that
Function: dorsiflexion of foot. muscles in an antagonist pair are worked equally.

231
 ¢ this causes the release of calcium od
105 Your Unit 2 exam binding site
* calcium binds (sticks) to troponin and the myosin
Individual notes on the Unit 2 exam, always referring to the is exposed.
latest Sample Assessment Material on the Pearson website for an
Contraction:
indication of assessment details.
¢ the nervous stimulation of the muscle causes movement
106 Using case studies * as the sarcomeres contract, the length of the myofibrils reduces
Example answer: bringing the ends of the muscle closer together
During the process of bone remodelling, mature bone is removed * the H zone in the sarcomere reduces depending on the force of
and new bone is formed (ossification). Osteoclasts break down contraction
damaged bone while osteoblasts are bone-forming cells that lay * when high levels of calcium are present, myosin is able to
down new bone tissue. attach to the actin protein filament in the sarcomere
* the myosin makes a crossbridge and pulls on the actin,
107 Short-answer questions shortening the muscle
Example answer: * energy for this movement is provided by enzymes called
Throwing the javelin would require the use of fast-twitch muscle ATPase breaking down ATP.
fibres (Type Ia or IIx) as these fibre types provide powerful End of contraction:
contractions. These powerful contractions only last for a few ¢ when muscle contraction is no longer needed, the nerve
seconds, which suits the needs of the javelin thrower. impulses stop, which then stops the release of calcium
A 5km open water swim would need muscles that can work for * without the influx of calcium, myosin cannot attach to the
longer. Therefore, the muscle fibre type recruited for this activity actin as the site where it attaches is blocked by tropomyosin
would be slow-twitch muscles (Type I). This type of muscle * the action goes back to a resting state, causing the H zone in
contracts with a slower speed but can keep working/contracting the sarcomere to return and the muscle relaxes.
for long periods of time.
114 ‘Discuss’ questions
108 ‘State’ and ‘Name’ questions Additional sentences may include:
Example answer: White blood cells continuously destroy viruses, bacteria and
Location: the bottom of the ribcage. foreign bodies to prevent illness.
Function — for example: Platelets and proteins in the plasma group together to form a clot
¢ The diaphragm contracts and relaxes to allow inhalation and that blocks the cut.
exhalation.
¢ When you inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards 115 ‘Analyse’ questions
to increase the volume of the chest and air is sucked into the Example answer:
lungs. Andy is in the striking phase of the movement.
¢ When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, moving back During the striking phase, the joints and articulating bones
upwards, decreasing the volume of the chest and air is forced involved are the elbow — humerus and ulna — and the shoulder —
out. humerus and scapula. The action at the elbow is flexion and at
the shoulder it is horizontal flexion. The agonist muscle working
109 ‘Give’ and ‘Identify’ questions to produce the movement at the elbow is the biceps brachii and
Calcium. at the shoulder it is the pectoralis major and anterior deltoid. At
110 ‘Describe’ questions the trunk, the movement produced is rotation and the agonistic
muscles producing this movement are the external obliques.
Example answer:
Muscles work in pairs. The muscle that contracts to produce 116 ‘Evaluate’ questions
the movement is called the agonist. The other muscle in the Example answer:
pair will relax to allow the agonist to contract. This is called the Most sporting movements will be in the sagittal plane as
antagonist. they involve flexion and extension. In a press-up, the elbow is
lll ‘Explain’ questions experiencing flexion from point one to point two and moves
through the sagittal plane.
Explanations to include the following points:
Movements in the frontal plane involve abduction and adduction.
* prevent movement that might damage the joint
These will generally be movements of the arms or legs away from
* stabilise the joint during movement.
the midline of the body. A lateral dumbbell raise would move
1lZ2 Long-answer questions through the frontal plane. A gymnast in the crucifix position is
another good example.
Example table that would enable you to evaluate, in response to
the question: Transverse plane — rotational movements occur at the hip and
shoulder, which are ball and socket joints. The transverse plane
Joint ) :Movement Muscles used when moving down into the separates the top and bottom half of the body and can include
ee | lunge any sort of twisting motion. The horizontal wood chop exercise
Agonist — quadriceps group rotates the shoulders and the vertebrae.
Concentric contraction liz ‘To what extent’ questions
Antagonist — hamstring group
Example answer:
Agonist — gluteals When a sprinter is on the blocks, they need to get a message from
Concentric contraction the brain to the muscles as quickly as possible so their reaction
Antagonist — hip flexors time is minimal. To do this, they use nerve impulses, which are an
electrical current that run from the CNS (central nervous system)
113 ‘Assess’ questions to the muscles.
The answer should include the following three phases: Neuromuscular junction (synapses) are the place where the nerve
Initiating contraction: and muscle meet. The gap between the nerve and the muscle is
* the nervous system sends impulses to generate action potential called the synaptic cleft. When the nerve transmits its signal, the
* if there is sufficient stimulation acetylcholine is released presynaptic membrane releases acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter.

929
This diffuses across the gap between the nerve and muscle and
make progress. It would also be full of enthusiasm with lots
creates an electrical signal. If this signal is big enough the muscle
of good-quality feedback and positivity.
will contract to produce movement. The athlete will then move
2 A negative motivational climate would lack praise. The praise
off the blocks in reaction to the sound stimuli.
may be negative and be damaging to the athlete. There may
118 Concise answers also be a low level of enthusiasm from those running the
club, e.g. the coach. There would also be negative feedback
Example answer:
given to players leading to general negativity, overall.
Free weights training is a type of strength training used to
develop the strength and size of skeletal muscles. William uses 125 Influencing motivation
the force of gravity to oppose the force generated by the muscle Example answer:
through concentric or eccentric contractions. Weight training can 1 Ray’s family and peers may affect his motivation. They may
be used to target specific muscle groups and types of movements encourage him to take part and play with him.
that he uses during swimming. 2 One of his friends may join the same team and this may
William can adjust the resistance, e. g. adding 10kg to the barbell, increase his confidence to continue to go.
the number of repetitions with a particular weight and the 3 Ray’s motivation may be affected by his personality. If he has
number of sets of the exercise to suit his needs. a high NAF he will want to avoid failure at all costs, whereas
Free weights training can also be used to develop strength a low NAF will mean he isn’t afraid of failure.
endurance; this is the most appropriate type of strength for long-
distance swimming. To do this William will use high repetitions 126 Over-motivation and its signs
(15+) with light loading (30-50% of 1RM). Example answer:
1 The coach may notice that the athlete begins to overtrain and
Unit 3: Applied Sport and becomes addicted to training. They may also notice that the
player has become moody and gets bored easily.
Exercise Physiology 2 Way 1: the coach can help the athlete to overcome this by
providing them with a clear, structured training plan that
119 Types of motivation
only allows them to train for specific days/times.
Example answer: Way 2: the coach can work with the athlete on relaxation
Libby’s type of motivation may be extrinsic as she has possibly techniques.
moved to the club due to their success and the number of
trophies they win. Winning more trophies is a way in which she 127 Effects of over-motivation
can gain recognition. There is also more money available in the Example answer:
club so she may believe she will benefit from this with better 1 Over-motivation can lead to injury through overtraining.
equipment or possibly even a bonus. Overtraining can push an athlete too far and result in strains
or sprains etc.
120 Need achievement theory 2 OQver-motivation can lead to burnout as the athlete
Example answer: continually tries to reach the demands of training and
Athletes with a high need to succeed and a low need to avoid competition even if they have not been successful. They will
failure will have the highest levels of motivation as they are not try harder and harder and eventually suffer burnout.
afraid of failure, therefore taking more risks in their desire to be 3 Decrement in performance may occur when an athlete is so
the best and succeed. over-motivated that their training is not effective. They are
121 Achievement goal theory (AGT) unable to achieve or maintain previous levels of performance.

The answer to this question will be very personal to you. 128 Arousal performance theories (1)
However, it would be expected to include information such as Example answer:
basic attitude, beliefs and feelings. It would then be expected that Both the drive theory and inverted-U hypothesis state that as
you identify as either task orientated or ego/outcome orientated, arousal increases so does performance. However, inverted-U
giving reasons why. hypothesis states that arousal has an optimal point. Therefore,
in a cup final match, as the athlete is a high-level performer,
122 Self-determination theory (SDT) they will be able to control their emotions and as their arousal
Example answer: increases they will be able to control their performance.
Self-determination theory might explain Shaun’s desire to At the start of the match both the theory and the hypothesis state
succeed and to be the best in his sport because he is motivated that the athlete will be aroused and this level will increase and
to grow and will do whatever it takes to improve. The theory so too will his performance as the match goes on. After his team
suggests that athletes are determined to succeed and will aim to scores a goal his arousal will increase further, again strengthening
master challenging skills, gaining as many new experiences as his performance. When the opposition has scored a goal to
possible. Shaun wants to improve and be the best he can so is equalise, the inverted-U hypothesis will show that his arousal and
determined to keep training and overcome his injury. performance will drop.
The drive theory would explain that the footballer is still aroused
123 Weiner’s attribution theory and so his performance will continue to increase.
Individual answers. The example answer states the category the
statement falls into: 129 Arousal performance theories (2)
In terms of stability, Jim may say that luck isn’t on their side at Example answer:
the moment or that the wins against them are flukes. In terms of Zones of optimal performance state that everyone has a different
causality, he may say that the other teams are simply better than optimal arousal level and everyone can remain in the zone
they are and, in terms of control, he may say that the other teams for a period of time, where they will perform at a higher level
aren’t as good as his team. for longer. However, catastrophe theory states that the drop
in performance may not be steady when arousal is too high.
124 Motivational environment When arousal becomes hyper-elevated, performance declines
Example answer: catastrophically.
1 A positive motivational climate would include lots of praise.
This would help the athlete feel motivated to continue and

233
 130 Changes in arousal 137 Negative consequences of stress
Example answer: and anxiety
When the gymnast’s arousal is heightened, their attentional field Your answer will be unique to you. However, each of the
becomes narrowed, thus affecting attention and concentration. six negative effects of stress and anxiety can lead to a poor
The more aroused the gymnast becomes, the lower the number performance and decrease confidence. They can be detrimental
of relevant clues they can concentrate on. An increase in arousal psychologically and psychological intervention may be needed to
can lead to increased stress and state anxiety. This will in turn overcome the effects.
increase somatic and cognitive anxiety. When the gymnast is ‘in
the zone’, they are totally submerged in their sport, feeling alert 138 Types of aggression
and strong, knowing they can control their performance, i.e. they Example answer:
are at their peak resulting in increased performance. Hostile aggression is often an act that causes harm to another
athlete, whereas assertion is playing by the rules but with
131 Stress
emotion. With aggressive play, rules are likely to be broken,
Example answer: whereas with assertive play rules will be followed.
Firstly, the snooker player would have the demand placed upon
them — this is trying to pot the black. They would then perceive 139 Theories of aggression
this as a challenge or a threat. If they believe they can do it their Example answer:
arousal levels will then begin to increase, creating eustress. As John’s behaviour relates to frustration-aggression theory as
this is positive stress, their performance will increase and they are he has become frustrated as a result of missing several shots.
likely to pot the black. If their confidence is threatened, they may This frustration then leads to aggression and he hits out at an
believe they can’t pot the black. As this is negative stress, this will opponent. This is unlikely to have occurred if John had scored
create distress and their performance would be reduced so the his shots or if frustration had not built up.
player may miss potting the black.
140 Self-confidence
132 Anxiety Responses will be unique, though might include the following
Example answer: sources of confidence:
1 Sam may be experiencing competitive anxiety as he gets very * mastery
nervous and anxious before a race. * demonstration of ability by winning and outperforming
2 Sam’s somatic anxiety should decline as he starts the race but opponents
his cognitive anxiety may stay high as his confidence could be * physical and mental preparation
low as he tries to reach his goal. ° self-presentation
133 Anxiety: Emotions and behaviours * social support
* coaches’ leadership
Your answer will be personal to you, reflecting how your anxiety * vicarious experiences
levels changed as the activity you took part in progressed and * feeling comfortable in the environment where you will perform
how that affected your performance. * situational favourableness.
134 Sources of stress 141 Impact of self-confidence
Example answer: Example answer:
(a) The stresses that Sarah may face when making her decision
Effect of optimal self-confidence on performance:
to attend the class might include several internal sources
1 When striving to perfect their skills the athlete will put all
of stress such as fear, unrealistic expectations and anxiety.
their energies into succeeding and not stop short of achieving
External sources of stress for Sarah could include financial the goals.
issues as the class may be too expensive.
2 During sports performance, optimal levels of self-confidence
(b) When making the decision to continue to attend the class,
will help the athlete maintain a higher level of performance
Sarah may have to consider her relationships with family
for longer.
members as she will spend less time with them but on the plus
Effect of low self-confidence on performance:
side she should consider new friendships she might make.
1. When first joining a club or team, an athlete may feel low
135 Symptoms of stress and anxiety self-confidence and doubt their ability, leading them to be
quite anxious and indecisive when playing.
Example answer:
2 An athlete lacking self-confidence might not hear or listen
At the start of an important match, a boxer’s sympathetic
to the coach’s instructions and miss important information.
nervous system would kick in. It would ignite the fight or flight
Because they are not paying attention, they can put
response. The boxer would find that the adrenaline in the body
themselves at risk of injury by not being aware of their
increased as did the heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature
surroundings.
and muscle tension. The boxer may also have a dry mouth. The
boxer would need to find the best way to relax prior to the event, 142 Expectations and performance
assisted by his coach.
Example answer:
136 Positive consequences of stress and Suzanne has to have high expectations of herself and go into the
match believing she can win. If she believes she will lose, she will
anxiety doubt herself, her own abilities and begin to lose control of her
Your answer will be unique to you. However, each of the six focus on the game. Suzanne’s coach must also believe she can win
positive effects of stress and anxiety can help to maintain control and show her that together she can beat the favourite.
and drive performance forwards to increase ability to reach new
heights in sport. 143 Self-efficacy
Example answer:
Verbal persuasion is making sure someone is aware of the positives
of their ability and performances. By convincing an athlete that
they are capable of achieving well, this can increase their self-
confidence and their performance can be greatly enhanced.

924
144 Application of Bandura's 2 Personal factors — effective teams need to have a variety of
self-efficacy theory different personality types to promote a balanced approach.
Some sports will require there to be a greater number of
Example answer:
extrovert characters (commonly team sports) as opposed to
Depending on Scarlett’s previous experiences of netball her self-
introverts (commonly individual sports). However, this is not
efficacy could be high or low. It could be high as she knows she
to say that everyone that plays a team sport is an extrovert
has lots of transferable skills to use in netball from her basketball
but just that there is commonly more of them than introverts.
experience. However, it could be low if she has little experience in
3 Leadership factors — it is essential that a coach/manager
netball, or previous poor experiences.
understands what their players need in order to get the
145 Self-esteem best out of them. Seemingly, it is important that the coach/
manager understands how to communicate with their players.
Example answer:
Within a team, some members will not mind the shouting
Itmay increase Joshua’s self-esteem as he will learn new skills,
approach whereas others will need to be spoken to in a calm
improve and therefore believe in himself much more than before.
and considered manner.
146 Dweck’s theory 4 Team factors — the length of time a team has been together
will affect team cohesion. Teams who have experienced many
Example answer:
The ideal mindset for an athlete to achieve their potential and successes and losses have the greatest cohesion because they
have formed a close bond as they have all worked together to
reach goals is a growth mindset. This is because they believe
achieve a shared aim or goal.
that their ability can be developed and are more willing to put
in 10000 hours of practice to perfect the skills and techniques 153 Types of leader
required for the sport. Example answer:
147 Application of Dweck’s theory 1_ A prescribed leader is an individual who is appointed by a
higher authority. An example of a prescribed leader would be
Example answer:
Sam Allardyce, who was appointed as the England manager
To turn a talented amateur sportsperson into an elite athlete
by the Football Association. In contrast, an emergent leader
they need a growth mindset and be willing to learn, improve and
is someone who has gained support and respect from others
develop their skills through training and hard work, perfecting
over time. An example of this would be a captain who has the
skills and techniques.
respect of team mates and the necessary leadership qualities
148 Resilience to fulfil the expectations of the role.
2 An autocratic leader is an individual who is inflexible in their
Example answer:
approach to leadership. They have firm ideas about how
Michelle will need to show good resilience to cope with new
things should be completed and will not seek the opinion or
situations and focus on the positive aspects of her chosen move.
ideas of others. This type of leader will not get involved on a
She will need physical and mental toughness to cope with the
personal level with group participants. An autocratic leader
transition of moving to a new club, getting to know new people
encourages team members to become passive as players get
and working with them to improve further.
used to not thinking for themselves.
149 Perfectionism By contrast, a democratic leader is characterised as only
making decisions when all group members have been consulted.
Example answer:
This type of leadership takes into account the thoughts and
Andrew may display exceedingly high standards when training
feelings of others. It can take a while for a democratic leader to
and have a desire to train for a large amount of time. He may
make a final decision once they have collated information from
develop a high level of self-confidence in his quest to perfect
other team members. Teams who have a democratic leader are
skills and techniques. His competitive play may be improved at
able to work well without the leader being present.
the start of the season due to his desire for perfectionism.

150 Tuckman’s group development

154 Chelladurai’s model of leadership
Example answer:
Example answer:
1. In his role, the captain of the international sports team
Tuckman’s four stages of group formation would explain that
will need to have a good understanding of the situational
Paul’s group are in the ‘Storming’ or conflict stage. The group
characteristics such as the climate and the strength of the
will have begun to form smaller cliques and may try to assert
opposition. The captain’s leadership style will be determined
authority. The change in authority (becoming the new leader)
by his experience and skill level. If the leader is the captain
will mean that Paul will have to take on the formal leader role of an international team, then the captain’s experience level
and take on the decision-making role for the group. will be high. This will help the captain to form either an
151 Group effectiveness autocratic or democratic leadership style. For a successful
performance, it is important that the leader has a reasonable
Example answer:
understanding of their players such as what motivates them,
Three characteristics of individuals who display social loafing their competences and their levels of experience.
tendencies:
2 Acoach introducing 8-year-olds to gymnastics for the first
1. afraid of failure
time will behave considerably differently from the captain of
2 anxious an international sports team. The 8-year-old gymnasts are
3 lack confidence. at the other end of the skills and experience spectrum. The
152 Carron’s model of cohesion coach, as the leader, will need to have a sound knowledge of
the environmental conditions and the number of children
Answers may reflect the individual sport and include the they are working with to ensure the children are kept safe at
following four elements that are needed to ensure that team all times. The coach (leader) needs to mould their leadership
cohesion is effective. characteristics carefully into a supportive and encouraging
1. Environmental factors — teams that are geographically style. It is essential that the gymnast’s characteristics are
close together have an opportunity to meet more often and carefully considered, ensuring that the children are challenged
therefore tend to be more effective at performing. This is appropriately but are not asked to complete activities that are
because the team will have had more opportunity to forge significantly outside what they are able to do. It is important
strong relationships with each other.
235
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2 a ce

that the coach (leader) displays behaviour that is appropriate Stage 4 — Agreeing goal setting and the methods as to how they
for working with children and that they are supportive in will be achieved — the coach and athlete establish goals that
their behaviour style. If a child respects and likes the coach should lead to an improvement in performance.
(leader) they are likely to learn a lot, enhance their skills and Stage 5 — Repeat the profiling exercise to monitor the athlete’s
improve their performances. progress — performance profiling is repeated on a regular basis
In both 1 and 2, three elements will affect the leader’s behaviours: to check that progress is being made on achieving the goals
1 The player characteristics will mould the required behaviour identified in step 4.

2
of the leader.
The required behaviour element is focused on how the leader
158 Applying performance profiling
should behave in particular situations. In contrast, actual Example answer:
behaviour is the innate way that the leader will choose to Strengths:
conduct himself in a specific situation. * situational awareness
3 Preferred behaviour is dictated by the player’s characteristics * motivation
in terms of what leadership style will work well to get the best * speed
out of each of them. When all of these elements have been * competitiveness
met, team performance and satisfaction will be enhanced. * passing.
155 Team focus and commitment Weaknesses:
* tactical knowledge
Example answer:
¢ discipline
1 In basketball, when a player scans the court for an unmarked
relaxed
team mate they will use a broad attentional focus. However,
pain tolerance
as play develops the player will then identify a team mate
* coping
who is unmarked and use a narrow focus to ensure that the
° goal setting
pass is made accurately without it being intercepted by their
* imagery
opponents. The attentional focus varies to reflect what is
* communication
important.
* emotional control
2 Commitment and determination are essential to an elite
* teamwork
and recreational player for different reasons. Commonly,
* concentration
international athletes are paid to compete whereas a
° self-belief
recreational player is required to give up their free time to
° focus
participate. However, this is not to say that one player is more
* anticipation.
committed than the other, rather it is the different factors
that motivate the commitment. In terms of determination, Significant differences:
it is important that an international tennis player is * teamwork (athlete scored 9, coach scored 5)
determined to do well on the world stage. However, the level * imagery (athlete 3, coach 6)
of determination in recreational players can vary greatly * coping (athlete 9, coach 6)
depending on the drive to support them to succeed. * passing (athlete 7, coach 8)
* competitiveness (athlete 6, coach 8)
156 Aims of psychological interventions ¢ focus (athlete 6, coach 8)
Example answer: ¢ speed (athlete 8, coach 9),
—
1 High motivation — psychological interventions can help to
enhance motivation by reducing the anxiety surrounding a
159 Goal timescales and types
performance through a series of techniques. Example answer:
2 Self-regulation of arousal levels — if arousal is too high or 1° short term lasting for days to a month
too low then performance will be reduced. Therefore, it is ¢ medium term lasting a month to six months
essential that an individual is able to control their arousal * long term depending on the nature of the goal but
levels so that their performance is not adversely affected. normally six months plus.
3 Positive thoughts — sportspeople who have a positive outlook 2 »* Outcome goals are focused on a result, i.e. winning a race.
prior to training or events will often do better than their They are heavily focused on short-term goals but not
opponents who are not mentally prepared for the challenge. effective at enhancing long-term development.
4 High levels of self-confidence — athletes need high levels of * Performance goals focus on comparing past performances.
self-confidence. Some athletes may have team mates and a These goals are individual and do not rely on others to
coaching team (e.g. footballers) who boost their confidence. perform well for them to achieve.
However, some sportspeople largely compete on their own * Process goals are focused on improvements that an athlete
(e.g. golfers) so it could be argued that they will require a needs to make to enhance their performance.
greater level of self-confidence. * Mastery goals focus on self-challenge and improvement.
They are reliant on athletes improving on their last
157 Performance profiling performance.
Example answer: * Competitive goals focus on beating opponents and
Stage 1 — Identifying and defining key qualities for performance — ensuring that the athlete is not outperformed.
athletes are asked what attributes they feel are important for
successful performance. 160 Principles of goal setting
Stage 2 — Profiling the coach’s perceptions of the athlete’s levels Example answer:
and profiling the athlete’s perceptions of their own levels — this Goal setting is based on improving speed.
is an assessment between the coach and the athlete. Twenty Short-term goal: To sign up and complete 6 interval training
qualities are selected and rated from 0-10. sessions that are focused on speed training in the next 3 weeks.
Stage 3 — Discussion between the coach and athlete — the results Medium-term goal: To increase the frequency of interval training
are interpreted and areas of perceived strengths and weaknesses to three times a week for the next six weeks focusing on speed
are identified, leading to a discussion between the coach and the training.
athlete. Long-term goal: To run 50 metres in less than 8.1 seconds.

236
161 Types of imagery be said by the coach while Peter is performing to help him to
Example answer: refocus and prevent him from overanalysing negative aspects
Visual imagery can be used to support a golfer: seeing themselves of performances. Additionally, cue words can be said by Peter’s
successfully completing the shot and breaking it down into coach to increase arousal and promote a feeling of self-belief
different elements as if they were watching a video clip of it. This prior to performing, particularly if the routine is complex.
is known as external imagery. Self-talk can be used as part of the pre-performance routine used
Auditory imagery can be used by the golfer to imagine the sounds by Peter and in conjunction with his coach to assist in mentally
that are associated with the sporting movement. This could be the preparing him prior to competition.
noise as the club travels through the air during tee off or the noise
as the club strikes the ball. All of these support the visual imagery
165 Relaxation techniques
techniques and assist in creating a holistic approach. Example answer:
The final method of imagery used by the golfer is to think about Technique 1 — Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR)
how the muscles feel when the club is in hand, through mid- As an athlete becomes aroused, the tension in the muscle
swing, or the feeling you get in the forearm when a connection is increases. This can have a negative effect on performance if the
made with the ball. This is a type of internal imagery as it relies athlete becomes too aroused as the muscles will not be able to
on the golfer concentrating on how the shot feels. sustain repeated contractions. Fatigue can set in sooner as the
length of the muscle fibres decreases and can inhibit an athlete
162 Uses of imagery from executing a full range of movement. The excess tension
Example answer: in the muscle can divert an athlete’s attention as it creates
an uncomfortable feeling, therefore creating a decrease in
There are a number of effects that imagery has on the body and
on an athlete’s performance. These include:
coordination.
Progressive muscular relaxation combats this by consciously
* A reduction in anxiety and stress: imagery has been used
more recently as a tool to assist in reducing the anxiety and making the athlete aware of how tight the muscles feel by
educating the athlete in the differences between muscle tension
stress that an athlete can experience prior to participating in
and muscle relaxation. This technique requires the athlete to
competitions. Imagery is used sometimes in conjunction with
tense and relax muscles in the body for 5 seconds while breathing
breathing exercises to control arousal, anxiety and stress.
deeply. The process is then repeated. PMR is most effective when
Imagining goals and influencing self-confidence: imagery can
the technique is applied to all muscle groups.
be used to develop a mental experience of an athlete achieving
their goal. These tools can also assist in improving self- Technique 2 — Autogenic techniques
confidence as the athlete sees themselves successfully achieving This is a form of hypnosis. The technique relies on the
their goal. athlete being able to create a feeling of warmth and heaviness
¢ Pre-performance routines: within elite-level sport this is used throughout the body. This technique relies on the athlete focusing
regularly as part of a pre-performance routine as athletes their attention on how the body feels by going through six stages.
mentally rehearse elements of their performance without This technique is not commonly used due to the length of time
physically completing the skill or technique. an athlete needs to practise the self-hypnosis techniques.
¢ Mental rehearsal: imagery allows an athlete to be able to 166 Energising techniques
mentally practise an element of their performance before
performing the task. Example answer:
¢ Energising imagery — can be used to decrease arousal and
163 Types of self-talk anxiety but can also be used to increase arousal.
Example answer: ¢ Listening to music — increases arousal, diverts attention,
Positive self-talk is designed to enable an athlete to feel in control focusing the mind, increases body temperature, increases heart
of a situation where they do not feel worried or overly concerned. rate, increases breathing rate and prevents negative thoughts
This type of talk is self-directed and is used as a motivational from coming to the front of the mind.
tool. Commonly, it is used in the professional sporting world and * Pep talks — enhance confidence, short in duration to perform,
encourages athletes to talk to themselves positively. The success of can be completed by anyone who has a relationship to the
the tool largely depends on how often it is practised — the more it athlete, increasing the drive to succeed.
is practised, the bigger the success obtained from it. The concept * Positive statements — stand-alone technique enhances arousal.
behind it is that it allows an athlete to gain perspective and refocus ¢ Increased breathing rate — used to control arousal levels.
quickly if elements of the performance don’t go to plan. 167 Your Unit 3 set task
In contrast to this, negative self-talk can have a catastrophic effect
Individual notes on the Unit 3 set task, always referring to the
on athletic performance. This type of self-talk is difficult to control
latest Sample Assessment Material on the Pearson website for an
and it is solely problem focused. Pre-performance preparation
indication of assessment details.
is ruined by negative self-talk as an athlete becomes unable to
overcome the feelings that this type of self-talk generates. However, 168 Understanding key terms
it is important to note that a fear of success can also bring about Individual responses, based on the choice of sport, individual
negative self-talk as an individual then worries what effect being performance and psychological factor.
successful may have on their current lifestyle.
169 Psychological factors and theories
164 Uses of self-talk
in context
Example answer:
Individual responses. Possible interventions in response to
Self-talk can be used in gymnastics to enhance Peter’s confidence
psychological factors might include, for example:
so that he believes that he can perform some of the most tricky
* self-talk, for self-confidence and controlling arousal
techniques. Positive self-talk assists Peter to create positive
* goal setting, using types of goals, timescales for goals, and
thought processes. Further to this, positive self-talk can be used
SMARTS goals
to help Peter to focus on the routine, reducing the impact of
* imagery, using visual, auditory and kinaesthetic approaches to
negative thoughts and emotions.
address the psychological factors and improve performance.
Self-talk can be used to control arousal in a gymnast. This
prevents Peter from becoming over-aroused, which will have
a negative effect on performance. Cue words and phrases may

237
170 Making revision notes 1 The energy content that comes from carbohydrate is
70 calories (17.5 x 4)
Individual responses, with headings to structure brief bullet notes The percentage energy that comes from fat is 57%
2
based on the area chosen. 11.6 x 9 = 104.4; (104.4 = 184) x 100 = 57%
171 Interpreting psychological factors A 45¢ bar of milk chocolate:
Individual answers that assess the impact of another psychological
factor on Kane, drawing on different psychological factors from
within the Revision Guide, e.g. stress, eustress and distress, the
negative consequences of stress, arousal and self-confidence.
wR
172 Applying psychological theories
Individual answers, drawing on a different psychological theory
from within the Revision Guide such as: 1 Theenergy content that comes from carbohydrate is
¢ need achievement theory 103 calories (25.7 x 4)
Weiner’s attribution theory 2 The percentage energy that comes from fat is 50%
¢ drive theory 13.4 x 9 = 120.6 (120.6 + 240 x 100 = 50%
catastrophe theory
inverted-U hypothesis
176 Recommended daily allowance
* theories on anxiety, self-confidence and motivation (RDA)
* zones of optimal functioning. Example answer:
Requirements for energy are likely to fall above the estimated
173 Recommending psychological
average requirement for energy of 2000 kcal for women and
interventions 2500 kcal for men, due to larger energy expenditure through
Individual answers, drawing on different interventions from physical activity. In respect of micronutrient, they are likely to
within the Revision Guide such as: have higher needs and therefore should aim to achieve intakes of
° goal setting * relaxation micronutrient that meet reference nutrient intake values.
° self-talk * energising techniques.
177 Metabolism
Unit 13: Nutrition for Sport and Example answer:
1 Bobby’s total energy requirement:
Exercise Performance TER = 1674 x 1.9 = 3180.6 rounded up to 3181 calories
2 Bobby’s energy requirements are likely to vary from day
174 Nutrition and hydration to day due to variety in the type, intensity and duration of
Example answer: training.
Your daily intake might look something like this, classified into 3 Bobby is likely to need to eat more food on days when he
trains harder for longer and less food on lighter training days.
Weal (fod |Re
Classification — 178 Energy balance
Example answer:
Energy balance is achieved when the amount of energy taken in
as food and drink equals the amount of energy expended.
(a) For weight loss to occur, a negative energy balance is required
i.e. you need to consume less energy than you are expending.
For weight gain to occur, a positive energy balance is
required, i.e. you need to consume more energy than you are
expending.
(b) Our energy intake is the sum of the calories contained within
the foods and drink we consume. A regular supply of energy
is needed to fuel the body’s many processes, but daily energy
requirements vary from individual to individual. Our energy
expenditure is the sum of our resting metabolic rate (BMR)
(the amount of energy expended while at rest), the thermic
effect of food (otherwise known as dietary thermogenesis),
the energy expended in all physical activity and any
additional energy expended through adaptive thermogenesis.

179 Body weight, BMI and

You should find that you have more carbohydrate-rich foods,
body composition
followed by protein foods and fewer fat-rich foods.
Example answer:
175 Nutritional measurements The achievement of a body composition to support optimal
Example answer: performance can be an important but challenging goal for athletes
who should have individualised nutrition strategies to support it.
A 35g bag of salt and vinegar crisps:
Advantages
* optimal performance
* the athletes feel well prepared
Carbohydrate 17.5 * better power to weight ratio may be achieved.
Fat :
Disadvantages (c) A tennis player playing on the professional circuit:
* may create issues with inadequate energy availability and
at the low end = 1.2 x 70 = 84g
micronutrient deficiency if energy intake is restricted too
at the top end = 1.7 x 70= 119g
severely when weight loss is required
This individual is likely to fall within the strength and
it is relatively easy to gain weight through gaining additional
power range of requirements and have a higher range of
body fat, but in most cases this will not be of benefit to the
requirements dependent on how many matches are played
athlete, so strategic approaches to weight gain are required and and the intensity of them.
need to be monitored.
Remember: to gain lean (muscle) mass requires a more strategic 184 Micronutrients: Fat-soluble
approach through correct training, adequate protein intake and vitamins
creating a positive energy balance.
Example answer:
180 Macronutrients: Carbohydrates Vegetarian athletes can be at risk of low energy and
Example answer: micronutrient intake. A female athlete might be concerned about
Carbohydrates are the body’s most readily available source of body image and trying to cut back on calorie and fat intake. In
order to achieve adequate intake of fat-soluble vitamins, it is
energy. Carbohydrate foods are divided into two basic types and
necessary to consume fats in the diet. For vegetarians, this might
are generally known as simple or complex.
Simple carbohydrates are essentially sugars. They are formed
be a little harder because vegetarian diets tend to contain less fat.
Vitamin A can be found in red and orange fruit and vegetables.
from single and double sugar units and are easily digested and
This would be an alternative to animal sources of vitamin A.
absorbed to provide a quick energy source.
Vitamin D can be found in dairy foods and eggs, but the majority
Complex carbohydrates are an important source of energy as
of our vitamin D comes from the action of sunlight on the skin
they are broken down slowly in your body releasing energy over
during sun exposure.
longer periods. They should form the largest part of your total
Vitamin E can be found in vegetable oils, nuts and seeds and
daily carbohydrate intake.
vegetarians are likely to consume more of these types of food in
The glycaemic index is a rating that describes how quickly a food
their diet.
containing carbohydrate increases your blood glucose after eating.
Vitamin K can be found in vegetables oils, eggs and dairy foods.
High glycaemic foods get broken down and absorbed quickly
causing a rapid rise in your blood glucose meaning these are good 185 Micronutrients: Water-soluble
for promoting recovery of muscle glycogen after exercise.
vitamins
Low glycaemic index foods break down slowly causing a more
gradual rise in your blood glucose, providing more stable energy Example answer:
levels, meaning they are better consumed before exercise. Guidelines to ensure an athlete achieves adequate intakes of
water-soluble vitamins on a daily basis:
181 Carbohydrate RDA ¢ Aim to get enough of these micronutrients by eating a varied
Example answer: and balanced diet but remember that getting more than you
The swimmer is likely to need to spread her intake out across 5-6 need will not offer a performance benefit.
meals and snacks each day. Recovery nutrition from sessions is Eat enough energy. Consuming adequate calories is necessary
likely to form preparation nutrition for the next session. Consuming to get the vitamins you need, and to use them properly.
the upper end of her requirements might be a challenge trying to If you are cutting back on calories you are reducing your
make sure they are not carbohydrates from sugary sources. micronutrient intake.
Stir-frying, steaming and microwaving vegetables help to
182 Macronutrients: Fats preserve their vitamin content.
Example answer: Follow the Eatwell Plate guidance across the different foods
Fat is an essential nutrient in the diet. Government guidelines groups and eat plenty of wholegrains and fortified cereal to
recommend 90 grams per day for the average male. Fatty help achieve vitamin B intakes and concentrate on green leafy
acids are used as an energy source in the muscle for endurance vegetables, citrus and soft fruit to help with vitamin C intake,
activities. Ultimately, a diet too low in fat can have serious 186 Micronutrients: Minerals
health consequences and can impair performance. Athletes are
discouraged from chronic fat restriction, to below 20 per cent of Example answer:
Minerals are essential to health and some help to form important
their total energy requirements, as this is often associated with
components of the body such as bone, connective tissue, enzymes
reduced nutrient intake, particularly fat-soluble vitamins and
and hormones. Others, meanwhile, play essential roles in nerve
essential fatty acids. Harris should be encouraged to include
function and muscle contraction or can help regulate fluid balance.
healthy fats in his diet from sources such as avocados, salmon,
Iron is important for the formation of haemoglobin. It is
walnuts and olive oil.
also important for myoglobin — a red protein, containing
183 Macronutrients: Protein haemoglobin, that carries and stores oxygen in muscle cells.
Sodium and potassium are important for neuromuscular
Example answer:
transmission as well as fluid and acid-base balance.
(a) A sedentary office worker who has a 15-minute walk to work
Calcium is important for maintaining good bone health.
and back each day:
at the low end = 0.75 x 70 = 52.5g 187 Fibre
at the top end = 1.0 x 70 = 70g
Example answer:
This individual, although having a 15-minute walk to work
Practical ways to increase fibre intake to achieve the 30g target a
every day, would largely be classed as sedentary and would
day include:
fall within normal requirement.
* Generally eating a wide variety of unrefined foods throughout
(b) A physical education teacher in training for a marathon: the day by switching to wholemeal bread, wholewheat pasta
at the low end = 1.2 x 70 = 84g
and wholegrain rice.
at the top end = 1.4 x 70 = 98g
Choosing wholegrain breakfast cereals to start the day.
As this individual is training for a marathon, they would be Eating potatoes in their skins such as jacket and new potatoes.
classed in the endurance category and likely to have higher ¢ Adding beans, lentils and peas to soups, casseroles, salads,
requirements than the sedentary individual. pasta and rice dishes and avoiding peeling vegetables.

239
 ¢ Eating at least five servings of fruit and vegetables each day 192 Blood sugar con trol
and including them at all mealtimes and snacks.
Regulation ofblood glucose __
r

When trying to increase fibre intake, do so gradually and drink

extra water to help the gut adapt to an increase. Glucose level | Effect on Effect on
pancreas glucose level
188 Fluid intake
Low Insulin not Liver does not
Example answer: secreted convert glucose
Plan to monitor hydration status in a rugby team: into the to glycogen
* I would generally monitor and observe players for the signs bloodstream
and symptoms of dehydration such as lack of energy and early
Insulin Liver converts
fatigue during exercise.
* I could use urine colour charts as a simple way of monitoring secreted glucose to
hydration status. These could be placed as large charts in the into the glycogen
changing rooms for players to be reminded of the importance bloodstream
of adequate hydration.
* I could monitor changes in the players’ body mass before and 193 Water balance control
after training and matches. Control of fluid balance is achieved by anti-diuretic hormone
¢ I could inform players that thirst is a poor indicator of (ADH). The more ADH present the more water absorbed.
dehydration, so drinking to just stay ahead of the sensation of Regulation of waterbalance |
thirst could be a good strategy to encourage.
Water ADH level | Effect on k idney Effect on urine
189 Types of fluid content in production
Example answer: blood
Being well hydrated at the start of exercise and keeping a large High volume of Small volume
fluid volume in the gut facilitates rehydration. However, the water reabsorbed of concentrated
effectiveness of fluid-replacement strategies during exercise is by the kidneys urine produced
helped by drinking fluids that are: Low volume of Large volume
* still water reabsorbed of dilute urine
* cool by the kidneys produced
* of reasonable volume, em
* not too concentrated 194 Balanced diet
* contain sodium
Individual answers. Your review and report should show how
* most importantly, palatable (an athlete is more likely to drink
many of the principles you achieve, where you have room for
if they like the taste).
improvement and which areas of your food choice and intake
If exercising for less than 60 minutes, taking fluid on board
were better than you thought they might be. What goals could
during this time may not be a priority, but if longer than that it is
you set to improve your intake?
important not to leave it too late to replenish.

190 Digestion 195 Impact of food preparation

Example answer:
Example answer:
To optimise micronutrient availability, eat a wide variety of
There are three functions of digestion. Breakdown of food,
foods choosing good-quality food, natural foods and foods that
absorption of nutrients and fluids and excretion of waste
are lightly processed. Cooking methods to optimise nutrient
products. These functions allow large insoluble food molecules to
availability include steaming, stir-frying, microwaving and
be broken down into small water-soluble molecules that can be
juicing.
absorbed into the blood plasma.
Mechanical digestion takes place in the mouth; chewing breaks 196 Benefits of a balanced diet
the food down into smaller pieces. Saliva, secreted by the salivary
1 A
glands, starts the digestion of starch in the food. Saliva contains
zoe
salivary amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch. The
> &
digested food forms a bolus and when swallowed travels down
4 C
the oesophagus and into the stomach. The smooth muscle of the
3°
stomach produces the action of peristalsis which mechanically
mixes the food. After 1-2 hours, a thick liquid is produced, called 197 Eating disorders
chyme. This enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive Example answer:
enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and Kelly might be more at risk of an eating disorder because ice llN
a
s
then passes through the small intestine. After the chyme is fully
skating is an aesthetic sport, which is judged. She might follow a
digested, it is absorbed into the blood. Water and minerals are strict diet in order maintain her body shape and composition, as
reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) and in order to perform moves she will need to be powerful but light
waste material is expelled from the rectum.
and lean. She may suffer from self-esteem and self-confidence
191 Digestion and absorption issues which can lead to an eating disorder. Because she has been
training since she was 12, she might have developed some weight
control patterns. For example, deliberate bingeing, restricting
food intake, or behaviours such as self-induced vomiting, misuse
of laxatives, misuse of diuretics and even excessive amounts of
exercise can begin as methods to improve performance but later
AWN
Owranm
become out of control. Rather than helping to improve Kelly’s
ice skating performance, if she follows food restriction and
dangerous dieting behaviours that may be a risk to her, they will
eventually hinder her performance in training and competition.

240
198 Nutritional strategies * lactate production is likely to be high
Example answer: * aerobic energy production also high
Carbohydrate loading is a process by which athletes manipulate * performance may be impaired towards the end of a match
their carbohydrate intake and exercise regime to maximise but also after intense bursts of effort.
glycogen storage in their muscles, Carb-loading involves a high 2 Strategies to put into place to optimise individual and team
carbohydrate intake (60 to 70 per cent of total calories) with a performance:
decrease in exercise intensity and duration prior to competition. * educate players about their individual requirements
The triathlete should taper his training in the lead-up to the race * aim to start matches well hydrated and adequately fuelled
and aim to follow a plan for his carbohydrate intake as set out in * encourage players to be aware of their individual hydration
the following table. needs and how to maintain adequate hydration during
matches
ng ; Carbohydrate | Practical strategies * have appropriate fluids and snacks available in the changing
| contribution — room at half time
| to diet : * facilitate optimal recovery by handing out recovery drinks
Usual Base meals and ) and snacks straight after the match.
50-60% snacks around usual
carbohydrate foods. 201 Nutritional supplements and aids
Moderate | Usual :
Example answer:
40 mins 50-60%
Supplements can be broken down into two main categories —
5 Moderate | Usual nutrient or dietary supplements and nutritional ergogenic aids.
40 mins 50-60% Nutritional or dietary supplements assist athletes in meeting
4 Moderate | Usual their overall nutritional needs, either by providing a practical
30 mins 50-60% alternative to food or by helping to meet higher than average
Continue to base meals requirements for nutrients, such as carbohydrate and protein.
and snacks around usual A nutritional ergogenic aid aims to enhance performance usually
carbohydrate foods; through effects on energy, body composition and alertness.
you'll be training less so The challenges of supplement use include:
* the cost is often high
you might actually need
to eat a little less of all * there is a vast array of products available
of your other foods, but
* the manufacture, processing, labelling and marketing of
products is poorly regulated
keep carbohydrate intake
* products make convincing claims
up. Top up with sugary
* they present a doping risk
foods if necessary.
* they can contain substances harmful to health.
Carbohydrate-rich
breakfast, sip on sports 202 Supplement use
drinks up to the start of Example answer:
the race. Supplements may assist an athlete to achieve optimal nutritional
requirements, particularly when training intensity is very high.
199 Weight loss and gain They may also provide a short-term solution for a nutrient
Example answer: deficiency until a dietary solution can be implemented and they
The athlete should be discouraged from fasting, especially before may be particularly useful when travelling, especially to countries
training and competition as this is likely to leave them with where food culture and practices are very different from home.
decreased energy levels to perform optimally. Ideally, athletes If the claims made by a supplement sound too good to be true,
would compete at their normal weight, but when weight loss is be cautious! Always check out any supplement used on the
required a sensible approach is outlined below. The benefits of Informed Sport website ([Link]) to see that
following these suggestions would be that the athlete is better it has been batch tested and is free from banned substances.
able to maintain energy levels for training and competition and Supplement use requires thorough assessment, and advice by a
would be less likely to encounter any micronutrient deficiencies registered sports nutritionist should be sought.
that could affect health and performance.
° Set realistic weight loss/body composition targets.
203 Caffeine
Ideally address weight management issues in the off season. Example answer:
* Create a negative energy balance of between 500 and Although caffeine is likely to enhance performance in most
1000 kcals per day. people, some could be non-responders and some could have
¢ Eat regularly. negative responses, so this needs to be kept in mind when
¢ Maintain sufficient carbohydrate intake. deciding whether to introduce caffeine into the nutritional
¢ Decrease unnecessary fat intake. strategies of the middle-distance runner. If caffeine use is decided
¢ Ensure an adequate protein intake. upon guidelines include:
° Maintain nutritional balance to achieve adequate * aim to use the lowest effective dose — ergogenic effects have
micronutrient intake. been reported with as little as 3mg/kg body weight taken
* Maintain a high fluid intake. 1 hour before exercise
¢ Consider increasing aerobic exercise. * practise the use of caffeine strategies in training and lower level
competition
200 Nutrition for sports events * watch for symptoms of overuse such as headaches, nausea,
Example answer: insomnia.
1 The factors likely to impact on nutritional requirements of a The effect of caffeine on sleep, even at low levels of intake, may
team sport such as rugby union are: interfere with the ability to recover between training sessions, or
* individual positions of play will influence energy multi-day competitions.
requirements
* changes in intensity are irregular and can be at random

241
 204 Creatine and branch chain eating sufficient carbohydrate
starting refuelling as soon as possible after training
amino acids * eating more frequent meals and snacks where necessary
Example answer: * carrying snacks and fluids in their kit bag at all times for easy
Because Brett is aged 16, he should first be encouraged to adopt access to appropriate recovery items
a more balanced, healthy and varied diet that relies less on ¢ aiming to just stay ahead of thirst
convenience foods. He should make better-quality food choices using rest days to eat well to recover from the stresses of
and aim to eat more regularly. At this stage he should avoid training and competition.
supplementation of any kind.
209 Pre-event nutritional intake
205 Sports foods Example answer:
Example answer: The pre-race meal or snacks should aim to top up muscle and
Sports foods offer a practical choice for meeting sports nutrition liver glycogen stores and ensure adequate hydration. They should
goals when athletes might have poor access to food. When a be made up familiar foods rich in carbohydrate, moderate in
football team is on a coach travelling a long distance to a match protein, low in fat and not too high in fibre. They should also
they can eat sports bars to meet their nutritional needs. During a contain fluids. The runner should be mindful that race day is not
race or event, for example, a marathon, runners will need to take a time to experiment with new foods or supplements. Solid foods
in fluid and food to sustain their energy levels to maintain their can usually be consumed with comfort up to 2 hours before the
performance for the duration of the race. Runners will eat sports race, liquid meals or carbohydrate drinks can be consumed up
gels and drink specific fluids high in glucose and minerals. to 30-60 minutes before. Remember larger meals take longer to
When an athlete’s energy and nutritional requirements are digest.
exceptionally high, for example, during intense periods of
training, they will use protein shakes and sports bars (high 210 Nutritional intake during an event
in glucose and protein) to ensure they meet the requirements. Example answer:
Athletes will also use sports foods in situations where The nutrients of most concern to this runner are carbohydrate
gastrointestinal issues make it a challenge to consume normal and fluids. Carbohydrate can be supplied through sports drinks
foods and drink. This could be, for example, during a sailing as well as energy bars and gels, with the latter being useful as a
event where athletes need to maintain their energy levels but more concentrated source of carbohydrate. It is important to
cannot easily eat a banana, so might have a sports drink or gel to note that water should always be consumed alongside them too.
replenish their energy and meet the nutritional needs. Training should be used to practise fluid replacement strategies
for the race, as well as providing the opportunity to trial any
206 Vitamin supplements, beetroot other energy products to be used.
juice and diuretics
2i11 Post-event nutritional intake
Example answer:
Beetroot juice is a relatively new nutritional supplement. Example answer:
Evidence shows it is more beneficial, providing a better Gemma should refuel as soon as possible after her long rides.
performance, for inactive and recreationally active individuals She should be organised and remember that the longer refuelling
rather than elite athletes. Therefore, it could be said that beetroot is delayed, the longer she will take to fully refuel. A checklist of
juice supplementation might benefit novice endurance runners suggestions for Gemma would include:
as it appears to help reduce the amount of oxygen lost during * Get organised and prepare post-ride recovery snacks and foods
submaximal exercise and enhance exercise tolerance. before going out on the ride when she is less fatigued.
* Post-ride, small frequent meals and snacks at regular intervals
207 Nutritional supplements and may help her to maximise glycogen synthesis.
competition reguiations * If she knows her ride is going to be particularly intense opt
for a favourite meal and snack afterwards as she is much more
Example answer:
likely to eat them.
Before deciding to use the supplement, Josh should undertake
* Make sure she consumes carbohydrate-rich foods (at least 50g)
a cost-benefit analysis of the potential performance benefits of
straight after the ride, and consumes the next carbohydrate-
this product, weighing up the pros and cons. This should not
rich meal within 2 hours.
only be in financial terms, but also the potential of any adverse
effects on Josh’s health and performance and the likelihood of 212 Your Unit 13 set task
contamination with any banned or other undesirable substances.
Individual notes on the Unit 13 set task, always referring to the
The World Anti-Doping Code and the implications of strict
latest Sample Assessment Material on the Pearson website for an
liability mean that should Josh be tested and a banned substance
indication of assessment details.
found in his system, he will be held responsible.
Josh should be cautious and vigilant about supplement use in 213 Understanding key terms
general and consider optimising his diet, lifestyle and training Individual responses, with the nutritional guidance relevant to
before turning to supplements. But if Josh chooses to use the chosen sport and phases.
supplements he can check the status of his supplement brands on
the Informed Sport website at [Link]. 214 Reviewing nutritional information
1 Individual responses.
208 Phased nutritional intake
2 Responses to how the demands of different sports might
Example answer: influence energy, carbohydrate, protein and fluid requirements
Good nutritional practices are important in allowing the athlete might include the below:
to adapt and to deliver performance improvements required (a) High intensity — when exercising at a very high intensity,
from training. To ensure the athlete stays free of injury and
athletes need to increase fluid intake to provide
illness throughout their competitive season, I would suggest replacement for the fluid lost through sweating and
the athlete adopts the Eatwell Guide principles to plan meals. protein intake to repair muscles used during the strenuous
These principles form the foundations on which to develop more exercise.
specific performance nutrition strategies, which would centre on:

242
 (b) Low intensity — when an athlete works at low intensity
* Trial and consume sports drinks (homemade or commercial)
it 1s crucial that they increase their carbohydrate, fluid
during long training sessions; these can easily fit into a
and protein intake. Their overall daily energy and fluid training bag or can be carried while training. These are
requirements would increase due to the demands of
quickly absorbed and provide a fast-release energy source.
low-intensity exercise, which is using carbohydrate It is important to trial products intended for use during the
(glucose) to fuel the exercise and producing water (sweat) event only while training in case of a problem, in case they
as a waste product. Protein is needed for muscle growth are not well tolerated and cause problems with digestion and
and repair. absorption.
(c) Individual sport — the demands of an individual sport will * Include carbohydrate-rich desserts with an evening meal such
depend on the type of activity chosen. as soya ice cream, yoghurt, rice pudding or custard with tinned
(d) Team sport — the demands depend on the type of activity, fruit or fresh fruit — this allows glycogen to be replenished and
the length of the activity/event and the athlete’s role stored in muscles ready for training the next day.
within the team. The demands have been explained in the
answers to (a) and (b). If the individual sport is of high 213 Nutritional guidance for pre-event
intensity, for example, boxing, the athlete will need to Individual answers that might include, for example:
increase their fluid and protein intake. If the intensity is Minimum 455 g of carbohydrate a day.
low, for example, marathon running, the athlete will need * Breakfast — bagel with jam, banana, fruit yogurt, orange juice,
to increase their carbohydrate, protein and fluid intakes granola bar.
before, during and after the event. If the team sport is ¢ Lunch — baked potato, bread roll, cheese.
high intensity, for example, basketball, the athlete will ¢ Dinner — chicken casserole with rice and green veg, granola
need to increase protein and fluid, but due to the high bar, apple juice.
intensity and long duration they will also need to increase ¢ Pre-event meal — cereal with low-fat milk, rice cakes with
their carbohydrate levels to meet the nutritional demands bananas, toast with jam or honey.
of the sport. If the athlete takes part in cricket as a
fielder, they will be working at a low intensity and need
220 Nutritional guidance for during
to increase their carbohydrate, protein and fluid intake to and post-event
match the nutritional demands of the activity. Further nutritional recommendations for Jay as part of his race-
day strategies might include, for example:
215 Reviewing nutritional needs
Beetroot juice is a relatively new nutritional supplement and
¢ Using formula A: is rich in nitrate. Following ingestion, nitrate is converted to
30 x 65 = 1950 ml nitrite and stored and circulated in the blood. From an exercise
35 x 65 = 2275 ml perspective, nitrate supplementation reduces the oxygen use
¢ Using formula B: during submaximal exercise and can, in some situations, enhance
Iml per calorie of energy requirement would be 2883 ml exercise tolerance and performance. It seems to represent a
216 Making revision notes promising new approach for enhancing physiological responses
to exercise, such as muscle efficiency and oxygenation. At present,
Individual notes based on Eatwell Guide recommendations it appears inactive and recreationally active individuals benefit
for health and wellbeing and how the principles might support from greater performance improvements than elite athletes. So
nutritional strategies for training for different kinds of sporting it is fair to say that Jay may have something to gain from trying
events in different phases. beetroot juice, but he should trial this in training before using on
217 Interpreting a nutritional race day as potential side effects include mild gut discomfort.
Caffeine may help with the perception of effort during his race,
programme especially during the later stages.
Individual answers might include: Afterwards, Jay should continue to pay attention to his
¢ Jay’s breakfast of wheat biscuits and full-fat soya milk with a carbohydrate and fluid intake during the first 8 hours of recovery.
lunch of wholemeal pitta, hummus and veggies is good because
it provides carbohydrates, which will release energy slowly and
give him enough energy for his planned 10-k run at 6.00 that
evening.
¢ The timing of his breakfast and lunch are appropriate for
replenishing his glycogen stores and allowing the food to digest
before exercising.
* Suggestions for ensuring he has sufficient fluid intake at
different stages and how they will affect him.

218 Modifying a nutritional programme

Individual answers. The improvement of the sample response
extract might include, for example:
¢ Remove unprocessed bran from breakfast and add a glass of
fruit juice and a teaspoon of sugar on the cereal. This will
reduce the fibre and provide more easily absorbed carbohydrate
to allow glycogen stores to be topped up.
Include a banana smoothie made from soya milk, banana and
honey either after the training session or as a snack between
meals. This will be easily absorbed and will help with fluid
replacement and also provide carbohydrate and protein to
optimise recovery.

243
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REVISE BTEC NATIONAL

Sport and Exercise Science
REVISION GUIDE
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