WALLAGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE

A Module Prepared for the Course Introduction to Information Science

Prepared by:

1. Tolessa Desta
2. Merga Abera

February, 2023

Wallaga, Oromia

Introduction to Information Science 1|Page

 Preface

This module is designed for students of Information Science who take the course “Introduction
to Information Science”.

The module contains subsequent units followed by unit outlines and unit objectives, so that
readers will have a glance look at each unit’s aim to be focused when going in to the details of
the reading.

Dear Readers, it is appreciable if you would go through each Unit and perform each activity
questions before you proceed to the next unit that would easily help you achieve the general
objective of the module.
Course Introduction
General Objectives of the Course
At the end of the course students will be able to:
 Know about history, definition, philosophy and concepts of information science
 Define information society
Unit One: Introduction to Information Science
Unit objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain about the meaning of data, information, Information Science , bibliometrics,
informetrics, knowledge and wisdom
 Understand characteristics ,values and economics of information
 Understand Knowledge spectrum
 Understand the historical perspectives of information Science
 Know the contribution and goal of information science
 Understand versions of information theory
 Know the definition and components of information theory and information system
 Describe information infrastructure
 Define purpose of information system

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Unit outlines:
 Define data
 Define information
 Define information science
 Describe bibliometric
 Informetrics
 Information theory
 Socio-informatics
 Information system
 Information infrastructure
 Information processing
 Semantic and statistical theory
[Link]

Data are raw facts. Information is processed data that has meaning. Health care professionals
constantly process data and information to provide the best care possible for their patients. There
are many types of data, such as alpha, numeric, audio, image, video and alphanumeric. Alpha
data refers to letters and numeric refers numbers and alphanumeric data includes both letters and
numbers. This includes all text and numeric outputs of digital monitors. The integrity and quality
of the data rather than the form are what matter. Integrity refers to whole, complete, correct and
consistent data. Data integrity can be compromised through human error; virus, worm, hardware
failures or crashes, transmission errors, or hackers entering the system. Information technology
helps to decrease these errors by putting into place guards; such as backing up files. To be
valuable and meaningful, information must be of good quality.

[Link] is Information?
 Data that are processed
 In defining information, Shannon identified the critical relationships among the elements
of a communication system, the power at the source of a signal, the bandwidth or
frequency range of an information channel through which the signal travels, the noise of
the channel, such as unpredictable static on a radio, which will alter the signal by the time
it reaches the last element of the System, the receiver, which must decode the signal.

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 The act of informing or being informed.(American Heritage Dictionary, 1991)
 The action of informing; communication of the knowledge; news of some fact or
occurrence.(Oxford English Dictionary, 1989)
 Knowledge or intelligence unknown to the receiver before its receipt.
 Information informs: it provides something unknown to the receiver. This can be viewed
as creating knowledge. So, becoming informed is becoming knowledgeable.
 There are various ways of thinking about information, e.g. information as code, data,
document, speech, gesture, image, thing, and so on.
 What definition do you think is most useful?
 How do you think about information?
 Information as a meaningful message from an informant that may influence the recipient
in considerations, decisions and actions.
1.2.1. Information must

• Be something, although the exact nature (substance, energy, or abstract concept) is not
clear;
• Be “new”: repetition of previously received messages is not informative
• Be “true”: false or counterfactual information is “mis-information”
• Be “about” something
• Everyone must feel that they know what information is. No life form … could function if
it was not continually receiving and processing information, and it has always been thus.
Despite the fact that information is so essential to the functioning of any organism, and
that people have put a lot of effort into the development of ‘Information Science’,
‘Information Systems’, ‘Information Management’, ‘Information Theory’, and the like, it
may surprise you to know that there is no commonly agreed definition for the concept of
information.

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 Information
I. As thing
 Buckland is thinking about the fundamental nature of information and claims that it has
been ambiguous.
 also used attributively for objects, such as data and documents, referred to as
“information” because they are regarded as being informative; as “having the quality of
imparting knowledge or communicating information”
 Information has no materiality or energy
 It is all contained in the context of communication
 How does Buckland respond to these criticisms?
 He attempts to clarify the concept, arguing that it can be seen as “process,” “knowledge,”
and “thing”
 In what sense can we consider information a thing?
 Assumes that information includes becoming informed, with the reduction of ignorance
and of uncertainty
II. As process:
When we are informed what we know is changed It is the act of informing...; communication of
the knowledge or “news” of some fact or occurrence
III. As knowledge
That which is perceived in “information-as-process;” the “knowledge communicated concerning
some fact, subject or event”
1.2.2. Information manifestations (Buckland)
 Information as a process
 what someone knows is changed when informed; “the action of
informing” (similar as Brookes)
 refers to cognitive changes + process of doing it
 Information as knowledge
 knowledge communicated about x
 uncertainty removal a special case
 refers to that which is being communicated - intangible
 Information as a thing

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  data, documents with quality of imparting information - tangible
i. refers to potential information conveyed from objects
Information can be applied to a continuum of cognitive state, from sensory awareness to
synthesis (fusion) of idea. According to Thraut (1978) definition of information is categorized in
four groups:
 The external movement of information itself.
 Information is the process oriented concept in the movement from source to destination
is internal to both sender and receiver.
 Information is an object operating within some dynamic process such as decision
making and problem solving.
 Information as fact or separate data element.

This perspective illustrates that Data, information and knowledge are used differently depending
on intention and context. Again they could be used interchangeably depending on our thinking
and point of reference.

Data, information, knowledge and wisdom can be viewed as a continuum, one leading into
another, each the result of action on the preceding with no clear boundaries between them.

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 √ Data: Letters, numbers, lines, graphs, and symbols, etc., used to represent events
and their state, organized according to formal rules and conventions.
√ Information: The cognitive state of awareness (as being informed) given
representation in physical form (data), facilitating the process of knowing.
√ Knowledge: The cognitive state beyond awareness. Knowledge implies an active
involvement and understanding and the ability to extend the level of
understanding to meet life’s contingencies. (Books, reports, records...).
√ Wisdom: Implies the application of knowledge as contained in human judgment
centered around certain criteria or values accepted by a particular culture or
society.
1.2.3. Information in information science:
Three senses (from narrowest to broadest)
1. Information in terms of decision involving little or no cognitive processing
 Signals, bits, straightforward data - e.g. inf. theory (Shanon), economics,
2. Information involving cognitive processing & understanding
 understanding, matching texts, Brookes
3. Information also as related to context, situation, problem-at-hand
 Users, Use, Task
For information science
(Including information retrieval): third, broadest interpretation necessary
1.2.4. Defining the Nature of Information and its Value
 Information has a solid state; it freezes into rigidity (storage).
 Information has a liquid state; it flows (communications).
 The same information can be expressed in different ways: a voice, a letter.
 Information dwells in bit-streams, on paper, on stone, in a gesture.
 Information is easily confused with knowledge, certainty, wisdom, and data.
 An organization is not physical; it's people bound by information.
 What is the fundamental object of the field – information?
 Distinguishing three basic constructs – data, information, and
knowledge. Also wisdom

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  Data: It is the building block of information and knowledge. It is the
material out of which information is created.
 Data are numbers, letters, or symbols which may or may not be
processible by a computer. The term often implies that meaning is as yet
absent, or unassigned, in a raw data. Hence, the numbers stored in a
computer file are referred to as a data set

Information is thus defined as a kind of knowledge.

 Knowledge is what people know, or think they know.

 It resides initially in an individual mind.
 Some of it can be explicitly communicated exists in linguistic form.
 Other knowledge may be in tacit/unspoken form – we know something, or
how to do something, even though we cannot verbalize and communicate
it.
 Information: meaning ‘forming’ or ‘moulding of the mind’
 It is a critical component in the shaping of our attitudes.
 Information can also be seen as that which is being communicated.
It is the ‘knowledge communicated concerning some particular
fact, subject, or event; that which one is apprised of or told;
intelligence, news”
 Libraries/ ICs both inform their users and provide them with
information.
 Libraries and information science sees information as an
aggregation, organization, or classification of data, as meaning that
is assigned to data. It is something new.

General Model Of Communication

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 1.2.5. Characteristics of information:
o It is Reusable
o Does not loose value over
o May give value by addition or credibility
1.2.6. Economics of Information

The value of having the right information at the right time, or the value of depriving others of
information to gain an advantage, has become so obvious, that it was inevitable that individuals
would see the economic and political value of information.

Hence, information becomes a commodity- something to be bought and sold, or controlled in

and of itself.

Economic Characteristics of Information

 Is sharable, not exchanged and can be given away and retained

 Is expandable and increases with use
 Is compressible, able to be summerised, integrated adding value
 Is acquired at a definite cost
 Has a consumption rate
 Is a source of both economic and political power

General economic properties of information

§ While information is represented in physical form, that form can be changed without
changing its content.

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§ In contrast to physical goods, intellectual goods can be created with limited physical
resources, and frequently as a by-product of other operations.

§ Information is easily and cheaply transported. The first copy represents most of the costs
in creation, and reproduction costs are relatively small.

§ There is a complex relationship between the time of acquiring information and the value
of it. For some, the value lies in immediacy—yesterday's stock information may be
worthless tomorrow. For others, the value is likely to be received in the future rather than
the present.

§ Persons differ greatly in perceptions of the value of information, in kinds of use, in ability
and willingness to use, in assessments of costs, and in ability to pay. Typically the
distribution of use of information is highly skewed, with small percentages of users
frequent in their use and the great majority infrequent.

[Link] Science
 Enables the processing of information. This processing links people and technology.
 Science of information, studying the application and usage of information and
knowledge in organizations and the interfacings or interaction between people,
organizations, and information systems
 “the collection, classification, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of recorded
knowledge treated both as a pure and as an applied science”
 a multidisciplinary science that involves aspects from computer science, cognitive
science, social science, communication science, and library science to deal with
obtaining, gathering, organizing, manipulating, managing, storing, retrieving,
recapturing, disposing of, distributing, or broadcasting information.
 Information science studies everything that deals with information and can be defined as
the study of information systems.
 “The study of information and the manner in which it is communicated between
humans within the context of the information phenomenon” (Wikiversity)
 A multidisciplinary science studying all aspects of information processing systems (both
natural and artificial)

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  Understanding people and technology to make them work better together!
 This science originated as a sub discipline of computer science, in an attempt to
understand and rationalize the management of technology within organizations.
1.3.1. Where did Information Science come from?
 Roots arguably in “institutionalisation of science” in 18thC
 Influenced by development of scientific literature and documentalism in 19thC
 20thC real development of “modern” Information Science
 Stemming from documentalist roots & organisation of scholarly literature
At the base of information science:
Problem
Trying to control content in
 Information explosion
 exponential growth of information artifacts, if not of information itself
PLUS today
 Communication explosion
 exponential growth of means and ways by which information is
communicated, transmitted, accesses, used
Technological solution, BUT …
applying technology to solving problems of effective use of information
BUT: from a HUMAN & SOCIAL and not only TECHNOLOGICAL perspective
or a symbolic model

Problems & solutions:

SOCIAL CONTEXT

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 Professional practice AND scientific inquiry related to:
Effective communication of knowledge records - ‘literature’ - among humans in the
context of social, organizational, & individual need for and use of information

Taking advantage of modern information technology

1.3.2. Historical perspective
 Information science in some form has been around for a very long time, although it may not
have been called by that name. Libraries, Librarianship, and bibliography are part of the
foundation of Information Science.
 The history of libraries and librarianship is primarily one of collecting, organizing, and
disseminating materials, largely of the print variety.
 5000 years ago in Sumeria they were organizing information which was impressed in clay
tablets.
 Later on there was systematic approach for organizing information by preparing
bibliographies for published resources
 With the variety of format a new field was developed first in Europe and was known
originally as ‘documentalism’.
 The focus of documentalism was on the creation, organization, and dissemination of
information in all formats.
 Development of new organization to promote the technique of documentation- notably the
Federation Internationale de Documentation (FID) and its US counterpart, the American
Documentation Institute, which continues today as the American Society of Information
Science and Technology (ASIST).
 Important change in the way of information was accessed in the 20th century was a shift in
emphasis away from the item that held the information to an emphasis on accessing the
content of the information.
 One additional and critical component to this foundation is the development of computers.
 Computers have given information science much greater prominence and have provided for
much of the subsequent research and development in the field to the present day.
 With the integration of the computer, information science took its current cast, which
emphasizes electronic information: its creation, storage, retrieval and use.

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 1.3.3. Information Science contributions
 Information Science effected handling of information in society
 Developed an organized body of knowledge & professional competencies
 Applied interdisciplinary
 Information Retrieval reached a mature stage
 penetrated many fields & human activities
 Stressed HUMAN in human-computer interaction
1.3.4. Goal of Information Science

o The resolution of human problems.

o Information Science emphasis on usability and accessibility comports very closely with
one of the major objectives of librarians and reveals the substantial instrumental value of
the field of librarianship.
o Information Science has sometimes been characterized as deinstitutionalized library
science; it is the library without walls, the entire world of information is the “collection”,
and the librarian or information scientist is the agent who acquires, organizes, and
disseminates that information.
o The librarian or information scientist facilitates the dissemination of information to
people to meet their needs.
o According to Brittain (1980) ‘it may be that Information Science is a different way of
looking at many of the problems and tasks that have confronted librarians for many
decades.
o If information is a critical aspect of individuals and society as a whole, then librarians and
other information specialists must develop information systems that can acquire,
organize, maintain and disseminate information with minimum effort and cost to users.
o The growth of information technologies and studies of the information seeking behavior
and information needs of the population suggest that the traditional perspectives of the
librarian may require a substantial shift, if not in values, then in librarians’ expectations
of user needs and what is required of them.

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 o If librarianship is to focus on truly serving its users, it must understand how and why
they use information.

[Link]
The quantitative treatment of the properties of recorded discourse and behavior pertaining to
it.” Fairthorne
 Many quantitative studies & some laws
 Bradford’s law, Lotka’s law – regularities
√ quantity/yield distributions of journals, authors
 also related areas:
 Scientometrics
√ covering science in general, not just publications
 Infometrics
√ all information objects
 Webmetrics or cybermetrics
√ using bibliometric techniques to study the web

Bibliometrics is statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or

articles. Bibliometric methods are frequently used in the field of library and information science,
including Scientometrics. For instance, bibliometrics are used to provide quantitative analysis
of academic literature.
Citation analysis and content analysis are commonly used bibliometric methods.
Many research fields use bibliometric methods to explore the impact of their field, the impact of
a set of researchers, or the impact of a particular paper. Bibliometrics also has a wide range of
other applications, such as in descriptive linguistics, the development of thesauri, and evaluation
of reader usage.
Usage
Historically bibliometric methods have been used to trace relationships amongst academic
journal citations. Citation analysis, which involves examining an item's referring documents, is
used in searching for materials and analyzing their merit. Citation indices, such as Institute for
Scientific Information's Web of Science, allow users to search forward in time from a known
article to more recent publications which cite the known item.

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Data from citation indexes can be analyzed to determine the popularity and impact of specific
articles, authors, and publications. Using citation analysis to gauge the importance of one's work,
for example, is a significant part of the tenure review process. Information scientists also use
citation analysis to quantitatively assess the core journal titles and watershed publications in
particular disciplines; interrelationships between authors from different institutions and schools
of thought; and related data about the sociology of academia.

Bibliometrics are now used in quantitative research assessment exercises of academic output
which is starting to threaten practice based research.

Other bibliometrics applications include: creating thesauri; measuring term frequencies; as

metrics in scientometric analysis, exploring grammatical and syntactical structures of texts;
measuring usage by readers; quantifying value of online media of communication.

The term bibliometrics was coined by Alan Pritchard in a paper published in 1969,
titled Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics? He defined the term as "the application of
mathematics and statistical methods to books and other media of communication".

Although citation analysis is not new (the Science Citation Index began publication in 1961),
before it could be calculated by computers it was done manually and so was time-consuming.
Automated algorithms are making it much more useful, versatile, and widespread. This led to the
creation of the new field of computational bibliometrics.

The first such algorithm for automated citation extraction and indexing was by CiteSeer.
Google's PageRank is based on the principle of citation analysis. Patent citation maps are also
based upon citation analysis (in this case, the citation of one patent by another).

1.5. Informetrics

Informetrics is the study of quantitative aspects of information. This includes the production,
dissemination, and use of all forms of information, regardless of its form or origin. Informetrics
encompasses the following fields:

a) Scientometrics, which studies quantitative aspects of science

b) Webometrics, which studies quantitative aspects of the World Wide Web

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 c) Cybermetrics, which is similar to webometrics, but broadens its definition to include
electronic resources
d) Bibliometrics, which studies quantitative aspects of recorded information

Quantitative analysis of bibliographic data was pioneered by Robert K. Merton in an article

called Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth Century England and originally
published by Merton in 1938.

Scientometrics is the study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation.
Major research issues include the measurement of impact, reference sets of articles to investigate
the impact of journals and institutes, understanding of scientific citations, mapping scientific
fields and the production of indicators for use in policy and management contexts.

A dedicated academic journal, Scientometrics, was established in 1978. The industrialization of

science increased the quantity of publications and research outcomes and the rise of the
computers allowed effective analysis of this data. While the sociology of science focused on the
behavior of scientists, scientometrics focused on the analysis of publications.

The science of webometrics (also cybermetrics) tries to measure the World Wide Web to get
knowledge about the number and types of hyperlinks, structure of the World Wide Web and
usage patterns.

According to Björneborn and Ingwersen (2004), the definition of webometrics is "the study of
the quantitative aspects of the construction and use of information resources, structures and
technologies on the Web drawing on bibliometric and informetric approaches."

A second definition of webometrics has also been introduced, "the study of web-based content
with primarily quantitative methods for social science research goals using techniques that are
not specific to one field of study" (Thelwall, 2009), which emphasizes the development of
applied methods for use in the wider social sciences. The purpose of this alternative definition
was to help publicize appropriate methods outside of the information science discipline rather
than to replace the original definition within information science.

One relatively straightforward measure is the "Web Impact Factor" (WIF) introduced by
Ingwersen (1998). The WIF measure may be defined as the number of web pages in a web site
receiving links from other web sites, divided by the number of web pages published in the site

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that are accessible to the crawler. However, the use of WIF has been disregarded due to the
mathematical artifacts derived from power law distributions of these variables.

[Link] Theory
• Introduced by electrical engineers Shannon and Weaver in 1949
• Concerned with properties of communication systems
• Addressing concepts of message generation and transmission

Fundamental to all such systems are a number of key concepts. For communication to
take place at all, a message has to be generated.
This message then needs to be transmitted across a wire or a network to its destination.
In an electronic system like the telephone network, the message (voice) needs to be
encoded into an electronic signal and then decoded at the other end.

Information theory is a scholastic process and is a statistical tool used for tracing information
flows in a complex communication system.
Information theory deals with measurement and transmission of information through a channel.
A fundamental work in this area is the Shannon's Information Theory, which provides many
useful tools that are based on measuring information in terms of bits or - more generally - in
terms of (the minimal amount of) the complexity of structures needed to encode a given piece of
information.
 It is concerned with the amount of information and with the accuracy of its transmission.
(e.g.512kbps)

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  In its broadest sense, information is interpreted to include the messages occurring in any
of the standard communications media, such as telegraphy, radio, or television, and the
signals involved in electronic computers, server mechanism systems, and other data-
processing devices.
 The signals or messages do not have to be meaningful in any ordinary sense.
 It is concerned with information entropy, communication systems, data transmission and
rate distortion theory, cryptography, data compression, error correction, and related
topics.
 The theory is even applied to the signals appearing in the nerve networks of humans and
other animals (neural networks, algorithmic information theory).
The boundaries of information theory are quite vague. The theory overlaps heavily with
communication theory but is more oriented toward the fundamental limitations on the processing
and communication of information and less oriented toward the detailed operation of the devices
employed.
1.6.1. Components of information theory
The basic components of information theory are:
A. Source from where info is generated – human mind;
B. Transmitter;
C. Channel - refer to a vehicle through which a message is delivered. Channel
capacity- the amount of information plus noise that can be processed per time
unit. (e.g. bits per second);
D. Code and message – central to the process, encoding of message into a medium
suitable for transmission; message or information is measured in bits.
E. Information overload – occurs when the rate of transmission exceeds channel
capacity; Information under load – occurs when rate of information falls below
the channel capacity.
F. Media- medium relationship (presentational – voice, representational –print,
mechanical – T.V. radio, telex)
G. (predictable) Redundancy – repetition of the message – reduces loss of message
due to noise;
H. Entropy (reduction in uncertainty);

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 I. Noise – unwanted message from internal or external;
J. Feedback – from practical utility;

1.6.2. What information theory can do?

Some problems treated in information theory are related to:
√ Finding the best methods of using various available communication systems;
√ The best methods for separating the wanted information or signal, from
extraneous information or noise;
√ Setting of upper bounds for information-carrying medium (often called an
information channel).
1.6.3. Communication/information theories
Communication has a major role in human understanding. Communication essentially
performs a social function. Lock’s Doctrine of Science (1689) explained the process as:
♥ Physica- knowledge of things – constitution, properties, operation;
♥ Practica – applying
♥ Semiotica –doctrine of signs, nature and use of signs for understanding.
1.6.4. Shannon’s Mathematical theory of information
It encompasses a body of concepts, assumptions and propositions about communication process.
Message Signal Sent Signal Rec. Message
SOURCE Transmitter CHANNEL RECEIVER DESTINATION
Shannon’s theory can be summarized as:
 Communication is the fundamental problem of reproducing at one point exactly
or approximately message selected at another point.
 Coding to be central to any communication –message, encoded into a medium
suitable for transmission. The received signal decoded in to message.
 Need for a statistical characterization of message source and channels, including
transmission error or noise.
 Sending and receiving – a stochastic procedure (i.e the behavior is non-
deterministic in that the next state of the environment is not fully determined by
the previous state of the environment.)

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  Entropy – Entropy is randomness or uncertainty. How much information a
message contains is measured by the extent it reduces entropy. The less
predictable the message, the more information it carries.

1.6.5. Criticism on Shannon’s theory

It has engineering bias, technical transmission than its meaning and effectiveness.
Warren Weaver (1894-1978) is a Mathematician of U.S.A. and worked in collaboration with
Shannon. He identified three levels of problems implicit in communication process.
1. Technical problem – how accurately symbols can be transmitted from sender to receiver.
2. Semantic problem – how precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired
meaning
3. Effective problems – how effectively does the meaning affect conduct in the desired way.
Shannon emphasized on the first level, while Weaver concern on three levels and has shown the
interdependence of the tree levels.
1.6.6. Application of information theory to Library and Information Science
Message Signal Sent Signal Rec. Message
SOURCE Transmitter CHANNEL RECEIVER DESTINATION
Authors ----Writing & publishing-----LIS Centres-----------Info. Retrieval -----Info user.
Source -----Encode (media) ----Channel (print/electronic) ----Transmission------Recipient.
[Link]-Informatics
Social informatics is the study of information and communication tools in cultural or
institutional contexts.
A serviceable working conception of "social informatics" is that it identifies a
body of research that examines the social aspects of computerization. A more formal definition is
"the interdisciplinary study of the design, uses and consequences of information technologies
that takes into account their interaction with institutional and cultural contexts."
[Link] and statistical theories
There are three versions of information theory.
1. Semantic theory of information
2. Statistical theory of information

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 3. Extension of information theory to a method for testing complex models of
qualitative data.

1.8.1. Semantic theory

It quantifies information. It pre supposes distinction between two sets of elements (message
and receiver), language or symbols connected to a code. Information manifest in what the
elements in one set imply about those in the other set. There are three types of
quantifications:
 Redundant – the content of message already known;
 Irrelevant – something unrelated to what the receiver needs to know;
 Negative – the message that appears certain previously, now uncertain.
[Link].Properties of Semantic theory
There are several properties of semantic theory.
1. Quantities of information are not tied to physical entities. (e.g. the length of silence
between the signals of a Morse code is critical, as it may be informative)
2. Quantities of information are always expressed relative to some one’s cognitive system of
distinctions (e.g. X-ray may be more informative to a physician than by a measure of an
instrument)
3. Quantities of information are always contextual measures. (The information is not
attributable to a single message, but should be viewed in the context of all possible
messages or conditions).
4. Contradictory messages turn out to convey quantities of information that are not logical
to understand.
1.8.2. Statistical theory of communication
Shannon called the statistical analog of uncertainty as entropy, which is represented as a
statistical formula. The entropy is the measure of variability or diversity. When all
observations are fall in to one category, the entropy is zero.
[Link] Processing
 The conversion of latent information into manifest information.
 Latent information is that which is not yet realized or apparent
 Manifest information is obvious or clearly apparent.

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  Information science and computational tools are extremely important in
enabling the processing of data, information, and knowledge in health
care.
1.10. Information System (IS)
 As Encyclopedia Britannica Information system is an integrated set of
components for collecting, storing, processing, and communicating information.
 is any combination of information technology and people's activities using that
technology to support operations, management, and decision-making.
 In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to
the interaction between people, algorithmic processes, data and technology.
 Combinations of hardware, software and telecommunications networks that
people build and use to collect, create, and distribute useful data, typically in
organizational settings
 The term refers to computer-based information systems (CBISs)
 Designed for specific purposes within organizations
 Acquires data or inputs; processes data that consists of the retrieval, analysis,
and/or synthesis of data; disseminates or outputs in the form of reports,
documents, summaries, alerts, prompts, and/or outcomes; and provides for
responses or feedback
 Capability to disseminate, provide feedback, and adjust the data and information
based on these dynamic processes are what sets them apart
 Should be a user-friendly entity that provides the right information at the right
time and in the right place.
Class Activity
 Could you mention one specific information system and list more than 4 other sub-
systems that may need to be working together?
1.10.1. Components of information system
It consists of computer hardware, software, data, procedures, people and Telecommunication.
i. Computer hardware, Computer machinery and equipment, including memory,
cabling, power supply, peripheral devices, and circuit boards. Computer operation
requires both hardware and software.

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 ii. Software, instructions that tell a computer what to do. Software comprises the
entire set of programs, procedures, and routines associated with the operation of a
computer system.
iii. Data, The raw, unorganized, discrete (separate, isolated) potentially-useful facts
and figures that are later processed (manipulated) to produce information.
iv. Procedures, A procedure is a series of documented actions taken to achieve
something. A procedure is more than a single simple task.
v. People, There are many roles for people in information systems. Common ones
include
√ Systems Analyst
√ Programmer
√ Technician
√ Engineer
√ Network Manager
√ MIS (Manager of Information Systems)
√ Data entry operator
1.10.2. Purpose of information system
1. Information Systems for Competitive Advantage
Businesses continually seek to establish competitive advantage in the marketplace.
2. Information Systems for Problem Solving
Information systems can be used to solve problems.
Problem solving is the most critical activity a business organization undertakes. Problem solving
begins with decision making.
Decision Making and Problem Solving

 In the intelligence stage, potential problems and /or opportunities are identified and
defined

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  In the design stage, alternative solutions to the problem are developed
 In the choice stage, a course of action is selected
 In the implementation stage, action is taken to put the solution into effect
 In the monitoring stage, the implementation of the solution is evaluated to determine if
the anticipated results were achieved and modify the process
3. Information Systems for Decision Making
 Decision making in organizations is varied and complex.
 Decisions occur at three levels in organizations (decision levels):
i. Operational decisions concern day-to-day activities.
 Information systems that support operational decision making are called
transaction processing systems (TPS).
ii. Managerial decisions concern the allocation and utilization of resources.
 Information systems that support managerial decision making are called
management information systems (MIS).
iii. Strategic decision making concern broader-scope organizational issues.
 Information systems that support strategic decision making are called executive
information systems (EIS).
1.11. Knowledge and Wisdom
Knowledge: is a body of interrelated information. Knowledge is applied or potentially applicable
to some end.
Wisdom: knowledge applied to human ends to benefit the world. Its emphasis on values on
human progress.
Knowledge is further processed information that is organized and interrelated and more broadly
understood and applied. Wisdom is knowledge applied to the benefit of humanity
Libraries rely on bodies of knowledge, or knowledgeable works, to perform many of their
question-answering functions.
Libraries are full of information, when librarians attempt to respond to a query, the
knowledgeable or authoritative work is the one that is preferred.
Present situation: As the amount of informaiton grows, so does the challenge of providing
information to those who need it. Librarians – Collect, Organize, and Disseminate recorded

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knowledge. Information exist in different formats – Books, Periodicals, Other print materials,
Videocassettes, Audiocassettes, Microfilm, Laser Discs, DVDs and World Wide Web.
The growth of information is expressed in various ways such as Information Explosion, Flood of
Information, Bombarded by Information, Information Overload.
1.11.1. Information Explosion
It is dangerous, terrifying, and unanticipated. It suggests a world out of control. To come near it
is to risk being destrozed.
 Is a term that describes the rapidly increasing amount of published information and the
effects of this abundance of data (Wikipedia, 2008).
 As the amount of available data grows, managing information becomes more difficult.
[Link]. Information Explosion: Effects
o This information explosion has implications to the environment in which we live, to the
work place, the academic world, and our own peace of mind.
o A result of information explosion, we are experiencing a state of “information overload”.
o When there is too much information to digest, a person is unable to locate and make use
of the information one needs.
o Information overload can therefore be seen as a state in which the volume of information
available hinders its usefulness to the individual.
o Information overload has adverse effects on the individual.
o The following problems associated with information overload:
 Damaged health
 Bad judgment
 Information anxiety
Information in this context maybe examined on two fronts:
 flowing information and
 Stored information.
Flowing information is that which is transmitted over the airwaves, on the Internet and via the
telephone.
Stored information is that which is printed on paper, film, and other physical media. The study
estimates that almost 800 megabytes of stored information are produced per person per year
(Lyman & Varian, 2003).

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 1.11.2. Flood of Information
Another symbol of catastrophe. There is lack of control over the raging tide of information.
1.11.3. Information Overload
Having so much information available that you either cannot assimilate it all or it feels too
overwhelming to take any of it in
 Overwhelmed by the amount of information
 Don’t understand the available information
 Desperate to know if certain information exists
 Don’t know where to find information
 Unable to access information
This image is an electronic one conveying the sense that the amount of information is so great
that it short circuits human brains causing to malfunction and break down. We need information
to live, but too much informaiton coming in at an unregulated pace is destructive.
There is a need to understand the flow of information to:
 Exploit the ever expanding information resources and channels and serve the
information needs of library users.
 accomplish the above there is a need to realize that library is a member of a much
larger structure: Information structure – It is both foundation and a framework
How can one understand the components of the informaiton infrastructure and the place
of the library? One way is to consider this structure in terms of the process that begins
with the creation of information and ends with its use. This process sometimes referred to
as the informaiton cycle.
Info Overload Results In …
 Anxiety / Stress
 Delay in Decision Making
 Lack of Job Satisfaction
 Waste of Time
 Working Longer Hours
How to manage this information overload or solutions
 Related to research
 Organizational

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  Individual
Employer “best practices”
 What “method” will you use for communication?
 E-mail?
 Short messages: EOM (End of Message)
 Encourage brief messages (no more than 5 sentences)
 Use specific subject lines (not “FYI” or “tomorrow”)
 Resist replying to all
 Avoid personal e-mails to colleagues on work e-mail
 SharePoint? Blogs/wikis?
 File Sharing
 Establish best practices for file naming ([Link] vs.
[Link])
1.12. Information Infrastructure
Makes it possible for information to be created and disseminated. Infrastructure consists of
institutions and individuals involved in a linear process by which information is created,
disseminated, and used in the society. Libraries are part of this information infrastructure. also
called Communication Theory, is 'Branch of mathematics that deals with the information content
of messages.
Noise
Unwanted message from internal or external
Noise can be considered data without meaning; that is, data that is not being used to transmit a
signal, but is simply produced as an unwanted by-product of other activities. Noise is still
considered information, in the sense of Information Theory.
Web 2.0

Web 2.0 describes World Wide Web sites that emphasize user-generated content, usability, and
interoperability. Although Web 2.0 suggests a new version of the World Wide Web, it does not
refer to an update to any technical specification, but rather to cumulative changes in the way
Web pages are made and used.

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A Web 2.0 site may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social
media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to Web
sites where people are limited to the passive viewing of content. Examples of Web 2.0
include social networking sites, blogs, wikis, folksonomies, video sharing sites, hosted
services, Web applications, and mashups.
The key features of Web 2.0 include:
1. Folksonomy - free classification of information; allows users to collectively classify and
find information (e.g. tagging)
2. Rich User Experience - dynamic content; responsive to user input
3. User Participation - information flows two ways between site owner and site user by
means of evaluation, review, and commenting. Site users add content for others to see
4. Software as a service - Web 2.0 sites developed APIs to allow automated usage, such as
by an app or mashup
5. Mass Participation - Universal web access leads to differentiation of concerns from the
traditional internet user base.
Activities
1. Reflect on the progression from data to information to knowledge
2. Describe the term information
3. Explore the characteristics of quality information
4. Describe an information system
5. Assess how information is processed
6. Define information science briefly
7. Explore how knowledge is generated in information science
8. Write the key features of Web 2.0
9. Describe about information overload
10. Compare and contrast knowledge and wisdom by your own words briefly.
11. Mention components of information system.

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 Unit two
Information Society
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
√ Know the definition ,characteristics ,attributes and implications of information society
√ Understand concept of information sector, entropy and cybernetics
Chapter outlines:
 Introduction
 Information sector
 Cybernetics
 Entropy
[Link]
After Second World War there was increased generation of information which lead to the
‘information explosion’. During 1970s the concept of ‘Information society’, ‘information
revolution’, and the ‘information age’ emerged considering information as the power to change
our work patterns and life styles.
An information society is one in which the creation, distribution and manipulation of information
is becoming a significant economic and cultural activity. The knowledge economy is its
economic counterpart whereby wealth is created through the economic exploitation of
knowledge.
The information society is a new kind of society. Specific to this kind of society is the
information technology occupying central position for production and economy. Information
society is seen as successor to industrial society. Closely related concepts are post-industrial
society (Daniel Bell), post-fordism, post-modern society, knowledge society, Telematic Society,
Information Revolution, and informational society (Manuel Castells).
2.1.1 Definition
A society that organizes itself around knowledge in the interest of social control, and the
management of innovation and change... (Daniel Bell)
A new type of society, where the possession of information (and not material wealth) is the
driving force behind its transformation and development […] (and where) human intellectual
creativity flourishes. (Yoneji Masuda)

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 2.1.2. Characteristics
The key characteristics of Information Society are:
o Key element is information
o Main employment – information workers
o Key institutions – universities and research institutions
o Basic technology – computer and electronics with interactive mass
communication media
Other characteristics of information society
♥ Economic character: The present economy is driven by industry and
information. Information contributes more to industry, more than machines and
materials. It is estimated that information contributes to the GNP of a nation.
♥ Technological character: The convergence of computing and communications
continue to make the life of modern society.
♥ Social character: Social characters undergo change that could result from pin
pointed and comprehensive information.
♥ Political character: In information society there will be more interaction between
the government and people.
2.1.3. Attributes of Information Society
a. Shift from an industrial economy to an information economy
b. A telecommunication based information service infrastructure
c. A high degree of computerization of large volume of electronic data transmission and
employment of information technology
d. Characterized by the fact that the rapid and convenient delivery of needed information is the
ordinary state of affairs.

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 2.1.4. Implications
Navalani observed two major implications of information society.
1. Administrative: Government is the greatest producer and consumer of information.
Information is vital for effective implementation of policies; means for extending power
and influence others.
2. Economic: Traditionally information was regarded as having marginal value for business
activities. Now supply of information is regarded as useful as it is considered as a rich
resource and that helps in the production of goods and services. The term ‘value added’ is
used in case of information. Expenditure on information is considered as useful
investment. E.g. knowledge management centers, data warehousing etc.
2.2. Information Sector
o The general idea of an ''information economy'' includes both the notion of industries
primarily producing, processing, and distributing information, as well as the idea that
every industry is using available information and information technology to reorganize
and make themselves more productive.
o The Information sector comprises units engaged in the following processes:
a. producing and distributing information and cultural products
b. providing the means to transmit or distribute these products as well as data or
communications,
c. Processing data.
1. The main components of this sector are the publishing industries, including software
publishing, the motion picture and sound recording industries, the broadcasting and
telecommunications industries, and the information services and data processing
industries.
2. The distribution modes for information products produced in this sector may either
eliminate the necessity for traditional manufacture, or reverse the conventional order of
manufacture-distribute: A newspaper distributed on-line
3. Many of the industries in the Information sector are engaged in producing products
protected by copyright law, or in distributing them (other than distribution by traditional
wholesale and retail methods).

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Examples are traditional publishing industries, software and database publishing industries, and
film and sound industries. Broadcasting and telecommunications industries and information
providers and processors are also included in the Information sector, because their technologies
are so closely linked to other industries in the Information sector.

2.3. Cybernetics

The general study of control and communication systems in living organisms and machines,
especially the mathematical analysis of the flow of information. The term cybernetics was coined
by Norbert Wiener, an American mathematician of the twentieth century. In the 21st century, the
term is often used in a rather loose way to imply "control of any system using technology;"
Cybernetics is relevant to the study of systems, such as mechanical, physical, biological,
cognitive, and social systems.

Cybernetics is applicable when a system being analyzed incorporates a closed signaling loop;
that is, where action by the system generates some change in its environment and that change is
reflected in that system in some manner (feedback) that triggers a system change, originally
referred to as a "circular causal" relationship.

2.4. Entropy
Entropy is a measure of uncertainty. Before receiving the message the receiver will have certain
initial uncertainty. Upon receiving the messages, the recipient’s uncertainty is removed. The
measure of uncertainty removed is the measure of the information received. If the amount of
information transmitted is equal to the amount of information received, then uncertainty is totally
removed.
Otherwise the difference between the two levels is regarded as the measure of information
communicated.
Activities
1. Define about information society
2. What the difference between information and industrial society
3. Write the attributes of information society
4. Write about cybernetics and entropy in a society

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 Unit Three

Information retrieval system

Chapter Objectives:
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
 Define information retrieval system and explain other basic terms related to information
retrieval system
 Know the evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems
 Understand precision, recall, Boolean model, retrieval model ,database and file structure
 Define human computer interface, artificial intelligence, expert systems and information
architecture
 Identify the difference between information system and information technology
 Understand what isn’t information architecture and how it can be created effectively
 Understand the definition ,purposes and types of abstracts
 Define indexing
Chapter outlines:
Information retrieval
Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems
Human computer interface
Indexing and abstracting
Artificial intelligence and expert system
Information architecture
[Link] retrieval
 Information retrieval (IR), often studied in conjunction with information storage, is
the science of searching for information in documents, searching for documents
themselves, searching for metadata which describe documents, or searching within
databases, whether relational stand-alone databases or hyper textually-networked
databases such as the World Wide Web.
 Automated IR systems are used to reduce information overload and to scale indexing
and access.

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  Many universities and public libraries use IR systems to provide access to books,
journals, and other documents.
 IR systems are often related to digital objects and query. Queries are formal
statements of information needs that are put to an IR system by the user.
 An object is an entity which keeps or stores information in a database. User queries
are matched to objects stored in the database.
 A document is, therefore, a data object. Retrieval order is based on similarity of the
query to the object and, more recently, to a level of importance of the document, such
as PageRank.
 Sometimes the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system,
but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates.

Harter (1986) defines an information retrieval system as “a device interposed between a potential
end-user of an information collection and the information collection itself.

For a given information program, the purpose of the system is to capture wanted items and filter
out unwanted items from the information collection”

 This definition highlights a central concept of IR: relevance.

 There are two aspects of relevance: relevant to the user and relevant to the
topic.
 Relevant to the user means the user defines the context for
relevance. – An item retrieved from the information system is
relevant if the user believes that it helps to meet his or her
information need.
 An item is relevant if it can be shown that it is about the
subject, regardless of a given user.
 Relevance forms the basis of much evaluation of information
systems – systems that retrieve relevant items and avoid the
retrieval of irrelevant items (sometimes referred to as ‘false
hits’ or ‘false drops’) naturally are considered more effective.
 The focus of information science is on computerized information systems.
[Link] of Information Retrieval Systems
Introduction to Information Science 34 | P a g e
 o It is a complex task.
o The criteria for evaluation are recall and precision.
o Within any given system, it is critical to know if all the available items
relevant to a particular search were found; the degree to which this is
accomplished is a measure of recall.
 It is important to know if only the relevant items were found. Sometimes, many irrelevant
items are found.
 The degree to which the system finds only the relevant items is a measure of precision.
• Recall = Number of relevant documents retrieved
Total number of relevant documents in the file
• Precision= Number of relevant documents retrieved
Total number of documents retrieved in the file
Responsiveness of the system to the user’s needs and psychological characteristics –
emphasis on the searcher’s knowledge, cognitive process and problem to be solved
3.2.1. Search Retrieval Models
An Information Search Retrieval System is not useful unless there are search strategies that
permit information to be quickly and effectively retrieved.
• Boolean model : using logical operators and, or, or not
• Retrieval model may permit searching by author, title, year of publication,
and journal title.
3.2.2. Database and file structure
o Database design, the structure of the information, and how it is presented to the user all
have a significant effect on the user’s ability to retrieve information.
o How is the information represented to the user?
o What types of information are available (numerical, textual, video, audio)
o What vocabulary is used?
o Are the words used in the search process highly restricted or is the language relatively
open?
o What fields and subfields are searchable, and how are the records searched (e.g. by
author? By title or keyword? By subject?)
o Can the search be narrowed by date, language, or publisher?

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o Do the records contain abstracts, full text, or images?
o Usefulness of the database for any given user depends on the answers to these questions.
[Link]-Computer Interface
 The point of contact between the human and the computer is called the human-computer
interface (HCI).
 The HCI is considered a vital aspect in the success or failure of a computer system.
 The designers of ISRS must understand the way that humans approach computers and
how they search for information.
 This understanding permits computer designers to create, or strive to create, “user-
friendly front-ends,” which allow users to sit down in front of the computer screen and
satisfy their information needs with a minimum of jargon, confusion, or technical
knowledge.
 Issues in exploring HCI include:
 Screen display features such as color and windows, speed of
response, interaction functions such as commands and menus,
post-processing functions such as downloading, help systems and
messages, graphics capabilities, training time required, user
satisfaction, and error rates when using the system.
 One important area in the exploration of HCI is cognitive research – which
explores how the user’s knowledge and the knowledge contained within the ISs
can be matched effectively.
 Levels of knowledge affect Information System
 World knowledge
 Systems knowledge
 Task knowledge
 Domain knowledge
 Knowledge of how people think, what they know, and how they approach
information problems can help designers create knowledge models within their
systems that more closely match the methods and data by which users can meet
their needs.

Another issue is how the user communicates with the computer.

Introduction to Information Science 36 | P a g e
 • They are NLP (natural language processing) attempts to develop user
interfaces that allow users to employ their ‘natural’ language to have their
queries answered.

Use of NLP requires to address following four areas

A. Speech recognition
B. Command recognition
C. Content analysis and representation
D. System interaction.
[Link] Intelligence (AI) and Expert Systems
 Artificial intelligence (AI) is concerned with developing procedures whereby computers
may perform actions that would normally be regarded as “intelligent”, performable only
by thinking human.
 For this reason, language processing is often regarded as one aspect of artificial
intelligence.
 Among the many fields of Artificial Intelligence are machine translation, robotics, expert
systems, natural language interfaces, speech understanding, knowledge acquisition and
representation and pattern matching.
 Information storage and retrieval lies in the continuing attempt to develop machines that
think like people –or even better than people.
 In libraries, Artificial Intelligence might be applied to reference functions such as
identification and retrieval of documents or data, cataloguing and authority control, and
library instruction through computer assisted instruction.
 Work in developing “expert search intermediaries” would assist users in searching online
systems without the need for human intermediaries.
 Artificial Intelligence aims, as already noted, at constructing computer systems that
behave with “intelligence”.
 The essence of human intelligence seems to be its capacity for reasoning, and early
Artificial Intelligence programs sought to capture the procedures of logical reasoning and
build a “general problem solver”:
 Give it some data and it will try to solve the related problem.

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This involved two processes:

 first, one of “knowledge acquisition”, in which the knowledge

requisite in a certain problem area was elicited from an expert; and
 Second, devising ways of storing this knowledge in the system.
Simple facts presented no problem – they could be stored in a
database.

[Link] Architecture
Definition:
1. The combination of organization, labeling, and navigation schemes within an information
system.
2. The structural design of an information space to facilitate task completion and intuitive
access to content.
3. The art and science of structuring and classifying websites and intranets to help people
find and manage information.
4. An emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing principles of
design and architecture to the digital landscape.

3.5.1. Information Systems

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An information system (IS) is typically considered to be a set of interrelated elements or
components that collect (input), manipulate (processes), and disseminate (output) data and
information and provide a feedback mechanism to meet an objective.

3.5.2. Computer-based Information System

An Information System is an organized combination of people, hardware, software,
communication networks and the data resources that collects, transforms and
disseminates information in a organization.

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Intranet: is the generic term for a collection of private computer networks within an
organization.

Websites: Virtual location on World Wide Web (WWW), containing several subject or company
related WebPages and data files accessible through a browser.

3.5.3. What Isn’t Information Architecture?

 Graphic design is NOT information architecture.
 Software development is NOT information architecture.
 Usability engineering is NOT information architecture.
3.5.4. How to create an effective information architecture

• An effective information architecture comes from understanding business objectives and

constraints, the content, and the requirements of the people that will use the site.

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Business/Context
۩ Understanding an organisation’ business objectives, politics, culture, technology,
resources and constraints are essential before considering development of the information
architecture.
Content
√ Document/data types
√ Content objective
√ Capacity
√ Existing structure
Users
An effective information architecture must reflect the way people think about the subject matter.
√ Audience
√ Tasks
√ Needs
√ Feeling
√ Search action

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 [Link] and Indexing
3.6.1. Definition of Abstract
 Abstracts, like all summaries, cover the main points of a piece of writing.
 Abstracts are typically 150 to 250 words
[Link].Purposes for Abstracts

Abstracts typically serve five main goals:

i. Help readers decide if they should read an entire article

ii. Help readers and researchers remember key findings on a topic
iii. Help readers understand a text by acting as a pre-reading outline of key points
iv. Index articles for quick recovery and cross-referencing
v. Allow supervisors to review technical work without becoming bogged down in
details
[Link].Types of Abstracts
I. Descriptive Abstract
II. Informative Abstract

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 I. Descriptive Abstract

A descriptive abstract outlines the topics covered in a piece of writing so the reader can decide
whether to read the entire document. In many ways, the descriptive abstract is like a table of
contents in paragraph form.
II. Informative Abstract
An informative abstract provides detail about the substance of a piece of writing because readers
will sometimes rely on the abstract alone for information.
Informative abstracts typically follow this format:
1. Identifying information (bibliographic citation or other identification of the
document)
2. Concise restatement of the main point, including the initial problem or other
background
3. Methodology (for experimental work) and key findings
4. Major conclusions
A More Detailed Comparison of Descriptive vs. Informative
The typical distinction between descriptive and informative is that the descriptive abstract is like
a table of contents whereas the informative abstract lays out the content of the document.
3.6.2. Definition of Indexing
√ According to the British indexing standard, an index is a systematic arrangement of
entries designed to enable users to locate information in a document.
√ The process of creating an index is called indexing, and a person who does it is called an
indexer.
√ There are many types of indexes, from cumulative indexes for journals to computer
database indexes.
√ The ocean flows of online information are all streaming together, and the access tools are
becoming absolutely critical.
√ If you don't index it, it doesn't exist. It's out there but you can't find it, so it might as well
not be there.

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Activities

1. Write the criteria for evaluation of information retrieval system

2. Compare and contrast indexing and abstracting in briefly
3. Write the main goal of abstracts
4. What the difference between information system and information technology
5. How we can interact human with computer
6. Write the relationship between information retrieval and information architecture.
7. What is natural language processing?
8. Define about recall and precision with its formula.

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 Unit Four
Themes in Information and Knowledge Management
Chapter objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:-
Know the issues in Information Management related to Information Technologies
Identify the development of management information system
Know the meaning of information architecture and knowledge management
Understand objectives of knowledge management
Write the major activities of Knowledge Management
[Link] in Information Management related to Information Technologies
√ As information services play a more central role, demands for accountability will grow.
√ This accountability will require increasing levels of sophistication in measuring library
services.
 Main issues are:
 Identifying and selecting information technologies
 Dealing with human factors in technology
 Developing management information systems/Information
resources management (IRM)/Records management.
 Measuring and evaluating library and information services.

Identifying and Selecting Information Technologies:

 Administrators must be able to determine which processes lend themselves to

effective computerization and which do not. One the processes to be computerized
are identified, the appropriate technology must be identified and installed. The
essential steps are:
 Identify appropriate computer vendors
 Develop criteria and establish decision-making structures for
comparing and evaluating vendors
 Develop timetables for implementing automation
 Plan on-site visits and demonstrations

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  Develop and implement training and orientation on automated
systems for staff.
 Conduct post-implementation evaluation to determine if the
technologies are performing effectively.

Dealing with Human Factors in Technology:

 Information science explores how technologies can be effectively implemented,

what factors generate resistance or acceptance of technologies, and what aspects of
technologies have the potential to create physical problems for people.
4.1.1. Developing Management Information Systems/ Information Resources
Management (IRM)/ Records Management:

Organizations rely on information to perform their functions. Managing information inside

organizations has many purposes:

 Record maintenance and oversight, for decision making, for strategic and tactical
planning
 The nature information varies – data, text, images, sound, or multimedia
 Making best management decisions relies on an organization’s ability to acquire, access
and evaluate information in a timely fashion.
 Managing information has become a task with the same significance as managing the
fiscal and human resources of an organization. The field is known as IRM.
IRM deals with production, organization, selection, dissemination of information.
Major objectives are:
Ensuring that the relevant documents are made available for decision making
Developing and implementing a cost/benefit analysis of creating an environment in
which IRM and the information manager are perceived by management and
administration as a major contributor to the organization.
Assisting in the evaluation and implementation of information management technologies.
Defining responsibility and accountability for information management, preservation, and
disposal.

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 Creating an environment in which the corporate managers recognize properly organized
and accessible information as vital for critical corporate decisions.
Measuring and Evaluating Library and Information Services:
Targets of measurement and evaluation include collections, services, including reference
and document delivery, programs and staff.
[Link] Architecture (IA):

Froehlich defines IA as ‘the art and science of organizing information and interfaces to help
information seekers solve their information needs efficiently and effectively….
The information architect designs and implements a specific system and interface, based on
organizational requirements and aesthetic and functional considerations, similar to the ways an
architect deploys a building in physical space, focusing on aesthetic, functional and use goals.
IA focuses on – the use of graphic or multimedia design to facilitate communication, and the use
of intellectual technologies, such as site and content organization, needs analysis, usability
studies, metadata application, and programming, to make an information interface or source easy
to locate, comprehend, navigate, and use.
Information architects address many complexes and varies issues like:
 Effective navigation techniques
 Effective orientation for users with the site.
 Making the site usable in terms of language and terminology employed.
 Developing an aesthetically pleasing site.
 Maintaining ‘portability’
 Developing a logical Web site structure that is easily understood by the user.
 Developing effective hyperlinks that anticipate user information needs.
 Effective labeling (links, terms of indexes, choices in dropdown lists, product
names) for improved information access.
 Effective linking to related information on other Web sites.
 Developing personalization or customization processes that permit users to set their
own preferences for a site, or which provide filters for site contents.
 Using metadata effectively to improve access to the site.

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 [Link] Management (KM)

Organizations contain a wealth of knowledge. Locating knowledge in a usable form and in a

timely manner when decisions need to be made is important. When potential knowledge (tacit
knowledge) remains unused, it degrades the decision process, reduces decision quality and
impairs organizational effectiveness.

Organizations rely on their employees’ knowledge, skills, and ideas (‘human capital’) one of the
main components of the ‘intellectual capital’ to create new services and products. Organizations
structured to facilitate collaborative activities, information sharing, and communities of practice
are likely to progress more quickly and leverage the talents of their people effectively.

Understanding and managing both the explicit and tacit knowledge in an organization is likely to
achieve the best results.

Much knowledge is communicated in informal as well as formal organizational environments. It

may be equally important to provide an environment in which casual conversations are
encouraged as well as communications in meeting.

According to Blair (2002) KM is “largely the management and support of expertise… it is

primarily the management of individuals with specific abilities, rather than the management of
repositories of data and information”.

For Blair, people are the ‘repositories’ of the knowledge.

Davenport, De Long and Beers (1997) identify four objectives to KM:

Creating knowledge repositories

Improving knowledge access
Enhancing the knowledge environment.
Managing knowledge as an asset.

KM is concerned with planning, capturing, organizing, interconnecting, and providing access to

organizational knowledge through both intellectual and information technologies.

It is an interdisciplinary field drawing from a variety of disciplines including psychology,

sociology, business, economics, information science, and computer science.

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 Major activities of KM can be two:

2. Managing the People Who Have Knowledge

 Create an environment to stimulate knowledge growth and identify barriers to
knowledge creation.
 Create an organizational culture that facilitates the sharing of knowledge and
collaborative processes, both formal and informal.
 Develop and manage people as knowledge assets.
 Ensure that useful (tacit) knowledge is accessible when decisions are being made.
 Create a corporate culture and values that encourage knowledge building and
sharing.
 Identify, develop, and use effectively the expertise of staff (human capital).
 Develop competent individuals who manage and supervise the knowledge
processes and expertise of the organization.
3. Managing the Knowledge Itself
 Organize knowledge so that it can be accessed and used through effective search and
document management.
 Represent knowledge in ways that improve its use (documents, databases).
 Facilitate use of knowledge from outside sources.
 Facilitate processes that develop and exploit the intellectual capital and assets of the
organization, including individual expertise, corporate memory, and organizational
research.
 Develop effective document management techniques throughout the life cycle of a
document, i.e; from authorship to archiving and disposal.
 Identify the nature of the knowledge stored and where it is stored in the organization so
that it can be exploited.
 Evaluate, maintain, and improve the information technology (IT) infrastructure to
encourage knowledge building and sharing.
 Develop effective techniques for competitive intelligence.
 Facilitate effective publishing and dissemination of information, e.g. through e-mail or
word-processing.

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Competitive Intelligence:

 CI us a subunit of the total practices of information management within an

organization. It is a subset of ‘business intelligence’ or ‘social intelligence’
 CI serves as the ‘scout’ to determine where the threats and opportunities are, their
nature and magnitude.
 The Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals defines CI as “a systematic and
ethical program for gathering, analyzing and managing external information that can
affect your company’s plans, decisions, and operations…
 Miller identifies the goal of CI as ‘actionable intelligence that will provide an
competitive edge’.
 Another function of CI is counterintelligence, which involves developing systems that
prevent access to organizational information that could threaten the organization’s
competitiveness.
 Intelligence gathering may occur in various sectors, including information on specific
competitors, new technologies or scientific discoveries, new products or services, new
or proposed legislation or regulations, potential mergers or acquisitions, or information
on or from customers, suppliers, industry experts, opartners.
 Information can be gathered from the Web or mass media, trade shows, or conferences
or by tracking patents.

Bergeron and Hill break down the CI process into four phases

I. Planning
II. Identifying CI needs,
III. Data collection, organization and analysis
IV. Dissemination

The analysis stage is an important aspect of CI, and a variety of techniques have been employed
to interpret the information that is collected. These techniques include SWOT analysis
(Strength/Weaknesses/Opportunities/Threats), bench marking, environmental analysis, scenario
planning, patent analysis, and bibliometrics.

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Activities
1. Define by your own word about information management and knowledge
management
2.

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 Unit five
Information professionals
Chapter Objectives
5.1. Introduction
There are many ways that libraries accomplish their missions and thus support their values; one
of these ways is through ethical conduct. Through such conduct we recognize that librarians and
information professionals are moral agents, responsible to themselves, others and the society as a
whole. The Ethical conduct of information professionals is an affirmation of the critical values
of service, respect for others, and the need to improve society. Ethics provide a framework for
conducting essential information functions, instituting policies, and developing strategies for
service.
Ethical deliberations are extremely complex for at their base they deal with the fundamental
questions of “right” and “wrong”. Ethics is mostly about how people should be treated and how
one should act, if one wishes to act rightly.
The need for discussion of ethical concerns is highlighted by the fact that librarianship is a
service-oriented profession; our most important stakeholder is our user. Failure to perform this
function is a violation of professional ethics.
The complexity of dealing with ethics in library and information science is that it has at least two
focuses.
1. Information ethics. Information ethics among other things is an area of applied ethics
concerned with the use and misuse of information. This would include such areas as the
ownership of information, intellectual property rights, free or restricted access to
information, use of government information, assuring privacy and confidentiality, data
integrity, and the international flow of information.
2. Professional behavior specifically: referred to as professional ethics. Professional
ethics deals with how we apply ethical principles to our decisions and actions as
information professionals.
5.2. Information Professional (Information specialist)
 A person who works with information science, libraries, museums, or archives.
 Play an extremely important role in society.
 Critical that they carry out their mission in an ethical manner.

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  Toward this end, many organizations of information professionals have adopted codes of
professional ethics. For example, ALAs Code of Ethics and Assists Professional
Guidelines.
 Such codes of professional ethics provide information professionals with guiding
principles.
 There are different kinds of code of ethics for information professionals. Here is the
American Library Association (ALA) code of ethics.
 We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library
resources.
 We protect each library user's right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to
information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or
transmitted.
5.2.1. The role of information professionals
 May be found in corporate information centers.... in research departments . . . in
government offices--almost anywhere that there are people who rely on information to do
their work.
 Harnesses technology as a critical tool to accomplish goals.
 Include, but are not limited to librarians, knowledge managers, chief information officers,
web developers, information brokers, and consultants.
 Today, information is everywhere. The number of books, magazines, and newspapers
published worldwide is so huge that there is no longer a reliable way of counting them.
 In more recent years, with the digitizing of information and the arrival of the Internet,
almost one-quarter of the world's population can get access to a wealth of information
from their own computers and now from their phones.
 All the information an organization requires is available for free on the internet.

So why do organizations need information professionals?

 With all of the information now available, it is becoming harder and more time
consuming to find good, reliable information
 We rely on search engines like Yahoo and Google to help us locate the information we
are looking for on the Internet.

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  They work very well in our private lives, but they are not always the most effective way
to get the high-quality information we need at work.
 They provide context to information and authenticate its value.
 They know what good information looks like.

The specific skills information professionals will require to succeed in the future.

 First...the ability to excel at managing information organizations ranging in size from

one to several hundred employees
 Second...expertise in total management of information resources...including the
identification... selection...evaluation... and the provision of access to pertinent
information resources in any media or format.
 Third....unquestionable expertise in providing information in ways that enable clients to
immediately integrate and apply the information in their work or learning processes.

5.3. What are Information Organizations?

Information organizations are defined as those entities that deliver information-based
solutions to a given market. Some commonly used names for these organizations include
libraries, information centers, competitive intelligence units, intranet departments,
knowledge resource centers, content management organizations, and others.
5.4. CATEGORIES OF ETHICAL CONCERN
5.4.1. Information policy
 Usually associated with government information,
 Establishes the rules within which private information providers and the media
operate.
 Determines the kind of information collected, created, organized, stored,
accessed, disseminated and retained.
 Who can use the information, whether there will be charges for access, and the
amount charged, is also covered.
5.3.2. Privacy, Confidentially and Individual Rights
What is privacy?

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  Privacy is the right of people to make personal decisions regarding their own intimate
matters, it is the right of people to lead their lives in a manner that is reasonably private
from public scrutiny
 Privacy also may be defined as the claim of individuals, groups or institutions to
determine when, how and to what extent information about them is communicated to
others.
 Privacy is your right to control what happens with personal information about you.

What is information privacy?

√ Information privacy is the ability of an individual or group to stop information about

themselves from becoming known to people other than those they choose to give the
information to.
√ The UN Declaration of Human Rights defined Privacy as this:
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home
or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation.

Privacy and the Internet

 The use of the Internet can affect the privacy rights a person has in his or her identity or
personal data.
 The Internet threatens privacy in a number of ways, partly because it is possible to
record everything that you do on line
 There is also an increasing trend for companies to monitor their staff’s email and web
searching habits as well as monitor their staff through cameras and other such devices.
 There are in fact a number of compelling reasons why a Governments need to monitor
its people.
There is increased crime detection
Prevention of terrorism
5.4. Techniques for Manipulating Personal Information
The first system is called Data Merging and this is when a number of databases,
say a database with your drivers license details is merged with a database about
your car registration.

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 The second system is called Data Matching and this is when information on a
discrete database is used to match similar records on another database.
5.4.1. Confidentiality
Confidential Information
 any information with restrictions placed on the communication or dissemination of that
information.
 There are three principles to be applied in assessing whether information given is to be
treated as confidential;
a) The information must be confidential. Once the information is in the public domain
and is generally accessible to others, it is no longer confidential.
b) The information must not be useless or trivial.
c) The information must have been given in circumstances where the confidant must
reasonably have understood that what was said was confidential’.
5.4.2. What does the law say about confidentiality?
Any time you agree to keep something confidential, or it might be assumed that you would (for
example if someone asks to speak to you in private).
Legally, confidentiality can be broken on certain grounds – if for example it involves a serious
crime
One unusual situation is also if someone is to be forced to receive treatment under the mental
health act (for example in-patient treatment suicidal attempts) – where the Mental Health Act
states that their nearest relative must be consulted
5.4.3. The Importance of Confidentiality in the Work Place
 It is an employee’s responsibility to protect client and customer information.
 It is an employee’s responsibility to keep confidential any information concerning the
business.
 What you see and hear in the work place stays at work. No information can be told to
anyone outside the work place.
 No information is to be given to clients/customers without permission from the
supervisor.
 An employee can be dismissed if information is given out. Legal action may be taken
against a person or organization that reveals client and business information.

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Individual rights
Individual rights are those principles that are held by a single person rather than an entire group.
According to political scientists, individual rights can either be negative or positive. This means
that a negative right allows the person to not act on a certain principle, while a positive right
means that a person may act in a certain capacity if they want.
5.5. Copy rights, Patents, Standards
5.5.1. What is a Copyright?
Copyright is a form of protection provided to the authors of “original works” and includes such
things as literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual creations, both
published and unpublished.
Copyright does not protect ideas. It only protects the specific and original expression of the idea.
Or it can be also defined as a law that gives you ownership over the things you create.
The ownership that copyright law grants comes with several rights that you, as the owner, have
exclusively.
Those rights include:
 The right to reproduce the work
 to prepare derivative works
 to distribute copies
 to perform the work
 and to display the work publicly
These are your rights and your rights alone. Unless you willingly give them up, no one can
violate them legally.

5.5.2. Patent
A patent is a legal monopoly granted for a limited time to the owner of an invention. It
empowers the owner of an invention to prevent others from manufacturing, using, importing or
selling the patented invention.
Registration is a prerequisite for patent protection and the protection granted is territorial in
nature i.e. Patent granted in a country will give the owner of the patent right only within that
country.

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 5.5.3. What is a standard?
'A technical specification approved by a recognized standardization body for repeated or
continuous application, with which compliance is not obligatory
Example: Two major objectives of ICT standardization are interconnection and
interoperability.
Why we need standard?
Standardized products and services are valuable User 'confidence builders', being perceived as:
o Safe
o high quality
o Flexible
o Secure
o healthy
As a result, standardized goods and services are widely accepted, commonly trusted and highly
valued.
Associations
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) is the leading
international association of library organisations. It is the global voice of the library and
information profession, and its annual conference provides a venue for librarians to learn from
one another.

Library associations in Asia include the Indian Library Association (ILA), Indian Association of
Special Libraries and Information Centers (IASLIC), Pakistan Library Association, the Pakistan
Librarians Welfare Organization, the Bangladesh Association of Librarians, Information
Scientists and Documentalists, the Library Association of Bangladesh and the Sri Lanka Library
Association (founded 1960).

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 Unit Six
User Communities and Domains
 Chapter’s Objectives
o At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 understand different communities
 Understand research and development domains
 Understand structure of information environment between
organizations
 Understand the importance information system
6.1. Introduction
 We need to step beyond the limits of the retrieval process itself in the previous chapter,
and to look at the broader issue of the study of user communities.
 Such communities are of diverse kinds:
 the staff and students of an academic institution;
 the staff of an industrial or commercial or financial or legal firm;
 hospital staff;
 the staff of research and development institutions;
 the members of a learned or professional or other society;
 the population of a town or region;
 all those with an interest in a particular subject domain; and more.
 The information professionals serving any such community have the task of aiding them
to get access to the information they need. This involves:
 providing heavily-used materials locally;
 giving access to wanted external materials; and
 organizing (or giving access to) retrieval systems by which appropriate materials
can be identified.
Class Activity
§ Who do you think need information the most? Mention only three in your group and
discuss them. And what range of information they may seek?

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1. Knowledge about the community
 To do this effectively requires knowledge of the community served. What kind of
knowledge? It can be helpful for the information professional (IP) to know, for
example:
 What different types of user are there in the community?
 What do they do? What is the range of their activities?
 What kinds of problem do they face in these activities?
 Does their activity have a stable pattern, or is it continually changing?
 What opportunities do they have for accessing information sources?
 What kinds of information request have they made in the past?
 What documents have they used in the past, and for what purposes?
 How did they use them – to quickly extract some information, or to study them at
length?
 What is the terminology they use to discuss these activities?
 What is the general subject domain within which their activities lie?
 Do they see the domain of their activities in a structured way, and if so, in what
way?
 Do they themselves produce information, how do they record and distribute it?
 How “information-literate” are they?
 How are information use, and document-type use, and frequency of use,
distributed among the users?
 How is use distributed over the available documents?
 What is the whole range of available document types related to their activities?
 What particular value does each type or genre of document have for each type of
user?
 What range of information sources do they use – including informal sources?
 What relationships do they have with other definable user communities?
 How have all these factors developed over time?
 Much of this knowledge will be acquired by the IP during the daily experience of giving
information service to a user community. But information science has developed various
formal ways of studying users, for example:

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  By examining existing records of information transfer, such as records of
online searches made, analysis of documents cited or Web pages visited.
 By having users complete structured questionnaires.
 By less structured but directed interviews with users.
 By having users keep personal records of activities related to information
transfer.

√ Knowledge about user communities can be gained by reading accounts of their activities
– e.g., of the daily life of hospital staff. Knowledge of a subject domain can be enhanced
by reading about it. The information profession has devised general procedures for
systematically identifying the documentary resources of a subject domain – whether they
exist in printed or electronic form.
Class Activity
√ Why do researchers share information?
√ Why do we all share information?
2. The research and development domain
 It is true that many information professionals do work in institutions of one kind or
another, giving service to their members.
 But many information tools – such as bibliographical services, online hosts, or the
Internet itself – are not confined to a specific community in this sense.
 Research and development (R&D) is increasingly carried out in large institutions –
academic, industrial, governmental, intergovernmental – each of which therefore forms a
user community in the sense discussed earlier.
 There are different types of user within the institution – laboratory researchers,
engineers, theoreticians, laboratory assistants, workshop technicians, and administrative
staff and so on – and IP will have much to learn about what they all do, and the problems
they face.
 Information science has recognized that there are several different kinds of information
acquisition in which R&D workers engage.
√ “current awareness”,
√ “work in progress”,
√ “everyday” information,
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 √ “pilot” introductions to new topics.
 R&D workers – at any rate, among the higher grades of staff – are nowadays strongly
information-conscious, and so reasonably information-literate, with good opportunities
for accessing information sources.
 A typical pattern of information sources used is that shown in Figure 1. Many of these
sources, of course, are now available on the Internet, including online hosts, but this
change of medium has not so far greatly affected the forms and genres of documents
used.

Figure 6.1: Some information sources

3. Personal communication networks

• Within R&D establishment, interview studies of the staff to establish “who consults
whom, and how often”, lead to the construction of a network such as Figure 6. 2.

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Figure 6. 2: Links between individual researchers

• There are individuals whom many others contact (e.g. number 59); others who both
receive and initiate contacts (e.g. 32); some who are consulted by only one other (e.g. 47,
9, 12); some with whom no-one initiates contact (e.g. 20, 31); and two or three subgroups
(at the corners) who are tenuously or not at all interacting with the rest of the
establishment.

Overall, four groups of people have been distinguished in such studies:

i. “Gatekeepers”, who are much consulted by others and who have many
links with sources outside the organization.
ii. “Liaisons”, who are also often consulted by others, but whose links are
mainly within the establishment.
iii. The bulk of the R&D staff.
iv. “Isolates”, with whom few or none initiate contact.

Information professionals serving such an establishment might find that their interactions with
the four groups differed considerably.

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 Citation links

√ In subject domains which follow the scholarly tradition of publishing reports of their
work and citing others whose work has aided those, communication links can be traced
by analyzing the citations.
√ A straightforward investigation of “who cited whom” can be reported as a network of
links between earlier and later authors, reflecting to some degree the historical
development of the subject field in which they work.
√ If the names of two authors are frequently cited together in later publications, this may be
taken as an indication that their work is viewed as related. Computer programs have been
developed that can take a set of co-citation data within a subject domain, and produce a
“map”, so that the map as a whole reveals “clusters” of subfields.

Diffusion of innovations

The information retrieval process may be outlined as:

 Activity proceeding – problem requires information – information search

– modified activity proceeds.
 Activity proceeding – information received – relevance to activity
recognized – modified activity proceeds.

Adoption of an innovation seems to go through a series of stages:

 Information about a new way of doing something comes to the attention of

someone engaged in the activity in question.
 There is a period of assimilation of the information, thinking about its
implications.
 This may be followed by a period of trial adoption of the innovation.
 Before final commitment to full adoption, there may be a retrieval phase:
confirmatory information may be sought to strengthen belief in the
proposed change.

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Adoption of an innovation is more likely if its advantage over the old way is clearly visible, if its
results are quickly evident, if it is compatible with the old way of thinking (not too “outlandish”)
(bizarre), and if it is relatively simple to adopt and to try out.

Not everyone is equally ready to adopt an innovation.

 There is a small group of born innovators, ready to try out anything new,
and a somewhat larger group of “early adopters”.
 Then there is the major group who adopt the innovation after the early
birds have shown the way.
 Lastly, there are “laggards”, who resist change to the last.
Class Activity
• Why organizations need to share or communicate information?
4. Communication within organizations
An organization such as an industrial or commercial firm, a government department, a large
hospital, is an integrated assembly of all kinds of activity. Accompanying the flow of work from
department to department is a flow of communication, information – oral, documentary or
electronic. This communication is part of the activity of the factory personnel, carried on as a
necessary aspect of the work process, and is rarely the direct concern of the information
professional.
Before computers, organizational communications included forms, memoranda, minutes of
meetings, correspondence, reports, and so on, stored in files after immediate use, backed up by
manual indexes. When computer data handling developed, information that could be reduced to
format that could be put into databases – personnel records, sales records, patient records,
inventories, etc. At first each set of data was a separate file, but the advantages of an integrated
set of databases that could be used widely by different departments for different purposes soon
became evident.

One aim of “knowledge management” is to widen the scope of such information transfer,
and to make shared knowledge more generally and more explicitly available. Some of the
techniques used are:

 Developing “communities of practice” (sharing information among

themselves),
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  Carrying out a survey to map the knowledge resources of personnel within
the organization, and
 Developing a guide to these knowledge resources (“who knows what?”) so
as to encourage knowledge sharing.
 Creating databases that record “best practice” in key areas of the
organizations activities.
5. Structuring the information environment
Every organization or other information community comprises people with:
 every level of “information literacy”,
 a few who are very knowledgeable about their subject domain,
 many who have a passable knowledge,
 some who are novices in the field.
Information resources, both printed and electronic, grow ever more complex and diverse. One of
the main tasks of the information professional serving any such community is to make easier the
job of navigating these information resources.
• More recently, there has been the development of Internet portals and gateways, listing –
usually in some semi-structured way – the main Web sites that provide information in a
particular subject field.
• As the local information resources of each information community become smaller in
relation to the total available information, this task of structuring the information
environment will become ever more important for the information professional, and how
to carry it out effectively needs more attention from information science.
Class Activity
 Could you mention one specific information system and list more than 4 other
systems that may need to be working together?
6. Information systems
 Most information professionals spend their time designing, constructing,
maintaining or using information systems of one kind or another.
 For cataloguing, the value of cooperative and centralized processing was also
recognized, a further form of data (and work) sharing.

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  A system is a combination of people and technologies that work together to
achieve a purpose. With the coming of the computer, individual technical
processes were “mechanized”, and eventually the value of an integrated system,
processing and sharing data in common as far as the benefit is more that evident.
 System design and development is of course now an extensive discipline in its
own right, and information professionals have learnt much from workers in this
field. Information science has sought to aid information system development in
the following ways:-
√ by providing data on the information needs and communication behavior
of the user,
√ by providing quantitative data about the information environment, that can
be used by the designer,
√ by creating models of system behavior – for example, of queuing for
service, of collisions of demand (multiple request for the same document),
√ by developing methods for the evaluation of system performance.

♪ The model shows users, on the left, interacting with information resources on the right,
through the mediation of access processes in the middle. The user universe is the total of
possible or potential users, out of which the information service specifies the population
it seeks to cater for, by prescribing eligibility for membership.

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 ♪ For each user in the population, a descriptive profile needs to be formulated, covering
such items as personal identification data; preferences (e.g. subjects of interest, level of
knowledge, language); access rights; perhaps credit data; and so on. Held in a digitized
directory, such information can provide the basis for automatic authentication and
authorization of users.
♪ User interfaces are the real or virtual places where users can interact with the information
service, ranging from a welcoming physical resource to a home page on the Web.
♪ The external interfaces on the left are directed at the wider user universe, e.g. outreach
services, or publicizing the service.
On the right is the total universe of information, from which a set of information resources is
specified and made directly available.
This includes the stock of printed materials held by the service, local digital resources, and
external electronic resources to which the service has access.
These resources need to be adequately described by "metadata" at various levels:
o collection descriptions,
o database descriptions,
o catalogue entries for information ressources,
o Bibliographic records for individual papers, and so on.
Summary
• User community are typically independently run themselves in groups and in individual
bases that enables them to meet their regular needs through discussion and sharing
information on a variety of technical topics. Participation in this scheme is an excellent,
inexpensive way to receive technical content, education and to get more out of each other
platforms, products, technologies, and resources which they are interested in. And this is
what IP need to take in to account.

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 Unit Seven
Human Information Behavior
11.1. Introduction
"Information behavior" is the currently preferred term used to describe the many ways
in which human beings interact with information, in particular, the ways in which
people seek and utilize information.
Information behavior is also the term of art used in library and information science to refer to a
sub-discipline that engages in a wide range of types of research conducted in order to understand
the human relationship to information.
7.1.1. Information behavior
Information behavior (IB) encompasses intentional information seeking as well as unintentional
information encounters.
7.1.2 Information seeking
Information seeking is “a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap” in
knowledge.
11.1.3. Information need
An information need is recognition that [one’s] knowledge is inadequate to satisfy a goal.”
User centered approaches are useful to resolve the information problems of users. Such
approaches focus on the ways that information systems meet the information needs of users.
Uunderstanding the nature of information needs and their resolution is extremely complex and
requires clarity on a variety of levels like :-
√ Information devices (books, electronic databases)
√ Information systems (composed of information devices that are linked or
otherwise related for the purpose of informing the user.)
√ Information services (collections of information systems designed to help users
resolve their information problems – like reference department).
√ Information institutions (Information services may be grouped to serve a
particular clientele or variety of client groups like libraries)
√ In user-centered approach, a significant part of designing and evaluating how user
needs are met requires an understanding of user characteristics and needs on all
levels.

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 √ Approaches to studying information needs vary as some focus on individuals,
others on institutions; often libraries still other focus on information needs of
various disciplines, such as business executives, scientists, nurses and engineers.
√ To design an information system there is a need for clear understanding of what
the intended users want or need to know, how they seek information and how they
evaluate the information that they receive.
A. What is information need?
In general it is when an uncertainty arises in the individual who the individual believes
can be satisfied by information (Krikelas 1983).
B. What is the difference between information wants (desires) and
information needs?
An information want is a desire for information to satisfy and uncertainty; and
information need is the condition, whether recognized by the individual or not in which
information is required to resolve a problem.
If the librarians are to perform their jobs well, they must find out what is wanted and
needed.
Seeking and gathering information – is a complex process
Information seeking vary by age, level of education, intelligence, and discipline.
 Scientists rely heavily on informal communications with their colleagues,
information gleaned at conferences, journal references and articles, and
electronic sources of information.
 Humanities scholars rely more heavily on references in books, the
library’s subject catalog, and printed indexes and bibliographies.
 These differences might diminish as more and more information is
digitized and made available on the web.
 Scientists tend to have a greater need for currency than humanities
scholars, while humanities researchers seem to have a greater need to
browse information.
 To assess individuals’ information wants and needs requires knowledge of
how patron search for information and how they learn, as well as how to

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 interview effectively, how to evaluate the patron’s need, and how to
evaluate the degree to which the information has satisfied the need.
Librarians require possessing thorough and current knowledge of the available electronic, print,
and human resources and knowing how to access these sources.
According to the study made by Chen and Hernon (1982) Reasons for seeking information
are: -
 Personal (to solve day-to-day problems )
Information of greatest interest were mostly
 Job related issues such as performing specific tasks or establishing businesses,
getting or changing jobs, advancing careers, or obtaining promotions.
 Consumer issues relating to the quality or availability of a product or obtaining
product information
 Housing and household maintenance issues relating to dealings with landlords,
obtaining loans and mortgages, performing do-it- yourself repairs on the car or
home
 Education and schooling issues relating to information on adult education,
parenting, and obtaining support for education.
C. What is the difference between Information seeking and
Information gathering.?
 Information seeking is “an attempt to satisfy an immediate need by searching for
relevant information.”
 Information gathering is “an attempt to satisfy a deferred need by searching for
relevant information”. Here there is no immediate need for information, but the
search is expected to yield useful information for the future use.
 An information seeker may be looking for specific item, ask the reference
librarian a specific query, or have a specific time requirement.
 An information gatherer may browse a collection in a specific area without need
for specific information or time requirement.
 Newspaper and magazine collections may be best suited, although not
exclusively, for information gatherers, while reference materials may be best
suited for information seekers.

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 People usually search for information in some type of context:-
 Donals Case (2002) noted, “Information needs do not arise in a vacuum, but rather owe
their existence to some history, purpose, and influence”
 Durrance (1989) mentioned that people seldom seek information as an end in itself; they
usually seek it within a particular context or “problem environment” (to solve problem or
to make particular decision)
 An information specialist needs to question the user to understand his need. Not only
what do you want to know? But “How and why is the information needed? How is it
likely to help? What does the user know already? What is expected? What are the
parameters of the problem?”
People prefer personal rather than institutional sources to satisfy their information
needs.
 Individual first consult one’s own memory for getting an answer, if it fails he/she go for
observation, failing this individual attempt to seek information from external sources,
human or institutional.
 When faced with information need, people are more likely first seek individual rather
than institutions.
 The quality of information may or may not be as good, but people are the preferred
sources of information.
People seldom see librarians as a source of Information.
√ People perceive the library as the solver of their problems rather than the
librarians.
√ The librarian often appears to be transparent, with the patron perceiving
the library as a collection of books and materials, not a source of
information specialists.
√ The new networked technologies in libraries give the appearance of
requiring less human mediation.
√ There is a need to humanizing the library to reduce resistance to its use by
users.

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Information seeking is a dynamic process
 Search for information goes through a variety of phases – beginning with an
undefined notion that there is a need for information known as anomalous state of
knowledge (ASK).
 As the process proceeds, the search becomes more and more defined and the area
to be explored narrows.
 Finding information which is scattered
Six stages in Information Search process (ISP) proposed by Kuhlthau (1991).
1) Initiation: The seeker has a need for some knowledge or understanding – the need is
unfocused, and the seeker did not define his topic.
2) Selection: seeker begins to focus on a particular topic and explore the best
approaches for meeting the information need. Tentative attempt to gather
information on the topic begin.
3) Exploration: begins serious exploration of the topic, gathering information to
provide orientation. Seeker still may not be able to articulate precisely the type of
information required to meet the information need.
4) Formulation: seeker begins to establish clear focus for the exploration, feeling of
uncertainty begins to diminish.
Seekers evaluate critically the information obtained, accepting some information
and discarding irrelevant information. Seeker becomes more confident in the
search and the search process.
5) Collection: there is clear focus now, the seeker collects only information related to
the defined topic. Able to articulate the type of information needed, the search
process becomes more effective, uncertainty reduced, and the seeker’s confidence is
increased.
6) Presentation: Search is complete; the success of search depends on availability of
information, effectiveness of information system used, and the skills of the searcher.
At this stage attention is turned to summary, synthesis and reporting of the
information gathered.

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Individual have significantly different abilities in seeking information.
o Skillfulness in seeking information depends on intelligence, analytical
ability and manual dexterity.
o Different groups of individuals use different information strategies – the
information seeking abilities improves with age. At the same time the
ability to process information tends to decline with age.
People will use the least effort in seeking information
o Principle of least effort – people will seek the most convenient source to
meet their information need, even when they realize that this source may
produce information lower quality than other sources.
o Often finding information in libraries is a complicated process. Libraries
need to design their collections and services so that convenience and
quality are one and the same for the user.
11.2. Barriers in information seeking
o Physical aspects: location of the library, physical disabilities of user, poor
physical arrangement of the collection, poor signage
o Policy and procedural aspects: Libraries rules, regulations and
procedures. Restrictive circulation or reference policies, inadequate
operating hours, limited use of meeting rooms, restricted use because of
age, poor training, or poor scheduling of library staff, inadequate or
inappropriate allocation of fiscal resources.
o Economic/financial aspects: ability of the library to afford the latest and
best information technology and other information resources, fee-for-
service perspectives, and financial status of users.
o Legal aspects: Laws and regulations governing the flow of information,
such as copyright law, laws governing the restriction of certain types of
information and images.
o Social aspects: social status, educational status, Income level etc.

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 People’s web search behavior varies widely
 According to Bilal (2002) web has three differences when comparing to traditional search
tools.
 It is an extraordinarily large system that often produces
information overload and disorientation
 It is constantly changing
 It is unindexed.
 Individual characteristics that affect web searching are:-
 Cognitive style, level of anxiety related to searching, age, experience with Web
searching, gender, and
 domain expertise – Many use hyperlinks to find documents,
 seldom use Boolean search strategies, rely heavily on keyword searching,
 limit their explorations to specific sections within a site, use a few pages frequently, and
 spend much time scrolling, reading web pages, and waiting for web pages to load.
There is a difference in searches by age and gender too.

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 Unit Eight
Overview of Libraries
Chapter Objectives
8.1. History and Development
 In a traditional sense, a library is a large collection of books, and can refer to the place in
which the collection is housed.
 Archaeological findings from the ancient city-states of Sumer have revealed temple
rooms full of clay tablets in cuneiform script.
 These archives were made up almost completely of the records of commercial
transactions or inventories, with only a few documents devoted to theological matters,
historical records or legends.
 Today, the term can refer to any collection and it can be print, audio, and visual materials
in numerous formats, including maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs, cassettes,
videotapes, DVDs, video games, e-books, audiobooks and many other electronic
resources.
 The term has acquired a secondary meaning: "a collection of useful material for common
use".
 A library is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an institution, a
corporation, or a private individual.
 Public and institutional collections and services may be intended for use by people who
cannot afford to purchase an extensive collection themselves, or who require professional
assistance with their research.
 In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are
experts at finding and organizing information and at interpreting information needs.
 Libraries often provide a place of silence for studying
 Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to
information in many formats and from many sources.
 They are extending services beyond the physical walls of a building, by providing
material accessible by electronic means or with variety of digital tools

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 8.1.1. Types of Libraries
 Broadly there are four types of libraries:
1. Public Library
2. Academic Library: It can be categorized in to three types:-
a) School Library
b) College Library
c) University Library
3. Special Library; and
4. National Library
1. Public Library
 established under the “clear mandate of law”;
 maintained wholly from “public fund”;
 levies no “direct charge” (fees) from its users for any of its services;
 Open “for free and equal “use by all members of the community irrespective of
race, colour, religion, age, sex, nationality…………
According to [Link] Public Library is:
 “A public institution or establishment charged with the care of collection of books
and the duty of making them accessible to those who require the use of them.”
In other words, A Public Library is:
 A social institution established by law, financed by public fund, open for all
without any discrimination, for general and free diffusion of knowledge and
information in the community.
 It is the obligation of government to establish a public library system throughout
the country at national, state and local levels.
Today’s public libraries serve as archives of commercial and historical records; they contain
religious and liturgical works and interpretations; they offer a place for students, scholars,
academics, and the general citizenry to study; and they provide a source for edifying reading.
These services reflect the historic missions of libraries in the past to:
(1) Support the education and socialization needs of society,
(2) meet the informational needs of a broad spectrum of citizens,
(3) Promote self education, and

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(4) Satisfy the popular tastes of the public.
As the missions of public library have been revealed, they suggest that the modern public
library’s purposes and practices rest on a rich historical foundation.
[Link]. Major issues confronting public libraries:
i. Political climate and Financial stresses
ii. The introduction to new information technologies.
iii. Measurement, evaluation and planning of library services
iv. Censorship issues and Quality versus demand problem.
v. Service to rural communities and Service to multicultural populations.
vi. Service to individuals with disabilities and Children’s and young adult services.
vii. Demographic changes.
viii. Proliferation in the variety of quality of children’s and YA materials.
ix. Growth of services to special groups, preschoolers and homeschoolers.
x. The growth electronic materials for children
xi. Outreach and Intellectual freedom.
xii. Public library-school library media center cooperation.
1. A. Objectives
The main objectives of a public library are as follows:-
1. To provide up-to-date and authentic information on all subjects;
2. To provide services free of cost or at nominal rates to each member of the society
without any discrimination;
3. To provide a harmless and elevating use of leisure;
4. To be responsible for preservation and development of cultural and antiquarian
heritage of the community.
1. B. Functions
A modern public library performs different functions in the society to achieve its objectives and
works as:
A. Information Dissemination Centre
B. Life Long Learning Centre
C. Community’s Intellectual Centre
D. Recreation Centre

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 E. Community’s Culture Preservation Centre
F. Instrument of Social Change
G. Representative of Democracy
A) Information Dissemination Centre
For this purpose it collects, processes and then disseminates up-to-date and authentic information
on all subjects according to the information needs of the local community.
 It develops collection on the basis of different group and level of the local
population to provide barrier-free information
 It also provides mobile services to those members of the community who are
incapable to come to the library
B) Life Long Learning Centre
This provides a strong base for adult education programmes’.
 To cultivate reading habits among children at an early age, it makes provision for
special collections in the library premises.
C) Community’s Intellectual Centre
A public library works as a common platform to provoke and stimulate the intellectual,
educational, social and spiritual thinking of the community.
 It enhances mutual understanding among the people and makes them efficient to
solve the social and local problems on their own.
D) Recreation Centre
 Provides refreshment for man’s spirit by the provision of documents like fiction, audio-
visuals etc. for relaxation, pleasure and entertainment.
E) Community’s Culture Preservation Centre
 It promotes different cultural activities of that locality by organizing cultural
programmes’ such as dramas, music concerts……
 It collects and preserves material relating to the history and culture of its area.
4. Academic Libraries:
The term academic library is a generic one applying to many different varieties of institutions. A
library is an academic one if it serves an educational institution providing a curriculum beyond
the primary or secondary level. This would include universities, four-year colleges, and
community and junior colleges.

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The academic library plays a vital role in curricular support, teaching, research, publication and
self education.
The type and sophistication of materials in the library collection will reflect the mission of the
academic institution. Areas of emphasis usually revolve around two aspects: teaching
(curriculum support) and research (publication)
Academic libraries face variety of challenges and issues. Some of them are:
1. recruitment, education, and retention of librarians
2. The role of the library in academic enterprise;
3. Impact of information technology on library services;
4. Creation, control, and preservation of digital resources;
5. Chaos in scholarly communications
6. Support of new users
7. Higher education funding
Other issues faced by academic libraries are:
1. Preservation / Conservation: Conservation refers to the “physical treatment of individual
library materials, while preservation refers to the care of library materials in the aggregate
(for example, by monitoring environmental conditions)”
There are many sources of the preservation problem facing academic libraries, but the
primary one is acid paper. The acidity introduced in the paper-making process is self-
destructive. The problem is exacerbated by variety of other factors as well. These include
improper use of materials by patrons and staff, improper heating and air conditioning,
improper lighting, poor plumping, fire hazards, insects, poor security to prevent theft and
mutilation, and the lack of a disaster plan when and if flood or fire arise.
In response, libraries develop preservation programs that include using proper storage
facilities, devising collection development plans that recognize the need to purchase and
treat materials from a preservation perspective, implementing effective environmental
controls, using reformatting and migrating techniques for materials that are physically
deteriorating, creating disaster recovery plans, physically treating materials in need of
repair and restoration, and providing staff and user education.
Digital data have tremendous flexibility; they can be easily manipulated, updated, and altered.
This flexibility is a double-edged sword: what can be easily altered may be difficult to preserve

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in its original form. The impermanence of digital data presents a variety of challenges for
preservationists. Among them are:
1. There is lack of durability of some electronic formats.
2. The digital world presents different challenges from the analog world.
3. Electronic data have a tendency to deteriorate over time.
4. Electronic formats quickly can become obsolete.
5. When preserving digital data, it is critical that the mechanisms to read the data are also
preserved.
2. The Growth of aggregated full-text databases: As more and more information,
periodicals and books are digitized, academic libraries have struggled to choose those
databases that are most productive for their libraries.
Increasing costs of periodicals and other materials: Academic libraries rely heavily on
periodicals to support their research and teaching. Journals provide current information on a
topic, especially when compared to books. Unfortunately the cost of periodicals has risen
significantly.
3. Declining Budgets: Academic libraries are experiencing a need for increased dollars for
traditional library resources and for developing information technologies, including the
accompanying peripherals for effective operation.
4. Information literacy: the changing environment calls “for an extended role for academic
libraries in the formation of the intellectual aptitude of the student. These libraries no longer just
acquire, organize, disseminate, and preserve information, but they must also instruct in the
strategies for retrieving evaluating and using information”.
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) approved five information literacy
competency standards for higher education. They are:
A. The information literate student determines the nature and extent of the information
needed.
B. The information literate student access needed information effectively and efficiently
C. The information literate student evaluates information and its sources critically and
incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value system
D. The information literate student, individually or as a member of a group, uses
information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.

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 E. The information literate student understands many of the economic, legal, and social
issues surrounding the use of information and access and uses information ethically and
legally.
5. The crisis in scholarly publishing: Academic libraries are facing an unprecedented crisis in
their attempt to collect and provide access to scholarly materials at reasonable cost to their
academic institutions and users. Although such materials may come in many forms, the major
problems revolve around journals, which often play a central role in scholarly endeavors.
Issues faced by academic libraries in this area are:
a. Affordable access to scholarly materials is being threatened especially due to the
continuing increases in the price of academic journals.
b. The growth of electronic journals at first may have been seen as a panacea for the high
cost of paper and publication, but it has created its own set of problems.
Shift from purchasing a physical object owned by the library, to being permitted access
usually only through negotiated license.
c. Large journal publishers, especially in the sciences, have been able to dominate the
marketplace and make large profits at the expense of academic and research libraries.
d. Major journal publishers are undergoing numerous merges that reduce competition and
result in significant increases in prices.
6. Recruitment of Academic Librarians: The number of qualified persons are not available to
be academic librarians. This is due to the aging of the librarian workforce, a poor image of the
profession, flat or declining numbers of master’s graduates in library and information science,
relatively low salaries, and competition from other sectors of the economy.
7. The Information Commons: An IC is a single physical space which has been configured to
offer variety of library services, usually emphasizing digital resources. Within such a space are
computer workstations for students, with access to the Internet and local databases, the online
catalog, and software to prepare assignments. In addition, reference materials, reference staff,
and computing staff are available for consultation and support.

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 8.2. THE MISSION OF LIBRARIES IN HISTORY
All societies cannot have libraries, at least three prerequisite conditions are required for libraries
to prosper.
1. Centralization: there must be a stable place for the materials
2. Economic growth: they require a certain commitment of wealth and time.
3. Political Stability: They cannot flourish when there is political chaos and disorder.
The Earliest Mission: maintaining a Records Archive
Two factors provided a significant impetus for the creation of libraries. Which are the invention
of writing and the rise of a commercial culture. The earliest written records of a society were
found in Sumerian temple libraries in Mesopotamia around 3000 BC. It was a commercial
archive. Some historical works as well as early codification of law have also been found. In
addition to temple libraries, there have also ben discoveries of municipal and government
libraries that held business records as well as deeds, contracts, tax lists, and marriage records.
The form of writing used to record this information is known as cuneiform. It involved
impressing a squaer-shaped or triangular-tipped stylus into clay tablets.

Some of the temples had schools that taught the art of writing and trained clerks to keep records
of accounts. Sumerians had masters of books or keepers of the tablets who were well educated
scribes or trained by scribes.
Religion and practial Mission of Egyption Libraries
The form of writing used by the Egyptians is known as hieroglphics and was pictorial in nature.
The writing material was made from papyrus reeds that were flattend, rolled, and stored as
scrolls.
8.3. The Mission and Future of Modern Library
Today’s libraries and librarians confront a host of destabilizing factors: the flood of information,
constant innovations in technology, economic and political demands and stresses, as well as
numerous social problems.
Values of librarianship are characterized below:
1. Stewardship: Preserving and making available the human record and ensuring that
librarians maintain and update their skills as needed.
2. Service: Serving the best interests of the society as a whole and treating each individual
with equal respect.
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 3. Intellectual Freedom: Promoting the freedom of inquiry and expression.
4. Rationalism: Acting reasonably and in an orderly, systematic manner.
5. Literacy and Learning: Promoting both the ability to read and the capacity to understand
more complex text.
6. Equity of Access: Ensuring that access is available to all and recognizing that some
groups such as the poor, rural populations, the aged, and members of minorities have
been placed at disadvantage which librarians should act to overcome.
7. Privacy: Ensuring that the activities of library patrons including circulation records and
reference inquiries are treated as private.
8. Democracy: Supporting democratic institutions by ensuring a broad range of materials
and open access to information.
Core values identified by Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) for academic
libraries
 Equitable and open access to information.
 Service
 Intellectual freedom
 Cooperation, collaboration, and sharing of resources
 Commitment to the profession of librarianship
 Fair use
 Education and learning
 Commitment to the use of appropriate technology
 Knowledge as an end in itself
 Conservation and preservation of knowledge
 Diversity
 Scholarly communication and research
 Global perspective
Let us see some of the values in detail.
Value 1. The value of service
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of library and information science is that the purpose of the
field is to communicate knowledge to people.

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The cultural motivation of librarianship is the promotion of wisdom in the individual and the
community … to communicate, so far as possible, the whole of scholarship to the whole
community.
S.R. Ranganathan was a major figure in the development of a variety of theoretical issues in
library and information science, most notably in classification theory and in developing basic
principles for the field.
Ranganathan proposed five laws of library science that have remained a centerpiece of
professional values and that reflect his deeply held conviction that the library is dedicated to the
service of people. A brief review of these laws provides a surprisingly contemporary perspective
on the central value of library service.

A. Books Are for Use. By emphasizing use, Ranganathan refocused the attention of the
field to access-related issues, such as the library’s location, loan policies, hours and days
of operation, such mundanities as library furniture, and the quality of staffing.

Rangathan’s law is certainly a contemporary one. Much emphasis is now being placed on
quality of “customer” service and developing a “customer” orientation.

B. Books are for all. This law suggests that every member of the community should be able
to obtain materials needed. It is an important egalitarian principle that certainly forms the
foundation of much public library ideology.

Ranganathan felt that all individuals from all social environments were entitled to library
service, and that the basis of library use was education, to which all were entitled. These
“entitlements” were not without some important obligations for both libraries/librarians and
library patrons. Among these were that librarians should have excellent first-hand
knowledge of the people to be served, that collections should meet the special interests of the
community, and that library should promote and advertise their services extensively to attract
a wide range of users.

C. Every Book its Reader. This principle is closely related to the second law but it focuses
on the item itself, suggesting that each item in a library has an individual or individuals
who would find that item useful. Ranganathan argued that the library could devise many
methods to ensure that each item finds its appropriate reader. One method involved the
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 basic rules for access to the collection, most notably the need for open shelving (direct
access by patrons to the book collection). Ranganathan saw the system of open shelving
as critical because it gave users the chance to examine the collection freely, much the
same way they could examine their own collections at home. Another aspect of the
library that improved the chances for a match of reader with book involved collection
arrangement. Ranganathan suggested that the collection arrangement should be by
subject if the most effective access was to result. He was not dogmatic, about the
uniformity of this arrangement, and he possessed a very modern sense of the need for
marketing library materials. He also suggested special reading areas for popular
materials. Another aspect of library service that would improve matching books with
readers is the use of trained professional staff who could evaluate library collections
through surveys, provide reader’s advisory service, conduct programs such as story
hours, provide extension services, and select good books. Finally, the library could
promote and market its services to readers through publicity, library displays, library
publications, and public activities such as festivals.
D. Save the Time of the Reader. This law is recognition that part of the excellence of library
service is its ability to meet the needs of the library user efficiently. To this end,
Ranganathan recommended the use of appropriate business methods to improve library
management. He observed that centralizing the library collection in one location provided
distinct advantages. He also noted that excellent staff would not only include those who
possess strong reference skills, but also strong technical skills in cataloguing, cross-
referencing, ordering, accessioning, and the circulation of materials
E. The Library is a Growing Organism. Ranganathan said that “it is an accepted biological
fact that a growing organism alone will survive. An organism which ceases to grow will
petrify and perish”. Ranganathan’s perspective however focused more on the need for
internal change than on changes in the environment itself. He argued that library
organizations must accommodate growth in staff, the physical collection, and patron use.
This involved growth in physical building, reading areas, shelving, and in space for the
catalog. Because of the inevitable growth in the collections, he anticipated increased
need for security against theft and need to design traffic flow to permit easy movement
around the floors. Ranganathan also recognized that personnel structure and decision

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 making would also be affected by this growth. He anticipated the increased division of
labor among administrative, technical, and reference staff and recommended that an
administrative staff council be created to assist in the operations and organization of the
library.
Ranganathan’s five laws have been recently revisited by Gorman who advanced five “new laws”
as updates to Ranganathan’s. Gorman asserts the following five laws:
1. Libraries serve humanity.
This is a restatement of the service ethic that permeates librarianship, recognizing that the
“dominant ethic of librarianship is service to the individual, community and society as a
whole”
2. Respect All Forms by Which Knowledge Is Communicated.
In Ranganathan’s time, print materials dominated library materials. For this reason, his
principles talk of books and readers. But today, there are many more ways in which
knowledge is packaged in libraries. According to Gorman, “each new means of
communication enhances and supplements the strength of all previous means”
3. Use Technology Intelligently to Enhance Service.
The obligation of librarians is neither to resist new technologies nor to use technology
uncritically. Rather, it is to recognize the potential of some technologies in accomplishing
the missions of libraries. To the extent that new technologies can offer tremendous
advantages to library service, they should be applied in a constructive and intelligent manner.
4. Protect Free Access to Knowledge.
The historical concept of the library as one of the foundations of democratic institutions
remains as important today as ever. The controls and centralization that new technologies
can produce have exacerbated many of the problems involved in protecting the intellectual
freedom of patrons. The legacy of our culture and other cultures must be freely transmitted to
all; otherwise freedom is threatened and tyranny promoted.
5. Honor the Past and Create the Future.
A central value of librarianship is the recognition that the past serves as a guide for future. The
library has been a central institution for archiving our cultural record and the cultural records of
other societies. To this end the library must not only focus on the new information that is
constantly being produced but protect the historical record as well.

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 Value 2: Reading and the Book are Important
A central value of libraries and library workers has been and continues to be a deep and abiding
respect for both reading and the book. Consider some of the advantages that books possess:-
√ Are generally lightweight and very portable; they’re easy to take to the beach or
to bed.
√ Require no electricity (except when it’s dark)
√ Require no additional equipment such as video display terminals, printers etc.
√ Require little maintenance and repair, and when repair is needed it is usually quite
inexpensive and can be accomplished by an individual with minimal training; no
service contract is needed.
√ Require no diagrams or documentation to use
√ Can get pretty damp and dusty and still function
√ Can be dropped on the floor with little damage
√ Are comparatively cheap
√ Can be browsed easily and contain finding aids, such as an index, that are
relatively easy to use (compared with using Boolean logic)
√ Are an excellent source for stimulating the imagination;
√ Store easily
√ Can be written in and text can be easily underlined for emphasis during later
reading and study
√ Require little knowledge to operate
√ Can last a very long time, especially when printed on acid-free paper.

Book has many advantages quite aside from its technical character. Books stimulate more active
involvement and diminish the passivity common when viewing television or movies; they are
able to convey more complex concepts and psychological conditions than television and movies
and more closely approximate real life; they stimulate intellectual activity; and exposure to
books often leads to improved understanding, discovery, and growth in our personal lives.

Value 3: Respect for truth and the search for truth

When individuals seek answers to questions, they expect the library to provide timely and
accurate information, and library professionals would consider themselves remiss if they
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provided inaccurate information. The provision of accurate information is a duty of the
information provider. This respect for truth should be separated from the search for truth that
must also be promoted. Libraries are intended to assist individuals in their investigatory process.
Swan has noted that librarians must have the untrue on their library shelves as well as the true,
because sometimes these sources prove quite revealing to those exploring complex issues.
Respecting the search for truth requires that the librarian reduce barriers in this search.
Protecting the search for truth means collecting and defending the many points of view of
authors and creators and respecting each individual’s search for knowledge.
Value 4: Tolerance
A complementary value to the search for truth is that of tolerance. The value of tolerance
suggests that library collections possess a variety of perspectives on a wide array of topics.
It suggests that information professionals try to nonjudgmental in terms of the value or direction
of a library user’s inquiry. Without such a value, library collections would be little more than
dogmatic assertions of the majority.
Value 5: The public good
The notion of the public good is fundamental to library service and has at least three implications
for the library.
First, it implies that people and society as a whole are changed, and in the long run, improved
by ideas, no matter what format of these ideas. It implies that ideas improve the quality of a
person’s life and the life of the community. Improvement may not be the only reason for
libraries, but it is an essential function.
Examples include stimulating an interest in reading among young children, helping children in
their school work, providing training information to adults, providing programming for mothers
or the elderly, and proving information to clients to advance their knowledge and careers.
Second, it implies that the citizen has a right to good entertainment, that people have a right to
enjoy life, and that the library has a role in promoting pleasure. Certainly the presence of
copious fiction, romance, travel, and popularized science and history attests to the strong feelings
that librarians have about this dimension of library service.
Third, the public good implies that the librarians perform their tasks in a selfless manner,
placing service to the community above personal interest.

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The extent to which seeking the public good requires that the librarian actively seek out those
who could benefit from library services but for whom the library has been an unwelcome and
unresponsive institution, that is, the poor, members of minorities and the uneducated.
Value 6: Justice
 Pertains both to the public and to staff.
 Implies that each individual has equal access to library and information services.
 Every person should be respected as an individual, and the delivery of inadequate service
is a violation of such a value.
 Related to this McCook has argued that the underlying goal of our profession is
information equity. She observes that “inherent in this goal is social justice-working for
universal literacy; defending intellectual freedom; preserving and making accessible the
human record to all”.
Value 7: Aesthetics
Among all the informational and entertainment materials that are part of library collections there
exists a core of materials that are collected because they possess the elements of extraordinary
creativity – they are the works of genius that live on.
The great music, art, literature, and philosophy of the past, as well as those modern works that
appear to have like potential are often prized by libraries, even when their circulation levels are
low. These works occupy a special place for librarians and often receive special consideration
for preservation.

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