Introduction to Networking

Dr. Kumkum Saxena

 What is a Computer Network
◆ A set of communication elements connected by
communication links
router
➭ Communication elements workstation
● Computers, printers, mobile phones, … server
● Routers, switches, ... mobile
local ISP
➭ Communication links
● optic fiber
● coaxial cable
● twisted pair regional ISP
● wireless (radio, microwave, satellite)
➭ Topologies
● Ring, Star, Bus, Tree, Mesh

company
network
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 Introduction to computer network
Computer Network
 an interconnected collection of autonomous computers
The computers can be geographically located anywhere.

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 Introduction to computer network
LAN, MAN & WAN

Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building or a

Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network)

Network in a City is call MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Network spread geographically (Country or across Globe) is called

WAN (Wide Area Network)

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 LAN
• A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among
computer devices, usually within an office building or
home
• LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or
hardware devices that may be needed by multiple users
• Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters,
and no more than a mile
• Is very fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
• Requires very little wiring, typically a single cable
connecting to each device
• Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s

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 MAN
◼ The communication infrastructures that have
been developed in and around large cities

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 WAN
◼ A network that connects two or more local-area networks
over a potentially large geographic distance
◼ Communication between networks is called
internetworking
◼ The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the
ultimate wide-area network, spanning the entire globe.

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 Business Applications of Networks
a. Resource sharing (hardware, software, information, …)
b. Providing communication medium (e-mail, videoconferenceing)
c. Doing business electronically (B2B, B2C, e-commerce)

◼ A network with two clients and one server.

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 Hardware and Software Components
◼ Computer networks components comprise both
physical components as well as the software required
for installing computer networks.
◼ Hardware components :
◼ server
◼ client
◼ transmission medium and
◼ connecting devices.
 Software components:
o operating system and
o protocols.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 9
 Hardware Components
◼ Servers: Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the
resources of the network. The network operating system is typically
installed in the server and so they give user accesses to the network
resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file servers, database
servers, print servers etc.

◼ Clients: Clients are computers that request and receive service

from the servers to access and use the network resources.

◼ Transmission Media: Transmission media are the channels

through which data is transferred from one device to another in a
network. Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial
cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like
microwaves, infra-red waves etc.

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 Hardware Components
◼ Connecting Devices: Connecting devices act as
middleware between networks or computers by
binding the network media together. Some of the
common connecting devices are:
Network Interface Card(NIC)
Routers
Bridges
Hubs
Repeaters
Gateways
Switches
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 Interconnecting Components
1. Network Interface Card
The network interface card (or NIC for short) is the network
adapter that all devices must have in order to be part of a
network. On desktop computers, network interface cards
allow Ethernet cables to be plugged in, as this is the main
method of establishing network connections on desktop
computers.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 12

 Interconnecting Components
◼ Repeaters
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted
about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.

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 Interconnecting Components
Hub
◼ A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A signal received at
any port on the hub is retransmitted on all other ports. Network
segments that employ hubs are often described as having a star
topology, in which the hub forms the wiring centre of the star.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices. Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path
for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

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 Interconnecting Components
HUB
If a message comes in destined for computer “A”, that message
is sent out to all the other ports, regardless of which computer
“A” is.

Incoming data passing through a hub.

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 Interconnecting Components
◼ When computer “A” responds, its response also goes out to every other
port on the hub.

◼ Every computer connected to the hub “sees” everything every other

computer on the hub does. It’s up to the computers themselves to
decide if a message is for them and whether or not it should be paid
attention to.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 16
 Interconnecting Components
◼ Bridge
Bridges can be used to connect two or more LAN segments of the
same type. Secondly, most bridges have only 2 or 4 ports.A bridge
operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
functionality of filtering content by reading the addresses of source
and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs
working on the same protocol.

Initially, a bridge
knows nothing, and
simply sends on
incoming messages to
all ports.

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 Interconnecting Components
Just by accepting that first message, however, the bridge has learned something: it
knows on which connection the sender of the message is located. Thus, when
machine “A” responds to the message, the bridge only needs to send that message
out to the one connection.

Bridges learn the location of the devices they are connected to almost
instantaneously. The result is, most network traffic only goes where it
needs to, rather than to every port. On busy networks, this can make the
network significantly faster.

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 Interconnecting Components

◼ Switch
Switch is data link layer device. A switch when compared
to bridge has multiple ports. Switches can perform error
checking before forwarding data, which are very efficient
by not forwarding packets that have errors or forwarding
good packets selectively to correct devices only. Firstly, a
bridge can connect fewer LAN, while a switch can
connect more networks compared to the bridge.

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 Interconnecting Components
Routers
◼ A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on
their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
◼ Routers have the ability to make intelligent decisions as to the best
path for delivery of data on the network.
◼ Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets.

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 Network Topology
The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the
TOPOLOGY.
Factors to be considered for selection of the choice of topology:
[Link] : For a network to be cost effective, one would try to
minimize
installation cost
2. Flexibility: he topology should allow for easy reconfiguration of
the network. This involves moving existing nodes and adding new
ones.
3. Reliability :The topology chosen for the network can help by
allowing the location of the fault to be detect ed and to provide
some means of isolating it.

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 Network Topology
1. Star Topology
This topology consists of a central node to which all other nodes
are connected by a single path. It is the topology used in most
existing information networks involving data processing or
voice communications.

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 Network Topology
Advantages of the Star Topology
1. Ease of service: The star topology has a number of
concentration points (where connections are joined). These
provide for easy reconfiguration of the network.
2. One device per connection: Connection points in any network
are inherently prone to failure in the star topology, failure of a
single connection typically involves disconnecting one no de
from an otherwise fully functional network.
3. Centralized control/problem diagnosis : Faults are easily
detected and isolated. Easy to disconnect failing nodes from the
system.

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 Network Topology
4. Simple access protocols: Any given connection in a star network
involves only the central node. In this situation, contention for who has
control of the medium for the transmission purposes is easily solved.
Thus in a star network, access protocols are very simple.
Disadvantages of the Star Topology.
[Link] cable length: Because each node is directly connected to the
centre,
the star topology necessitates a large quantity of cable.
[Link] node dependency: If the central node in a star network
fails, the entire network is rendered inoperable.

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 Network Topology
The Bus Topology
This consists of a single length of the transmission medium (normally
coaxial cable) onto which the various nodes are attached.
Advantages of the Linear Topology
[Link] cable length and simple wiring layout: Because there is a
single common data path connecting all nodes, the linear topology
allows a very short cable length to be used. This decreases the
installation cost, and also leads to a simple, easy to maintain wiring
layout.
2. Easy to extend: Additional nodes can be connected to an existing bus
network at any point along its length. More extensive additions can be
achieved by adding extra segments connected by a repeater.

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 Network Topology

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 Network Topology
Disadvantages of the Bus (Linear) Topology
1. Fault diagnosis is difficult: Although simplicity of the bus
topology means that there is very little to go wrong, fault detection is
not simple. Detection of a fault may have to be performed from many
points in the network.
[Link] isolation is difficult: In the star topology, a defective node
can easily be isolated from the network by removing its connection at
the centre. If a node is faulty on the bus, it must be rectified at the
point where the node is connected to the network.
[Link] must be intelligent: Each node on the network is directly
connected to the central bus. This means that some way of deciding
who can use the network at any given time must be performed in each node.
4. A cable break can disable the entire network

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 Network Topology
3. Ring Topology
In this case, each node is connected to two and only two
neighbouring nodes.
Data is accepted from one of the neighbouring nodes and is
transmitted onwards to another.
Thus data travels in one direction only, from node to node
around the ring. After passing through each node, it returns to
the sending node, which removes it.

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 Network Topology

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 Network Topology
Advantages of Ring Topology
[Link] cable length. The amount of cabling involved in a ring
topology is comparable to that of a bus and is small relative to
that of a star.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
1. Each packet of data must pass through all the computers
between source and destination, slower than star topology
2. If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets
affected

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 Network Topology
Mesh topology
◼ Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
◼ There are multiple paths from one computer to another
computer. It does not contain the switch, hub or any central
computer which acts as a central point of communication.
Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is
connected to all the computers available in the network.
Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2; (n-no. of nodes)
Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but
certain computers are connected to those computers with which
they communicate frequently.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 31
 Network Topology

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 Network Topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
◼ Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very
reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect
the communication between connected computers.
◼ Fast Communication: Communication is very
fast between the nodes.
◼ Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices
would not disrupt the communication between
other devices.

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 Network Topology
Disadvantage of Mesh Topology
Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of
connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections
are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.

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 Introduction OSI
◼ The Open System Interconnection Reference
Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model) is an
abstract description for layered communications and
computer network protocol design.
◼ It divides network architecture into seven layers which,
from top to bottom, are the Application, Presentation,
Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical
Layers. It is therefore often referred to as the OSI Seven
Layer Model.

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 Introduction OSI
◼ To reduce the complexity in the network, most networks are
organized as a series of layers .
◼ The basic idea of a layered architecture is to divide the design
into small pieces.
◼ The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of
each layer, and the function of each layer differ from network
to network.
◼ Each layer offers certain services to the layer above it.
◼ Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n
on another machine. The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as the layer n protocol.
◼ A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties
on how communication is to proceed.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 36
 Introduction OSI
◼ The basic elements of a layered model are services,
protocols and interfaces.
◼ A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another
(higher) layer.
◼ Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange
information with a peer entity.
◼ Between the layers service interfaces are defined. The
messages from one layer to another are sent through those
interfaces.

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 Introduction OSI
◼ The benefits of the layered models are modularity and
clear interfaces
◼ In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on
one machine to layer n on another machine.
◼ Instead, each layer passes data and control information to
the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is
reached.
◼ Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual
communication occurs.
◼ Virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and
physical communication by solid lines.

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 Reference Models
The OSI
reference
model.

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page
 How Data Flows through the OSI
Layers
◼ Each layer adds (or encapsulates) some form of header or
trailer. (Layer 2, the Data Link layer, is responsible for
adding a trailer) as the data flow from Device A to Device B.
◼ When the end system receives the unstructured bit stream
from the physical wire, each layer removes the header
information applicable to it until the application receives the
data.
◼ Eg: An email is sent from Device A to Device B
1. An application, such as an email program, creates data that
will be sent by an end user, such as an email message. The
Application layer (layer 7) places a header (encapsulation)
field that contains information such as screen size and
fonts,and passes the data to the Presentation layer (layer 6).
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 40
 How Data Flows through the OSI
Layers
2. The Presentation layer places layer 6 header
information(PH) and will then pass the new data to the
Session layer (layer 5).
3. The Session layer follows the same process by adding layer
5 header information(SH).
[Link] Transport layer places layer 4 information in the
header(TH), and passes it to the Network layer (layer 3).
5. The Network layer places layer 3 header information(NH),
such as the source and destination address so the Network
layer can determine the best delivery path for the packets,
and passes this data to the Data Link layer (layer 2).

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 How Data Flows through the OSI
Layers
6. The Data Link layer places layer 2 header(DH) and trailer
information(DT) such as a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) to ensure
that the information is not corrupt, and passes this new data to the
Physical layer (layer 1) for transmission across the media.
7. The bit stream is then transmitted as ones and zeros on the Physical
layer.
8. Steps 1 through 7 occur in reverse order on the destination device.
Device B collects the raw bits from the physical wire and passes them
up the Data Link layer. The Data Link layer removes the headers and
trailers and passes the remaining information to the Network layer and
so forth until data is received by the Application layer. Eventually,
Device B will receive an email notification displaying a message to
indicate that a new email message has been received.

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 ◼ How Data Flows through the OSI Layers

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 43

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 44
 Design Issues of layers
1. Reliability
◼ Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of
bits while data transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that
the information transferred is not distorted.
2. Scalability
◼ Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing
leading to congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the
added components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design
should be done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate
such additions and alterations.
3. Addressing
◼ At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between
large numbers of computers. So, a naming or addressing system should
exist so that each layer can identify the sender and receivers of each
message.
1. .
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 45
 Design Issues of layers
4. Error Control
◼ Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the
data streams that are communicated. So, the layers need to
agree upon common error detection and error correction
methods so as to protect data packets while they are
transferred.
5. Flow Control
◼ If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher
than the rate at which data is received by the receiver, there
are chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow
control mechanism needs to be implemented.

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 Design Issues of layers
6. Statistical Multiplexing
◼ It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while
it is being transferred from the source to the destination. So, the data
channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the
bandwidth or time to each host.
[Link]
◼ There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination.
Routing involves choosing an optimal path among all possible paths,
in terms of cost and time. There are several routing algorithms that
are used in network systems
8. Security
◼ A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats
like eavesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages. So,
there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized
access to data through authentication and cryptography.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 47
 OSI layers and functions
1. Application layer
◼ The Application Layer is the one at the top - it’s what most
users see.
◼ In the OSI model, this is the layer that is the “closest to the
end user”.
◼ Applications that work at Layer 7 are the ones that users
interact with directly.
◼ A web browser (Google Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.) or other
app - Skype, Outlook, Office - are examples of Layer 7
applications.

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 OSI layers and functions
2. Presentation Layer
◼ The Presentation Layer represents the area that is
independent of data representation at the application layer
- in general, it
represents the preparation or translation of application
format to network format, or from network formatting to
application format.
◼ In other words, the layer “presents” data for the application
or the network. A good example of this is encryption and
decryption of data for security/compression and
decompression.

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 OSI layers and functions
3. Session layer
◼ The session layer is an important layer as it is responsible for
maintaining a session between two end-user applications.
◼ When we open browser and open Facebook in one tab, second
tab we open Twitter, and another tab for some banking
transaction. The information from sever will come to same from
which you have requested.
◼ For example, if you are downloading some pictures from
Facebook, a the requests for the photos and responses by
Facebook to you is handled by the session layer.

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 OSI layers and functions
4. Transport Layer
◼ Responsible for process to process delivery of the entire message.
◼ Computers often run several processes at the same time. For this
reason, process-to-process delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to the other but also from a specific process on one computer
to a specific process on the other.
◼ The transport layer header therefore must include a type of address
called a port address.
Port address guides the data to reach to the correct server
application from your computer and come back to the correct
application to your computer.

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 OSI layers and functions
The transport layer can be either
Connection less or connection oriented
1. Connection oriented
◼ Makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets.
◼ When the connection is established a sequence of packets
from source to the destination can be sent one after another
on the same path and in sequential order.
◼ When all packets of message have been delivered, the
connection is terminated

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 OSI layers and functions
Connection Less ( as Internet)
◼ It sends the data, but does not establish and verify a
connection between hosts before sending data.

◼ Treats each packet independently, the packets in a

message may or may not travel the same path to their
destination.

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 OSI layers and functions

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 Physical and Logical Addresses
◼ The physical address, also known as the MAC(Media Access
control) address, is the address of a node as defined by its
LAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
◼ It is the lowest-level address. The size and format of these
addresses vary depending on the network.
◼ For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address
that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC).
◼ Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below.
◼ Eg [Link]

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 Physical and Logical Addresses

Physical Address
◼ A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address
87. The two nodes are connected by a LAN. At the data link layer, this frame
contains physical (link/MAC) addresses in the header. These are the only
addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at
this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection. The
data link layer at the sender receives data from an upper layer. It encapsulates
the data in a frame, adding a header and a trailer. The header, among other
pieces of information, carries the receiver and the sender physical (link)
addresses.
◼ The frame is propagated through the LAN. Each node with a physical address
other than 87 drops the frame because the destination address in the frame
does not match its own physical address. The intended destination computer,
however, finds a match between the destination address in the frame and its
own physical address. The frame is checked, the header and trailer are
dropped, and the data part is decapsulated and delivered to the upper layer.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 56
 Physical addresses

1 packet
87 10 Data accepted
87 10 Data

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page
 Physical and Logical Addresses
Logical Address
•Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are
independent of underlying physical networks.
•Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment.
•A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be
identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.
•The logical addresses are designed for this purpose.
A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32- bit address that can
uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.
•No two hosts on the Internet can have the same IP address.
•The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,but the logical
addresses remain the same

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 Physical and Logical Addresses
◼ The Figure below shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a
pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection.
◼ The computer with logical address A and physical address 10
needs to send a packet to the computer with logical address P
and physical address 95.
◼ The sender encapsulates its data in a packet at the network layer
and adds two logical addresses (A and P).
◼ The network layer, however, needs to find the physical address
of the next hop before the packet can be delivered. The network
layer consults its routing table and finds the logical address of
the next hop (router 1) to be F.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 59

 Figure 2.17 Example 2.5: logical addresses

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Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 61
 IP address: Defines the host among the different hosts in
the world.

After host is selected , the port address defines one of the

processes on this particular host.

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 OSI layers and functions
5. Network Layer
◼ Routing Function:
Routing is concerned with the question: Which line should router J use
when forwarding a packet to router K?
◼ The network layer controls the operation of deciding which physical
path the data should.
◼ When data arrives at the Network layer, the source and
destination addresses contained inside each frame are examined to
determine if the data has reached its final destination.
◼ If the data has reached the final destination, then network layer
delivers data to the Transport layer. Otherwise, the Network layer
updates the destination address and pushes the frame back down to the
lower layers.

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 OSI layers and functions
◼ Congestion Control:
The network layer also must deal with congestion:
•When more packets enter an area than can be processed,
delays increase and performance decreases. If the situation
continues, the subnet may have no alternative but to
discard packets.
•If the delay increases, the sender may (incorrectly)
retransmit, making a bad situation even worse.
•Overall, performance degrades because the network is using
(wasting) resources processing packets that eventually get
discarded.

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 OSI layers and functions
6. Data Link Layer
◼ When sending data to the physical layer it puts a header(MAC
address) and a frame check sequence(trailer).
◼ When obtaining data from the Physical layer, the Data Link
layer checks for physical transmission errors and packages bits
into data "frames".
◼ The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data
frames from one node to another over the physical layer.
◼ The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media
Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control
(LLC) layer.

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 OSI layers and functions
◼ Data Link Layer Functions
1. Framing: Divide the stream of bits received from network layer
into data units called frames
2. Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the
frame in order to define physical address of the sender or
receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network.
3. Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast
transmitter from running a slow receiver by buffering the extra
bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic jam at the
receiver side.

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 OSI layers and functions
4. Error Control:
◼ Add mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
◼ Prevent also duplication of frames.
◼ Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the
end of frame.
5. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the
devices has control over the link at any given time, when two or
more devices are connected to the same link.

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 OSI layers and functions
7. Physical layer
◼ It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
carrier.
Functions
[Link] of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits.
The bits must be encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the
type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to signal.
2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the
number of bits per second.
3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter
and receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface
between devices and transmission medium.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 68

 OSI layers and functions
5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the
medium: Point to Point configuration(dedicated link between 2
devices) and Multipoint configuration(shared link between more
than 2 devices)
[Link]: Devices must be connected using the following
topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and Bus.
[Link] Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: Simplex(signals can flow
only in one direction), Half Duplex(signals can flow in both
directions not at the same time). Full Duplex(signals can flow in
both directions at the same time).

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 69

 OSI Layers
OSI Model
Data unit Layer Function
[Link] Network process to application
Data representation, encryption
Data 6. Presentation
Host and decryption
layers 5. Session Interhost communication
End-to-end connections and
Segments [Link]
reliability, Flow control
Path determination and logical
Packet 3. Network
addressing
Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Media, signal and binary
Bit 1. Physical
transmission
Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data Processing

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking 70 70

page
 Introduction TCP/IP
◼ The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known
as TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols used
for the Internet and other similar networks.
◼ It is named from two of the most important protocols in it:
◼ the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)(layer 4) and
◼ the Internet Protocol (IP)(layer 3), which were the first
two networking protocols defined in this standard.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking 71 71

page
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 72
 TCP/IP

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 73

 Introduction TCP/IP
[Link] layer
◼ User interacts directly with the application software, where
application process creates user data and transmits this data to
other application process on same or another host via one of the
transport layer protocol (TCP or UDP).
◼ Application layer protocols:
◼ HTTP(hyper text transfer protocol): Is the protocol that web
browsers and web servers use to communicate with each other.
◼ FTP protocol : Used to exchange computer files within hosts.
Setting up an FTP server becomes necessary for businesses that
manage their own network and need to establish a file transfer
(exchange of documents) between company employees.
◼ DNS protocol: Domain names are alphabetic which are easier to
remember. Internet is however based on IP [Link] involves
converting a host name into its IP address.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 74
 Introduction TCP/IP
◼ 2. Transport layer
Transport layer is the third layer in the TCP/IP reference model.
The transport layer receives the data from the application layer and
splits it into separate packets, with an order number and port
number. It is also responsible for error and flow control.
The core protocols of transport layer are Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
◼ TCP - is a connection-oriented protocol.
Connection-oriented - Establishes a logical connection between
sender and receiver before sending any data packets.
UDP - is a connectionless, protocol. Connectionless -
Establishing a connection between sender and receiver is not
required.
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 75
 Introduction TCP/IP
3. Network layer
The network layer is responsible for attaching the sender and
destination IP address. The IP addresses combined with the ports
create sender and receiver sockets. It is also responsible for
packet routing, forwarding the data packets to the next router
towards their destination.
The protocol at the network layer is called the Internet protocol.
◼ IP prepares segments received from Transport layer for delivery by
splitting them into units called IP datagrams. Splitting is required if
the packet exceeds the allowable byte size for network.
◼ IP attaches an IP header to the segment or packet's header, in addition
to the information that is added by TCP or UDP. Information in the IP
header includes the IP addresses of the sending and receiving hosts.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 76

 Introduction TCP/IP
4. Data Link Layer Functions
1. Framing: Divide the stream of bits received from network layer
into data units called frames
2. Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the
frame in order to define physical address of the sender or
receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network.
3. Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast
transmitter from running a slow receiver by buffering the extra
bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic jam at the
receiver side.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 77

 Introduction TCP/IP
4. Error Control:
◼ Add mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
◼ Prevent also duplication of frames.
◼ Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the
end of frame.
5. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the
devices has control over the link at any given time, when two or
more devices are connected to the same link.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 78

 Introduction TCP/IP
5. Physical layer
◼ It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
carrier.
Functions
[Link] of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits.
The bits must be encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the
type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to signal.
2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the
number of bits per second.
3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter
and receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface
between devices and transmission medium.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 79

 Introduction TCP/IP
5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the
medium: Point to Point configuration and Multipoint
configuration
[Link]: Devices must be connected using the following
topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and Bus.
[Link] Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full
Duplex.

Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 80

 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP

OSI TCP/IP

1. The OSI model is a reference model. 1. The TCP/IP model is an implementation of

the OSI model. It is a client server model used
for transmission of data over the internet.

[Link] OSI model has 7 layers. 2. The TCP/IP model has only 5 layers.

3. Layers- Application, Presentation, Session, 3. Layers- Application, Transport, Network, Data

Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical. Link, Physical.

4. Separate Presentation and Session Layer 4. TCP/IP combines the presentation and session
layer into its application layer

5. The OSI model supports only 5 The TCP/IP model supports both
connection -oriented communication in connection-less and connection-
transport layer. oriented communication in the
transport layer
Dr. Kumkum Saxena Introduction to Networking page 81