Chapter-14

Semiconductor electronics
Material devices and simple circuits
~ CLA~SlFltATl0N C>f SOLlDS ON THE BASIS OF TiiEl~ (.0N'DUtT1VlTY
-+ On .±ht. ba.J.is of --re.lAilue va.l.ue.J> of elechic.a.I amclud;vi~
an.d -ruishvi~ , .the s6li~ c...qn be. dtu&1ti~ irrtn ~ ~ .
J) METAL C.CNDUC.TOR.S -
➔ lhesc OA.e ~ c s<Sl.ll4 ~ ~\le. ~ c.onal.lc.iiw.½y a~
low -rebistiu.Lty.
-+ um.duciw.Uy .. l tf io I0
8 SIm
-. Rui.sthLiry .. tot..n.n, io 16g .nm

-. ~xcunplc- At Cu, Aa, Au. d-c.. l Si(\l~(~) ..u -#le but. m6al Cl'fl~)
~ INSULA T0'R5 -
- if\uc o.u ~t. s ~ ~ htl"e v~ ~ Cb1lduclrui:ly
Q~ va, ~ l"CAisti\li+».
-+ Cmldu.t.b:JJ.U:y - ~ ~ lOg S/ T'f\
➔ 'Ruistiuil;' - m.ore fun 10s SJ.. 07
➔ f:xample - "'r1.l.bbel, pla.b-lic. , putt~ ,

1) SEMICONDUCTORS -
➔ 1liue a>tt. ..+hase sou.h ~ hAue ~tiui.½J an.al
YUis-tiv.i~ ir1bel-wt eri m~ c.tmAUc.tm-s Oru-J ·r,uul.ahrs.
➔ CcrNlu~ - IO S ,to IO S/YY) O

5
__.. Ruistiu.u..y - io 10• .n.m.
10

➔ fx""'fle.- (Q) ~lemen:W scmlt..trrvA~ - lnue <Vt.e. ±he. sc.rni~llr

cwa.i/4.hle .i-rt ~ Jam,, ei- Si, ~e.
lb) lnavaanic. serruu,rul~- c.cl~ , <MAs., IrtP
le) 0 ~ s e ~ ~ - Av,-t\,n~c.t.nt., ~~ p-tha.!»9f'ni~.
tr.I} Or<ftn.il. poi~m~ stou~s- pot:J p'd"rflk, ~~ Qru.l.ine.,
p~~o pheri.e.
~ ENERG,Y .BANDS IN SOLIDS -

-._;__::::::,.:...i- --~as~
i
i
l
-----~-:..._______
l
_ ..;,__2f
- - -- -i--i'---.--
I
- --1s~
- 1: ______,;.._ _ _..:.,._ Is1.
- - - - . - - - . . :~
l
:

(l, b C d
TTl+e>t.ahrnuc. s.po.cJ~ (_y) -+

- PART- D - A* ~ Jsu.ae J.Y\teJt.Jrlami.<. spru..i~; ~ ~ nr,

jyrlra~ b~cn nt1rbowJns ~- AU ~ N ~
h...vc j~~~ en~ .kvdA. !n j.h( OuhA_ .shd!A,N e ~
lc.,ds aMoci-t1~ t.oT#t ~s ovbif~ Oht. GDTnpleid.y fill~ W1~
2N eJee,~ ,
 --. lt\CYC rw. ~N po1,5,1~k 3p ~\L~ , ouS af- ~ o-niy @
2N l.e,\le.U OJi.e. ~ Qrull ail J:he. f;lltaJ 3p lwe.U 1-uw,e, -tlie
same ~-
_... PART-C -7h~ e.n~ t)t e.le.ch-~ c..cme&~~ :ib 3s anti 'op
Jeve4 ot e.a.c.h <rltim a~
s ~ c.~"6eJt T-N>itaAI of a
Sina-'e 2s (Sf 2p Je\lel) we ~d, a. ~~ numbtl err ~
p ~ -U-\tili l 2N -Levt.U urr-tv..pcmdiri,a lo a.. .si~ as ~
'N levdh fof Cl Si~ ip J~tel of ar'l ..uoidfuJ <Ulm1.
llu>-> sprta.oli~ of e.n~ ayye;.pttnJLJ"';j Xb 3s crnol ?Jp ttue1A
TfrluceJ.. ~e e ~ 8'11' that ex,·s~ b ~ 3s an.al 3p leiteU,
of free. ~ -
-+ PAil,~ B - As ~e. 5ef~ y de.er~~ fu-r-fheJt. i .the. c~
~ 3s a~ 3p k'Jel& c..ompltie!y d4a.pp ~ 01\Dl -the UffeY
anrJ ...l.otarJi.. enehtt ~ ~ wilh eJWi ~ . we. ~
ruwe a. set or
e1n1tin~o4~~ cU6t,i btituJ 4-N e.~ ~ -
~ PAltr-A - to h.eYI -Vie inteh.o:hrrn.ic. spo.ci~ )' bee..arn.e,& veAJJ
sma.U, +he P<nld ~t 4 N frll~ c.n~ ..le.veU ~ ~t>..&.\
frtrM J:he. bcm.d csf 4N untu~ en~ Je."el.b. ~ cm en~
af CAlLe.4 e/f\e>vfj b~ a6'f, wru.c.l, ~ dcTU)tec:\ ~ ~-
lrie lctucl u,rnp\ehly tillt.J b~ "'-& c.Cll.Lu\ va.le.Ylt.e. ~ -
o~ ~ u.pf-fA unA11uJ hqrul ~ ~ ~ ~ ·

£mf'½ c..cruk~ bqnt4

I~ Ee. ( 4N S-rott)

E.y
.Pil\ul \lal~'n.te. ~"""'
(_4-N shlt)

~ lhC Ltrtoul l'f'l ~ ~ ~ ~

en~ .lvtet
sh.m.m ~ ~, ~ ~~t e.ntJft ~\Le\ iY\ ~ v ~
~ 1b .s~ Clo ev . Th~ s~~ .,be!u)ce~ .1isp nf
~ l>em.ol ~ baitOl'Y\ at ~ h~ j,A
c.allea/ €ifte\tt h~ ~ l ~Y\~ N ~d ) .
-. VALENCE BANl), CONDUCTION BAND, ENERuiY BAND (nAl> © -
-+ j] VALENCE BAND -
~ 1'n J.h~ en~ bq~ ~-om, <rt semlc.rrruutchs)-s, j.he.
V~r\le baru! ~ 0. J.ntAl-cy bq'Y\A b~na lo v~~
elec..1Ybl'l.£ ~ Ji1e. s,hteYl c..~.
-+ -n;u ba~ ~ be. p~ll~ 6Y usmpleie~ ~\\tol o:n~
elec.~.
~ ~ b~ ~ neu.e>t e.~.
_.. 1'Yl ~ b~~ e.lec:r,m~ ah.e nest u.pahle ot c:rurui
e..nehft ~ em.Yl'Ull ele.r!J+,k ~t.\91. The-re.-fore. > ~ d ~
»l ~ b.~ olb run: CA"Y\tnbUle.. -+o '""1e. eluhic. c.uvrvd.

+ 1) C0NDUC.TI0N Bf\ND -
~ fY\ Jhe e,n"'-ft b<ll'Ul ~~ of se.mic.amdudm, .i1e.
~ b~n.al j,s an up~ ~-ncA ~ ~ ~c. dec.-lrm&
M'-. -rust, p'rUem;c C\l' OK..
➔ Af •100111 lempe>uli.uh.e ~ ~ n.ol J}., e.1.theJi. e.mfl'J err
I

~ -Fitlcal untJ, elec.,fnrr\S,

~ In Ji.t6 bcvru2\ > ele.v1ftrN> c.tzifl aairi e,Yl~ ~ ~m.cl
e.Jec;hic. ti"t.lat ~ e<mtribt.dt. lo j:he_ ele.t:\)ic. oinenf..

-. ~ ENERCnY BAND Cn1\P

- In ~ . e'O~ ~ ~'Yl)Y'r) >en~ ~an,J fPf ~ 1h(_
se.,CVuUlDYJ be:t~ ½he.ht en~ ~\Id of \Jl11.aru.e MnrA ~
1.ot,.,egt eneAff -'eAtd ..in CJrrtcluc:tur,, ».~.
_. 8\e.c-~ M.e not 1t1urul in. -thiA ~ -
~ Th.Lb eq~ .U> cmnpltldy ~rtJ.
-,. The. mlrumu,m eYl~ n1w~ lb slufh'~ ~~ tttm}
va.lAnu ~ d-.n c m , ~ ~ ·'r\q 11> CJtUuJ ~ ~ru4 r,(1l.
..-. If .X ~ .±he ~m+ of ~ ui~ lY\ shjffi1 ~
ele.ttnrr} ftmn vtt.lAnu ~~ .:lD ~ hatnd~ -then ~
~ rt' ~ '=-J =-~-0:: ~c h = Plcmck1s 01'1!~
~ ~
-,,. DISTINCTION :BETWEEN C.ONDUCTOllS. INSULATORS AND©
£EMfC.ONDUC.TORS ON THE BASIS OF J3AW1) TKEORV
-,. j, C.ONDUCTO'R..r

llie. en~ ~nm, -fut a metal ~ su.th ..ffua±

~ru>l
eilM-\. ~~ ~ ~Y\d ~ p ~ ~rlle..cJ u,1.~ ~..
tlY lJit c:DY)~~ti.a-r, al'Ulj v£l-leru.,e ~no! ~ c,./tAl.ap e.a.Lh
o ~ arul -the-re ..ib lW -furbi~ en~ ~NA ~ in ~
ee-rdu~F
"---.i :- • •
\ Pahilaf½ fi II~
+i ,. ..... J .. .'+! - - 1-._., .,1
......... - , • ft • f . _,11,H ~ 1Jiq ru,

VcJ~nu{
b-- !- •
1
1 - • -
•
•
a I
.~
j
--~ j • I 2j
* ~ SEMI CONDUCTORS - ©
-+At o K .th~ urn.rAu illcrt) \,~ J.-6 em~ C\'t\fl -\he \/altntt.
bQAA .U fill~ ; So d:he m.oi~ ~ we~ ·,Nu1aim-
a! ltn.c J:Lrn per aiu'tt.b .
➔ HO"t4:)e.uel . ihe. e.Y\~ 3~ b~e.n CJn"\.~ Qrul va.le-nte..
b~ ~ srrut.U t f 2 <. 3e.V).
➔ fu.r e.xamrle, ~J :z /.1 e..V fu Si and ~ = 0,1e.V -Gr., v.e. .
--n:nrrn ±cmpuurlu~, some. vctlAru.e. el.e.~ ~CJu.i'r"t.
..,.. Af.
en~ -thennal e ~ Qn.ol jwmp J.o -tt,~ ~c.iun, ~ ~
~ ~ -Mt. .to ut\lW.cl el~cmciti.
-=--==-=-=_-=::..,J ~~ ~
II':1 (
~
3e.v
~ .1,4 ,v4
-+ ~e semlc.crr~~hrr
ac1u.iru., a. s-mAll ~ " i ~
a:! ) 0 0 (t1 .ie.m pf,\;Ullre..
~ ~ tlilleJt
, - - -.... _. The --rt..&lstonc.e. oF ~mi~
vctlcnt.t
----..1 .h~ u,trulot not be a>.. ~ ~
-tW of in~uLdav.

--,. '1'~pu of s ennl c.orulll.£,~ -

~Ul't) ~ ci) TnMni,i c. !":>enuLJln.cluc.~
tiu t x+rl Mic. semi c..a-n d.uc.-\tn':s

A. INTRIN SI C. sEM!CO~DUCiORS-
_. A pt.Vie. semicm1c:lu.d1rY ~ Jb "ti"t.'- tsf v,~ irnplll"\~
.1!, c:..aJk~ ...i.rlh-t nblC.. SC~.

➔ Exam.pk- Si , V\e
........ ln~ el~c.iYt>t\i=.. l.lY\'ti<f'r~ ot Si ·• \ ~'2. 2.si. 'l.p'- '6s2- '3p'L
ll\t : \$i 2. ~1 '2. p" 12>~q, 3 p' ad'~ 4~'l 4-p°L

- ~~ .:tk ~ h..o.ut. -¼¼w..& .fau,t_ \J aleru.c. e.le.c.-h-tm! .

lnL -f'C'W1. \tttl.t.'nt.t ek c.~ of (l °'' aiom 11)vrr\ ~
c.ovctk~ baY\/M ~ .Shlll1"'8 -the ~c..-rnrn.& of n¥bCIW\1,
~ vi, ~ -
~ CD\/~ b~ shAn.!. j,..ae ele.c.~ one. ~ eAO\ ahn\.
--+ At ±e.mpe1t.a!Wt£. o )<., -firr v.e. - sh-llciu>te , ihe. vale.nt.e. G)
bc:1ruA ~ <ill -fuu. 7he. e.~ ~ ~ O,ieN ~ ~
~ bcsrui ~ ~ ~~-
~ S inc..e no ele.cmn, j)., OJJaJl~e. fu UT\aL.tctLn, ~ ~~ J

C-it.- c..~ at OJ<.. a.d4 ah e.!e.c.h-i'CA! ;,uu.W;a,,-:

--
~: o., ,v (
--
- ·- ---
-
,__ ._
- -- -

At .i:empera:hAe.. OK ,

'
--. A± ~ .±UYlp ~ l T "> o\c.) , smne e.1e c.+.-im.,; of jk
va.lenc.e. b~ru.l ~n 5uitiderd -the.~ e.n~ ~n.al jutnp .Jl>
-t:he. ~chn-) b~'YUl, e r ~ on ~LULl numbe\ of h6\u in
-lhe. \I aleYl£e ~~-
lne&c -\'he.~ -e:~c.lie.,d ele.c..\.rm oc.c.~ -Hie. ~ t
pos,sible. ench.f-1 k"~ J:n -½he urrvi~OOAn1 b~.
_. °TheJa.e.1tl'f"c , ~ enC't.ff b~'l'Ul ~ af Ql'\ ·,rrh-i~k.
Setn1'CO"Yld.u.du-t a:.t , ) or..

_.,__o
~

Vo.leh'\t.e
-- -- -- • ~

-+ Cl~ , ~ rt.umbel af. electl'n'\~ .ln umd.u cii,,, ~ .14

e.,t.taJ :to .1J,c ~bel of hc/v.. .i.n \ L ~ ~ -
l"\e= YI~=- Ylj fl~ - eJ~c.~ ~iry
~- hrlL ~l~
-. CONCEPT OF 140LES - @
- The vawnc.~ av ahserue. of an ~c."h1rn in -the. bon,J of
0. c.ovaler,~ ~ c.¥¼ ~ uilled
ht>le.. (l

-+ I ri twn.!> of bcmd ~ , ~h~11wdt. cm oo.~ JJ.>

"l"tnurttfAI f,-001 -the. c.,,mple.h.lJJ -A1tuJ \t4.lent.e. ~ of a
Se:mi(.#(\At.U.ffl 1 o. ~~ »-> JLf± beh.i~ ·,,, -+he ~
bcmol . 1h.i.o va.c.aY\ ~ seJuL~ cv., o. f)O'l i +i"e ~ CJ(t'Ti'tiy
"ruJ .lb ~ 0.. ~ -

~ I-t: ~ -the scm,e mAM al> ~ ( rtl'Yl.!NU-4) elc.dnrn.

-. I¼- .i.-b ct.M~ t.ll1-\h a. pDliti~e c~ ~ ~ni~ e.

8. EXT R1NS1C. SEMI C,0N:OUCT0R~ -

... A dt,pe.cl sem.ic..m1dll.dtn' OY a semici,nducf.a..-- ~
su..iJuble ·,mpwu~ a:lorfl o.Ade.Dl -to ..it, .a ~ emimic.
ScTNumchu.hv-.
-+ ~xhiMlc. S C.Y'tUU Y \ ~ OA.e lwo ~~ -
d> 11- ~pe. se.mi<:m'\d.u.d,r.s (ii) p- ~ e. s em i ~

P N - TYPE S EM!CONDUC.TORS -

- lhc. N- .itj p~ semic..cm~ ~ cl.u01becl a.b Q ~ af

e~-h-in-Mc. se.miumJtum' d0pt.o\ u.nfh a pen~-.JaleJYd: (
f;v.e. v ~ ele.c,mYI) irripwJ~ eJeme:ni.
~na
~ examfks crf penkva1~'Yli impuhH-i~ - P, As, Sb Bi I

-. N - semj~+ars , ihe. e.X1Y"Q elec.+n.m l fifi\i ~ )

,ilJ pc.
~ v~ we.~ ~d~ b~ -th~ dDY\aY lm~~.
➔ A v~ sf'OAU ~ (~ o.o\~\I) ~ -re.stu.i~ -to b ~
ele.dnrrJ "tY aYr1 ~ olanov- lrnpwJ ~.
_. Wu~ fucd, ~ ekc.,tnn, l.lrlll oa~ -&e. J.o\&leAt
pau;l>lt. e.YleJt.i:,-Y .levd it'\ ~ ~ h~ .,i.e.
 ihe en~ of -+he d.oM' ele.c.tro'r1 lb &ti~ ~@
~ fc . ~ -the. olt,nay e ~ ..k\le.l t.o J.lu ju..bt
bt.l.mo +h~ bothrm or ~e c...mdo.w'oYI bq>\q_
ll
--- Dot'\CY
•
'f'
..• It-

el'\~- -
.stult'.

--
~ ~--·
~
-
•---
,-
~

-. A:l:- T0't)l')1 !emp~ ~ small e.n~ aa-p ~ e.~i~

b3 -the. -the.~
~ ve.'rtlll excltt.al elec.h-tn'U.
7ne um<hlc:t.imt b~Yl'i hD.b 'r'Y\trf'e e l ~ ( +hAY, hJrl~ i11
va.knLe ~ -ru-A) ~ ~ ~ve he.en CJlYl+rib~ bcr\h ~
-¼he.Yll"IAJ ~ xd:kili.vY) Qi~ ~ impw-.iti~ .

~ P-TYPE SE.HIGoNDUC.TDR.S-
_.., ~~ P- ~p~ semlum~ lb d~cl"ibesJ <U Q. ~~
of ~,dYiYL.4k. senuc.ffl'\du.duy dDipul wHh o ~'lal~
(nA\Ji~ --K,rc.e ele.c.-him) j ~ element
\Jalerl.le.
..... £xcwn,r~ ot j}J\lalui lmrUhitieJ.> - BI A.t, CtA, l:f\) TJ

_. 7"~ -tl,yee. v'11enle.. e.lec.~ cl -the. ,mp~ o:lmn ~

fo'l'Ytl uvcutini b ~ h~ shA,tu~ ~e. ~ c . ~ of -tht.
cuJJ~'f'I.§ 4½-rc.c cdu-m> of Si, urlu.k -#\cYt. will be. O"r\e.
inc.omplete. c.ovcu.tff\l bcm.ol ~ a neirbowd~ S \ - cdmv\., d.ue
.1-D ~ de-A·cie.~ of aY\ ele.t:.-h-,,n.
7h.u. ckfa'c.f~ .ib c.omple.t(..aj k>~ ~~ Qn ekc:msn fnntt
one. of ~ Si- Si b11'Y\dl' -Hu.«,,. ur,nple:L~ ~ Al- Si W ,
7hu. m.ek1.~ A.l .,.it)~ (_ -nqdi~ ~) Q,u\ c.'l'~
0. 'k,,tc.,.
 -,. lti~ .:tJJ~ ~ O'le U>J~ o.ocephn-- ~ a'Y\Dl @)
~t. ~c.tun, OT e.1~c.h-icily OC.tu.Jtb d.c.u.. -fo rnoti.c'tl est holeg
,i.t. po:siti\ie c.~~ OY' p- ~~ c.Q)a)uexi. >

7rud- J.A ~ -+he. YCMJJJ-i'r'a s cmlort1d.u.d-a-t ..i.b u.tlJd

ClCC t..pnrr ~ O'(" p- lJj pt SC mi c:.rruiuc..1U<:
-..,-;
l ________ L )
- ~ c.s.
~ - ,t- t-

-
+ ..-
"I
-
-
•- -
I
- . ~ \/. B.

...,. At -..com i t.mp~ , d..u.e. ±o the.YTnA-l e.-n~ , ~ ~

-fusm -½\ic \/C:Uenc.e bctru:.l ~ ~ i\~ -\yQ~-ft.~ fo -the acc.eptu"r
l.e.uc:J u.nli/ ;-het.e. J£,'lill OAe.. filLul. ~ pro due.~ 0. ~ ~
of Ju,ie.& in -the. val~ t;.a.,ruil an.al -thCYE.~ -the. vale:n.ce. ~d
beam,~ o. h.ole. c..onduch~ baruil.
4- jµ"Jie,i Ql') ~~ tletJ nc. -A'elal »-> a.ppu·~ Ji> a p-J:apt.
~ m . . i ~, fhe,g~ h61eb wUJ o..d cu. ca>vJ~ cl c1,1'rrtnf.

-+ lY'I a. clDpul st.YYUCln'ld.u.dnY, 4-he. numWt, dtru.i½ d' e l ~

anrA h6le>.. ~ wt e.,wu,
Uvvl4. ~~ ~ullibnum ; ~~ ~ of -\he fuc n ~
anDI ptn ifiv e. C-ISYlceYrtmil.~ ~ o. (Jr{\.b-fnYlf 'l u.anf;~ Jndtpt~ 1

of -tk Qmt,unt" of dancrr Q't\Q C1ccepfn-' J ~ chrf1"6·

[ 11c n~ ~ n,j
tuht,\.(. "ne. - oleNi¼y of ele.e~
Y1h - ck.TUj~ at h.esleJ.
Yl; - ~y of Jnhirutc. CJIMicrs n, ~ sem,~
-+ fxq~ S\J.f'Ptle O pu,.e Si - C:r1fW hAA ~ m~@
S X tgA
'.I:l- lb ~ ~ \ rrrm CJMCcY}-hii.n, of pe:nttt~ N,,
C.al ,ulaie -\k l\Ltrtl~ th. af elec.~ and. 1-ute!.
W~el'} ~ Yl j -:: I, S X10 1'- rn-l
S~ i pro, = l ~ pth. rnt.Wm : 7c,
Ylc-= 51'lc2B =- S,><.1021 (Yf3
10'
~umbeh. ot h.tileA

~ P·N JUNCTION -
-+ Whe:tl o.. p-Jljpt. &errucimduoluy
c1o-se. c.m1,hu.t (JJ1.tJ, on n -~
'YUuJii~ Qh\Cl~ti'\Q,1ti ~ ~
olJ-od.e u
•

~ h>~ of p-Y1 juncli.in-1 -

~ 'ti,o pmc.u ~t.b ·,nvcrl\Jul chn-i~ ~ ~ J
imptrr-\-an:t
p- n jul1 cilm-\ au. d.HtlU>lon an.o\ dhitt.
_. When a. p-n juncliOY) »-> ttrn'netA, -\tie. p-s\<!e. ot -\he.
juncli.m, ~ a ~eh. c.m')c.e'r1~ of hti\e.b tah1k -the
rt -.s1de AA.! o. ¼Ml C.tn')cevrtrai:i.m, rl ~e.c.:\v~.

1)u.e Ji, ±he c.cY\c.e'Y'ltrcdi.Dyt 3"re..dien± a± -th~ junc."ti.uv\, ~el;

b~r, .±b d..tffiue. "tr um p- sick lb l'\-side. l p-.Y\) Q~

eAee,i-nn).s ~Y\ db cll+tll..!lt ~ 11-s,dt. J:b p-$idc(n-p),

➔ As hDI~ d.!~e ~ p-+Yl side, --t\1~ 1~0.ve behind -ve.
ac.c.ep-hn-' ~ LC"hiot set Uf a. ~Vt. of nr ~'-
s,m.il~ , ru J:ht. c l ~ d.itttue -fusm n~ p sld.e., ~
wu.e. j)ehtrui. +\le. o\,syusy J...tm.b ( . 1 3 ~ set up a ~e-'t.
of po-siHve. ~e. cm ~ n- s,cle.
 @
~ lhih s. d-~ up an ele.drtc. ti e1l ne.M.. -+he.. Junc:li.crr\
ft,trm n~ p s1d.e..
~ lhe sp<l.c.e. - c. ~ "'rt.~·~ OYl both -the. s,de.! ot P-Yl
Juneli..ln-1 LO h.l.~ h.a.b ·,rrrm~ b'i\t. ~ onrJ ..iJ.:i ~ ~
a"8 ~ e ca..-Yic>t. w-tU ~ o ~~ c.aUd c\,e,p\~
,~·m <5f ckplili.GY\ ~e>t.
➔ lhe. cU.s-h-1bur.im'\ t)t c ~ t Y\~ -the. j und.un, .i.J> shm.u M
~•a·

➔ lne.. accumu.l.crli.ovi ot n~e.

~ e b l 'r'l .:tile. p-~m'\
q1\Jll po-:sitt've. c~~ J)\ ~ n- -r~!TT\ se±s up o.
paitntu...l dJ-ffe.v-tnte Q.c.YO-SS J:he. juY\Clll11'\ • ~ a.db ~ 0
bctttie.>t. a~ J.S ~ b<VtJJe>t.. ptrte'Y\ita.l Va.
➔ lhe bcrrt ieh. poten:lio.l V8 sei:. up a. ba)'YtVL fielcl ~
.irt J:"e. olihecfiovi n __.,. p s,cle_.

~ lne l>ahJJeJi. poteni:W

cle.pe.ruh, oY\ QJ J:he. ruituh.e.
VP>
of sem.i(J)~ (ii) .temp~. arui (li\) .:the. QYY\tl'U1\1
of clt,pi~.
~ lhe va.lu.e. of baweh... pcle~ ~ o., -fm,- Si O'l\d
o. '3 v ~ G-ie. seimi um dw.,~ . ·
If bamVL po+c~ 'le,~ o.s\l.ot:J-. , ckfl~ u.,icill, cl= lb ft\ -"'
i'hen, ele.c:h-ic tf~ £ =- o. S -=- 5 '/,.. lOS v1
6 10-i;. In'\
➔ C1nuil s~rnbcl ~ u p-n junc:.tltn,- @
-+ A p- n jl..\Y'\c:n.tn'\ h.Q.b fµ,o e.le.ch ode. C.L1Y1ne.~ -
one OV\ '"1e. p- stcl~ and qn.otht\. crn -the. .,, _ Stele.
Henc.e .a Jh a.l!.o \c:.Y\m.OY\ a.h jun~ ~ -
. _., .- Dt.pletiul'l ~'-\
'!-
'

;•
p I'!
I'! Yl
"=
I'::
o- -p--t~..,.N----oo

SMmbol -fb-r a p-n

j1.rn ciurY) d.icd~

~ BIASING, OF THE P-N JUNCTION -

-+ Ao ex+el.rutl pote:rtlta..l dl-ffe.Yt l'\tt. O:W\ Joe.. a.ppli"2l lo
a p-n Junctim'} .lY\ ciw-c ~ -

1. FORWAltD l?,lASlNGt -
- t , If -the. f CS\tt Ve. x~:rmiruu eit 0. bait~ ~ coYn'\e.cb.\
lo Jh e. p -side. an.al .iht. n~cu.u£ je·rm.iruu lb .ihe.
n- side. , J.hen a.he p-n jltr\citon J.s salel io l)e.
jo-rw-t1Yd bi·ose,gl.

➔ As s ~ jn fi3., he.-re. Jhe. applteal vril+o.se. v ~ppo~e!

lh~ bct>aJu'eh.. vol~ Ve. As a. '"re!tu:t of ~
~ J:hc etted:we. barrieh.. po+enUA.l de.c:rea~u ~ (Va-VJ
and henc.e. iihe. en~ b<WJe12.. ac.-n,ss .:the.. ju\'\dlts,,
d ec.Ye.GU~.

~ J,he mo.Jo-ri~ c~e. c.a'frie)., l.e., hbl~ -from p-skle.

anal eJec1TO'YlS ~ n-side. beain Jb fl0t0 t o ~
 .:the ju ncli.trr1 • @
1
~ ihe. d.iffwim1. of elet~ arul. hol~ lnto jhe_
dQ.pleli.cm ~eJL de.c"fe.a.AU. .1v.:, tatdth, 0 nd._

'~ .the effect.we --r~is+anc.e acrnss ihe. p-n juncii.cn,

decl'eai.~.

+-
, mA
R.

V- a.ppll ul ~t~e.
V
v~ - ba""Yie.Y vo\tc18e. ·
_ J__- - ······--·-····· .. -

-+ Whel'\ V e.l(ceeds Ve,, the majo'ri½ c~e. CAYY'ie"t~ stMt

tlm..,i~ ea.A\ ~ a.cross .the. junc!.u,n anti se1 u.p a.
~e. ct.wten:l:. ( ~ mA), c:o.Uul ib-rwaA.d. cu.Y\"t't'\:t> .ln ihe.
c.iYculi. '!he. cu.hAeni incre..a.be2> wU'1 -the inc. ye,aJe. .in
a.ppUe_q \ l ~e.

2. 'REVE.RSE. BIAS1NGJ ,.
~ If Jhe p~i+i'lt. ~Ymincal of o. baHe.Y~ ..u; c.oTine.cJed
.to ~ n- side. arul ne.aaJ:w.e. ieYm.irutl ..to iht. p- s,de.,
-ltie1' jhe. p-n jund:.t.tn, ~ s~ jt) ne. ye.ve:r~e.
b~.
 @
_. As sho1.0n JY\ ~~-, j_he_ a.ppue..cl voH·u~e. V aAA .ihe.
bahJtieJt.. poteni.utl V8 aAe Jn .ihe. some. cl.h-e.ciLovi.
As o. -re.su..li: of -tru.>.,
~ :the bo.Yrie.:r pe>tentw incre.o.!eJ., Jo (V6t-V) an..al heru.t.
--the er1t:r~ b<:\YY-ieh. a.c.ros$ ~ junc±r.rm inCY~sc.&.

19 Jhe majorit ~ chM.~e. c.crrvle.:rs move. ~ titsm -the.

Jun c.tim1 , Jn c. Ye~ .the. Latdth of' -the. cle.p lt.i:imi ~eh.

1
~ .tl,c --re!.is!-<lntt of ct:he. p-n jundi.ori beu,me.,<, v~ ~ e,
I~ OY'lA no CUYrent fiot0s (l(.'YOSS .±he. juY\ciun, ~ .to
tno.jo'ri~ ~~e co:rrie.-rs.
--v

"--------.- 1--+--~-- K
' - - -- - t _ ""'•--1(,1---~
'.
K.

·······T·-----~
I
T V- o..pplceal vc~e.
V+V~ v& - bcnvie.Y vol~e.

- r__ \·~---l -
-+ Ho<oeue-l, a± 100,n je_mpeJurlu,\.e. J.hcye. Oh.e ~ pYeAtl\t
some trunori~ cJui~e. C<:\YYiers J.ike. hol~ ln n- ~tot\
crnd. ~e.c;\rons ..in p- -r~Ol'l - . •
The .....-ev~-rst. bi~ina pushe..b ~ i b ~ Juncti.oY\J
set¼i"a n c.1.n·vtini. 1 ~ ~~e. OY \t.slll<-o.ae. c.uwe:rd:)
 Jr\ circ.wi ln d:.ht. cpposc+t. cl.lrec:ti.o-Y). ®
J:he. e)deYn.oj
~ As J.he. m.ino~ ch.oA.ae c.a'rYlc.rs Oh~ muth .LtM .l"
numbtl ~ .the. m.Pd~ ~ e . c.a:rr,c.~, h~~ jht
Yevcrse cu.mm ..i..b s ~ . (.~ µA) .

+ CHA~C.TE.RI$ OP A P -N JlJNC.TlON DIODE

7neYe a>i.e ~ ~ p~ or
~ d w$\iv., of p-n dlbck.
(I) f.ovt.o~ biaJ., c.h.DA.o.c.~Wstk -
-.. ih~e. ci,_,e j:,he 8Ydph.iCA.l Y ~ J,tt.oun -fm.tucw! bio.i;
vol~e o..ppUt.d.. JD p·Y\ junc:il.oY) a~ :the. ~ cuYrti"1.
-lh"f1)~ cth~ p-n jun~ _

_. A b ~ c.onne.cid ac:ro~~ .:th~

lb jt4flc:llim dJ.ode. r-n
-thYO~ o. pottrdi.omdVL so -thd:. -the. vcr+aae. applid j:o
J:he. olu>ck c.qn be. ch.0-ns~ - lh(. nulUammeta Me.tUlll'U -the.
Jhy,ou.~ ~e. dlode. Qn.a\ -the voL-+mtiek. m~~
C\lYrt.ni,
-lhe. VO l~e. Q.t'ra>S J:k ~de..
,,--..
l

p 1\1

~ The v-1. 3mph Jh not a s\Y~ line. J..e. n j ~

clli>d.e. ~ rwt ob~ ohm's .Lu.a.
_. I nitua 'Lt I jhe cuhJitlit iric:ve.cuu \J~ sl~ al~
ne..tLfh½f, Ji.U J.h.e. ~ e . cv..~~ Jk dlod~ c.TOS~~
 a. cerla..ln value, c.a.Ue.e\ .ihe ad. in vmJ~e..
_. Aft eh. J.ht. c.u±. .the. cl.i..oc!e c..u~ in cr-ect~~
in vo~e ,
--ni.pi~ lexpOYlentl.JUA{j), ~e.n -fur ci v~ srnAU incrccue.
in .:the. di.ode. bio.h volfa~e. .
~ru. .ih~ m.cijo•rH·~ c~e. C.C\'rrie.~ ~el n~a1 b\e. )"U\s\cma
a..t th~ JUn~ J.e., .the Y'ebis·\-t:lnce 0.LTcr1>s ~ j1..1n~ .i.>.,
9u.tte .!bu:> •

(2.). Reverse b1~ chAroc+w~+\c. ~

--+ lheAe. ~ruc..nl .tliili..onb bttoeeKt 1M. ttvrue.

C>Ae. jh~
bi ab vcrt~e a.pp Ue.al ib -the p-n juY\UUSl'\ oo.al Jh<. Yt'le:rse.
C.U.YTtlU o.c~os~ J:he. p-n junc.ttm,.
- HeYt o. m.icroammcl-e.h.. ..LS t.Ue.al 10 m~uire. ~ .sffiG!.1
ct.frre:~ ~ ±ht. -v-e.\J eA..l.e bf<:U~ ~ .
Vy
..- Rtvt.ne. VolhBt (Vy)
- - - -- -~o
p N
RevtYlt
CUYTtY\I
't
l :Cy
- +

_. Whc" .the. du>ek. .ib -revwe. .bio.ltaJ , ihe. Yt:'ieUe. biab

VC1t~e proc!Mce.J.> a. v~ smctl.l cu:rrott, ahoui: o. few
mi cTt> amp eyes U>hi th ~t -re~ c..mtb1'Ql'\l coi th bib.A.
~ st"r\.4.U c..u'n'e~ ~ c.ct.U~ 'Yt\Jtvsc s<rlu~ c.u~.

Xi J.b due. lo -\he d'rltJ: of' mlno\4½1 c~c c.a"Mle.1"5

(. a few h.ot~ -t't'\ Y1 - ~0Y\ ond. a -fb elec,~
..in p- Y~O)'\ ) ctc.Y~S j:k jtlY\CllJn'l.
 --+ When lhe yevt:rse. vol~e. aaos~ .the. p-n ju'flc1ioYl ®
Yeo.Ghe.,s o. su.fti c.ientl~ ~ valt.Le., .ihe.. Ye.vwe_ c11"rre:n!.
sudden¼J '1Y)c.YeA!U .l:.b O Jo.yse. value.. ~ vot~e a±
bre.a.kdown o~ ~c j un<...tion du)de,, oc.c.ur~ ~ calkct
u:>h.ic:J..
7enVt.. b ~ volfase. efY pe.oJ<.. - inv~e. vo\~e. of
dhe. clic~ .
-+ A jun d.itm d..i..ode. offers a v~ srruul .~,stance.. tunei'Y\
-furwah.d b1C1Aed and.. ~ a v~ ~ e. 'Y'eblsrqnc.e t.uhen
-reveue. ...bi'a.Ae.aL .i.e. ..the dl.t>d.e. c.an coY'!du..c± c.1..rrrtnl ~
on½ .in croe ell-re ciun-\ •

Vy ( Vtrlh)

....,...... .............................

~ .DYNAMIC. RESISTANCE DF A JUNCT!ON :DIODE -

~ 71'1e cu-rveni. - voH~e 3r&-ph ot jund.tr,n d..wde ib Y11>n-Lint.lr,

le. ohm's J.ru.o ..u, not ob~.
~ D~nmmic. yuis+QtH.e lb def!r,e_d. a..b j.he, Yalio of o srno.U
~e Jn vol~e. (t:N) o.ppll~ aC.YOSS .the. r-Y\ j~n~ :b,
a .srn a.U UvA1\'J e ..in j~n<..U.ln') c..Ll~nt ( ~ t.) •
-+- tovUMJul clyn.Gm.ic. vuish1~ (_y~) : I ~f) (abJ ttt.) oh~)
f \At.i
Rt.ve:rse. clynam.u.. YUist'"£tnc.e. (_Y.J)y =[ !~:) (a.bau.l: ~ oh~
-.. JUNCTION DIODE AS A Rl::CTlFIER @)
-+ Re.c.-\i~~ ~ a de.\lke wh.ic.~ Jh c.ut.d -fm- c.tf(\'J~
~~ C.UYtt.Y\l. / vov\-~-t ~Ylto dlvu:l c.u-rre.n.l / ~e...

-+ A p-Yl Jund.urn C.OY\ be ~e..d cu.. a ~c.tit,ek. in 1\00 ~-

tQ) Hd\t l-Cd~e. Tedi ti eh. Q>) tttll WO.\'e. ~di ~ith.

_,_. 1. \-\ALF WAVt 'R.ECilr1tR

A hoJf uxi"e. -Ye.dJtie>i. ~i~l~ of o. 1Yanb~ a. I

j Ul\ cf.um diodf_ D an.cl o. lo<l.ai "'l"~iskl'k.e. Rt. ,

!he ptt~ coil cf .the. ,rQlV)fomeJL ~ tDnne.cttal Jo -Pne..
o..c. mcuM an.cl .::the. SWJY'\dA~ c.oU ~ c.onnei±e.ot iY1 st'tle.b
o,i~ J:he jun~ d.l..b&. ']) and lb~ ""rtki~tnnc.~ Rt..
We ~ ume. jh,mi -the. cil,.ode.. ~ ~~ so -\hd- .U- o-H'e.~
.ltittniie. --ru1 51"Q'Y\tt.. d.ur1ns .:the .t'leuc.
'ITQn.&-furmt't t)

r o. o
r'\
07.J
r\ 0

AC tor..t \lb1~e
N

'---' ....
RL t C\
OiJpo.¼ vol.~e.
I . l
....... · - -.J,.A

Wcrrk.i!\1-
-+ 1)<.t..,;~ .:the po-i\-H-ve. ~rle. of ln~~ A,l.
nolt
s ~ P, .lh n ~ e Qru\ pl J.,b po:s,1i~t . On ctc.c.ou-nl
of- indu~ s, be.urn"e!> pcn-,H~e , Si be..camQJ.. Yl~-
7hr. p-Y\ jun~ j-'.) 1k~ bi'"~· lhc. ~,~ et
f)-Yl junc.fu-tl be..usmes. .lbt.o. "lhe. fnr~ c..u."l'Y'eYl:t fitnll!i.
J1) .the.. oUYe.ciibv) .s.'NruJ ~ 0,'lYO\.O h~. "Th.u>..} we a·~
~ ac:ro~s - \oo..ol.
--+ .l)LL'1~ ..tl-ie. ~ cd.we. h.tiuf OJ de.. of -the. l npur "A( .
P, ~ p~Hivc. QY\li P1 J.>., ~ . On ac.c..ot1nt of ~
·1Y\d.u c:.t.un, , s, be.C(ITTl CJ.> netJaii u.e. arul s1 ..i..b p~\i-1 ve.
"ffie p-l"\ junciltn, Jh "YC'i~e. bid-b-ed . T! orfe.Y'!, ~
-Ye.bishmc.e. and heY\c..e. ~e.r e. ~ no floto crt c.urre.nl onrA
-+hub no ouipul o.c.v-o~s l ~ . 'The pYO t e.½ ~ ~ .
1'n Jhe. output , WC tU>J.e. C.U"m.Y\t. C.OY'f ~ f OY\ dJ n.s .1o ~
half cf t.±he. w-a:11c , -the. oihch.. hJu-f ~ ~ ·,~ .
!rnpid:
Vattase Vi

t)~ '
uoUar Vo r-------''------r--L-- -+--.:._.--.J,..- ~ - ~

~ TW. lb w¼ .the pYbc~ ~ ~ ha!~ ~ e

Ye cl:i .P,•c.e±itJ\I\. 1± ~ rust. of m.u,c.h u..f>e. ~ ~fUl S18rul.\
.ib Q IU) i.~ ..iY\ bu>,..sb cm.al rurl: c..trnnl'\~ollb~.

1. FULL WAVE 'RE.tTIF!ER -

A ~ ....-ecti-fiek.. c.m'\bists of a. ~ru-fuvmek.. , j.wo
u,-o_\l e.

junc:!un, dl.odeh 1D\ csn.r.l :Dz.. ana O J.o(t9\ ~lsmY\(e. RL.

"lhe jnpu±. a.c. s·'cP'-(U ..iJ.> ,~ j:o -the. p)-1~ uU r. Pt.
of ~c -tmrufomVL. "The. .:1Lx> end-\ s\ Cll\tJ S 4 of -\-he.
.S~CDY\~ c..c-U s\~2. o>te Cf>"f\ne.~ ~ -the. p- e~ of
d.i.o<½ X> 1 an.Jll .D 2... • \fle. 5e.un'\ ~ un.l ~ at ~ c.enW
ptnvd: T ~ Jb amn~ x.c .the. Yl-~ru4 of -\he..
Xlon ~ ~ j:}.e, ~ "<U\s¼n~ ~ .
 :····-············.. ··: :D,
t"-----.-·,- - .....: ~ ) t - - - - - -....
! r N
i Pi l, :
.
Or\r'\ (V
V 07.J
~nptd vol+o.~c

~ .................l p t.J
'T' Y'tlns-fuvmeJt.
Wo... ~'"8-
--. 1)~-,.\~ jhe pos\tt\lc h.alf ~de. 1
of jhe_ Jnpu,t A.C.
P, _. -Ve.} due. Jl> s,-. +v~ '1, 1) 1 iV'l fuwClh.al l,v.,stcl
P1 ~ +Ve rruiluAl ·,ruJ.u.c!in\ S'2.-+ -\Je. J D2 ·,n it.vwe. bic~ci
TYl ~ sttik cu.~ ·,ndic.o:t~ h~ sou.al oY'f,otO.

-+ l)u'1~ ~e. ne.~e. h.w.f 'ifle.. of -Hit.. ..l'nful- A,C.

P1 _. -t-V~ l clMe. -to S i.-. -Ve. ..n, ~ Ye:~e.Y-~t.. bi~ 1
, ~ S.a,_. -tYe J D.i _,. fo~
P2.-+ -Ve. l m,m,..a.l - b,o.!e.Dl
In ~ snrle. Cl(lrt-.U ·rnd..k.a!ed b~ d.oit~ aY-rotO.

➔ Si"' c.e. e-u1f t.d- vol~ e. o.crnss ~

~
IL,......;.-\j....--,J'.---,:......Ji,--.,.J..--~

lhe. ~ Te..bls+~nc.e. Rt. .iJ.:,, ~

ob\oJnd -fcN- be-¼ no.It w1u
of Jnpu.t a .c.) ~ p~ JS
~ full w-o.ve. -rediftc.cdl.OY\
0~ J:he. a'r'(Q~e.m.em.t ~~ ~
uuk.o\ fuU Wt1\Je. Ye di fie\..

~
~ l,_:_....,X..~~----¥,___;__-1----+

t
➔ FILTER C1RCUITS -
_. 1M ou1-pu1- ob-\-o.ine..al • o j~nc.tim, curd.e. "Te.diru..
.lA urudive.c.tional bu:l: puJsal-i~ . Such a s1arutl c.0n be.
<:.m"\sidru-a\ ~ '"'e.
sum af O d,(. s~ruu Sl.lft1ump0l~
w-1-th MQ~ a.c.. s,3Y\JJ.U of' rufferel\.t. hQ-rmoruc.. 1rt$fuendv...

-+ We c:"111 ebhun ck. vcrl~e. b~ ·Hl\tN~ crtd: -the. o.c.

com po Y\ e'Y\t! •
extlmp\t.- S w~ ·rnd.u.ch.l'( ~Htl
shw\i ~ c.U.o( R\tvt.

Valtj ct.hle. de.