The Revolution of 1848

The year 1848 was marked by a wave of revolutions across Europe, shaking the
political and social order. These revolutions were among the most widespread
and significant political movements of the 19th century. They spanned regions
from France to the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire, southeastern
Europe, and Italy. However, Britain and the Tsarist Empire remained unaffected.
Despite occurring in different regions, these revolutions shared common goals:
establishing constitutional democratic republics, ensuring equality before the
law, and ending privileges. In Italy, Germany, and parts of the Austrian Empire,
the push for national unification and state-building also played a major role.
Historians like Roger Price and Eric Hobsbawm note that the revolutions
followed similar patterns. While the revolutionaries initially succeeded in
overthrowing governments, they quickly lost momentum, leading to their
defeat. Jonathan Sperber suggest these events were connected to broader
social, economic, and cultural changes, including the transition toward
industrialization and market-oriented agriculture.

Nature of the Revolutions

Sperber identifies three main interpretations of the Revolutions of 1848:
1. Romantic Revolution: This view highlights the heroic actions of iconic
figures like Garibaldi, Kossuth, and Daniel Manin, portraying the
revolution as a period of inspiring deeds.
2. A Darker View: This perspective sees the revolutionaries as
inexperienced and cowardly, abandoning their cause when faced with
adversity.
3. Failure Due to Counter-Revolutions: The most substantial interpretation
focuses on how the revolutionaries failed to establish lasting regimes.
Overthrown authorities regained power quickly due to strong counter-
revolutions.
Other interpretations analyze the revolutions through different lenses. Some
use Marxist theories, focusing on class struggles, while others use
modernization theory or consider the roles of diplomacy and military
leadership.
 Causes of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848, a series of uprisings across Europe, were driven by
economic, social, and political crises that had been building up over several
years. Scholars have identified these as the key causes of the revolutions.
Economic Crisis
From 1845 to 1847, Europe experienced severe economic distress. Poor
harvests and a devastating potato blight caused widespread crop failures,
leading to food shortages and skyrocketing prices. As food became
unaffordable, strikes, demonstrations, and food riots broke out in places like
France and Germany. Simultaneously, the credit crisis led to the collapse of
industries, causing mass unemployment, especially in urban and rural factories.
Many people fell into debt as they were forced to borrow money to survive,
worsening the economic situation for the lower classes.
Social Tensions
Socially, there was growing discontent among the educated bourgeoisie,
including civil servants, doctors, lawyers, and journalists, who felt excluded
from political power. The political system was dominated by the nobility and
wealthy classes, leaving little room for the middle class to participate in
decision-making. The bourgeoisie demanded greater political power and
individual freedoms. At the same time, the working class and petty
bourgeoisie became increasingly radicalized, influenced by socialist and
democratic ideas, pushing for reforms and better working conditions.
State Aggravation
The state's increasing demands for higher taxes and military service aggravated
public frustration. As living conditions worsened, governments sought more
resources from the struggling population, which led to widespread
dissatisfaction with the authorities.
National Unification
In places like Germany and Italy, nationalist movements pushed for unification,
driven by a desire for national identity and greater political representation. The
desire for a united state fueled uprisings against the old political order.
 Course of the Revolutions of 1848
France
The revolution began in France, where people demanded universal suffrage.
The trigger was when Premier Guizot banned a national campaign for electoral
reform in Paris on February 22. This led to protests and sporadic violence. The
National Guard refused to suppress the demonstrations by force, signaling
support for reform. In response, King Louis-Philippe dismissed Guizot, but later,
troops fired on the protesters, causing widespread outrage. This led to a mass
insurrection and the abdication of the king. The February Revolution resulted in
the establishment of the Second Republic and the creation of a Provisional
Government. The French Revolution inspired other countries in Europe to
launch their own uprisings.
Germany
The February Revolution in France spread rapidly to the German states. In
Berlin, demonstrators called for political liberalization and German nationalism.
Following the protests, King Frederick IV formed a more liberal cabinet and
agreed to the idea of a constitutional monarchy. However, as in France, the
situation escalated after troops shot civilians, which led to widespread unrest,
including in rural areas. The revolution in the German states had reached both
the capitals and the countryside.
Austria
In Austria, nationalistic movements emerged, particularly among Czechs,
Hungarians, and other ethnic groups. Inspired by the French reforms, they
sought constitutional change, the emancipation of peasants, and a more
efficient government. On March 13, large protests in Vienna led to demands for
reforms. The emperor, fearing violence, accepted the resignation of
Metternich, the symbol of the old order, and promised a liberal constitution.
Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna soon after, fearing an attack from
revolutionaries.
Italy
In Italy, the revolutions focused on resistance to Austrian rule in Lombardy and
Venetia and opposition to conservative regimes, particularly in the Papal
States. On March 18, Milan saw a revolt against Austrian control. A crowd of
10,000 demanded liberal reforms, and after five days of fighting, the Austrians
were forced to retreat. These revolts forced leaders in other regions to create
constitutions, marking a significant moment in Italy's history.
"Springtime of the Peoples"
Hobsbawm refers to 1848 as the "springtime of the peoples," a time when
revolutions were fueled by optimism and popular participation. The revolutions
were driven by workers, petty bourgeoisie, and the laboring poor. Despite this,
they were short-lived, and by September 1848, all the revolutions had failed.
The initial victories were brief, and the old regimes returned to power within a
year or two. Rather than achieving lasting change, the revolutions
strengthened European states, marking the failure of the 1848 uprisings to
create new, stable governments.

Reasons For Failure

Divisions Among Revolutionaries: The failure of the 1848 Revolutions was
partly due to internal divisions among the revolutionaries. In countries like
France, Austria, and the German states, revolutionary governments were
fragmented. In France, for instance, the Provisional Government was divided
between those wanting social reforms and others who did not want to radically
alter the social order. These conflicts weakened the revolutionaries' ability to
act decisively and effectively.
Lack of Revolutionary Zeal:Unlike the more radical revolutions of 1789 and
1917, the 1848 revolutionaries lacked the enthusiasm and commitment
necessary to achieve their goals. Many leaders made bold promises but
hesitated to take the necessary steps, including the use of force, to bring about
change. This hesitation and lack of bold action contributed to the failure of the
uprisings.
Failure to Mobilize Mass Support: From a Marxist perspective, the revolutions
failed because revolutionaries struggled to mobilize mass support. Middle-class
leaders were often afraid of the radical actions the working classes might take,
and they made compromises with the pre-1848 authorities. As a result, they
failed to rally the broader population behind their cause.