Bachelor of the Built Environment: Geomatics

GEOMATICS IB
(Subject code: GMTB101)

COURSE NOTES

“Surveying a brighter future for all South Africans”- Together we can

Compiled by A. Raghubar
First Edition: 2018
Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 3
DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................... 3
PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT OF GEOMATIC PRACTITIONERS ................................... 8
SAFETY IN SURVEYING .................................................................................................. 9

CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................... 11
ERRORS AND STANDARDS ......................................................................................... 11
TYPES OF ERRORS IN SURVEYING .............................................................................. 11
STANDARDS, PRECISION AND ACCURACY ............................................................ 15

CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................... 18
MAP PROJECTION AND CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS................................................... 18
BASIC TYPES OF MAP PROJECTION .......................................................................... 19
THE TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION ............................................................ 21
THE SOUTH AFRICAN CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM .......................................................... 22
SCALE ENLARGEMENT & SEA LEVEL CORRECTIONS .............................................. 25
TUTORIAL 1: GRID DISTANCE CORRECTIONS .......................................................... 37
SOUTH AFRICAN MAP SERIES & GRID SQUARES ..................................................... 27

CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................... 30
TRIANGULATION .......................................................................................................... 30
RECCE SURVEYS AND FIELD PROCEDURES.............................................................. 30
FIELDBOOK .................................................................................................................. 31
ABSTRACT SHEET ......................................................................................................... 32
TUTORIAL 2: ABSTRACT SHEET .................................................................................... 37
DIRECTION SHEET ........................................................................................................ 34
TUTORIAL 3: DIRECTION SHEET ................................................................................... 37
CO-ORDINATE CALCULATIONS ................................................................................ 38
TRIANGULATION: SINE RULE ....................................................................................... 41
TUTORIAL 4: SINE RULE ................................................................................................ 43
TRIANGULATION: TANGENT METHOD....................................................................... 43
TUTORIAL 5: TANGENT METHOD ................................................................................ 44
ERROR CUTS ................................................................................................................ 44
TUTORIAL 6: ERROR CUTS ........................................................................................... 47
ERROR FIGURE ............................................................................................................. 48
RESECTION ................................................................................................................... 53

Geomatics IB (GMTB101) COPYRIGHT © A. RAGHUBAR 2018

Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

RESECTION: Q-POINT METHOD ................................................................................ 55

LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION......................................................................................... 58
TUTORIAL 7: Q-POINT METHOD ................................................................................. 59
RESECTION: BLUNT'S METHOD ................................................................................... 60
TUTORIAL 8: BLUNT'S METHOD ................................................................................... 63

CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................... 65
TRIGONOMETRIC SYSTEMS, SURVEY DATUMS & GNSS .......................................... 65
TRIGONOMETRIC SYSTEMS ....................................................................................... 65
SURVEY DATUMS ......................................................................................................... 68
INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS............................. 71
BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW .............................................................................. 72
GPS SATELLITES ............................................................................................................ 72
THE SPACE, CONTROL AND USER SEGMENT ........................................................... 73
HOW GPS WORKS ....................................................................................................... 74
WHY UTILISE GPS TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................... 75
GPS FIELD PROCEDURES ............................................................................................ 76
C.O.R.S AND TRIGNET ................................................................................................ 78
SOURCES OF ERROR IN GPS POSITIONING.............................................................. 79

CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................... 80
TRIGNOMETRICAL LEVELLING ................................................................................... 80
EFFECTS OF CURVATURE AND REFRACTION ........................................................... 81
HEIGHT DETERMINATION ............................................................................................ 82
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING - SINGLE POINT FIXES ................................................ 84
OBSERVING ROUTINE FOR VERTICAL OBSERVATIONS ........................................... 85
TUTORIAL 9: TRIGNOMETRICAL HEIGHTING ............................................................. 85

CHAPTER 7 ........................................................................................... 87
THE TOTAL STATION ..................................................................................................... 87
PARTS OF THE TOTAL STATION ................................................................................... 88
TESTING AND ADJUSTMENT ....................................................................................... 89
OPERATION OF THE TOTAL STATION ......................................................................... 94
DATA CAPTURE AND STORAGE ................................................................................ 95
ROBOTIC INSTRUMENTS .............................................................................................. 96
PRECAUTIONS AND CARE OF TOTAL STATION ........................................................ 98
TUTORIAL 10: INSTRUMENTS........................................................................................ 98

CHAPTER 8 ......................................................................................... 100

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS (EDM) .................................................. 100
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDM’S ................................................................................... 101
ACCURACY OF EDM INSTRUMENTS ....................................................................... 103
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS ........................................................................... 106

Geomatics IB (GMTB101) COPYRIGHT © A. RAGHUBAR 2018

Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

EDM CALIBRATION (CALCULATION OF INSTRUMENT CONSTANT) ..................... 107

EDM DISTANCE REDUCTION .................................................................................... 108
TUTORIAL 11: EDM DISTANCE REDUCTION ............................................................ 110

CHAPTER 9 ......................................................................................... 111

TRAVERSE INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 111
DIRECTION SHEET ...................................................................................................... 112
TRAVERSE CALCULATION & ADJUSTMENT: SCALE & SWING .............................. 115
TRAVERSE CALCULATION & ADJUSTMENT: TRANSIT RULE.................................... 117
TRAVERSE ANALYSIS ................................................................................................. 118
TUTORIAL 12: TRAVERSE REDUCTION ...................................................................... 118

CHAPTER 10 ....................................................................................... 121

ENGINEERING & CONSTRUCTION SURVEYING ..................................................... 121
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 121
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CONTROL ................................................................ 122
SETTING OUT PROCEDURES ..................................................................................... 123
SLOPE STAKING ......................................................................................................... 123
HORIZONTAL (CIRCULAR) CURVES......................................................................... 127
STAKING OUT A CURVE (DEFLECTION CHORD METHOD) ................................... 131
CALCULATION OF HORIZONTAL CURVE DATA ..................................................... 132
OTHER CURVE TYPES ................................................................................................. 135
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT.............................................................................................. 136
VERTICAL CURVE REDUCTION ................................................................................ 139
DEFORMATION SURVEYS.......................................................................................... 141
LONG SECTION AND X-SECTIONS .......................................................................... 142
ELEMENTS OF A TYPICAL ROAD PROFILE ............................................................... 144
TUTORIAL 13: CONSTRUCTION SURVEYING ........................................................... 146

CHAPTER 11 ....................................................................................... 148

CADASTRAL SURVEYING .......................................................................................... 148
SURVEY INFORMATION ............................................................................................. 149
TYPES OF PLANS ........................................................................................................ 149
EXAMPLES OF DIAGRAMS AND PLANS .................................................................. 151
TYPES OF SURVEYS .................................................................................................... 160
DUTIES OF A LAND SURVEYOR (GEOMATICS PROFESSIONAL) ........................... 161
SURVEY ACTS ............................................................................................................. 161
ELLING’S METHOD OF AREA CALCULATION ......................................................... 162
TUTORIAL 14: CADASTRAL SURVEYING .................................................................. 165

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................... 167

Geomatics IB (GMTB101) COPYRIGHT © A. RAGHUBAR 2018

Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

COPYRIGHT NOTE:

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, distributed, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, scanning, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of the compiler/author.

PREFACE:

Before reading the content below, please consult your study guide for
important and specific information pertaining to this course. Geomatics IB
comprises of theoretical content, calculations and practical’s.

It must be noted that whatever is learned in theory can only be fully

understood and appreciated by following it through in a methodical and
practical manner. The syllabus therefore needs to be interpreted in such a
way so as to pay careful attention to present-day and future practical
surveying needs.

The aim of this module is to enable the student to competently undertake

general survey tasks by operating specialized survey equipment, perform
survey computations, solve survey related problems, analyze results and
demonstrate an acceptable level of proficiency in the designated tasks.

The knowledge gained in this course will be essential for the subject ‘Control
Surveying 2A’ as it further explores Triangulation and GPS methods in
establishing survey control networks. At the end of this course the student
must be able to demonstrate his/her ability to undertake any minor survey
operations or tasks under the supervision of a registered Surveyor/Geomatics
practitioner, and solve survey related problems.

At the outset it must be stated very clearly that these notes are purely an aid.
They in brief consist of theory, formula and calculations. The student will still be
expected to take some notes during lectures and visit additional texts and
publications for current information.

• The student needs to know the theory e.g. Definitions, narrative

explanations and sketches.
• The student needs to know the formula and their application.
• The student needs to be able to perform calculations and all relevant
checks.
• In addition the student needs to have obtained reasonable proficiency
in using survey equipment - this of late has become a major problem
with students who have no survey experience.

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TUTORIALS

After each significant section there are tutorials, which are geared to enable
the student to become conversant in the relevant applications. Tutorials are
an integral and vital component of this subject and definitely not something
to miss. Students who diligently do tutorials and complete all their tutorial
exercises on their own have little problems with passing the tests and exam.
However students who do not comply with this, and although they obtain the
model answers they still do not know how to perform the calculations, and
ultimately perform poorly in the exam.

CONCLUSION

Furthermore, this course is designed to equip you for the real everyday work
situation. What is important therefore is that your attitude to vocational
education must be mature and responsible. As your lecturer and mentor I
urge you dedicate yourself to your studies.

Please to not take this advice lightly, because failure to comply has sadly
proved to be the downfall of many students in the past. Committed student
participation, self-study and consistent application are by far the bigger
ingredients of success.

TIME MANAGEMENT IS THE KEY!

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CHAPTER 1

Overview of Geomatics

Introduction

The course is designed for Geomatics students who have successfully passed
the pre-requisite subject ‘Geomatics IA’. This course is a continuation of
Geomatics IA which means that all that was learned in the first course is
expected to be remembered and fully understood by the student.

One must understand that ‘Geomatics’ comprises of a number a related

disciplines that deal with Spatial information. We will start by defining some of
these related fields:-

1.1 Surveying:

Surveying is the art of taking measurements upon the surface of the earth
either in the horizontal or the vertical plane. With few exceptions, the results
are shown in the form of a map or a plan, or as calculated figures.
Horizontal and vertical Measurement:

All measurements made in surveying are resolved into two planes i.e.
horizontal and vertical planes. Surveying is carried out by the following four
methods of measurement:

• Horizontal Distances e.g. using tape, stadia distance, EDM,

GPS
• Horizontal Angles e.g. using a Theodolite, Total station
• Vertical Distances e.g. using a Dumpy, Automatic, Digital level
• Vertical Angles e.g. using a Theodolite, Total station

1.2 Geomatics:

Geomatics is the science and technology of gathering, storing, processing,

analyzing and delivery of geographic information, or spatially referenced
information. It has applications in all disciplines and professions that use earth-
related spatial data. Some examples of these disciplines and professions
include the following:

• Planning
• Geography

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• Land Surveying
• Photogrammetry and Mapping (terrestrial, aerial & digital)
• Cartography
• Remote sensing
• Geographic information systems (GiS) (LiS)
• Project engineering
• Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO,
COMPASS)
• Geodesy and Geodetic surveying

Today the importance of measuring and monitoring environment is

becoming increasingly critical has a population expand, land values
appreciate, our natural resources dwindle and human activities continue to
stress the quality of our land, water and air. Using modern ground, aerial and
satellite Technologies and computers for data processing, modern surveyors
and geomatic practitioners and now able to measure and monitor the Earth
and its natural resources literally on a global basis.

Branches of Geomatics:

 Data collection techniques include field surveying, Global positioning

system (GPS), satellite positioning, and remotely sensed imagery
obtained through aerial photography and satellite imagery.

 Data management and planning and design are handled through the
use of computer programs for engineering design, digital
photogrammetry, image analysis, relational database management
and Geographic information systems (GiS).

 Information technology: Once the position and attributes of

geographic entities have been digitized and stored in a computer
memory, they are available for use by a wide range of users. Through
the use of modern Information technology, Geomatics brings together
professionals in the following disciplines: Surveying, Mapping, Remote
sensing, Land registration, Civil and marine engineering, Forestry,
Agriculture, Planning and Development, Geology, Geographical
sciences, Infrastructure management, Navigation, Environmental and
natural resources, Monitoring and computer science.

Figure 1.1 (below) is a model of the science of Geomatics and shows

how all the branches and specializations are tied together by their
common interest in earth measurement data and their dependence
on Computer science and Information technology.

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Figure 1.1

1.3 Geographic information system (GiS):

A Geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture,

store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic
data.
In general, the term describes any information system that integrates, stores,
edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information.
GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-
created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and
present the results of all these operations. Geographic information science
(GiSc) is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and
systems.

GIS is a rapidly growing technological field that incorporates graphical

features with tabular data in order to assess real-world problems. The GIS
begin to develop in the 1960s with the discovery that maps could be
programmed using simple code and then stored in a computer allowing
future modification when necessary.
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The capabilities of GIS and be known from the simple beginnings of a

computer cartography. At the simplest Level GIS can be thought of as a high
tech equivalent of a map. Paper Maps cannot be produced for quicker and
more effective storage of data. An easily accessible digital format of maps in
a GiS enables complex analysis and modelling of data, which was previously
not possible with paper maps. The reach of GiS expands into all disciplines
and has been used for a wide range of problems such as prioritizing sensitive
species habitat, and determining optimal real estate locations for new
businesses.

The keyword to GIS technology is geography. This means that the data or at
least some proportion of the data is spatial, or in other words data is in some
referred to the locations on the earth. Geographic information describes the
spatial or location factors of an object or area. This can simply be latitude
and longitude but in most cases more complex factors are included.

Figure 1.2

1.4 Remote Sensing:

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or

phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and therefore
in contrast to on-site observation. Remote sensing is used in numerous fields,
including geography, land surveying and most Earth Science disciplines (for
example, hydrology, ecology, oceanography, glaciology, geology); it also
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has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian

applications.

The advantage of collecting information from a distance was recognized

years ago. Remote sensing is the most prominent technique of collecting
information from a distance. The data collected from a distance is called
remotely sensed data. Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information
about the Earth's surface without actually being in physical contact with the
surface. It is also defined as a science and technology by which
characteristics of objects of interest can be identified, measured or analyzed
without direct contact. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or
emitted energy and processing, analyzing and applying that information. The
science of remote sensing provides instruments, theory and methods by
which objects and phenomena can be detected.

Remote sensing includes aerial photography and satellite imagery. Today

most natural resource mapping is done using remote sensing.
Aerial photography has been used to produce virtually all Topographic Maps
such as Forest Maps, geological Maps, land use maps and soil maps.

Remote sensing is a technology to identify and understand the object or the

environmental conditions to the uniqueness of the reflection or emission. The
remote sensing data will be processed automatically by the computer and
manual interpreted by humans, and finally utilized in agricultural, land use,
forestry, geology, hydrology, oceanography, meteorology and environment.

1.5 LiDAR (Light detection and ranging):

Is a laser mapping technique that has recently become popular in both

topographic and hydrographic survey. Over land laser pulses can be
transmitted and then returned from ground surface. The time required to
send and then receive the laser pulses is used to create a digital elevation
model (DEM) of the Earth's surface.

Processing software can separate rooftops from ground surfaces and also
tree tops and other vegetation from the bare ground surface beneath the
trees. Although the laser pulses cannot penetrate heavily dense trees, they
can penetrate tree cover and other lower growth vegetation much more
efficiently than does either aerial photography or digital imaging, because of
the huge number of measurements – thousands of terrain measurements
every second. Digital elevation models are particularly useful for the design
and estimating purposes.

One of the most important advantages to using this technique is the rapid
processing time. One supplier claims that 1000 km2 of hilly, forested terrain
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can be surveyed by laser in less than 12 hours and that the DEM data are
available within 24hrs of the flight data. Data processing doesn't take much
longer than the data collection. Because each laser pulse is individually
georeferenced, there's no need for ortho-rectification steps needed in aerial
photo processing.

1.6 Detail functions of a Geomatics practitioner:

 The determination of the size and shape of the Earth and

measurements of all data needed to define the size, position, shape
and contour of any part of the Earth and monitoring any changes
therein.
 The positioning of objects in space and time as well as the positioning
and monitoring of physical features, structures and engineering works.
 The development, testing and calibration of sensors, instruments and
systems for the above-mentioned purposes and for other surveying
purposes.
 The acquisition and use of spatial information from close range, aerial
and satellite imagery and the automation of these processes.
 The determination of the position of the boundaries of public or private
land, including national and international boundaries, and registration
of those Lands with the appropriate authorities.
 The design, establishment and administration of a geographic
information systems (GiS) and the collection storage and analysis,
management, display and dissemination of data.
 The study of the natural and social environment, measurement of land
and marine sources and the use of such data in the planning of
development in rural, urban and regional areas.
 The planning measurement and management of construction works
including the estimation of costs.

1.7 Professional conduct of Geomatics practitioners:

Geomatics practitioners are required by law to comply with a code of

conduct as prescribed by the ‘Geomatics Profession Act - Act 19 of 2013’.

(1) The purpose of the Code of Conduct is to:–

(a) Make rules prohibiting actions or conduct by members or by geomatics

practices, as the case may be, which constitute improper conduct, and
where such actions or conduct give rise to a charge of improper conduct
against a member or a geomatics practice, which must be investigated by
Council in terms of section 20 of the Act; and

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(b) to ensure that all registered persons apply their knowledge and skills in the
interest of their profession, the public and the environment and execute all
work with integrity and professionalism.

(2) All members and all geomatics practices are subject to the rules.

(3) All members are obliged to carry out geomatics work in a professional
manner guided by skill, competency and integrity.

[Government Gazette. February 2017. Draft Code of Conduct of the Geomatics Profession.
South African Geomatics Council]

The Code of conduct cover six explicit and important rules:-

• Chapter 1: Transparency and equity

• Chapter 2: Quality and integrity
• Chapter 3: Promotion of the profession, competence and standards
• Chapter 4: The environment
• Chapter 5: Transformation
• Chapter 6: General

1.8 Safety in Surveying:

Surveyors and Geomatics engineers are generally involved in both field and
office work. Sometimes the field work must be performed in hostile or
dangerous environments and therefore it is very important that one is aware
of the need to practice safety precautions. Among the most dangerous of
circumstances within which surveyors must sometimes work are job sites that
are either on or near highways or railroads and which cross such facilities.

Job sites in construction zones where heavy machine is operating are also
hazardous and the dangers are often exacerbated by poor hearing
conditions from the excessive noise and poor visibility caused by obstructions,
and dust both of which are created by the construction activity. In these
situations whenever possible the surveys should be removed from the danger
areas through careful planning and use of offset lines. If the work must be
done in hazardous areas, then certain safety precautions should be followed.

Safety vests of fluorescent yellow colour should be worn in these situations,

and flagging materials of the same colour can be attached to the survey
equipment to make it more visible. Depending on the circumstances signs
can be placed in advance of work areas to warn drivers of the presence of a
survey party head, cones and other barricades can be placed to deflect
traffic around the surveying activities, and flaggers can be assigned to warn
drivers or to slow or even stop them if necessary.
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All On-site professionals should fully comply with the conditions and safety
standards set out in the Occupational Health and Safety Act.

Besides the hazards described above, other dangers can also be

encountered in conducting field surveys. These include problems related to
weather conditions such as over exposure to the sun's rays which can cause
sunburns and heat stroke. To help prevent these problems, drink plenty of
fluids (water/juice). Large brimmed hats and sun screen should be worn on
extremely hot days.

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Gopi, S., Sathikumar, R. and Madhu, N. 2008. Advanced surveying: total station, GIS and
remote sensing. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

Web: https://www.ambientalrisk.com/celebrating-the-importance-of-spatial-data-on-gis-
day/

Web: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system

Web: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing

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Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

CHAPTER 2

Errors and Standards

Introduction

Making observations, measurements and subsequent computations are

fundamental tasks of Surveyors. Good observations require a combination of
human skill and precise electronic equipment applied with the utmost
judgement. However no matter how carefully made, observations are never
exact and will always contain errors. Surveyors and Geomaticians whose
work must be performed to exacting standards should therefore thoroughly
understand the different kinds of errors, their sources and expect magnitudes
under varying conditions, and their manner of propagation. Only then can
they select instrumentation and procedures necessary to reduce error sizes to
within required tolerances.

An Error is therefore the difference between a measured (observed) value

and the true value. Since no measurement can be performed perfectly every
measurement must contain some error. For the purposes of calculating error,
the ‘true’ value of a dimension is determined statistically after repeated
measurements have been taken and this is known as the mean (arithmetic).

2.1 Theory of errors:

The main types of errors are:

a) Gross errors (mistakes) should not be present in the final results if

standard survey practice of applying adequate checks is carried
out. These usually result from carelessness inexperience or
fatigue. Also known as mistakes or blunders.

b) Constant errors are errors which occur in measurements made

under the same circumstances, and have the same magnitude
and algebraic sign; e.g. using a tape which has stretched, or
observing with an instrument which has a collimation error.

c) Systematic errors are errors which depend for their magnitude,

and sign, upon external circumstances; e.g. temperature
changes, excessive refraction, slope of land, etc. They are
always present to a greater or lesser extent even though
corrections have been applied; e.g. standardisation of tape,
slope, sag and temperature corrections etc.

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d) Accidental or Random (or compensating) errors are the small

errors remaining in all recorded measurements, after the above
errors have been eliminated, and are just as likely to be positive
as negative. They are usually due to human and mechanical
limitations.

2.2 Mistakes:

Mistakes are usually caused by a misunderstanding of the problem,

carelessness, poor judgement, fatigue, poor communication. Examples of
mistakes are transposing of figures (recording a value of 24 instead of 42),
measuring to and from the wrong point, bisecting the wrong target etc.
Student should be made aware that mistakes will occur.

Large mistakes are often referred to as blunders. Mistakes must be discovered

and eliminated by systematic checking of all work. It must be remembered
that all measurements are suspect until there been verified (checked).
Verification may be as simple as repeating the measurement, or verification
may result from geometric or trigonometric analysis of related measurements.

As a rule, all measurements are immediately checked or repeated. This

immediate repetition enables the Surveyor to eliminate most mistakes and at
the same time to improve on the precision of the measurement. It is very
difficult to detect small mistakes because they merge with errors. When not
exposed, these little mistakes will therefore be incorrectly treated as errors.

2.3 Precautions to eliminate Mistakes:

a) Measuring of angle and distance several times.

b) Taking C.L. & C.R. horizontal observations.
c) Taking C.L. & C.R. vertical observations.
d) Remembering simple facts e.g. vertical angles are normally +/-
90º or +/-270º.
e) Adopting a methodical approach in the field.
f) Doing quick field checks e.g. adding up back-sights and fore-
sights when levelling.
g) Making sure that equipment is not faulty e.g. levelling staff is
properly clipped out.

2.4 Sources of error in making measurements:

Errors in measurements stem from three sources and are classified

accordingly.

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2.4.1 Natural errors

Natural errors caused by variation in wind, temperature, humidity,
refraction, gravity and magnetic declination for example, the length of
a steel tape varies with change in temperature.

2.4.2 Instrumental errors

Instrumental errors result from any imperfection in the construction or
adjustment of instruments and from the movement of individual parts.
The effect of many instrumental errors can be reduced or even
eliminated by adopting procedures.

2.4.3 Personal Errors

These arise principally from limitations of the human senses of sight and
touch for example there is a small error in the measured value of a
horizontal angle if the vertical cross hair in a theodolite is not aligned
perfectly on target or if the top of the rod is out of plumb when sighted.

2.5 Errors in measurement are two types:-

2.5.1 Systematic Errors

These errors conform to mathematical and physical laws. Their

magnitude may be constant or variable depending on conditions.
Systematic errors (cumulative errors), can be computed and their
effects eliminated by correction, for example the temperature
differential can be computed by a simple formula, and the correction
easily applied.

Systematic errors can be eliminated in the following way:

a) Devising observational procedures.

b) Actual formulation and computation of corrections.
c) Careful calibration and adjustment of equipment.
d) Can be determined practically by experiment.

2.5.2 Random Errors

These are errors that remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated. They are caused by factors beyond the control of the observer,
obey the laws of probability. They are present in all surveying measurement.
Random errors are sometimes called accidental errors and are unpredictable
in regards to both size and algebraic sign and also known as compensating

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errors, since they tend to partially cancel themselves in a series of

measurement. They are truly accidental and cannot be avoided.

The FOUR laws of random errors are:

a) All observations fluctuate about a central value. Normally the

arithmetic mean.
b) A plus error will occur as frequently as will a minus error.
c) Small errors will occur more frequently than large errors.
d) Very large errors do not occur at all (they are mistakes), or the chance
of a large error occurring is remote.

2.6 Errors in measurement:

By definition an error is the difference between a measured value for a

quantity and its true value.
�
𝑬𝑬 = 𝑿𝑿 − 𝒙𝒙

where E is the error in a measurement, X the observed (measured)

value and 𝒙𝒙� its true value. The arithmetic mean is normally adopted as
the true value. Note the quantity (-e) is denoted by ‘c” and is called
a Correction or Residual where:

� − 𝑿𝑿
𝑪𝑪 = 𝒙𝒙

The Residual or Correction has the same magnitude as the Error but an
opposite algebraic sign.

It can be unconditionally stated that:

1. No measurement is exact.
2. Every measurement contains error.
3. The true value of a measurement is never known and therefore
4. The exact error present is always unknown.

Checks are necessary to detect and eliminate gross (large) errors, and
control is required in order to minimize the effects of errors which fall
within the allowable limits of accuracy that has been laid down for a
particular survey.

Given a number of determinations of the same quantity to adopt the

best value:

a) Simple Arithmetic means: For the purpose of elementary surveying, it

will be sufficient to usually adopt the average of a number of repeated
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measurements. This average is simply the arithmetic mean, obtained

by adding all the different results together and dividing by their total
number. Usually the ‘means’ have to be rounded off to a given degree
of accuracy say the nearest even number.

b) Weighted means: Under certain conditions it may be known or

suspected that some of the observations are likely to produce more
accurate results than others. In such cases, it is usual to give more
‘weight’ to the more reliable observations i.e. the observations with
greater ‘strength’ are allowed to influence the final adopted value
more than the ‘weaker’ ones.

2.7 Standards:

A ‘Precise survey’ is one which has been carried out to a high standard or
high degree of refinement and an ‘Accurate survey’ is one in which the
required standard has been achieved.

• The precision of a survey is the standard that is required to be achieved

in the particular survey (e.g. 1 in 20 000). The Accuracy of a survey is
the standard that is actually achieved in the particular survey.

• For a survey to be satisfactorily carried out the accuracy must be

better or at least equal to the required precision.

• Cost factor: In order to limit the cost of a survey a standard of precision

must be set for a job which will achieve the objective of the survey; i.e.
neither too precise nor too rough.

Figure 2.1 illustrates the relationship between Precision & Accuracy.

Example: A distance measured 4 times using a steel tape by skilled staff

will be more precise than the same distance measured twice by
unskilled staff using a fibreglass tape.

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Figure 2.1
Typical standards:

Estimation of distances: 1:3 to 1:10

Pacing distances 1:20 to 1:100
Tacheometric surveys 1:500 to 1:1000
Taping(engineering standards) 1:2000 to 1:20000
Taping (base lines for national surveys) 1:200000 to 1:1000000
Tellurometer measurements 1:100000 to 1:500000

If measuring a line 1 km long the expected error is ± 0.01 m then the

error is 1 part in 100 000

(0.01m/1000m expressed as 1:100 000)

Expressing this in (mm):

0.01m=1000m
1cm=1000m
10mm=1000m x 1000 (since there is 1000mm in 1 meter)

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10mm= 1000 000mm

therefore 1mm=100 000mm and is expressed as 1: 100 000

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

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CHAPTER 3

Map projections and the South African Co-ordinate System

Introduction

There are various means for plotting extensive topographical surveys

and the preparation of the map. Large scale maps (e.g. 1:100) are
plotted using a system of rectangular co-ordinates. Small scale mapping
(e.g. 1:50 000) are plotted on a system of geographical co-ords.

If we attempt to plot the positions of points by means of any system of

rectangular co-ordinates, and the area involved is large we must be
prepared to accept the difficulty of representing the large area of a
curved surface(the earth’s surface) on a flat surface (sheet of paper).
This leads to distortion of shape and variation in scale, the amount of
which increases rapidly as the area being represented increases. It must
also be pointed out that our earth is not a perfect sphere but a ‘Geoid’
in shape, which means that the polar regions are somewhat flattened.
The radius of the earth at equator is taken as 6373 kms and at the poles
6367 kms.

In small scale mapping one of the first things to be done is to plot a

"Graticule", which is a system of lines or curves representing the meridians
of longitude and the parallels of latitude on a sheet of paper. Map
Projections are concerned with the different ways in which the graticules
of longitude and latitude can be represented on the map, and the
relative advantages and disadvantages, and limitations of each
method.

To convert geodetic positions of a portion of the Earth's surface to plane

rectangular coordinates, points are projected mathematically from the
ellipsoid to some imaginary ‘developed surface’ – a surface that can
conceptually be developed or ‘laid out flat’ without distortion of shape
or size. A rectangular grid can be superimposed on the ‘developed’
plane surface and the position of the points in the plane specified with
respect to X and Y grid axes. A plane grid developed using this
mathematical process is called a ‘Map projection’.

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3.1 Some types of Map Projections:

a) Conical projection:

Used mainly for maps

of countries in the mid-
latitudes zones that
have an east-west
orientation.

Image reference:
http://info.wlu.ca/~wwwgeog/special/geomatics/images/cone.gif
http://geoapi.sourceforge.net/snapshot/javadoc/org/opengis/referencing/doc-files/ConicProjection.png

b) Zenithal or azimuthal:

Used mainly to map

Polar Regions. The
point of contact may
be the North pole,
South pole, a point on
the equator or any
point in between.

Image reference:
http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/mapping/IMAGES/planar.gif
http://info.wlu.ca/~wwwgeog/special/geomatics/images/plane.gif

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c) Cylindrical projection:

Basis of most projections used in co-ordinate systems

e.g. Mercator and Transverse Mercator.

Image reference:
http://w3.impa.br/~pcezar/cursos/GIS/mapproj/mapproj.gif/cylinder.gif

3.2 Requirements of a Map Projection:

It has been shown that any map projection creates distortions in the map, but
by various means, a map can be constructed to preserve one or other of the
following qualities to a greater or lesser degree:

a) Preservation of Area
b) Preservation of Shape
c) Preservation of Scale
d) Preservation of Bearing
e) Ease of drawing/constructing the map

The choice of the projection to be used in making any particular map is,
therefore, dependent upon the purpose of the map, and it will suffice to say
that the larger the area to be mapped, the more carefully should the
projection be chosen. To produce a map the curved reference surface of the
Earth, (sphere), is transformed to the flat plane of the map by means of a map
projection. Each point on the reference surface of the Earth with geographic
coordinates may be transformed to set of cartesian coordinates (x,y )
representing positions on the map plane.
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3.3 Mercator Projection:

This projection does not preserve the area, (distorted). However directions
are preserved i.e. directions on the sphere correspond to directions on the
projection (conformal). Also tends to preserve the shape of land forms
(continents).

This is a cylindrical projection. The cylinder touches at the equator. Points on

the globe are projected from the center of the sphere to the cylinder.
The developed cylinder will have rectangular lines (grid) for longitude and
latitude.

At the equator the "scale" is correct, but distortion increases away from the
equator. In the sketch, if AB = CD and both are at the same latitude then:-

ab = cd and:

ab = cd = Scale enlargement factor.

AB CD
a b c
C
A B d
D

3.4 Transverse Mercator Projection:

Grid
Central
S meridian
S’
Graticule

Y
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Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

This is similar to the above projection but the cylinder is turned through
90°with the cylinder touching on lines of longitude instead of the
Equator. In this case as we go east or west the scale enlargement
factor increases.

Hence:

Scale Distortion Correction = S(Y² )

2R²

Where S = length of line

R = radius of earth
Y = average value of Y co-ordinates of the ends of the line.

3.5 South African Co-ordinate System:

• The South African Lo System is based on the Transverse Mercator

Projection.
• In this system it is assumed that the cylinder touches the earth at each
odd degree of longitude and is
• Is projected one degree East and one degree West of this meridian of
longitude so that each belt (or system) is 2° wide with the central
meridian on the odd degree: i.e. 29°,31°, 33°, etc.
• Each belt has an overlap of 15 minutes into the next system.
• The co-ordinates are usually named Y and X.
• Y: the ORDINATE (represents measurement east or west of central
meridian)
• X: the ABSCISSA (represents measurement north or south)
Example: Y -19 426.13 X + 3 314 006.07 (metres)
• On the South African co-ordinate system, the Y co-ordinate value for
each belt is zero at the central meridian and increases (measured)
positively to the west and negative to the east. The X co-ordinate is
zero at the equator and increases positively to the south.
• The zero direction is South. Direction on the grid relate to ‘GRID SOUTH’,
which is the direction of the central meridian. Bearings/angles are
related to GEOGRAPHICAL SOUTH, which is the direction of TRUE SOUTH
through any point.

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Figure: 3.5a

The co-ordinates of a point on the boundary meridian between two

adjacent systems i.e. the even meridian, will have the same X value, and the
Y will have the same numerical value, but will have opposite signs in the two
systems. If a survey falls near on or near a boundary meridian it is usual
practice to do the entire survey in the belt in which the greater portion of the
area falls. See figures 3.5b and 3.5c.

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Figure: 3.5b

Figure: 3.5c

3.5.1 Meridian convergence is the difference between Grid South and

Geographic South. Lo stands for line of origin or longitude.

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3.5.2 The Grid for each Lo. System:

The X co-ordinate value is zero at the equator and increases positively

to the South. The Y co-ordinate value for each belt is zero at the
central meridian and increases (positively) to the West and increases
(negatively) to the East of the central meridian respectively.

3.5.3 Corrections:

a) Scale distortion: This is zero at the central meridian, but increases

East or West of the central meridian to a maximum at the outer
edges of each belt.

If S: is the length of the measured line

R: the radius of the earth and
Y: the mean value of the Y co-ordinate of the two ends of
the
line, then :-

Scale Distortion Corrn . = S. Y² (+)

2R²

b) Height above sea level:

In the LO system all distances are reduced to sea level so that all
distances calculated from co-ordinates will be the sea level
distance and not the actual measured distance, in cases of
ground well above sea level.

L: is the length of the line as measured

H: the average height of the line above sea level and
R: the radius of the earth, then:-

Sea Level Correction = L x H (–)

R

Now if Ha and Hb are the elevations of the two ends of the

measured line AB respectively then the correction becomes:-

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Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

Sea Level Corr n. = L . (Ha + Hb)

2R

Image reference:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105107122/modules/module
3/htmlpage/32.htm

c) t – T correction:

Directions observed on the spheroid become curved lines on the

projection, and it is therefore necessary to reduce the observed
geographical directions (T) to the grid direction (t) before any
calculations can be done. This correction is called the t - T correction.
This correction will be explained in the module ‘Control Surveying 2A’.

Tutorial 1: Grid distance corrections

You are carrying out a survey in the Harding Area of the Lower Natal
Midlands and you have measured a distance with a Leica TC403 Total
station. The reduced horizontal measured distance is 2197.28 metres. From
Google Earth software, the co-ordinates were extracted as follows:-

• The Y co-ordinates of the two ends of the leg measured were 87 500m
and 88 800m and
• the approximate elevation of the two stations were 1250m and 1320m.

 Name and calculate the two corrections giving the relevant signs and
formulae.
 Determine the correct final grid distance.

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3.6 The South African Map Series:

A Map is a graphical representation drawn to scale of natural and artificial

features (objects) on the earth surface. Some of these features such as roads,
buildings, or rivers you would be able to see from a Hilltop or aeroplane. A
map is a portrayal of the real world. Other features such as names of places,
boundaries, or heights are added to the map because of the importance
that they have for the map user.

Maps have traditionally been produced in graphical hard copy form that is
printed on paper. However today most mapping data are collected in digital
form and then processed using Computer aided drafting and design (CADD)
systems to develop ‘soft copy’ maps. Soft copy maps that are stored within a
computer, can be analyzed, modified, enlarged or reduced to scale and
have the contour intervals changed while being viewed on monitors of the
CADD systems.

In SA, the mapping of the Republic is the responsibility of the Chief

Directorate: National Geospatial Information in Mowbray, Cape town.

To assist users in identifying the products required, index maps indicating the
available maps and the latest aerial photography are printed annually.
Maps can be purchased either directly by mail order or via the internet
website from the Chief Directorate: National Geospatial Information.

By mail:
Chief Directorate: National Geospatial Information
Private Bag X 10
7705
Mowbray

Tel: 021 658 4300

Fax: 021 689 1351
Sales fax: 0866202175
Email: [email protected]
Internet page: http://www.cdm.org.za

Some of the maps produced by the National Geospatial Information

include:-

Scale Type Projection Remarks

1: 10 000 Ortho-photos Gauss Conform Aerial Photos

1: 50 000 Topo Series Gauss Conform Aerial Photos

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 Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

1 : 250 000 Regional & Aeronautical Gauss Conform l: 50 000 topographical

1 : 250 000 Topo-Cadastral Series Gauss Conform l: 50 000 topographical

1 : 500 000 Topo-Admin maps Lambert Con-formal Conic National & regional

planning

3.7 SA Mapsheet Referencing:

3.7.1 General

a) Each map of the National Map Series is identified by its unique number
(e.g. 2830CB) and scale, or by name (e.g. 3318 Cape Town, 1: 250 000).
b) All maps produced by the National Geo-spatial Information are
referenced to the Hartebeesthoek 94 Datum (WGS84 ellipsoid).

3.7.2 Degree Square Breakdown

a) The degree square measurement mentioned within this section is based

on the geographical coordinate system or graticule, defined by latitude
and longitude.
b) Each degree square is designated by a 4-digit number, made up of the
integer values of the Latitude and Longitude respectively, at its NW
corner (e.g. 2830) as indicated in Figure 3.7a.
c) Each degree square is further divided into four quadrants, each covering
an area of 30' latitude x 30' longitude (quarter degree square).
d) These quadrants are lettered A,B,C and D (capital letters) respectively in
a top down, left to right sequence as indicated in Figure 3.7b. This will
form the fifth alphanumeric identifier for maps of the National Map Series
(e.g. 2830C).
e) Each quarter degree square is further divided into four quadrants, each
covering an area of 15' latitude x 15' longitude. These are lettered A, B, C
and D respectively as indicated in Figure 3.7b. This breakdown forms the
sixth alphanumeric identifier for maps of the National Map Series. The
area highlighted in Figure 3.7b indicates the coverage of sheet 2830CB
of the 1:50 000 map series.

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Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

Figure 3.7a

Figure 3.7b

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Gopi, S., Sathikumar, R. and Madhu, N. 2008. Advanced surveying: total station, GIS and
remote sensing. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

Information, N. G. Information, C. D. N. G. 2010. Mapping South Africa

Web: http://www.ngi.gov.za/index.php/what-we-do/maps-and-geospatial-information/41-
sa-mapsheet-referencing

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Durban University of Technology Dept. of Civil Engineering & Geomatics

CHAPTER 4

Triangulation

Introduction

Nearly all practical triangulation in South Africa today consists of breaking

down of the existing secondary or tertiary triangulation i.e. additional points
are fixed from the existing triangulation system for the purpose of accurately
controlling some form of survey.

The four basic principles of Triangulation are as follows:-

a) At least six fixing rays must be observed between the unknown point
and the fixed stations Δ.
b) The triangle from which a point is initially fixed should be as well
conditioned as possible i.e. as nearly equilateral as possible.
c) The intersection angle at the point to be fixed of the main fixing
triangle, must be 30°< α <150°, the nearer to 90° the better.
d) The point to be fixed should lie within the triangle formed by the two
main fixing points and the other fixed stations.

4.1 Recce Surveys and field notes

Field reconnaissance is part of conventional survey practice and is usually

performed in the first few minutes after the field team has arrived at the job
site or perhaps in a separate field visit. Usually the team leader, with a field
plan does a walk about to inspect the site and locate any existing survey
marks and also gets a feel for the layout of the land. It is a good idea, to firstly
gather as much relevant information about your survey area as possible, A
good starting list includes the following items:-

 what horizontal and vertical controls exists (co-ordinate list)

 any maps and plans of the area (topo series maps or google
earth)
 adjoining survey plans

One of the most important aspects of surveying is taking neat, legible and
complete field Notes. The notes will be used to plot scale drawings of the
area surveyed and they will also be used to provide a permanent record of
the survey proceedings. Sketches are used to illustrate and therefore remove
possible ambiguities. Surveyors have discovered that reliable field notes are
also invaluable for these modern surveys.

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4.2 Field book

A field book may be described as a record or collection of field observations.

These may include horizontal and vertical angles, distances, elevations and
co-ordinate data. Modern surveys employing electronic data collectors,
automatically store point positioning angles and distances that will later be
transferred to the computer. As the work progresses they create computer
files containing a record of observed data. Data collectors are rapidly
gaining popularity but when used, manually prepared sketches and
descriptions often supplement the numerical data they generate.

Figure 4.2a - Manual field book

 R.O. is an abbreviation of "Reference Object" (i.e. Kit) on which we

close our round of observations to check that the instrument has not
been disturbed during the observations.
 The second column figures are referred to as "Circle Left". The third
column figures are the observations on the "Circle Right" face. The
observations for the full arc (C.L. and C.R.) would have been made in
the following order: Kit, Kop, Leo, Beg, Hill, R.O then transit R.O., Hill,
Beg, Leo, Kop, Kit.
 The mean of the observations (column four) should be specially noted
above. It is accepted survey practice that where the mean of the
Circle Left and Circle Right observations to any point does not result in
a whole number of seconds, the nearest even number is accepted as
the mean.
 A full set of observations, as in the example above is referred to as an
"ARC". At all points where the fixing rays are reasonably long (more
than 3km) more than one arc should be observed, and in order to

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mean and adjust these observations an "Abstract of Observations"

sheet should be drawn up.

Figure 4.2b – Psion work-about Figure 4.2b – Electronic field book

electronic data logger

4.3 Abstract sheet

If the observations are simple they can be transferred directly from the field
book to the "Direction Sheet". Where more than one arc is observed at the
station, An Abstract of the observations, on a separate page, is required. The
rounds (C.L. and C.R.) are averaged in the field book and the mean of each
arc is entered in the "ABSTRACT SHEET". These arcs are again meaned and
the corrections applied right through the observations. The final adjusted
figures are used in the Direction Sheet. It is preferable to write out ARC1 and
ARC2 in full to avoid mistakes as shown in the example below.

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At Station GOAT

Station ARC1 ARC2 MEAN CORRn ADJ.MEAN

KIT 358 18 4 358 18 4 4 0 358: 18:04

KOP 19 47 32 19 47 36 34 -1 19:47:33

LEO 49 53 38 49 53 41 40 -2 49:53:38

BEG 51 14 18 51 14 24 21 -2 51:14:19

HILL 60 4 23 60 4 27 25 -3 60:04:22

R.O. 358 18 6 358 18 10 8 -4 358:18:04

Figure 4.3a – Abstract sheet example

Tutorial 2: Abstract sheet

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Figure 4.3b – (Field book → Abstract sheet)

4.4 Direction sheet

After the Abstract Sheet the next operation is the preparation of the Direction
Sheet. The aim of the direction sheet is to orient the observations correctly,
and to apply the final adjustments. The direction sheet is the manager of all
triangulation networks and is only complete until the points which you are
trying to co-ordinate have been fixed finally (using an error figure solution or
least squares adjustment).

The Direction Sheet is required in order that the observed directions may be
oriented as nearly as possible to their true values for use in the individual
Triangulation calculations. Always enter all join directions before you enter
any observed directions. In the direction sheet the value of the "back"
direction is more reliable than the single "forward" direction and so we give
more "weight" (value) (double) to the back than to the forward. It is
necessary to return to the direction sheet to enter final directions. Remember
once having co-ordinated a point you may safely use this point to assist you
in your fixes of other points.
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Great Care must be taken when doing a direction sheet as any mistake here
will be compounded at later stage and will result in corrupt co-ordinates.

Refer to figure 4.4a for a Direction sheet worked example. Below is the
explanatory notes:-

 Spitkop and Platberg are trig stations at which observations have been
made for the purpose of orienting the observations at Dog and Cat (ie
the points to be fixed).
 Final directions at the orienting stations are obtained by taking out the
joins between the known trig. co-ordinates. The mean observed
directions from the Abstract are first approximately oriented from these
known directions.
 At Spitkop the true directions to Krom and Rooi are known from their 'join
directions': hence the final corrections to the observed directions of
these two rays can be written down, viz +9", +13" at Spitkop.
 The known final corrections are summed (+22) and meaned (+11) and
this mean correction is applied to the observed direction to Dog and
Cat to give the 'oriented Back Direction' value for these rays. Similarly
the final corrections for the orienting rays at Platberg are obtained by
calculating the joins and the mean final correction for the observations
is applied to the observed rays from Platberg to Dog and Cat to give the
oriented back values viz 47" and 33".
 The observations at Dog are oriented by entering the oriented back
directions from Spitkop and Platberg in the 'oriented forward' directions
column. (43" and 33").
 The provisional corrections to the observed directions are now obtained,
viz 19" and 16". These in turn are summed (35") and meaned (18") and
this mean provisional correction is applied to all the observed directions
(except the ray to the unfixed point Cat) to give the oriented back
values.

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TRIANGULATION DIRECTION SHEET:

Figure 4.4a – Direction sheet

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Tutorial 3: Direction sheet

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4.5 Co-ordinate calculations

Triangulation is divided into three parts i.e. Intersection, Resection and

Trilateration. This course covers the first two. The latter will be discussed in
Control Surveying 2A.

To assist with understanding the procedure of Intersection, a flow chart is

shown as figure 4.5.a below. As you may note from the flow chart, the stage
after the Direction sheet, is the Triangle calculation of which there are two
notable methods i.e. ‘Sine Rule’ and ‘Tangent method’.

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INTERSECTION FLOW CHART:

Figure 4.5a – Flow chart

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TRIANGULATION SKETCH:

Figure 4.5b – Triangulation sketch

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4.5.1. Sine Rule

The determination of provisional coordinates is commonly called ‘calculating

the triangle’. The first method consists of simply solving by the Sine formula,
the triangle formed by the two chosen fixed points and the points to be
determined, first from one base angle and as a check from the other base
angle.

Referring to the sketch above, let it be assumed that the co-ordinates of A and
B are known and the directions A to P and B to P, are also known. Then from
the sine formula we get:

AB = AP = BP
sin P sin B sin A

from which we establish:

AP = AB . sin B and BP = AB . sin A

sin P sin P
K

Layout of calculation is provided below.

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JOIN: A: Direction Check by polar

B: Distance YB XB

AB AB
Direction AB→(1) K = sinP so K=SINP Angle P (3) - (2) = (4)
Direction AP→(2) Dist AP = K.sinB Angle A (2) - (1) = (5)
Direction BP→(3) Dist BP = K.sinA Angle B (1) - (3) = (6)
SUM = 180◦00’00”

POLAR A to P POLAR B to P
YP XP P(prov) YP XP

Explanation of Method: Remember the order of points:

1: Unknown point (Ө) - P
o Calculate Join A-B from co-ordinates; apply Check. 2: First known point (α) - A
o Draw a sketch (not necessary to scale) 3: Second known point (β) - B
o Write down directions AB , AP , BP -- in that order.
o Find angles: P, A and B (check that the sum is 180◦)
o Determine K then Dist AP and Dist BP
o Calculate the polars A to P and B to P (the co-ordinates of P must agree
as a check)

Worked numeric example (Sine Rule):

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JOIN: SPITS - PLAT: 269◦ 48' 06“ 2413,044m

POLAR CHECK: PLAT + 1576.12 + 29 8080.28

DIRn SPITS - PLAT 269◦ 48' 06“ K=2721.192 θ = 117 ◦ 31' 52"
SPITS - DOG 302◦ 32' 33" 1349.395m α = 32 ◦ 44' 27“
PLAT - DOG 60◦ 04' 25" 1471.729m β = 29 ◦ 43' 41"
SUM =180 ◦ 00' 00"

SPITS+ 3989.15 + 298 088.63 PLAT + 1576.12 + 298 080.28

- 1137.53 + 725.87 + 1275.50 + 734.23
DOG + 2851.62 + 298 814.50 DOG + 2851.62 + 298 814.51

DOG (PROV MEAN) + 2851.62 + 298 814.50

Tutorial 4: Sine Rule

Calculate the co-ordinates of CLEMNT using the “SINE RULE” for an

intersection. The oriented directions from BRED-F Δ to CLEMNT is 201º23'05"
and from UMLAAS Δ to CLEMNT is 146º57' 12".

The co-ordinates of the Trig beacons are as follows:

BRED-F Δ + 41 957.660 + 302 602.490

UMLAAS Δ + 33 222.100 + 300 562.540

Note:
The final co-ordinates must be to 2 decimal places, but calculations are to be
done to 3 decimal places. This does not include trigonometric functions,
which much be shown to more decimal places (6 – 8 decimals). Your layout
of work is important.
(10)
4.5.2. Tangent Method

The second method is the well known ‘Tan method’. It is beyond the scope of
this course to study the mathematics of this method however it will best
understood by means of a numerical example.

Let:-

a = Δy(ba) - (Δx(ba). Tanß)

b = Δy(ba) - (Δx(ba). Tanα)
c = tanα - tanß

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For co-ordinate Diff:

A to P: ΔX = a and ΔY = Δx. tanα

c

B to P: ΔX = b and ΔY = Δx. tanß

c

Worked numeric example (Tangent Method):

STATION P

A + 4 974.94 + 35 976.21 A → P 117○ 19' 35" (α)

B + 9 796.58 + 41 732.96 B→P 175○ 38' 16" (β)
+ 4 821.64 + 5 756.75

A-P + 5 476.65 - 2 829.91 TAN α -1.935277 a = + 5 260.78216

B-P + 655.01 - 8 586.66 TAN β - 0.076283 b = + 15 962.54587
c = - 1.858994
P + 10 451.59 + 33 146.30
P + 10 451.59 + 33 146.30 Check

P + 10 451.59 + 33 146.30 (MEAN)

Tutorial 5: Tangent method

Calculate the co-ordinates of MOTH using the “Tangent Method” of

intersection. The oriented directions from CAVISH Δ to MOTH is 232º06' 59" and
from COLL/R Δ to MOTH is 152º17' 17".

The co-ordinates of the Trig beacons are as follows:

CAVISH Δ + 10 834.640 + 308 503.290

COLL/R Δ + 7581.690 + 310 177.440

Note: The final co-ordinates must be to 2 decimal places, but calculations

are to be done to 3 decimal places. This does not include trig. functions,
which much be shown to more decimal places.
(10)

4.5.3 Error cut calculations

A point is very seldom fixed from two known points only. The co-ordinates
obtained from solving the triangle are provisional values. Note also that the
rays to the points from which the provisional co-ordinates were calculated
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must pass through the position derived, so that it is not necessary to calculate
‘cuts’ for these rays.

Prior to calculating the cuts, we must first calculate a provisional value for
‘Dog’ by “Solving the Triangle”. To do this we select two of the nearer of the
fixing rays (greater than 30◦ and less than 150◦) at DOG. The triangle formed
by the three points is then calculated:

Tangent Method: Dog

Spitkop Δ + 3989.15 + 298088.63 Spitkop - Dog 302.32.42 α

PlatbergΔ + 1576.12 + 298080.28 Platberg - Dog 60.04.34 β
- 2 413.03 - 8.35

(Spit – Dog) - 1137.41 + 725.87 Tanα = - 1.566968 a = -2398.522902

(Plat – Dog) + 1275.62 + 734.22 Tanß = +1.737377 b = -2426.114183
c = - 3.304345 1/c= -0.302632

Dog(prov) + 2851,74 + 298814,50

+ 2851,74 + 298814,50 Checks

'CUTS' or 'CHECK RAYS'

It is possible to calculate the position of the other observed rays relative to

the intersection of the rays from Spitkop and Platberg. We refer to these rays
as 'cuts' or 'check rays'. It is therefore necessary to calculate error cuts to all
other points observed. We can then obtain a best mean solution graphically
with an Error figure or by means of a least squares computer solution. The first
step is to determine whether it is ΔY CUT or ΔX CUT as follows:

o Find the Tan-value of the direction KNOWN to UNKNOWN POINT.

o If this Value is <1 (ignoring the sign) calculate the cut on the Y-axis. (ΔY
CUT)
o If this Value is >1 (again ignoring the sign), obtain the COT- value and
calculate the cut on the X-axis. (ΔX CUT)

Alternatively one can use the wheel as shown below:

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• From the diagram it is clear that all

◦ ◦
rays between 45 and 135 as well
◦ ◦
as between 225 and 315 will
provide the best cut position on the
X-axis.
• Similarly a Y-cut will be calculated
◦ ◦
for all rays between 135 - 225 and
◦ ◦
315 - 45 .

Layout of calculation:

ΔX CUT: ΔY CUT:
Let ΔY be greater: Let ΔX be greater:

From K: direction KQ From K: direction KR

YK XK YK XK
YP (XQ-XK) (1 x 2) (4x5) (YR-YK) XP
(1) (YP-YK) XQ (by addition) (by addition)YR (XP-XK) (4)
(2) Cotα tanα (5)
(3) Cosecα S=(YP-YK).cosecα S=(XP-XK).secα secα (6)

Explanation of Method:

a) The Cut Calculation should follow immediately after the triangle

calculation.
b) Always use the larger of ΔY or ΔX.
c) Calculate the lesser difference and deduce 'dy' and 'dx whichever is
required.
d) The length, S, is always calculated for 'weighting' of the ray.
e) The direction used is always FROM the known station to the station to
been fixed. (+/-180º)
f) The distance Dy or Dx, is laid off along the appropriate axis and the ray
drawn in using a protractor.

Worked numeric example (Error Cut calculations):

Note:

For ΔY CUT: Tan α and Sec α (work on the X-axis)

For ΔX CUT: Cot α and Cosec α (work on the Y-axis)

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Example 1: ΔY CUT
Y X
DOG (prov) +2851.74 +298814.50

ΔROOI TO DOG: 149◦14' 48" ΔY-CUT

Δ ROOI +1486.47 +301109.24
-2 294.74
+1365.407 -0.595016
+2851.877 -1.163634
ΔY= +0.137 S=2670.237m

Example 2: ΔY CUT
Y X
DOG (prov) +2851.74 +298814.50

ΔDIEPKLOOF TO DOG: 223◦27' 08" ΔY-CUT

Δ DIEP +4445.72 +300496.91
-1682.41
-1593.883 +0.947381
+2851.837 -1.377509
ΔY= +0.097 S=2317.535m

Example 3: ΔX CUT

Y X
DOG (prov) +2851.74 +298814.50

ΔKROM TO DOG: 107◦42' 59" ΔX-CUT

Δ KROM -944.32 +300027.27
+3796.06
-0.319456 -1212.674
+1.049787 +298814.596
S=3985.054m ΔX= +0.096

Tutorial 6: Error cuts

The station CATO has been fixed provisionally from SALVATION Δ and
HIGH RIDGE Δ giving the following:-

CATO (PROV.) +3182.350 +303923.368

Calculate the following “Error Cuts” to CATO to 3 decimal places.

CATO - WATER 354º18' 24" WATER Δ + 2999.34 +305 759.95

CATO - HCT 307º54' 08" HCT Δ + 1765.39 +305 026.66

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Work to 3 decimal places.

(10)

4.5.4 Calculation of weights

Point: S (m) S (km) 1/S2 Weights

Spitskop Δ: 1349.29 1.34929 (5.493) x 2= 10.986

Platberg Δ: 1471.83 1.47183 (4.616) x 2= 9.232
Rooi: 2670.24 2.67024 (1.402 x 1)= 1.402
Diepkloof: 2317.53 2.31753 (1.862 x 1)= 1.862
Krom: 3985.05 3.98505 (0.6296 x 1)= 0.630

Note:-

• All weights exaggerated by (x 10) in order to be plotted

appropriately.
• Dist ‘S’ must be in Km

4.5.5 Error Figure

The final position of the point is determined by constructing an error figure so

that the influence of all rays observed, both to and from the point may be
considered.

This is done by plotting the positions of all rays observed in relation to the
provisional position of the point. The procedure is to select a point on the
paper to represent the provisional co-ordinates. The relative position in which
each ray would pass this point, when regarded as rays from the fixing station,
is determined by calculating the point of intersection or ‘cut’ of the ray X-line
or Y-line passing through the provisional point. The calculation is similar to the
calculation of cut lines described earlier.

As no observations are perfect, and the "direction sheet" has to be adjusted, it

is to be expected that the "CUTS" or "CHECKS" will not pass exactly through one
point. It therefore becomes necessary to select the best mean position of the
point.

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In the sketch above, the provisional co-ords of P are indicated by a heavy

PLUS sign and the two rays from A and B are drawn in using a protractor. The
intersection of rays from C and D with the appropriate axis is found from the
"cut" calculations and the rays drawn in by means of a protractor, so that we
end up the situation of the full lines as in the sketch.

Plotting and solving the error figure:

• Label Y and X axis respectively, and plot the provisional co-ordinate of
the point at the center of the graph paper
• You must refer to the Error cut calculations to obtain the DY and DX
cuts which are marked off on the Y and X axis. It is important to note
that a DY-cut is marked off on the X-axis and a DX-cut is marked off on
the Y-axis.
• Using a protractor and at the required scale i.e. (1:5 or 1:2) plot the rays
on the graph paper from unknown to known points. These directions
are obtained from the Direction sheet.
• Note that the protractor must be placed on the respective DY and DX
cut values on the axis and the rays drawn in accordingly.
• The rays used in the Tangent method of intersection will pass exactly
through the co-ordinates of the provisional point.
• Once all the rays are plotted we can now solve the error figure.
• Use the rays that are almost parallel and select 2 at a time.
• Add the weights together to obtain the combined weight, and using
this combined weight, mark of the greater weight between the 2 rays
on the opposite side.
• Now join from this point to the intersection point of the 2 rays to obtain
a new ray which will be labeled as follows eg. Rays A and B will
become A/B, Rays C and D will become C/D.
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• The new ray is indicated as a new colour, and once you have used the
2 rays, they are now longer used in the solution of the error figure.
• Repeat the above steps until only 3 rays are left.
• These rays will form an Error Triangle, and each ray will now be used
twice in a similar way to form an intersection of the 3 rays which is
accepted as the final position of the point.
• The final co-ordinates of the point must be scaled off accordingly.
Final joins are now entered into the direction sheet.

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Plotted Error figure (not to scale):

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Solved Error figure (not to scale):

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4.6 Resection

The second aspect of Triangulation is called ‘Resection’.

The conventional type of triangulation relies, for the orientation of any set of
observations, on the fact that certain rays observed at the unknown point
would have been observed in the opposite direction from the fixed points. It
is possible to obtain an accurate fix merely by making angular observations
at the point which is being fixed. Such a fix is known as a "Resection" and it
makes use of the geometric principle that it is possible to draw a circle
through any three points which do not lie in a straight line. Whatever method
is used, and there are several, it is essential that the resection calculation be
checked by at least one independent ray not used in the original calculation
of the point.

This technique permits the surveyor to set up the total station at any
convenient position (free station) and then determine the coordinates and
elevation of that instrument position by sighting other known reference points.
When sighting only two points of known position, it is necessary to measure
and record both the distances and the angle between the reference points.

When sighting several points (three or more) of known position, it is necessary

to measure only the angle between the points. It is important to stress that
most surveyors take more readings than the minimum necessary to obtain a
solution. These redundant measurements provide increased precision and a
check on the accuracy of the results. Once the instrument station
coordinates have been determined, the instrument is now oriented and the
surveyor can continue to survey.

To assist with understanding the procedure of Resection, a flow chart is shown

as figure 4.6.a below.

• With a Resection we use backward directions only.

• The advantage been that we only have observe at the point being
fixed and this saves considerable time.
• Intersection:- Uses a direction sheet to orient the rays
• Resection:- Does not use a direction sheet instead the actual resection
calculation (Blunts/Q-point method) is used to determine an orienting
correction.
• The calculation is based on the properties of a cyclic quadrilateral and
can be one of the two methods i.e. Q-point method and Blunts
method.

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RESECTION FLOW CHART:

These steps have

been replaced with
modern day
computing routines:
Least Squares
adjustment Solution

Figure 4.6a – Flow chart

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4.6.1 Q-Point method

Also known as the ‘Three point problem’. The three fixed points must be as well
conditioned as possible i.e. 120º each. The middle ray is used to orient the
observations and therefore should be a long ray while the other two may be
short rays. Once calculation is complete then the Triangle calculation (Tangent
method/Sine rule), error cut calculations, weight calculations, and the plotting
and solving the error figure follows.

Explanation:
• Select three suitable rays from the observations
at the unknown point. The unknown point can
lie either outside or inside the triangle formed by
the three known stations used.(see fig 1 and 2).
The method is easier to follow if the point is
outside, as in fig 1.
• Let Q be a point at the intersection of the ray CP
with the circle passing through points A,B and P.
The fig. APBQ is a cyclic quadrilateral.
• From the observations at P, angles α and ß can
be deduced.
• The JOIN AB is calculated, and the co-ordinates
of point Q found by solving the triangle ΔABQ.
The JOIN CQ is then calculated and since CQP
all lie in a straight line, this is the oriented
direction of the ray P to C.
• The unoriented directions can then be oriented
by applying the necessary correction, and the
provisional co-ordinates of P can be determined
by calculating the triangle ABP.

Summary of Method:

• Draw a neat sketch

• Calculate a Join between the short ray
• Determine angles α and β
• Calculate directions to Q using angles α and β
• Solve the ΔTriangle to obtain Prov co-ord of Q
• Calculate a Join between Q and the distant point (long ray) to obtain
the true direction
• Obtain the orienting corrn: Calc dir – Obs dirn
• Apply corrn to all observed points at unknown station to obtain
Oriented dirn’s
• Solve the ΔTriangle to obtain Prov co-ord of stn.

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Worked numeric example (Q-Point method):

Δ BEYOND

Δ PIER
LION
β
α α

β
Δ EAGLE

Refer to the illustration above. You are required to orient the

observations of a Resected point “LION” using the Q-Point Method of
Resection.

You are to use Δ EAGLE, Δ BEYOND and Δ PIER (in that order) to orient
the rays. Any Triangle calculation must be done by the “Sine Rule” of
intersection. Your layout and workings must be shown in detail.

No marks will be awarded for computer resections. Oriented Directions

to all fixed points must also be shown in a tabular format. Work to three
decimal places.
(23)

ANNEXURE A

Wg31° Survey system:

Y X
CONSTANTS + 0,00 + 3 200 000,00

Δ Amber + 23 194.88 + 82 035.41

Δ Beyond + 31 153.77 + 80 711.69
Δ Pier + 16 882.14 + 84 532.59
Δ Eagle + 22 319.48 + 92 705.69
Δ Meyer + 36 264.33 + 86 581.17
Δ Regina + 14 777.56 + 89 698.12
Δ Bell + 16 051.69 + 87 497.88

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@ LION (Unoriented observations)

Meyer 94° 39' 23"

Beyond 132° 49' 08"
Amber 189° 43' 44"
Pier 255° 46' 50"
Regina 292° 10' 50"
Eagle 351° 00' 39"

Solution:

JOIN CALCULATION:

EAGLE – PIER 21338 05" 9816.528m Checked by Polar

Calculate Directions to Q

LION - EAGLE 351º 00' 39" LION - PIER 255º 46' 50"

LION - Q 312º 49' 08" LION - Q 312º 49' 08"

Angle α 38º 11' 31" Angle β 57º 02' 18"

EAGLE - PIER 21338' 05" PIER - EAGLE 3338' 05”

β + 57º 02' 18" α - 38º 11' 31"

EAGLE - Q 27040' 23" PIER - Q 35526' 34"

(for layout)

SINE RULE OF INTERSECTION:

DIRn EAGLE – PIER 21338 05" K = 9857.572 θ =84º46’11”

EAGLE – Q 27040' 23" 6094.918 β = 57º 02' 18"
PIER – Q 35526' 34" 8270.844 α = 38º 11' 31"
SUM = 180º00’00”

EAGLE +22 319.480 + 92 705.690 PIER + 16 882.140 + 84 532.590

- 6094.497 + 71.596 - 657.157 + 8 244.696
Q +16 224.983 + 92 777.286 Q +16 224.983 + 92 777.286

Q (PROV)_ +16 224.98 + 92 777.29

JOIN FOR ORIENTATION:

Q - BEYOND 12856' 43" 19 194.981m Checked by Polar

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Calculated Oriented DIRn= 12856' 43"

Observed DIRn=13249' 08"

Oriented CORRn= -0352' 25"

AT LION:-

OBSERVED ORIENTING ORIENTED

STATION: DIRECTION: CORRECTION: DIRECTION:
Meyer 94° 39' 23" -0352' 25" 90° 46' 58"
Beyond 132° 49' 08" -0352' 25" 128° 56' 43"
Amber 189° 43' 44" -0352' 25" 185° 51' 19"
Pier 255° 46' 50" --0352' 25" 251° 54' 25"
Regina 292° 10' 50" -0352' 25" 288° 18' 25"
Eagle 351° 00' 39" -0352' 25" 347° 08' 14"

Least Squares computer solution:

It is worth noting that with an abundance of survey software applications

available, survey points can now be computed by means of a “Least squares
solution” which is a Mathematical solution, as opposed to drawing and solving
the Error figure which is considered a “Graphical solution”.

Below is a print out of the worked example above computed on SurPAC Survey
software:-

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Tutorial 7: Q-Point method

Refer to the data below. Observations were taken at a resection point
JACK to six known trig beacons to initiate control for a tache survey.
Orient the observation by means of the Q - POINT METHOD of resection
using SARNIAΔ, KRANSKLOOFΔ & PALΔ in that order. Any triangle
calculations must be done using the TAN method.
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All calculations must be done too three decimal places of a metre.

Observation at JACK

SARNIAΔ 32º 12' 05"

MT GROVE WESTΔ 81º 09' 17"
WYEBANK SOUTHΔ 108º 06' 03"
KRANSKLOOFΔ 159º 40' 34"
RES HILLSΔ 216º 48' 19"
PALΔ 259º 50' 10"

Co-ordinates : LO 31º
SARNIAΔ +10809,77 +301855,32
M.G.W. Δ +11085,35 +299115,15
WYE-SΔ +13485,58 +296332,68
KRANSKLOOFΔ + 9181,94 +293893,87
RES HILLSΔ + 6708,13 +297773,05
PALΔ + 5070,85 +299287,85
(20)

4.6.2 Blunt’s method

The other recognised method is the Blunt’s method. This method was
established by Surveyor R.C. Blunt in 1935.

Layout of calculation:

A YA XA D(PC) - D(PA) α ± cotan

C YC XC D(PB) - D(PC) ß ± cotan
B YB XB D(PA) - D(PB) Θ
Sum of angles (must be 360◦)

(YA-YC)(1) (XA-XC)(3)
(YB-YC)(2) (XB-XC)(4)

(YB-YA)=2-1 (5) (XA-XB)=3-4 (8)

(3).cotα (6) (1).cotα (9)
(4).cotß (7) (2).cotß (10)
±(5+6+7)=ΔX ±(8+9+10)= ΔY ΔY = tan D
ΔX

Calc D(PC)
- Obs. D(PC)
Correction Orient.Corrn.

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Worked numeric example (Blunt’s method):

A Land surveying company has been appointed to perform a number Detail

Surveys for potential power sub-station sites in a developing area. A number
of control points were required to be fixed by GPS at desired locations. The
GPS base station was initially setup on a provisional point called “VISTA” of
which the co-ordinates were unknown. The Surveyor then performed a
Resection on site to calculate the provisional co-ordinate of the point so that
he could setup and initialise the GPS base station. Refer to ANNEXURE.

You are required to calculate the provisional co-ordinates of the point VISTA
that the surveyor used, by means of Blunt's Method of Resection. You are to
use KWB, PAVLOV and WW-H (in that order) to orient the rays, and MOBENI
and SCOAST to fix the triangle by the Tangent method of intersection.

Your layout and work must be shown in detail. No marks will be awarded for
computer resections. Oriented Directions to all fixed points must also be
shown in a tabular format. Work to three decimal places.
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Lo 31º Survey system:

Y X
CONSTANTS + 0.00 + 3 300 000.00

Kwb + 4 446.12 + 14 161.03

Lamont + 5 909.51 + 12 247.64
Mobeni + 4 211.73 + 12 389.19
Pavlov + 6 153.16 + 3 150.67
Scoast + 2 976.50 + 12 076.82
WW-H + 1 148.96 + 12 513.84

@ VISTA (Unoriented observations)

Kwb 15º 26' 43"
Mobeni 16º 11' 29"
Lamont 69º 19' 25"
Pavlov 172º 46' 22"
WW-H 301º 07' 38"
Scoast 315º 30' 39"
(26)
Solution:

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Tutorial 8: Blunt’s method

Refer to Annexure A.

You are required to orient the observations of a Resected point LINK by

means of Blunt's Method of Resection. You are to use EMPUSH, MOTH
and AMRES (in that order) to orient the observational rays.

Oriented Directions to all fixed points must also be shown in a tabular

format. Your layout and work must be shown in detail. Work to three
decimal places, (this does not include trig functions).

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(16)
Annexure A:

Wg 31º Survey system:

Y X
CONSTANTS + 0,00 + 3 000 000,00

Δ AMRES + 11 521.00 + 323 385.25

Δ EMPUSH + 19 096.82 + 318 068.27
Δ INWABI + 19 213.85 + 312 355.67
Δ MOTH + 9 175.53 + 307 488.34
Δ PALM + 12 853.17 + 311 953.21
Δ VALLEY + 5 309.81 + 316 882.56

@ LINK (Unoriented observations)

Δ INWABI 139º 49' 08"

Δ PALM 194º 12' 40"
Δ MOTH 211º 32' 13"
Δ VALLEY 274º 32' 45"
Δ AMRES 351º 03' 54"
Δ EMPUSH 92º 27' 14"

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

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CHAPTER 5

Trignometric systems, Survey Datums and GNSS

Introduction
The Chief Directorate: National Geospatial information (NGI) is responsible for
the establishment and maintenance of the National Control Survey Network
for South Africa. Trig Beacons form part of Passive Network. Apart from
representing the co-ordinate or height, the beacon or mark does not play an
active role in determining its position and/or height.

In such a network, inter-visibility between beacons, marks and the survey

area is essential when using conventional instruments e.g. theodolites, total
stations and levels. The effectiveness of passive networks is therefore reduced
by poor visibility, bad weather conditions, hilly and mountainous terrain and
vegetation.

The South African national horizontal and vertical control survey networks
comprise of approximately 29 000 trigonometrical beacons, 20 000 town
survey marks and approximately 30 000 bench marks. The positions and
heights of these monuments do not change over time and are, therefore,
termed a ‘Passive network’.

5.1 Trigonometric Systems:

In South Africa nearly all practical triangulation consists of breaking down

from existing secondary or tertiary triangulation i.e. additional points are fixed
from existing triangulation networks for the purpose of accurately controlling
some form of survey.

A network of trigonometric beacons have been established based on the Lo.

Grid co-ordinate system. See figure 5.1a below:-

 Geodetic chain: 60 - 190km Triangles

 Primary beacons 30 - 60km Triangles
 Secondary beacons 12 - 18km Triangles
 Tertiary beacons 3 - 6km Triangles

Trig Beacons are indicated on a co-ordinate list or map by the following

symbol :- Δ

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Figure 5.1a

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Figure 5.1b

5.2 Town survey marks:

These are Reference marks usually found at street intersections in Townships

and built up areas. The point of reference is the brass peg situated beneath
the surface of the road, which is protected by a removable cast iron
inspection cover. From these, the co-ordinates of erven and lots may be
determined and their positions of beacons referenced.

South Africa is fully covered by the national control survey system which is
marked by Trig stations and Town survey marks. It is a legal requirement that
all cadastral surveys be connected to this control network.

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Figure 5.2a

5.3 Survey Datums:

South Africa has used three types of datum:

a) Cape Datum: Is based on the Modified Clarke 1880:

South Africa has until 1999 used Modified Clarke 1880 ellipsoid for
local mapping purposes. In fact most of the maps in existence
today have been compiled using this reference ellipsoid.

b) Hartebeesthoek94 (Hart94) Datum:

Since abandoning the use of the Modified Clarke 1880, South Africa
has adopted an internationally recognized global ellipsoid ‘World
Geodetic System 1984’ (WGS84). Since the year 2000, all survey
diagrams and records submitted to the Surveyor Generals office
shall be submitted on Wgs84 system.

c) Trignet datum (Based on the ITRF system):

Comprises of active control stations: The TrigNet system is based on
the ITRF system- International Terrestrial Reference Frame. This is
network of about 40 selected control stations where NGI has
permanently placed GPS receivers constituting what is commonly
referred to as TrigNet.

The GPS receivers are continuously logging GPS data which is

downloadable by a variety of user using the ‘Web, cell-phone,
special radio or communications satellite to enable them to
determine the position of GPS observed locations. User must
therefore transform co-ordinates from ITRF to Hart 94 co-ordinates.
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Figure 5.3a shows the TrigNET base stations in Sept 2007, Figure 5.3b
shows the TrigNET base stations in April 2014 and Figure 5.3c shows a
typical base station setup. The current base stations may have a more
modern setup.

Figure 5.3a

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IGS: International GNSS Service

Figure 5.3b
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Figure 5.3c

5.4 Global Navigation Satellite Systems:

5.4.1 Introduction:

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radio-navigation system

formed from a constellation of 24 – 26 satellites and their ground stations. GPS
uses these "man-made stars" as reference points to calculate positions
accurate to a matter of meters. In fact, with advanced forms of GPS you can
achieve sub centimeter positioning accuracy.

GPS receivers have been miniaturized to just a few integrated circuits and so
are becoming very economical. And that makes the technology accessible
to virtually everyone. These days GPS is finding its way into cars, boats, planes,
construction equipment, farm machinery, cellphones, and laptop computers.

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5.4.2 Background and Overview:

Is GPS a new idea? Not really – Satellites are only man made stars and we
have navigated using the stars for thousands of years. So when you think
about it, satellite navigation is not a radical new idea. Except of course, that
instead of looking at them, the navigator’s GPS equipment listens to the radio
signals they send.

Furthermore, GPS is not even a first. The first successful navigation satellite
system was the TRANSIT Doppler System and we have been using it for
decades. The US Defence Department (DoD) developed GPS as the ideal
navigation tool at a cost to the American taxpayers of over 10 billion US
dollars. By the mid 1980s the second generation guidance system of the US
DoD – the navigation satellite timing and ranging (NAVSTAR) Global
positioning system had evolved to many of its present capabilities.

This system originally designed for military guidance and positioning has
quickly attracted a wide variety of Civilian uses in the positioning and
navigation application fields. Additional applications have already being
developed in commercial aviation navigation, boating and shipping
navigation, trucking and railway positioning, emergency routing, automobile
dash-board electronic charts etc. GPS uses its own reference system. It is
called World Geodetic System 1984 or WGS84 for short. WGS84 is a three-
dimensional geocentric cartesian co-ordinate system, that has its origin at the
Earths centre of mass (gravity).

5.4.3 GPS Satellites:

The GPS satellites weigh approximately 2000 kilograms. They travel incredibly
fast, about four kilometres per second. The 24 satellites orbit at about 20200
kms from the earth surface and they are in six equal space orbital planes with
at least 4 satellites in each plane. The orbital planes are inclined at 55º to the
equator and the orbit time is 11hrs 58 mins. Each satellite is visible for 5 hrs if
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passing through the observer’s zenith. The time-varying position of the

satellites is known as its EPHEMERIS, which is a list of co-ordinates defining the
orbital position.

More recently other countries are developing their own systems therefore the
entire scope of satellite system using positioning is now referred to as Global
navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Receivers that use the GPS satellites and
another system such as GLONASS are known as GNSS receivers. These
combined systems provide precise timing and positioning information
anywhere on earth with high reliability and low cost.

Examples of such systems:-

• COMPASS: Chinese constellation

• BieDOU: Chinese constellation
• GlONASS: Russian constellation A GPS Satellite:
• GPS: American constellation
• GALILEO: European constellation
Satellites orbiting earth:

Image source: http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif

Image source: http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/images

5.4.4 The Space, User and Control segment:

GPS is made up of three main ingredients, the Space segment, the

Control segment and the User segment.

• Space Segment: Consists of 24 Satellites orbiting the earth at

approx. 20200km every 12 hours. GPS Satellites
have very accurate atomic clocks on board.

• Control Segment: GPS includes tracking stations, evenly spaced

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around the earth. The Control Segment

consists of one master control station (based
in Colorado Springs), 5 monitor stations and 4
ground antennas distributed amongst 5
locations roughly on the Earth’s equator. The
Control Segment tracks the GPS satellites,
updates their orbiting position, calibrates and
synchronizes their clocks.

• User Segment: The User Segment comprises of anyone using

a GPS receiver to receive the GPS signal and
determine their position and/or time. Typical
applications within the user segment are land
navigation for hikers, vehicle location,
surveying, marine navigation, aerial
navigation, machine control etc.

5.4.5 How GPS works?

Global positioning is based on accurate ephemeris data for the real-time

location of each satellite and on time that is kept very precisely. It uses
Satellite signals accurate time and sophisticated algorithms to generate
distances to ground receivers and therefore provide ‘resectioned’ positions
anyway on earth. GPS can also provide navigation data, such a speed and
direction of a mobile receiver as well as estimated arrival times at specific
locations.

Satellite orbits have been designed so that ground positioning can usually be
determined at any location on earth at any time of day or night, A minimum
of four satellites must be tracked to solve the positioning intersection
equations dealing with (X, Y and Z coordinates, which later can be translated
to easting, northern and elevation) and with clock differences between the
satellites and ground receivers.

In reality five or more satellites are tracked if possible, to introduce additional

redundancies and to strengthen the geometry of the satellite array. This
enables the 4 unknowns to be solved (Latitude, Longitude, Height (elevation)
and Clock Offset). Additional satellites can provide more accurate
positioning and also reduce the receiver occupation time at each survey
station.

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The basis of GPS is "triangulation" from satellites. We're using the word
"triangulation" very loosely here because it's a word most people can
understand, but strictly speaking since no angles are involved, a more
appropriate term would be "trilateration." Trilateration is a method of
determining the relative positions of objects using the geometry of triangles.

So here's how GPS works in five logical steps:

1. To "triangulate," a GPS receiver measures distance using the travel time

of radio signals.
2. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate timing which it
achieves with some tricks.
3. Along with distance, you need to know exactly where the satellites are
in space. High orbits and careful monitoring are the secret.
4. Finally you must correct for any delays the signal experiences as it
travels through the atmosphere.

5.4.6 Why utilise GPS technology?

Trying to figure out where you are and where you're going is probably one of
man's oldest pastimes. Navigation and positioning are crucial to so many
activities and yet the process has always been quite cumbersome.
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Over the years all kinds of technologies have tried to simplify the task but
each one has had some disadvantage.

Finally, the U.S. Department of Defense decided that the military had to have
a super precise form of worldwide positioning. And fortunately they had the
kind of money ($12 billion!) it took to build something really good. The result is
the Global Positioning System, a system that's changed navigation forever.

5.4.7 GPS field procedures:

In practice field procedures employed on surveys depend on the capabilities

of the receiver's and the type of survey. Some specific field procedures
currently being used include static, rapid static, and real-time kinematic
methods. For topographic or GIS surveys, low order (sub-meter) Rover
receivers will be adequate however for construction layout in real-time, high-
end Rover receivers capable of centimeter or millimeter accuracy must be
selected.

A traditional Real-time RTK setup comprises of a GPS base station and Rover
receiver as illustrated below:-

Figure 5.4.7a: GPS Base and Rover receiver

To start a GPS survey one would need to setup the GPS base station
(reference station) on a known point (Trig beacon, TSM, Reference mark,
working point) and carry out the necessary checks by staking out to at least
one other known point to ensure that the base station position is correct and
that the required accuracy is acceptable before proceeding. See illustration
(bottom left):

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(Figure 5.4.7c)
Image source:
http://mercator.axiommultimedia.co
m/images/upload/surveyController.j
(Figure 5.4.7b)
pg
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The Rover receiver is then moved from point to point and the required control
points are fixed by observing for a certain period of time on each point. The
co-ordinates are stored a Survey Controller or a Data logger device which is
then downloaded in the office for record purposes. The stored coordinates
can be viewed on the field and additional co-ordinates can be typed in
manually onto the Controller. Data can also be uploaded into the Survey
controller before departing for the field.

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Figure 5.3.7c is a picture of a ‘Trimble Survey controller’ which is an electronic

device used to store and manage survey data on the field. It is fully equipped
with a Windows mobile operating system that can also process and perform
real-time field computations thereby saving time and increasing productivity.

5.4.8 C.O.R.S and TrigNET:

A ‘CORS’ is a Continuously Operating Reference Station. CORS can take the

place of a traditional base station used in differential GNSS positing. They can
give an instant position to an accuracy of ± 20 mm and are used in many
industries including Precision, Agriculture, Construction, Mining, Surveying,
Geomatics and in Scientific Research. Typically, the maximum distance
between a base station and rover GNSS set up is around 10 - 15 km. This is
due to the effect of the atmosphere on the GNSS signals as they travel from
the satellite to a GNSS receiver. With the establishment of a network of CORS,
the distance between the base and the rover can be extended.

An ‘Active control’ survey network could be considered as one in which the

reference points (beacons or marks), actively and continuously determine
their positions and/or heights. In South Africa, ‘TrigNet’ is a network of
continuously operating GNSS base stations covering South Africa all
managed and controlled by a single control centre situated in the offices of
National Geospatial Information (NGI). The first stations in the network were
installed in 1999 and by September 2010 consisted of more than 55
operational stations. Further stations are planned to expand the network.

In order to achieve sub-metre positioning accuracy using GNSS, users must

operate at least two receivers one of which must be placed on a point of
known position which implies that users must purchase two or more GNSS
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receivers. TrigNet effectively provides the second receiver thus eliminating

the need for the user to purchase more than one receiver which reduces the
capital outlay to get started in high accuracy GNSS positioning.

5.4.9 Sources of error in GPS positioning:

The chief sources of error in GPS are listed below:

 Clock errors of the receiver's.

 Ionospheric and tropospheric refraction.
 Multipath interference.
 A weak geometric figure of four satellite locations.
 Errors associated with the satellite orbital data.
 Set up errors
 Selective availability (SA)

There is an abundance of reading material on this topic in the library for any
interested student as well as a number of websites offering exciting and
informative topics relating to GPS/GNSS. GPS will be dealt with in much
greater detail in Control Surveying 2A.

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

(P. Vorster & S. Koch, TrigNet, South Africa’s GNSS base station network, PositionIT, Nov/Dec
2014)

McElroy, S. 1994. Getting started with GPS surveying. 2nd ed. Bathurst, N.S.W: GPSCO.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Web:
http://www.sage.unsw.edu.au/currentstudents/ug/projects/Gowans/Thesis/What_is_it.html

Web: http://www.ngi.gov.za/index.php/what-we-do/geodetic-and-control-survey-
services/37-trignet-continuously-operating-gnss-network

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CHAPTER 6

Trigonometrical levelling

Introduction:

Levelling may be defined as the operation of determining the differences in

height of points on the surface of the earth as required in Vertical control
surveys.

Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which
elevations of points or differences in elevations are determined. It is a vital
operation in producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design and
construction. Leveling results are used to design highways, railroads, canals,
sewers, water supply systems and other facilities having grade lines that
best conform to the existing topography.

Figure6.3a
Image source: Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics

A Level surface is a curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to

the local plumb (direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are
approximately spheroidal in shape. A body still water is closest example of a
level surface.

A Horizontal plane is a plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In

plane surveying, it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.

6.1 Trigonometrical levelling

This method is widely used in Topographic surveying. This form of levelling

embraces all methods of height determination using distances, vertical
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angles and their trigonometrical functions. The methods of calculation and

the setting out, differ in the use of the formulae and whether refinements such
as earth curvature and refraction are taken into account. Normally the term
Trigonometrical Levelling is accepted as that form of levelling where
distances are obtained from Triangulation. A Theodolite or Total station is
used to record the Vertical angles. Distances may be obtained by various
methods (Triangulation, Traverse, EDM, GPS etc.)

6.2 Curvature and refraction

Curvature may be described as the divergence between a level line and a

Horizontal line over a specified distance.

The effect of curvature may be calculated as follows:-

Let S = length or sighted line

R = radius from the centre of the earth to height of instrument

CB = the effect of curvature

Let us consider Δ C L 0
(CB + R)² = S² + R²

CB² + 2CB.R + R² = S² + R²

So that CB² + 2CB.R = S²

CB² can be neglected, hence:

2CB.R = S² or CB= S² / 2R (CURVATURE)

CB represents the Curvature correction. All sight lines are refracted

downwards by the earth’s atmosphere. This is due to the gradual reduction in
the density (mass) of the air with an increase in altitude. Rays from a higher
altitude are refracted downwards as they pass through the more dense lower

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altitude. The rays actually become bent as they pass through the
atmosphere therefore the line of collimation actually cuts the staff at D

where CD = 1/7 of CB (REFRACTION)

i.e. Refraction= 1/7 of the curvature but of opposite sign. In South Africa the
combined effect for curvature and refraction is as follows:-

𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐
𝑪𝑪 (𝒄𝒄 + 𝒓𝒓) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒙𝒙
𝑹𝑹

(+) for Trig heighting and where R is taken to be 6370km

• The effect of curvature is to make the distant object appear lower than
it actually is, so that the curvature correction is always positive, whether
applied to the vertical angle, the height difference or the elevation of
a point.
• The effect of refraction is to make the distant object appear higher
than it actually is, so the correction in this case is always negative.
• The light rays pass through a series of different layers of atmosphere
and since the atmospheric conditions are variable the co-efficient of
refraction is very uncertain and consequently affects the accuracy of
trigonometrical levelling far more than spirit levelling, (where the
distances are far less).

6.3 Proof for Height determination:

To obtain the height difference between the instrument station and the
station being observed to, we use:

a) Vertical angles which are angles at the instrument measured in a

vertical plane.
b) The horizontal distance between the two stations, which can be either
corrected, or not, for height above sea level and scale enlargement
(grid distance).
c) Correction for the earth’s curvature and the refraction of the rays
observed.
d) The height of the signal observed (Target height/ Object height) above
the station and the height of the telescope (Instr. Ht) above the point
observed from.

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(Figure6.3b)
Image source: Survey handbook, (Sixth Edition)
Formulae for determining the difference in height between the occupied
station and the station observed to, taking into account the effects of
curvature and refraction can be calculated as follows:-

H.S. - height of signal above ground point

C.R. - correction for curvature & refraction (always +ve for trig heighting)
α - vertical angle being (+) above or (-) below the horizontal
s - horizontal distance
Δh - s.tanα (which can be +ve or –ve depending on the vertical angle)

The difference in height can be calculated as follows:-

For positive values of h ΔZ = + Δh + HI + CR - HS

For negative values of h ΔZ = - Δh + HI + CR – HS
General formula ΔZ = ± Δh + HI + CR – HS

Forward Heighting:
If the station observed FROM is of known height, then the sum ΔZ is
added algebraically to the height of the station observed from to obtain
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the height of the station observed TO. [e.g. SHRINE]

Backward Heighting:
If the station observed TO is of known height, then in order to find the
height of the station observed FROM, the sum ΔZ must be subtracted
algebraically from the station of known height. [e.g. RIDGE, FIELD]

At least THREE (preferably more) such values are required for the station
whose height is required, and the mean is accepted as the height of the
station.

6.4 Worked numeric example (Trigonometrical heighting - Backward):

The form of setting out for trigonometrical Levelling is as follows:-

STATION BELL GLASS JEEP

OBJECT TOP OF SIGNAL TOP OF SIGNAL TOP OF PILLAR
VA(CL) + 01º 15' 10" - 00º 10' 40" - 01º 04' 04"
VA(CR) + 01º 15' 32' - 00º 10' 50" -01º 04' 11"
VA(Mean) + 01º 15' 21" - 00º 10' 45' - 01º 04' 08"
S 1624.71 2742.33 1919.06
Δh = S.Tanα + 35.617 - 8.575 - 35.805
CR + 0.180 + 0.514 + 0.249
HI + 1.570 + 1.570 + 1.570
HS - 1.300 - 1.500 ± 0.000
Sum ΔZ + 36.067 - 7.991 - 33.986
Elev. of St. 1625.00 1580.80 1555.06
Ht. of BAZ 1588.93 1588.79 1589.05
Weight 1/S² 3.788 1.330 2.744

The Weighted Mean of BAZLEY = 1588.95m

CC+R = 0.435.S² R = 6367km

R

Weighted Mean = [1588.93 x 3.788] + [1588.79 x 1.330] + [1589.05 x 2.744]

[3.788 + 1.330 + 2.744]

= 1588.948m

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6.5 Observing routine for vertical observations:

 Vertical angles are observed in a somewhat different manner to those

for horizontals. Each pair of face left and face right observations is
called a "set". The set for each point is completed before continuing to
the next point. The observations are thus taken to the first point in the
order face left face right, to the second point face right face left, to
the third point face left face right, and so on.
 This is done so that the time lapse between the two sets to each point
will be approximately equal for each point which may prove to be an
advantage if there is any possible improvement in refractive
conditions, while at the same time minimising the effects of possibly
deteriorating conditions. The order of the face left and face right
observations should be reversed for the second set. Great care must
be taken to set the horizontal hair exactly on the observing mark.
 Note that vertical angles read in the field are zenith angles, while the
vertical angles used in the calculations are in fact the functional angle
i.e. the zenith angle minus 90◦ or 270◦.
 To obtain functional angle: CL= (90◦ - α) and CR= (α - 270◦)
• Another point to remember is that in the fieldbook, the CL and CR
angles should be summed up to ± 360◦ so as check for consistency as
there is a vertical index error present in the total station being used. This
is known as the "field check".

Tutorial 9: Trignometrical Heighting

From the following data calculate the weighted mean elevation of the
Control point ENB1 (16mm iron peg in concrete), giving your answer to the
nearest 0.01 of a metre. The combined refraction and curvature causes an
error of 0.435s² where R = 6373 km.
R

Vertical Angle Observations

@ ENB1 HI = 1.564m

CL CR HT OF OBJECT
WITKLP 87º 35' 55" 272º 24' 20" 1.55
LAKE 89º 12' 30" 270º 47' 16" 0.00
LAMONT 91º 43' 18" 268º 16' 52" 0.80

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Measured Hori. Distances (m) Elevations

ENB1 - WITKLP 2954.86 WITKLP 267.800

ENB1 - LAKE 1765.78 LAKE 169.345
ENB1 - LAMONT 1162.38 LAMONT 109.130

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

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CHAPTER 7

The Total Station

Introduction
The most commonly used surveying instrument today is the Total station. A
Total station is a combination of an electronic theodolite, an electronic
distance measuring device (EDM) and a microprocessor with a memory unit
The electronic digital theodolite first introduced in the late 1960s by Carl Zeiss
incorporated helped to set the stage for modern field data collection and
processing. When the electronic theodolite was used with a built-in electronic
distance measuring unit, the birth of the new concept in fully automated
survey started. The original name for an instrument of this type was an
electronic tacheometer but Hewlett-Packard introduced the name total
station over 30 years ago and the name immediately caught on with the
profession.

LEICA TOPCON NIKON

TRIMBLE
A Total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying and used for
all types of surveys including Topographic, Hydrographic Cadastral and
Construction surveys. It is also used in archaeology as well as by police, crime
scene investigators, private accident reconstructionist and insurance
companies to take measurements of scenes.

7.1 Function of the Total Station

With this device one can determine angles and distances from the
instrument to the points being surveyed. With the aid of trigonometry, the
angles and distances may be used to calculate the actual positions (x, y & z)
of surveyed points in absolute terms. From the captured data, the
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co-ordinates and elevations of sighted points are stored on the instrument

and also displayed on the LCD screen.

Figure 7.1c
Leica TC403 electronic LCD display
7.2 Parts of a Total station

Below is an illustration showing the various components in a

conventional instrument (Topcon GTS 200 series).

Figure 7.2a
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Figure 7.2b

7.3 Testing and Adjustment

7.3.1 Ideal Relationships in a Total station:

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 The Optical axis and line of collimation should coincide. The optical
axis is dependent upon the design and construction of the Telescope.
The Collimation axis is defined by the centre of the Object glass and
the Cross Hairs.
 The Line of Sight should be at right angles to the horizontal axis.
 The Horizontal and Vertical axis should be perpendicular to each other
and these three lines must meet at one point.
 The Plate Bubble axis must be perpendicular to the Vertical Axis. This
ensures that the vertical axis is truly vertical when the bubble is at the
centre of its run.
 When the Circle Bubble is central (and the telescope is horizontal), the
line of sight must be horizontal.
 The centre of the Horizontal Circle should be on the vertical axis.

7.3.2 Types of adjustment

a) Adjustment of the Plate bubble

The aim is to set the axis of the bubble perpendicular to the vertical
axis. This should result in the horizontal axis being truly horizontal and the
vertical axis truly vertical.

Set up the instrument on firm ground and level the plate bubble
carefully with the aid of the foot screws. Swing the upper plate through
180̊. If the bubble remains in its central position the adjustment is
correct.

To adjust, swing the upper plate through 180̊, the bubble will leave the
centre of its run. Bring the bubble back halfway with the foot-screws
and the remainder by adjusting the bubble capstan screws. The
bubble should now remain central in any position, indicating that the
vertical axis is truly vertical.

b) Collimation Adjustment

 Verticality of Vertical cross hair:

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To ensure that the horizontal hair passes approximately through

the centre of the optical axis.

 Horizontality of Horizontal cross hair

As the relationship between the two hairs is fixed, the horizontal
hair should be truly horizontal but some error will result if the two
hairs are not truly perpendicular to each other.

 Vertical collimation
To ensure that the horizontal hair passes approximately through
the centre of the optical axis. Any error left in this adjustment will
not affect the accuracy of the vertical angles, because the
vertical index adjustment will ensure that the vertical angles are
correct.

 Horizontal collimation
The aim is to ensure that the line of sight describes a vertical
plane, and not a shallow cone, when the telescope is rotated
about the horizontal axis. This will ensure that exactly 180̊, or a
straight line is set out, when the telescope is transitted.

Procedure:

1. The instrument is set up and levelled at point X and a free mark,

about 50 metres away, is sighted as at A.
2. Transit the telescope and align a similar point B approx. the same
distance from X as that of A.
3. Unclamp the upper plate and turn through 180̊ to sight point A
once again.
4. Transit the telescope (second time) and if the cross hairs pass
through point B there is no error.
5. If they do not pass through point B then place a third point C at
a similar distance to point B; measure the distance B-C and
place a further peg, D, a quarter this measured distance from
peg C.
6. Adjust the cross-hairs onto point D.
7. Repeat until no error exists.

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Worked numeric example (Horizontal collimation error):

The following angular readings were taken on a well defined target,

using a Topcon GTS 602 electronic Total station (single second):-

STATION CL CR Remarks
Spike 358° 39' 57" 178° 40' 13" Horizontal Angle
Trunk 93° 18' 59" 266° 40' 38" Vertical Angle

Solution:

Mean: 358º 40' 05"

Error= (CL – CR) - 180º

2

(358° 39' 57" - 178° 40' 13") - 180°

2

= 179º 59' 44“ - 180°

2

= - 00º 00' 16"

2

= - 08”

c) Vertical index adjustment:

The aim is to ensure that the line of sight is horizontal when the
instrument reads 90º 00’ 00”, and the vertical circle bubble is central.
The error is completely eliminated by adopting the mean vertical angle

Test:
• Bisect a well-defined object with the horizontal hair. Record the
vertical circle reading (CL).
• Transit and again sight the same object. Record the second
vertical circle reading (CR).
• If the sum of these vertical angles adds up to 360º 00” 00”
exactly, the instrument is in adjustment.

Worked numeric example (Vertical index error):

The following angular readings were taken on a well-defined target,

using a Topcon GTS 602 electronic Total station (single second):-

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STATION CL CR Remarks
Spike 358° 39' 57" 178° 40' 13" Horizontal Angle
Trunk 93° 18' 59" 266° 40' 38" Vertical Angle

Solution:

Error= (CL+CR) - 360

2

= (93° 18' 59" + 266° 40' 38") - 360

2

= - 00’ 23”
2

= - 12”

d) The Horizontality of the Horizontal Axis

The aim is to make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical

axis, and to ensure that the line of sight generates a vertical plane
when the telescope is rotated about the horizontal axis.

Test:

a) Level the instrument carefully and sight a high point, A, with the circle
left.
b) Depress the telescope and mark point, B, on the ground.
c) Transit the instrument (now circle right), and sight the same high
point A.
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d) Depress the telescope, and if the cross hair intersects the point, B,
the instrument is in adjustment. In modern instruments there is usually no
provision for simple adjustment and the instrument should be referred
to the agents workshop.

7.4 Operation of the Total station

It comprises of three basic components, an electronic distance measuring

(EDM) instrument, an electronic angle measuring component and a
computer or micro-processor – into one integral unit. Most modern total
station instruments measure angles by means of electro-optical scanning of
extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs
within the instrument. The code is read by a linear CCD array and an
analogue to digital convertor, and displays the position with maximum
accuracy. The best quality total stations are capable of measuring angles
down to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive "construction grade" total stations can
generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.

Most total stations use a purpose-built glass Porro prism as the reflector for the
EDM signal, and can measure distances out to a few kilometers, but some
instruments are ‘reflectorless’, and can measure distances to any object that
is reasonably light in color, out to a few hundred meters. The typical Total
Station EDM can measure distances accurate to about 3 millimeters.

Reflector-less Total stations prove useful where measurements in confined

areas would be difficult with a conventional glass prism e.g. measuring
distances to the corner of buildings, walls, columns etc. Also setting out
precise engineering works would be more suitably undertaken with such a
Total station with impressive accuracies

Total stations allow for the direct input of temperature and pressure and
automatic application of meteorological corrections. Most of the current
EDM instruments use LASER beams and passive optical reflectors, thus
reducing the possibility of multi-pathing.

Below are some images of various glass reflectors used to measure

distances:-

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Leica mini prism

Leica prism mounted on tribrach

Topcon prism mounted on tribrach

Leica 360 degree prism

7.5 Data Capture and storage:

Figure 7.5b
Total station linked to a PC with application
Figure 7.5a software
Psion Work-about data logger linked to Leica TC805

Most total stations have an on-board memory storage facility that allows one
to store field data directly onto the machine which is then downloaded in the
office at the end of the days field operation. Electronic total stations can also
be linked via a “comms” cable to an hand held device or external data
logger device such as a Psion Work-about to capture field observations.
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Modern Survey controllers use a Bluetooth connection to establish a link to

the instrument and data collection and transfer is wireless.

A Psion Work-about is a hand-held computer that

is designed to be the ideal choice for mobile
workers in a wide range of commercial, industrial
and engineering applications. In Surveying, our
primary use for the Work-about is to electronically
capture survey data (angles, distances,
elevations, co-ordinates) measured in the field
e.g. for a tache survey.

Data can also be ‘uploaded’ or transferred from

the PC to the device prior to the fieldwork. The
field data may be downloaded from the
instrument or external data logger to a computer
and the application (CAD) software will generate
a map of the surveyed area.

Figure 7.5c
7.6 Robotic instruments
Psion Work-about data logger

7.6 Robotic Instruments

The latest available instruments are

termed ‘Robotic Total stations’, allowing
the operator to control the instrument
from a distance via remote control. This
eliminates the need for an assistant staff
member to hold the reflector prism over
the point to be measured. The operator
holds the reflector him/herself and
controls the total station instrument from
the observed point.

These instruments are equipped with PAGE 74e

Servo-driven mechanisms that enable
them to search, aim and lock onto prism
target points automatically. The remote Figure 7.6a
Sokkia Robotic total station with prism and controller
positioning unit (RPU) is attached to the
prism pole to enable communication with
the instrument. The Total station will track
and detect the RPU throughout the survey
and also serves as a data collector for the
survey operation.
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Figure 7.6c
Topcon Robotic total station

Figure 7.6b
Leica Robotic total station with circular Figure 7.6d
prism and controller Trimble Robotic total station

Figure 7.6f
Trimble Total station and built in 3-D Scanner
Figure 7.6e
New generation Sokkia Robotic total station

Figure 7.6g
Trimble Total station and built in 3-D Scanner

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7.7 Precautions and care of Total station

 Use a light touch in handling i.e. do not exert force on the

instrument.
 Do not permit unskilled staff to set up the instrument.
 Ensure instrument is secured firmly to tripod.
 Keep in protective case during travel at all times.
 Carry near vertical and with the instrument near ones face.
 Protect from rain and dust and if unavoidable clean after use.
 Periodic cleaning with a soft cloth and a trace of oil.
 Lift over fences -- do not push through.
 At first sign of fungus on optics send to agents for attention.
 Do not touch lenses with fingers - clean lenses with a soft brush.
 Send instrument for regular calibration to workshop agents.

Tutorial 10: Instruments

10.1 The following Horizontal angular readings were taken on a well-defined

target, using a single second Total station:-

STATION CL CR
RHWT Δ 312˚ 14΄ 51˝ 132˚ 14΄ 44˝

Determine the magnitude and sign of the Horizontal collimation error.

(3)

10.2 The following vertical angles were recorded from a TOPCON GTS 201D
Electronic Total station.

STATION CL CR
Δ VALLEY 94˚ 57΄ 03˝ 265˚ 03΄ 13˝

10.2.1 Determine the vertical angle which is free from ‘Index error’.
(2)
10.2.2 Determine the magnitude and sign of the Vertical Index error.
(3)
Show all workings to the above.

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References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Gopi, S., Sathikumar, R. and Madhu, N. 2008. Advanced surveying: total station, GIS and
remote sensing. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

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CHAPTER 8

Electromagnetic Distance Measurement

Introduction
Electromagnetic Distance measurements embrace the measurement of
distances in terms of the travelling time of an electromagnetic wave of
determinable velocity through the atmosphere to the end of the line and
back again.

Electronic distance measuring systems

Electronic Distance Measurers (EDM) may be based on infrared, visible light

or microwave energy to measure distances. An EDM projects a beam of near
infrared light, which is reflected by an accurately manufactured glass
reflector held by an assistant or mounted on a tripod. The reflected beam is
sensed by the instrument and compared with the transmitted beam. The time
of flight of the beam is used to calculate the distance, based on the speed of
light. Some EDM instruments are able to detect a beam reflected from a
natural surface such as a wall, for ranges up to about 200m. These are called
“reflector-less” EDMs.

8.1 Background

The major advance in Surveying instrumentation occurred approximately 60

years ago with the development of Electronic distance measuring (EDM)
instruments. The Swedish physicist Eric Bergstrand introduced the first EDM
instrument in 1948. His device was called the Geodimeter.

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The instrument transmitted visible light and was capable of accurately

observing distances of up to 40 km at night.

Figure 8.1a
CA1000 Tellurometer, which was used extensively in the 70’s and 80’s.

In 1957, a second EDM apparatus known as a Tellurometer was introduced.

Designed in South Africa by Dr T.L. Wadley, this instrument transmitted
Microwaves, and was capable of observing distance is up to 80 km day or
night. It consisted of two units, the master and the remote, both of which
required an operator. The carrier wave was used to establish a voice channel
between the operators in order to coordinate the manual switching of the
frequencies.

EDMs, like tapes, offer varying accuracies and their cost increases with
increased accuracy. As a guide, the accuracy and the operating distance of
some tapes and EDMs are given in a table below.

8.2 Basic principles of EDM

These devices measure length by indirectly determining the number of full

and partial waves of transmitted electromagnetic energy required in
traveling between the two ends of a line. In practice, the energy is

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transmitted from one end of the line to the other and returned to the starting
point therefore, it travels the double path distance. Multiplying the total
number of cycles by its wavelength and dividing by 2, produces the unknown
distance.

Electronic distance measurement is based on the rate and the manner that
electromagnetic energy propagates through the atmosphere. The rate of
propagation can be expressed with the following equation:

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑓𝑓𝝀𝝀

where V is the velocity of the electromagnetic energy in meters per second,

⨍ is the modulated frequency of the energy in hertz and λ the wavelength in
meters.

Note:
Wavelength 𝝀𝝀:
1 cycle of the wave
form.

Frequency: Number
of cycles occurring in
1 sec ((Hertz)

Figure 8.2a
Image source: Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics.

The procedure of measuring a distance electronically is shown in figure 8.2a

above, where an EDM device has been centered over station A by means of
a plumb bob or optical plummet device. The instrument transmits a carrier
signal of electromagnetic energy to station B. A reference frequency of
precisely regulated wavelength has been superimposed or modulated onto
the carrier.

A reflector at station B returns the signal to the receiver, so its travel part is
double the slope distance AB. In the figure, the modulated electromagnetic
energy is represented by a series of sine waves, each having wavelength λ.
The unit at A determines the number of wavelengths in the double path,
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multiplied by the wavelength in meters, and divided by 2 to obtain the

distance AB.

8.3 EDM instrument characteristics

 Distance range:
Distance can be measured up to 1 kilometer using a single prison under
average atmospheric conditions. Short-range EDM instruments can
measure up to 1500m using a single prism while long-range EDM
instruments can measure up to 15 km using 11 prisms.

 Accuracy:
For short range EDM instruments: ±15 mm + 5 ppm. For long range EDM
instruments ±3 mm + 1 ppm.

 Measuring time:
The measuring time required is 1.5 seconds for short-range
measurements and up to 4 seconds for long-range measurements.
Both accuracy and time are considerably reduced for tracking mode
measurements.

 Slope reduction:
Manual or automatic in some models. The average of repeated
measurements is available on some models.

 Battery capability:
1500 - 5000 measurements depending on the battery power and the
temperature.

 Reflector-less measurements:
Available on some high end models. They can measure up 1000m on
certain surfaces.

8.4 The Accuracy of EDM Instruments

Manufacturers of this equipment specify the accuracy of their instruments as

follows:

1) A standard error in the measurement e.g. ± 5mm. This figure gives

the supposed limits of a kind of sporadic unpredictable instrument
constant which is a function of the electronics and independent
of the distance being measured.

2) A proportional error due to variations in frequency and the effects

of meteorological data e.g. ± 2 parts per million of the distance.

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Worked numeric example (EDM correction)

An EDM device is quoted as having an accuracy of ± (3mm + 5ppm).

According to this accuracy, what would the standard error of a distance
of 3000m (3km) be?

Solution:

Standard error of distance = (A) 2 + (B x D) 2 Where:

A = S.E. of instrument constant

B = S.E. of frequency which is dependent on distance.

D = Distance.
_______________
Sx = √(3)2 + (5 𝑥𝑥 3.0)2

= ±15.297mm

The velocity of light through the earth’s atmosphere can be affected by:

a) Air pressure
b) Air temperature
c) Water vapour content (humidity)

In practice the corrections for temperature and pressure can be

determined manually by consulting nomographs (see figure 8.4a) or the
corrections can be performed automatically on some EDM instruments by
their onboard processors or calculators after the values for temperature
and pressure have been entered.

Total stations allow for the direct input of temperature and pressure and
automatic application of meteorological corrections. Most of the current
EDM instruments use LASER beams and passive optical reflectors, thus
reducing the possibility of multi-pathing.

For short distances using Light-wave EDM instruments, atmospheric

corrections are relatively insignificant however for long distances
especially microwave instruments, atmospheric conditions can become
quite important.

• To make the necessary allowances, this is facilitated by using a Nomogram

of pressure in millibars or mmhg, and temperature in ºC.

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Figure 8.4a: Nomogram chart (mmHg)

Worked numeric example (Atmospheric correction to measured distance)

For a Traverse practical, you will be required to measure the:

Atmospheric temperature and pressure using an Altimeter. These

measurements will aid us in determining the PPM correction which will be
read off a Nomogram chart producing a correction for each of the traverse
legs measured with an EDM.

This is known as the meteorological correction applied to an EDM distance.

In the example, the following was read off the Nomogram:

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Temp: 26◦C Pressure: 760 mmHg

Note: Pressure can be read in millimeters of mercury and in milli-bars.

The conversion factor is 1mm/Hg = 1.333224ml/bars

Resulting PPM correction: 10ppm

Now let’s suppose an EDM distance of 2453.865m was measured.

To correct this distance:

10 x 100 = 0.001 (mm/100)

1 000 000
correction produces
or the exact same result.

10 x 1000 = 0.01 (cm/1000)

1 000 000

Correction applied:

2453.865 x 0.001 = +0.025m

100

2453.865 + 0.025= 2453.890m

This however does not include the instrument constant correction discussed
later. Instrument constant will not be applicable for the project.

8.5 Types of Instrumental errors

EDM instruments are capable of measuring path lengths to a high degree of

accuracy, however careful calibration of the instrument is critical in order to
obtain this precision.

The errors that can affect the precision of measurement are:-

a) Scale Error - due to the fact that the modulation (measuring)

frequency does not exactly correspond with the design value of the
EDM instrument. The error produced is directly proportional to the
distance. This error is of importance in the long-range instruments
using micro-waves. Short-range infra-red instruments do not have a
significant scale error.

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b) Zero Error (Index error) - due to a difference between the

mechanically defined centre of the instrument and its electrical
(optical) centre. If this error is present and not allowed for it
produces an effect similar to mis-centring of the instrument by the
operator and is independent of distance.

c) Cyclic Error - this varies in a periodic manner and is a function of the

phase difference between the reference and measurement signals.

d) Eccentric Mounting Error

e) Aging Error

8.6 EDM calibration

From the above we will focus on the determining the Zero (Index) Error:

u + v + w – t = 2E
½ (u + v + w – t) = E
where Emean = error
u+v–s=E
s+w–t=E

Note: that the Instrument Constant is equal to the index error but of
opposite sign.

Worked numeric example (Determine Zero (Index error)

A line AD was measured with an EDM instrument; instrument was set up at A

and the reflector target at B, C and D. The distance recorded was 19.614m,
58.476 and 254.027m respectively. The instrument was then set up at C and
the distance CB and CD were measured as 38.857m and 195.546 metres
respectively.

a) Calculate the ‘Zero’ or ‘Index’ error of the instrument.

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b) What would the instrument constant be?

Solution:

a)

E= ½(u + v + w - t)
=½(19.614 +38.857+195.546 – 254.027)
= – 0.005

E= u + v - s
=19.614 + 38.857 – 58.476
= – 0.005

s+w-t = E
E= 58.476 + 195.546 – 254.027
= – 0.005

Therefore Mean Error= – 0.005

b) Instrument constant= +0.005

8.7 EDM Distance Reduction

Worked numeric example (Distance reduction)

You are carrying out a survey in the Baynesfield Area of the Natal Midlands
and you have measured a distance with an EDM (Electronic Distance
Measurement) attached to a Wild T2 theodolite.

Refer to ANNEXURE A and reduce the measured distance to the correct grid
distance, taking into account all necessary corrections. From a 1:10 000
ortho-photo map the Y co-ordinate of the two ends of the leg measured
were +90500 and +91800 and the elevations of the two ends were 946m and
1422m respectively.
Take R = 6373km.

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Annexure A

@ T1
Instrument/Prism Constant = - 0.038m

Temp = 32ºcAtmos. Pressure = 740 mm/hg

Name of Station C.L. C.R. Mean

TR522 86.45.20 273.15.15 ? VA

Distance T1 – TR 522 2765.754m

2765.747m
2765.760m ............. ?
2765.743m
2765.751m

Solution:

Instr. Constant= -0.038m Temp= 32◦C Atmosp. pressure= 740mm/hg

Distance mean= 2765.751m

Vert Angle: CL= 86.45.20 CR= 273.15.15 Mean= 86.45.02

From the Nomogram table the atmospheric correction:

20ppm= 2mm/100m or 0.002/100m

Atmospheric Correction to measured distance:

2765.751m x 0.002= +0.055m
100

Reduced Slope distance:

2765.751 - 0.038 + 0.055= 2765.768m

Reduced Horizontal distance:

2765.768 x (Sin 86.45.02)= 2761.321m

Scale Distortion correction = S(Y² )

2R²

Y-mean: 90500+91800 = 91150m R= 6373 000m

2

= 2761.321 x (91150)²
2 (6373000)² = +0.282m

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Height above sea level correction= L. (Ha + Hb)

2R
= 2761.321 x (946+1422)
2x 6373000 = -0.513m

Grid distance: 2761.321 + 0.282 – 0.513= 2761.090m

Tutorial 11: EDM Distance Reduction

A Trimble M3 electronic Total station was tested on a base line and an “Index
error” of -0.004m was established. The Total station was then used to measure
four legs of the above EDM Traverse as follows:-

Δ Mashu – TM1 – TM2 – TM3 – Δ Fig

LEG MEAN SLOPE DIST. (m) VERTICAL ANGLE

Δ Mashu – TM1 1623.487 91° 15' 38"
TM1 – TM2 755.112 89° 37' 10"
TM2 – TM3 1457.395 88° 11' 55"
TM3 – Δ Fig 813.748 90° 28' 04"

The Temp = 30°C and Pressure = 670mm/hg and was constant for all four
measurements. Using an applicable Nomogram, calculate the
horizontal distances of the traverse legs above, applying all necessary
corrections.

(Do not apply Scale enlargement and Sea level corrections)

(11)

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Gopi, S., Sathikumar, R. and Madhu, N. 2008. Advanced surveying: total station, GIS and
remote sensing. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

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CHAPTER 9

Traversing

Introduction
A Traverse is control survey employed in all forms of mapping, engineering,
topographic, construction and property surveys. Essentially a Traverse is a
series of establish stations tied together by angle and distance. The angles
are measured using Theodolites or Total station whereas distances can be
measured using steel tapes, EDM’s or Total stations.

Traverse can be open as in route surveys or closed as in a closed geometric

figure. In engineering work, Traverses are used as control surveys to:-

1) Locate topographic detail for the preparation of plans.

2) To layout and locate engineering works.
3) For the processing and ordering of earthwork and other engineering
quantities.
4) Traverses also provide horizontal control for Aerial surveys in the
preparation of photogrammetric mapping.

• Open Traverse is a series of measured straight lines and angles that do

not geometrically close. This lack of closure means that there is no
geometric verification possible with respect to actual positioning of the
Traverse stations.

• Closed traverse is one that either begins or ends at the same point, or
one that begins at points whose positions have been previously
determined. In both cases, the angles can be closed geometrically,
and the position closure can be determined mathematically.

The advent of EDM’s and Total stations has brought a revival of traversing as
a method of providing a system of major and minor control stations for
surveys, where as in the past triangulation has largely served the purpose.
Today primary control is established with GPS fixes and secondary/tertiary
control may be fixed by Traversing between those control stations. Factors
that influence the Traverse are obviously inter-visibility due to topography,
vegetation, buildings and flatness of the area. A determining factor favouring
traversing is the ease of multiplying control stations.

9.1 Flow Chart

To assist with understanding the procedure of Traversing, a simple flow chart is

shown as figure 9.2a below. It must be noted that once final co-ordinates
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have been obtained from the Adjustment, final joins must be extracted and
the direction sheet completed.

TRAVERSE FLOW CHART:

Figure 9.1a

9.2 Direction Sheet

Refer to figure 9.2a for a Direction sheet worked example. Below is the
explanatory notes:-

On completion of the field observations for a traverse, the circle left and
circle right observations must be averaged in the field book and any R.O.
mis-closure adjusted at each station.

A separate "direction sheet" is then drawn up for the purpose of controlling, or

adjusting, any orientation errors and directional mis-closure.

 Enter the observed station names in column 1 and the mean of the
adjusted C.L. and C.R. observations in column 2.

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 Enter the ‘Join directions (or true directions) from the starting point to
the orienting stations, in column 7.
 Determine orienting corrections for the starting point and enter in
column 6.
 Find the mean orienting correction, enter in column 6, and apply to
observed direction to first traverse station and enter re-oriented
direction in column 5.
 Carry down oriented direction to first traverse station (in column 3) and
determine prov orientation correction (column4) and apply to all other
observations made from that point (column 5).
 Repeat this process for each station. This process merely ensures that
the readings are correctly oriented on the direction obtained from the
previous station but does not correct the directions.
 Enter the join directions from the ending point to the check orienting
stations from the ending point in column 7.
 Determine the corrections which must be applied to the directions in
column 5 to bring them to the correct values as shown in column 7 and
enter them in column 6.
 Determine the mean directional mis-closure and distribute this among
the traverse stations, entering the corrections in column 5 and the
adjusted directions in column 6.

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Worked numeric example (Traverse Direction sheet)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
NAME OF OBSERVED PROV PROV PROV FINAL FINAL
STATION DIRN FORW CORR BACK CORR DIRECTION REMARKS
AT Δ Mashu Directions to
be used in
Δ Duiker 267° 20' 28” -04” 267° 20' 24” calculations:
Δ Nec5 350° 31' 35” -05” 350° 31' 30”
TM1 189° 54' 06” -02” 54’04” +03” 189° 54' 07”
Δ Kop 198° 43' 30” +2” 198° 43' 32”
Mean: -02”

AT TM1
Δ Mashu 09° 54' 08” 54’04” -04”
TM2 273° 03' 04” 03’00” +07” 273° 03' 07”

AT TM2
TM1 93° 03' 05” 03’00” -05”
Δ Knoll 154° 35' 12” 35’07” +10” 154° 35' 17”
TM3 218° 58' 08” 58’03” +10” 218° 58' 13”

AT TM3
TM2 38° 58' 10” 58’03” -07”
Δ Fig 280° 15' 36” 15’29” +14” 280° 15' 43”

AT Δ Fig Check ± 180

Δ Redhil 40° 33' 18” +04” 40° 33' 22”

Δ Al-Res 62° 34' 14” +03” 62° 34' 17”
TM3 100° 15' 42” +04” 15’46” -03” 100° 15' 43”
Δ Hale 112° 28' 29” +05 112° 28' 34”
Mean: +04”

Figure 9.2a

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9.3 Traverse Adjustment: Scale and Swing Method

For traverses of a reasonably direct route, that is to say for control for
Provincial or National routes, another method of adjustment is the "SCALE
AND SWING" adjustment. A numeric worked example is shown below.

An explanation of the method follows:

 ΔY and ΔX are entered in their respective columns in the usual way.

The algebraic sum of the ΔY's and ΔX's are added, algebraically, to the
starting co-ordinates to obtain a surveyed value for the end
co-ordinates (in this case (- 6 005.050+ 2452.714).
 Joins are taken out from the starting point (MAID) to the end point
(BAG) and from the starting point (MAID) to the value of the end point
as surveyed (BAG - Surveyed).
 The amount the second join direction has to be corrected to agree
with the first join (-18" in this case) is the "SWING" and this correction is
applied to each original direction and entered in the "final direction
and distance" column.
 The first distance is divided by the second distance (1903.728009/
1903.747423) to obtain a scale factor (0.999989802).
 Each original distance is multiplied by this scale factor and the result
entered in the final direction and distance column.
 Corrected values for ΔY and, ΔX are obtained using the directions and
distances from the final column and these differences are in turn
added progressively from the starting co-ordinates to produce the
co-ordinates AR14 and AR15.

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Worked numeric example (Scale & Swing method)

OBSERVED FINAL DIRN

DIRN & DIST & DIST ΔY ΔX Y X
MAID - 4 768.87 + 3900.51

171.34.16 171.33.58 +121.325 -818.757

827.697 827.689 +121.396 -818.738

AR14 -4647.474 +3081.772

268.07.07 268.06.49 -960.587 -31.554

961.105 961.095 -960.574 -31.637

AR15 -5608.048 +3050.135

213.35.48 213.35.30 -396.919 -597.486

717.310 717.303 -396.863 -597.515

S= 2506.112 BAG - 6 004.91 + 2452.62

SURVEYED (BAG) - 6 005.050 + 2452.714

Sum ΔY & ΔX: -1236.180 - 1447.796

True ΔY & ΔX: -1236.040 - 1447.890

Total Corrn: ΔY=+0.140 ΔX= -0.094

Join MAID – BAG 220.29.12 1903.728009

Join MAID – SURV (BAG) 220.29.30 1903.747423

SWING: -18 SCALE FACTOR: 0.999989802

Mis-closure: √0.1402 + 0.0942= +0.169

Accuracy: S/Linear e = 1: 14861 or 1: 14829
Class A: 0.04 + S/30 000 = 0.124 Class B= 0.185 Class C= 0.371
Therefore Class B Traverse

9.4 Traverse Adjustment: Transit Rule

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Another effective method of traverse reduction is the ‘Transit rule’.

Worked numeric example (Transit rule)

OBSERVED FINAL DIRN

DIRN & DIST & DIST ΔY ΔX Y X
KRAAL +5 486.82 +5 799.60

332.08.02 332.08.00 -392.909 +743.139

840.615m 840.589m +0.008 -0.025

TC 1 +5 093.919 +6 542.714

266.21.53 266.21.52 -873.382 -55.488

875.143m 875.125m +0.018 -0.002

TC 2 +4 220.555 +6 487.224

205.20.44 205.20.39 -249.946 -527.679

583.882m 583.896m +0.005 -0.018

TC 3 +3 970.614 +5 959.527

294.47.36 294.47.34 -881.243 +407.067

970.718m 970.695m +0.018 -0.014

S=3270.358m HILL +3 089.39 +6 366.58

Sum ΔY & ΔX: -2397.480 +567.039

True ΔY & ΔX: -2397.430 +566.980

Total corn.: ΔY= +0.050 ΔX= -0.059

Abs. ΔY & ΔX: +2397.480 +1733.373

Mis-closure: √0.0502 + 0.0592= +0.077

Accuracy: S/Linear e = 1: 42 287 or 1: 42 472
Class A: 0.04 + S/30 000 = 0.149 Class B= 0.224 Class C= 0.447
Therefore Class A Traverse

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9.5 Traverse Analysis

The following must be given at the bottom of the traverse:

_____________
a) Indicate the linear closing error: e = √ ∆y² + ∆x²

b) Indicate the accuracy of the traverse as 1:xxxxxx

𝑆𝑆
where xxxxxx =
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

c) Indicate the class of the traverse according to the Survey

Regulations.

𝑆𝑆
d) 𝐴𝐴 = 0.04 + where 'S' is the total traverse length in metres.
30000

Class A = A metres Class B = 1.5A metres Class C = 3A metres

Class X= 0.5A
e.g.

A= 0.04 + 562.77= 0.059m

30 000

Class A= 0.059
Class B= 0.088
Class C= 0.176

Tutorial 12: Traverse Reductions

12.1 Your company has been awarded a contract to survey all existing roads
within a developing area. To achieve this task, primary control points
were fixed with a TOPCON Hiper-Pro GPS system.

However on one particular road the GPS did not have adequate
satellites to operate efficiently. As a result the control was established by
means of a Three legged EDM Traverse between two Trigs and the points
were called KB11 and KB12 respectively.

Refer to the data provided below:-

FROM TO ORIENTED DIRECTION REDUCED EDM DIST.

Δ W-M-R KB11 359º 28’16” 1555.405m

KB11 KB12 64º 21’ 21” 1794.325m
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KB12 Δ M-RES 83º 46’ 02” 1417.012m

For co-ordinates refer to Question two above.

Calculate the final co-ordinates of the Traverse using the "TRANSIT RULE"
method of adjustment on the Annexure provided.

Show the Mis-closure, Accuracy and Class of the traverse. Work to three
decimal places.The layout must comply with the standard format. Marks will
be deducted for untidy tabulation.

Co-ordinates: Wg 31º Survey system:

Y X
Δ CONVNT + 16 571.15 + 303 358.54
Δ M-G-W + 11 111.05 + 299 411.18
Δ M-RES + 19 730.11 + 302 600.08
Δ SARNIA + 10 835.52 + 302 151.31
Δ W-M-R + 16 718.08 + 300 114.18

12.2 A survey firm for whom you work has been awarded a contract to
perform strip surveys of an existing dirt road in a rural township. The
control for the survey was established by means of an EDM Traverse
between two Trig beacons, of which the data given as follows:-

FROM TO ORIENTED DIRECTION REDUCED EDM DIST.

Δ W-GLEN RB1 227º 25’ 02” 1086.852m

RB1 RB2 165º 33’ 56” 1062.228m
RB2 RB3 226º 29’ 58” 1063.918m
RB3 Δ CLEMNT 193º 38’ 43” 716.534m

Co-ordinates Y X
Constants + 30 000.00 + 3 290 000.00

CLEMNT + 8 176.51 + 2 947.19

W-GLEN + 9 652.45 + 6 140.09

Calculate the final co-ordinates of the traverse using the "SCALE &
SWING" method of adjustment on the Annexure provided. The layout
must comply with the standard format. (Work to 3 decimal places).
Marks will be deducted for untidy tabulation.

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Show the Mis-closure, Accuracy and Class of the traverse. Work to

three decimal places.The layout must comply with the standard
format. Marks will be deducted for untidy tabulation.

References:

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Gopi, S., Sathikumar, R. and Madhu, N. 2008. Advanced surveying: total station, GIS and
remote sensing. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

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CHAPTER 10

Engineering and Construction Surveying

Introduction
Construction is one of the largest industries in the world and therefore
Surveying, as the basis for it, is extremely important. An accurate topographic
survey is the first requirement in the designing of streets, sewer, and water
lines and structures. Once design is completed the limits of certain aspects of
the project have to be defined on the actual site, and must be controlled to
conform to plans. The Engineering Surveyor is to ensure that the project is
controlled on the site exactly the way it was intended according to the
design plans.

Surveyors then ‘set out’ the position of the above facilities according to the
design plan. Upon completion of the project it is essential to conduct an ‘As-
Built survey’ which is a survey conducted at the end of the construction
project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the
specifications set on plans and to locate any modifications that were made
to the plans during construction. A final ‘As-built’ plan incorporating these
modifications is prepared after the construction and is filed as part of the
records.

Such plans are extremely important especially where underground utilities

involved to assure that they can be located quickly if problems develop and
that they will not be disturbed by later improvements.

Examples of Civil (construction) works:-

 Road or railways
 Tunnels, airports & harbours
 High rise buildings
 Simple or complex bridges
 Sewerage disposal plant
 Water purification works

Construction surveying involved establishing both line and grade by means of

stakes and reference lines that are placed on the construction site. These
guide to contractor so that proposed facilities are constructed according to
a plan. Placement of the stakes or markers are most often done by making
fundamental observations of horizontal distances, horizontal and vertical
angles and differences in elevation using basic survey equipment and
methods. Global navigation satellite systems is also been used with increasing
frequency for construction surveying.
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10.1 Horizontal and Vertical control

The importance of a good framework of horizontal and vertical control in a

project cannot be overemphasized. It provides the basis for positioning
structures, utilities, roads etc. in each of the stages of planning, design and
construction.

The construction must conform to the design in all aspects. To achieve this,
rigid control must first be established over the complete site and the “working
from the whole to the part” principle is complied with.

Horizontal control:
Fixing points relatively in the horizontal plane, the points being permanently
marked by pegs placed in the ground, usually concreted for stability.

Vertical control:
Fixing points in the vertical plane, for defining different levels of construction;
these again are suitably placed permanent marks.

The following factors must be considered for the establishment of control

points:

• Control points must be in close proximity to the project to be set out in

order to save time, decrease costs and maintain accuracy. The
position of these points should be carefully planned so that they are
not damaged or destroyed during the construction process.
• Control points must be accurately fixed and checked.
• The points should be concreted where possible to ensure that they are
stable and not damaged.
• During the construction phase the control points should be checked to
ensure that they have not be disturbed.

GPS is being used to provide real-time

Construction is one of the largest industries positioning and alignment of structures.
in the world.

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10.2 Setting out procedures

In Construction/Engineering, Surveying the term ‘Setting-out’ is a method of

staking out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of
new structures such as roads or buildings. Surveying plays an extremely
important role in any construction project. It is used to establish the location
and alignment of highways, bridges, buildings, pipes, and other man-made
objects and features.

Setting out is an integral part of civil engineering and surveying and is

essential to ensure that the project is set out accurately on site to ensure that
there is no deviation from the project which has been designed.

• From the control a Base-line is

established as the fundamental, step in
setting out. This base-line could be the
centre-line of a road, the centre-line of a
long line of piles, etc.
• The next step is to set out necessary
subsidiary lines from the base-line, from
data obtained on the Plans (either
by calculation or reading off
dimensions).
• These pegs must be placed and
checked.
• Since the setting-out pegs are invariably
destroyed during construction, it is
necessary to establish reference pegs
away from the area of construction,
from which any subsidiary pegs can be
replaced. Figure 10.2a – (Setting out a building)

10.3 Slope Staking

Slope staking consists of placing pegs on the original surface to indicate the
limits of proposed excavation or filling operations, so that that the final slope
will be at a predetermined grade. This is achieved by placing Batter boards
or slope rails that are used to control the construction of the side slopes of a
cut or fill embankment. The slopes of the side of the road prisms are dictated
by different conditions and may vary in slope. (1:1.5 or 1:2 etc)

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10.3.1 Sight rails

• Sight rails are used for monitoring of levels for the setting out of
buildings, roadways, pipelines and other civil engineering projects.
• A single or a pair of stakes are driven into the ground and a
short length of timber is nailed across the stake.
• The top edge of the timber crossing has the reference height which is
set to a suitable height, approximately 700mm (0.70m), above the
existing ground profile.
• This height varies, depending upon the existing ground profile
along route of the sight rails. The reference height of the
top edge of the timber is written on the sight rail.

Figure 10.3a

10.3.2 Travellers

• A traveller is similar to the “T square” drawing instrument. It has a single

support with timber crossing in line with the upper edge of the
supporting pole.
• When choosing the length of the traveller we must ensure that when
the traveller is held at the required level, then the upper edge must be
visible along the line of sight from one sight rail to the next. (e.g 1m
Traveller height)
• The traveller is used to monitor the excavation or fill operation.
• During the excavation or fill operation when the upper edge of the
traveller and the reference height position of the sight rail are in line,
then the required level of the ground is attained.

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Marked at 0.5m intervals

Figure 10.3b

The figure below shows the ways in which travellers and sight rails can be
used to monitor cutting and filling in earthwork construction.

Figure 10.3c
- Sight Rail - Traveller

10.3.3 Batter Boards or Slope Rails

The control of the construction side slopes of a cut or fill embankment

is done by setting out of batter boards (slope rails).

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Cut Embankment:

Figure 10.3d

In a cut embankment, as shown above, a “slope stake” A is driven firmly into

the ground at the top of the proposed embankment. Assuming a stake for
the slope is set 0.500m away from the “slope stake”, then for an embankment
of a gradient 1:2, the level of point P in the sketch will be 0.250 m higher than
the ground level at the “slope stake” A. A stake Q is now driven firmly into the
ground placed at a distance of say 1 meter apart from P. A timber board is
now fixed at a gradient of 1:2 using an appropriate template and spirit level.
The SKD, the slope and the distance from the front stake to the center line are
marked on the batter board.

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Fill Embankment:

Figure 10.3e

In a fill embankment, a “slope stake” B is driven firmly into the ground at the
toe of the proposed embankment. In a fill embankment, a Traveller is also
used. Assuming the Traveller is 1 meter high. From the “slope stake” measure
a distance of say 0.500 m and place the stake for the batter board. Point R
will be 0.250 m below the “slope stake” peg. Therefore point R will be 0.750 m
higher than the ground level of B. (-0.25 + 1.0m=0.75m). A stake S is now
driven firmly into the ground placed at a distance of say 1 meter apart from
R. A timber board (batter board) is now fixed from point R to point S at a
gradient of 1:2 using an appropriate template and spirit level.

10.4 Circular (Horizontal) curves

In the geometric design of roads, railways, pipelines etc., the design and
setting out of curves is really important. The visual aspect of a road as viewed
by the motorist is of prime consideration and includes the use of a continuous
curvilinear design rather than long straights and short curves.

The initial design is usually based on a series of straight sections whose

positions at defined either by existing cadastral boundaries or the
Topography of the area. The intersections of pairs of straights are then
connected by horizontal circular curves which are tangential to the straights.

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Figure 10.4a

Road surveys involve the location of alignments and computation of volumes

materials that must be added, removed, or moved. It initially requires a
topographic survey of the site. After the alignment has been established, the
quantities of earth that must be added or removed are computed. The aim
of most projects is to minimize the hauling distances of the earth’s material.
Eventually surveyors set out the Road (centre lines, edges, elevations (side
slopes) and slope of the various layer works). The end result is a smooth
alignment with smooth transitions from straight to curved sections allowing for
safe public transportation.

10.4.1 Elements of Curves

Figure 10.3b shows two straights AC and CB, which represent the centre lines
of a line structure such as road intersecting at point C. A circular curve is
fitted such that the two straights are tangential to the curve at points A and B
respectively.

Figure 10.4b

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Lengths AC = CB - Tangent Lengths (T)

Lengths OA = OD = OB = Radius of Curve (R)

DC = the Crown Distance FD = the Mid-Ordinate AB = the Long Chord

A is a Tangent Point or Beginning of Curve (B.C)

B is a Tangent Point or End of Curve (E.C)

C is the Point of Intersection of Straights (P.I)

D is the Crown Point

O is the Centre of the Curve

I is the Deflection Angle of the Curve

In the quadrilateral OACB the angle B and A are right angles.

Hence angle AOB + angle ACB = 180º

Angle BOA = Angle BCC = Angle I

Angle COB = Angle COA = ½I

In triangle OAC, AC = RTan Angle θ/2

→ Tangent Length T = R. Tan ½ I or R (Sec½ I -1)

Also it can be shown that:

DC (crown distance) = R.Tan ½ I.Tan ¼ I

→ Crown Dist = T.Tan ¼I

and that the:

→ Long Chord AB = 2R.Sin½I

Arc Length AB = RΘ (Θ in radian measure) (1radian = 180◦/π)and therefore:

→ Arc Length AB = π.R.Θ (Θ in degrees) = R.Θ"

180◦ 206265

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→ Deflection angle = ARC.180º = ARC.206265

2Rπ 2R

→ Chord length = 2R SIN δ (δ = Def. angle)

Note: 1 radian = 180◦ /π = 57.2957795◦ = 57º 17' 45"

206265" = number of seconds in one radian

Left Hand Curves vs Right Hand Curves:

Figure 10.4c

10.4.2 Setting out plans

These plans are essential in construction work as they show the locality and
description of all pegs that have been set out. The dimensions (angles &
distances) between pegs used for setting out must be recorded. Pegs or
Bench marks used for vertical control must be recorded on the plan.
The plan should be up to date so that information is available to others as
well as the surveyor, so that verification of the position of the structure at

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various stages can be carried out at any time. Also any damaged or
destroyed pegs can readily be replaced from the recorded information.

10.5 Staking out a Circular curve by Deflection method

Curves are set out by placing a series of pegs around a curve, at a standard
arc length or chord length apart (e.g. 20m). Modern survey practice is to set
out curves by co-ordinates i.e. co-ordinate the points to be placed on the
curve and set out from control points. This is referred to as the ‘Total Station –
Polar’ method. An alternative method is the ‘Deflection Chord’ method
described below using either an EDM or Total station to acquire the distance.

Deflection Chord method:

• Setting out curves is usually

undertaken using a Total station.
• From A (the B.C) the instrument is
set on the P.I (310º 12’ 46”).
• The angle d1 is deflected off the
straight and the first peg G is set
out, by measuring the first chord
distance AG, to fix peg 1 at G.
• The instrument is then turned
clockwise and angle d2 is turned
off the straight and distance AH
measured to fix peg 2 at H.
• This procedure can be continued
to fix all the points on the curve.

Figure 10.5a

• Common to all methods is the need to establish the B.C and E.C of the
curve. The SKD (Staked Kilometre Distance)of the P.I will be known.
• Calculate the Tangent length. This tangent length is subtracted from
the SKD of the P.I and this gives the SKD of the B.C which can also be
located on the ground.
• To find the SKD of the E.C, the Arc length is first calculated and this
length is added to the SKD of the B.C.
• The position of the E.C. on the ground is determined by measuring the
tangent length from the P.I. The placing of the B.C. and E.C. can be
checked by measuring the long chord.

SKD OF BC: SKD PI – TANGENT LENGTH

SKD OF EC: SKD BC + ARC LENGTH

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Figure 10.5b

• Assume the SKD of the B.C is 237.46m and it is required to have the
pegs on the curve in 20m units. The first chord is therefore a ‘short’ or
‘broken’ chord i.e. 2.54m (240 – 237.46).
• At the E.C, the last chord, from the last full 20 m chord to the E.C will be
a ‘short’ chord. Assume the SKD of E.C is 492.35m. The short chord will
be 12.35m (492.35 – 480).
• The deflection angle is calculated for a full chord and the respective
deflection angles for the first and last ‘short’ chords are also
calculated.
• The deflection angle is then calculated for each peg on the curve.
• The instrument is set up on the B.C. and oriented towards the P.I.
• The chords are set out by measuring individual chords, progressively
along the curve and 'swinging' to intersect the direction given by the
instrument at the B.C.
• The last ‘short’ chord should coincide with the E.C.

10.6 Calculation of staking data

• Left hand curves: Deflections angles are subtracted to obtain

directions (decreasing-anti clockwise)
• Right hand curves: Deflections angles are added to obtain directions
(increasing-clockwise)
• As a check the difference between the first & the final direction to the
EC must be half the angle of the P.I
• The tabulation is as follows under the headings:

SKD DEFLECTION ANGLE (δ) DIRECTION CHORD LENGTH

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Worked numeric example (Horizontal curves)

Given the following:

I (Θ) 60º
R 100m
SKD of BC 55m
Peg interval 10m
Curve type RHC
BC to PI= 00º 00' 00"

Using the above information, calculate and tabulate complete setting out
data to peg curve by the method of Chord distance and Deflection angles.

You are also required to calculate the distance from PI to the Crown Point
and also determine the SKD of the Crown point.

Show all formulae used and all workings in your answer book.

Solution:

Tangent Length = R tan ½ I

= 100 x tan 60º/2
= 57.735m

Crown Distance = T tan ¼ I

= 57.735 x tan 60º/4
= 15.470m

Arc Length = R θ π /180º

= 100 x 60 x π/180º
= 104.720m

Long Chord = 2R sin ½ I

= 200 sin 60/2
= 100.000 m

SKD of BC = 55m

SKD of EC = 55 + 104.720 = 159.720m

SKD of Crown point = 55 + (104.720/2)= 107.36m

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First arc 5.000m x 1 δ= 01º 25' 56.6” x 1 01º25'56.6” First chord= 5.000m
Std arc 10.000m x 9 δ= 02º 51' 53.2" x 9 25º 46' 59.2" Std chord= 9.996m
Last arc 9.720m x 1 δ= 02º 47’ 04.5" x 1 02º 47’ 04.5" Last chord= 9.716m
Check: 30º 00' 00.3"

Def. Angle= Arc. 180º Chord length= 2R SIN δ

2πR

SETTING OUT DATA:

SKD (m) DEF. ANGLE (δ) DIRECTION CHORD (m) RADIAL POLAR (m)

55 (BC) 00º 00’ 00"

60 01º 25' 57" 01º 25' 57" 5.000 5.000
70 02º 51’ 53.2" 04º 17' 50" 9.996 14.986
80 02º 51’ 53.2" 07º 09' 43" 9.996 24.935
90 02º 51’ 53.2" 10º 01' 37" 9.996 34.822
100 02º 51’ 53.2" 12º 53' 30" 9.996 44.621
110 02º 51’ 53.2" 15º 45' 23" 9.996 54.310
120 02º 51’ 53.2" 18º 37' 16" 9.996 63.862
130 02º 51’ 53.2" 21º 29' 09" 9.996 73.255
140 02º 51’ 53.2" 24º 21' 03" 9.996 82.464
150 02º 51’ 53.2" 27º 12' 56" 9.996 91.468
159.720 (EC) 02º 47' 04" 30º 00' 00" 9.716 100.000

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10.7 Other curve types

a) Compound curve

• These are composed of two arcs of different

radii, curving in the same direction.
• The centres C1 and C2 of the two arcs are
situated on the same side of the curve and
where C1 and C2 produced meets the curve
is the point where the two curves are
tangential.
• The tangent lengths PI - BC and PI- EC are of
course, unequal. Each curve can be regarded
as a separate unit.

Figure 10.7a

b) Reverse curves

• The geometry of the reversed

curve is similar to that of
compound curves, except that
the radii can be of the same
length; and their centres must be
on opposite sides of the common
tangent.
• This type of curve should be
avoided where any speed is
anticipated, i.e. motorways, main
Figure 10.7b railway lines etc., as sudden
reversal of direction is dangerous.
c) Transition Curves

The Transition curve is a curve of constantly changing radius. If used to

connect a straight to a curve of radius R, then the commencing radius of the
transition will be the same as the straight and the final radius will be that of R.

There have two main functions:-

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• To eliminate the sudden change in direction in passing from a straight

to a curve.
• To provide a medium to introduce a gradual change from zero to
maximum super- elevation between straight and the curve.

Superelevation
If the cross-section of a road remained
level, the centrifugal force at a curve
would tend therefore to make vehicles drift
outwards. The road is superelevated to
overcome this problem.
Figure 10.7c Superelevation is tilting the roadway to help
offset centripetal forces developed as the
vehicle goes around a curve.

10.8 Vertical Alignment

Vertical Curves are used in highway and street alignment to provide a

gradual change between two adjacent grade lines. Transportation and
municipal agencies introduce vertical Curves at every change in grad-line
slope.

Curves are required to provide smooth transitions between straight segments

(tangents) of grade lines for highways and railroads. Because these curves
exist in the vertical planes, they are called vertical curves. An example is
illustrated in figure 10.7a which shows the profile view of a proposed section
of highway to be constructed from A to B.

Figure 10.8a

The length of the vertical curve is primarily the concern of the engineer. The
longer the curve, the better the visibility and comfort of the road user so that
the longest possible vertical curve consistent with economical construction
should be the main objective.

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Vertical curves comprises of a combination of parabolic vertical curves and

tangent sections at a particular slope. Vertical curves are introduced at all
changes of grade, which exceed 0.5% to prevent a sudden change from
grade to the other and to improve visibility at the crest of hills.

Once the long section of the existing ground line (NGL) has been plotted, the
vertical alignment of the proposed road formation follows. The gradients for
vertical alignment are obtained from the long section, to follow within reason
from the NGL. A smooth grade line with gradual changes appropriate to the
class of road and nature of topography is preferable to an alignment with
short length and numerous vertical curves.

The common vertical curve obeys the equation of the simple parabola:-

𝒚𝒚 = 𝒂𝒂𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 + 𝒄𝒄

Vertical curves fall into two main categories:-

a) Convex (Crest or Summit) Curves

b) Concave (Sag or Valley) Curves

The factors which influence the length of the vertical curve are the
differences of the grade, allowable rate of change of gradient and in case
of Summit curves a clear vision distance required between approaching
vehicles.

Design criteria that normally govern the length of the vertical curve includes:-

• differences of the grades

• sighting distances (both stopping and passing sight) with crest
curves
• allowable rate of change of gradient
• Geometric Design Speed e.g. 100km/hr
• Horizontal alignment

Sight distance on Summits:

For obvious safety reasons the road ahead that is visible to the driver must be
greater than the distance required by the driver to bring the vehicle to rest.

Stopping Distance:
This depends on various factors:-

o speed of the vehicle

o braking efficiency

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o gradients
o co-efficient of friction between tyre and road
o road condition
o driver's reaction time - this will also be governed by the driver's
eye level above the road surface and his physical and mental
condition

10.8.1 Types of vertical curves

Crest or Summit Sag or Valley

Figure 10.8b

Where: G = g2 - g1 b = g1 /100

a= G c = elevation of BVC
200 L

Hog point: Highest point on the curve

Sag point: Lowest point on the curve

Distance from the BVC to the highest/lowest point on the vertical curve:-

= g1. L
G

Refer to the illustration in figure 10.7c. Therefore the level or elevation at a

distance x1 from the

BVC is: y= ax²1 + bx1 + c

and the level or elevation at a distance x2 from the

BVC is: y= ax²2 +bx2 + c

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Figure 10.7c

Figure 10.7d

Worked numeric example (Vertical curves)

Given the following:

Ascending gradient + 2.5%

Descending gradient - 4%
Length of Vert. curve length (L) 120m
Peg interval 20m
Elevation of BVC 100m
SKD of BVC 80m

With the aid of a neat annotated sketch, calculate the reduced levels of the
vertical curve at 20m intervals from the BVC to the EVC only.

Neatly tabulate your results under the following headings:

SKD x ax² bx Reduced Level

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Solution:

G = g2 - g1
= -4 - (+2.5)
= -6.5%
b = g1/100
= +2.5/100
= +0.025

a = G/200L
= -0.000270833 or -2.7083 x 10-4

c = 100m (elev of BVC)

Elevation of P.I= 100 + (2.5/100) x 60= 101.5m

Elevation of EV = 101.5 – (4/100) x 60= 99.1m

SKD of hog point= g1.L/G

= (+2.5x120)/+6.5
= 46.154m (from the BVC)

SKD 80 + 46.154= 126.154m

Level of Hog Point= -0.00027083(46.154)² + 0.025 (46.154) + 100

= 100.577m

2
SKD (m) x ax bx Elevation on curve
80 (BVC) 0 100.000m
100 20 -0.108 +0.500 100.392m
120 40 -0.433 +1.000 100.567m
126.154 (HP) 46.154 -0.577 +1.154 100.577m
140 60 -0.975 +1.500 100.525m
160 80 -1.733 +2.000 100.267m
180 100 -2.708 +2.500 99.792m
200 (EVC) 120 -3.900 +3.000 99.100m

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Figure 10.7e (Long section with completed vertical alignment)

10.9 Deformation surveys

Deformation Survey is a survey to determine if a structure or object is

changing shape or moving. The three-dimensional positions of specific points
on an object are determined, a period of time is allowed to pass, these
positions are then re-measured and calculated, and a comparison between
the two sets of positions is made.

Figure 10.9a (Monitoring a dam wall)

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Man-made structures are subject to external loads that cause deformation of

the structure itself as well as unwanted displacements of the structure and its
foundations. This can often be a threat to life and property.

Mining and construction activity can cause changes in the ground surface as
well as to structures. Surface subsidence can cause catastrophic damage.
Monitoring can be done using GNSS Satellite Surveying, Total Stations, and
Precise Differential Levelling.

Figure 10.9b (Monitoring a dam wall)

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A typical monitoring project consists of a site visit to determine existing

conditions and to plan the network. This information is then used in the office
to plan a scheme of observations that will meet the required accuracy. Next,
the field observations are performed. This data is then processed and
adjusted in the office to yield data that can be used as a baseline for future
observations or to compare against previous surveys.

10.10 Sections

A section is a representation on paper of the profile of the ground surface

along a particular line which may be straight or curved. It is plotted to scale,
the horizontal distances being plotted along the length of the straight line,
and the elevations of the points been set off along perpendiculars erected
on the straight line. The points obtained are joined to give a continuous
representation of the ground surface. Sections also help determine the
volumes of material that need to be excavated or filled during the
construction phase.

a) Long Section

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Longitudinal sections are sections run along the line (usually the centerline) of
a proposed engineering project, such as a road, railway, canal or pipeline to
enable the engineer to plan the elevation details of the project in relation
to the existing ground levels.

Figure 10.10a (Computer generated Long section)

b) X–Sections

Cross sections are shorter sections, run at right angles to the longitudinal
section on straights, and radially on the curves to supply information of the
slope of the ground (cross-fall) on either side of the Long section, and to
supply data for the calculation of earthquake quantities. The length is
normally controlled by the width of the proposed construction works, but
sometimes additional information is required outside the limits of construction.

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Figure 10.10b (Computer generated X-section)

10.11 Elements of a Typical Road Profile

The profile below refers to the final cross-sectional profile of the road with side
drains, layers, verges, road center and toe points. The various components of
the profile e.g. road width, shoulder, kerb etc. are shown below:

Figure 10.11a (Typical road profile)

a) Shoulder
The shoulder is the usable area alongside the roadway. It is a reserved
area by the verge of a road or motorway. It should be kept clear of all
traffic. In the event of an emergency or breakdown, a motorist can pull
into the shoulder to get out of the flow of traffic and obtain an element
of safety.

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b) Median
The median is the total area between the inner edges of the inside
traffic lanes of a divided road, and includes the inner shoulders and
central island. Purpose of the median is to separate opposing streams
of traffic. It also serves a secondary function as "green areas“ to
beautifying roadways. Where space is at a premium, dense hedges of
shrubs filter the headlights of oncoming traffic and provide a resilient
barrier.

c) Verges
The verge is defined as the area between the longitudinal works and
the road reserve boundary and is simply a grass border along a road.

d) Camber and Cross-fall

Camber is a slight convex curve of the road surface, and slopes away
from a central point, as in a two-way road, where the cross-section
slopes down from the center-line to the shoulders. Cross-fall is a single
slope from shoulder to shoulder. They both facilitate the drainage of
the road surface.

Figure 10.11b (Camber profile)

e) Drains
Facilitate the drainage of excess water on the roadway by channeling
it to adjacent storm-water catchpits, manholes and drains.

f) Super-elevation

Figure 10.11c (Super-elevation profile)

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Super-elevation is the tilting the roadway to help offset centripetal

forces developed as the vehicle goes around a curve. Together with
friction they keep a vehicle from going off the road. On more severe
bends, the outside edge of the curve is raised, or ‘super-elevated’ to
help vehicles around the curve. The amount of super-elevation
increases with its design speed and with curve sharpness.

Tutorial 13: Construction Surveying

13.1 Draw a neat sketch showing a typical Batter board for a cut
embankment at a slope of 1: 2. Also indicate the levels on the
respective profiles. (Assume the existing ground peg level to be 56.80m
and the distance between the ground peg and batter board to be
0.50m).
(6)

13.2 Calculate and tabulate complete setting out data to peg the
curve by the method of Chord distance and Deflection angles.
Pegs are to be placed at continuous SKD of 20 metres apart. It
is a left hand curve.

Radius of curve 200m

SKD of PI = 660.65m

Deviation Angle = 54º 54' 30" and take the direction from BC to
PI as 315º 20' 40". Calculate the distance from PI to the Crown
point and also find the SKD of the Crown point.

Show all formulae used and all workings in your answer book.
(22)

13.3 Two grade lines intersect at SKD180, at a design level of 128.23m. The
first grade starts at SKD00 at a level of 156.73m, and the second grade
line ends at SKD320 at a level of 158.62m. The curve length is given as
80m.

With the aid of a neat annotated sketch, calculate the reduced levels
of the vertical curve at every 20 m from the BVC to the EVC only. Neatly
tabulate your results under the following headings:

SKD x ax² bx Reduced Level

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Show all the workings in your answer book. All formulae used must be
shown and all calculations must be done in pen. Note that is important
to calculate the grades to at least 3 decimal places.
(13)

References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

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CHAPTER 11

Cadastral Surveying

Introduction

Cadastral surveying is that branch of surveying which is concerned with the

survey and demarcation of land for the purpose of defining parcels of land
for registration in a land registry. Cadastral surveying in South Africa is
undertaken exclusively by or under the control of professional land surveyors
(Geomatics professionals).

South Africa not only allows the private ownership of property but also, in the
case of land, actively encourages it. As the property values increase and
owners dispute rights to land, the importance of more accurate surveys,
demarcation of the boundaries and written records become obvious and so
Cadastral surveying becomes necessary.

First of all cadastral surveying is used to define the land to be granted. Later,
should the owner then wish to sell off part of that land, the cadastral surveyor
is again called in to partition the land that is to be sold. Furthermore, the
services of the cadastral surveyor are required whenever a boundary
beacon must be found or replaced. Once the positions of the boundaries
have been marked and recorded, the cadastral surveyor and the
conveyancer work together to record ownership in a public register. This
action ensures that the rights of the owner can be upheld against false claims
and that all persons may know who owns what.

Cadastral surveying is actually the means of initially demarcating physically on

the ground the limits of a subdivision of land. Either existing natural features,
such as water courses, are adopted to such ‘curvilinear’ boundaries. Where
no such features exist, then artificial boundaries are created by inserting
beacons at corners locating a straight line ‘rectilinear’ boundary on the
ground.

The term ‘land tenure system’ applies to the manner in which rights to land
are held in any given country. Such a system must provide a means for:

o Transferring and changing the title and rights to the land.

o Permanently marked boundaries that enable parcels to be found on
the ground.
o Officially retained records defining who possesses what rights to the
land.
o An official legal description of each parcel of land.

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11.1 Survey information

Before carrying out any survey in terms of the Act, a land surveyor shall obtain
all available information in respect of any previous surveys of the piece of land
to be surveyed, and/ or of the adjoining pieces of land.

The data obtained normally consists of the following:

• A compilation plan

• The survey diagram of the property in question and all adjoining

properties

• The original survey records (working plan/ coordinates)

• All subsequent nearby surveys – the more recent the better

a) Compilation plan

This enables the surveyor to get an overall picture of where the property in
question is situated, as it gives the cadastral description of all surrounding
properties. Then Comp. is a vital tool as it provides the key to the puzzle of
piecing the various surveys together. It does not show dimensions, but does
provide other useful information, for instance, if a beacon has a coordinate
on the South African coordinate system, it is indicated by a solid round black
bullet. A beacon with no coordinate or on a local system is indicated as an
open circle.

b) Survey Diagram

A Survey diagram defines the limits and extent of a property. It also gives the
property description pertaining to that Lot/farm/servitude etc. The survey
diagram forms a portion of a legal document known as the Title deed. The
Title deed is a document which declares that Mr. Joe Soap is the legal owner
of a property, and is passed from one owner to the next at the time of sale.

A diagram is framed according to strict regulations, and the Surveyor-

General may refuse to approve any diagram should he/ she consider that it is
not to the required standard.

c) General Plan

A General plan is really just a compilation of Survey Diagrams. A General Plan

is framed instead of a diagram whenever the land is subdivided into ten or

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more portions and the figure of the parent diagram is too small for the
deducted portions to be clearly shown on it.

d) Working Plan

A Working plan indicates the method which the surveyor used to survey or
subdivide a parcel of land. A co-ordinate list pertaining to the working plan is
normally compiled. The Survey may be done on either Lo31, Lo31 approx. local
system, Wg31 etc. If it was done on a local system, no co-ordinates will appear
on the survey diagram.

All survey records are submitted to the Surveyors Generals office and in Kwa-
zulu Natal the SGO is in Pietermaritzburg. All surveys since 1972 have been in
metric measurement whilst prior to this time were in feet/acres. Very old survey
diagrams were surveyed using links and chains (perches & roods). Therefore
the need for co-ordinate conversions.

e) Consolidated diagram

A Consolidated diagram is when two or more properties are consolidated

(merged) into one property and can be done either by compilation or by
survey. It must also be noted that before any land can be
subdivided/consolidated etc. it has to have the local authority approval and
comply with the Town planning bylaws. This normally takes the form of an
Application plan.

f) Application plan

This has to be submitted with the application to Subdivide. Each local authority
sets its own standards according to their Town planning scheme and building
bylaws, therefore application plans are surveyed and prepared accordingly.
Plans usually on Lo31, Lo31 approx, Wg31 Survey system.

g) Servitude diagram

In addition to survey diagrams you also get Servitude and Right of way
(R.O.W) servitude diagrams.

A servitude can be represented and described on a sub-divisional diagram

or sometimes a special servitude diagram is prepared.

A servitude can either be represented by a line or a figure. A line structure like

a power line is often represented as a line, and beacons are placed at bend
points and sometimes where the line crosses a boundary line. It is described

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as a line having a certain width and for what purpose. In the case of a
servitude described by a figure the entire figure should be beaconed.

Some of the types of servitudes are given below:

o Road servitude
o S & D servitude
o Sewer servitude
o Drain servitude
o Pipeline (oil/water) servitude
o Electric Power-line servitude
o Electrical cable servitude

11.2 Examples of Diagrams and Plans

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SUB-DIVISIONAL DIAGRAM

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CONSOLIDATION PLAN (SHEET 1)

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CONSOLIDATION PLAN (SHEET 2)

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EXTRACT OF A GENERAL PLAN

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ELEMENTS OF A GENERAL PLAN

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WORKING PLAN

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COMPILATION PLAN

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SERVITUDE DIAGRAM

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11.3 Types of Surveys

a) A Farm Survey

Farm surveys can involve subdivisions, servitudes for power lines, pipe
lines and right-of-way.

b) A Single Subdivision

This generally involves subdividing a property into two or more parts.

Having obtained the data the surveyor would first check that the survey
is feasible in accordance with the minimum subdivision sizes as required
by each local authority.

c) Beacon relocations

Although most cadastral surveys involve searching and finding existing

beacons and verifying their positions, beacon relocations can be an
entity on its own. They are performed for a variety of reasons i.e. if there
is a boundary dispute between neighbours, to verify if there is an
encroachment of a building onto an adjoining property, for fencing
and boundary walls, and for construction purposes when a structure is
to be built on or close to a boundary, particular in industrial areas.

d) Sectional Title Surveys

Sectional Title surveys are done in accordance with the provisions laid
down in the Sectional Titles Act 95 of 1986, which “provides for the
divisions of buildings into sections and common property and for the
acquisition of separate ownership in sections coupled with joint
ownership in common property”.

e) Consolidation Surveys

A consolidation takes place when two or more adjoining properties are

joined together to form one property and can be done by compilation
or by survey.

f) Servitude Surveys

A servitude is registered on a property in favour of a neighbouring

property or a service provider e.g. Eskom or the local authority. A
servitude can be represented and described on a sub-divisional
diagram or sometimes a special servitude diagram is prepared.
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g) Expropriation Surveys

Expropriation means to dispossess or take away property from land

owners. It normally comes in the form of a written instruction from
bodies such as local authorities, roads departments, Eskom and other
government organisations. The land to be surveyed normally cover
features such as proposed roads and railway lines, road widening, and
creating new sites for community facilities such as schools, clinics,
electrical substations etc.

11.4 Duties of a Land Surveyor (Geomatics professional)

According to the Land Survey Act 8 of 1997:

A Land surveyor shall:-

(a) carry out every survey undertaken by him or her in accordance with this
Act, and in a manner that will ensure accurate results;

(b) be responsible to the Surveyor-General for the correctness of every survey

carried out by him or her or under his or her supervision, and of every general
plan or diagram which bears his or her signature;

(c) deposit with the Surveyor-General for the purpose of being examined and
permanently filed in that Surveyor-General's office such records as may be
prescribed in respect of any survey carried out by him or her for the purpose
of, or in connection with, any registration of land in a deeds registry, and in
respect of any general plan or diagram prepared as a result of that survey,
and in respect of any survey carried out by him or her for the replacement of
a beacon; and

(d) correct without delay, when required by the Surveyor-General, any error
in any survey carried out by that land surveyor or in respect of any work
related thereto due to failure to comply with this Act and take such steps as
may be necessary to ensure the correction of any diagram, general plan
and title deed based on the incorrect survey and to adjust the position of any
beacon which he or she has placed in accordance with the incorrect survey.

11.5 Survey acts

The Land Survey Act requires the records of all surveys relating to property
boundaries to be filed in the Surveyor-General's Office. These show how a
survey was done and comprise of the field book in which all the observations
were made, a plan showing the relative positions of beacons and survey
stations and a list of co-ordinates.
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The survey records have been used to establish why certain surveys overlap
or just plain unprofessional misconduct. Copies of survey records are only
available to Professional Land Surveyors because the Survey Profession takes
sole responsibility for the accuracy of the survey system.

The following acts should also be referred to as it is considered of importance

at this level of your studies:-

• Geomatics Profession Act - Act 19 of 2013

• Land Survey Act 8 of 1997

You shall be introduced more applicable legislation in ‘Cadastral Surveying

3A’ and ‘Legal Principles 2B’.

11.6 Elling’s method of area calculation

Elling’s Formula: Arithmetically self-checking

2A = Y1(Xn-X2) + Y2(X1-X3) + Y3(X2-X4) + .... + Yn(Xn-1-X1) [1]

and

2A = X1(Yn-Y2) + X2(Y1-Y3) + X3(Y2-Y4) + .... + Xn(Yn-1-Y1) [2]

Note: [1] and [2] must be of the same numeric value but of opposite
sign. It is customary to number points in a clockwise order. (as shown
in any survey diagram)

Worked numeric example (Elling’s method)

Refer to the Survey diagram below. According to the diagram the area
indicated is 1278 square meters.

You are required to calculate and prove that the above area is correct by
using “ELLINGS METHOD” of area calculation. Work to three decimal places.
Marks will be deducted for untidy tabulation.

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Solution:

No Y X ΔY ΔX X (ΔY) Y (ΔX)
-7 000.00 +3288 000.00

D -500.640 641.150
A -518.260 616.330 D-B +54.340 +7.200 +33491.372 -3731.472
B -554.980 633.950 A-C +22.490 -44.070 +14257.536 +24457.969
C -540.750 660.400 B-D -54.340 -7.200 -35886.136 +3893.400
D -500.640 641.150 C-A -22.490 +44.070 -14419.464 -22063.205
A -518.260 616.330

∑ -2556.6918 +2556.6918

Area (m2): 1278.3459

Area (hectares): 0.128

OR

No Y X ΔY ΔX X (ΔY) Y (ΔX)
-7 500.00 +3288 600.00

D 0.640 41.150
A 18.260 16.330 D-B -54.340 +7.200 -887.372 +131.472
B 54.980 33.950 A-C -22.490 -44.070 -763.536 -2422.969
C 40.750 60.400 B-D +54.340 -7.200 +3282.136 -293.400
D 0.640 41.150 C-A +22.490 +44.070 +925.464 +28.205
A 18.260 16.330

∑ +2556.6918 -2556.6918

Area (m2): 1278.3459

Area (hectares): 0.128

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Tutorial 14: Cadastral Surveying

Refer to Annexure A (below) which contains an extract of a Sub Divisional

Diagram for, Portion 43 (of 5) of Erf 662 Tongaat. According to the diagram
the area indicated is 1838 square meters.

You are required to calculate and prove that the above area is correct by
using “ELLINGS METHOD” of area calculation. Work to three decimal places.
Marks will be deducted for untidy tabulation.

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References:

Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Geomatics Profession Act - Act 19 of 2013

Land Survey Act 8 of 1997

Land Survey Act 9 of 1927

Simpson, K. W. and Sweeney, G. M. J. 1973. The land surveyor and the law. Pietermaritzburg:
University of Natal Press.

Web: http://csg.dla.gov.za/cadsurv.htm

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Bibliography
Mitchell, D. 1991. Survey Handbook (Sixth Edition). Durban: Durban Corporation.

Kavanagh, B. F. 2003. Geomatics. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Ghilani, C. D., Wolf, P. R. and Srinivasa Raju, K. 2011. Elementary surveying: an introduction to
geomatics. 13th, International ed. Boston [Mass.];London;: Pearson.

Gopi, S., Sathikumar, R. and Madhu, N. 2008. Advanced surveying: total station, GIS and
remote sensing. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

(P. Vorster & S. Koch, TrigNet, South Africa’s GNSS base station network, PositionIT, Nov/Dec
2014)

McElroy, S. 1994. Getting started with GPS surveying. 2nd ed. Bathurst, N.S.W: GPSCO.

Simpson, K. W. and Sweeney, G. M. J. 1973. The land surveyor and the law. Pietermaritzburg:
University of Natal Press.

Information, N. G. Information, C. D. N. G. 2010. Mapping South Africa

Web: https://www.ambientalrisk.com/celebrating-the-importance-of-spatial-data-on-gis-
day/

Web: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system

Web: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing

Web: http://csg.dla.gov.za/cadsurv.htm

Web: http://www.ngi.gov.za/index.php/what-we-do/maps-and-geospatial-information/41-
sa-mapsheet-referencing

Web:
http://www.sage.unsw.edu.au/currentstudents/ug/projects/Gowans/Thesis/What_is_it.html

Web: http://www.ngi.gov.za/index.php/what-we-do/geodetic-and-control-survey-
services/37-trignet-continuously-operating-gnss-network

Web: http://www.terrasurv.com/services.html

Geomatics Profession Act - Act 19 of 2013

Land Survey Act 8 of 1997

Land Survey Act 9 of 1927

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Best of luck & Enjoy the course!

…………………The End……..…………..

“When you Believe……you will Achieve” – (Raghubar 2018)

Surveying a brighter future for all South Africans – “Singakwenza Ndawonye”

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