School Of Engineering

Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur

A
REPORT
ON
SURVEY CAMP 2081

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO

Bhim Kunwar (8152982) Department of Civil Engineering

Dipak Raj Bhatt (8152989) Survey Camp Committee

Lalit Mali (815 )

Narendra Chaudhary (815 )

Roshan Prasad Joshi (8153008)

`
PREFACE

This survey camp report is a comprehensive reflection of the knowledge acquired during a 10-
day fieldwork conducted by the Survey Camp Committee of School of Engineering. The
endeavor fulfills a partial requirement for the Bachelor's Degree in Civil Engineering, in
accordance with the syllabus of Far Western University, during the third year of study, in the
Fifth semester. The Materials in this report are the outcomes of the unbelievable works of each
and every member of Group 4, who gave their valuable time and knowledge for this report.
This report is compilation of great efforts from the group members.

This surveying has been able to impart us the great opportunity to consolidate and review the
practical and theoretical knowledge on surveying, which we gained in the second year. This
survey camp has also helped in the team coordination for the long-term teamwork in the
friendly environments. This practice of teamwork is a great achievement for future professional
work in practical life. This survey camp also developed a sense of individual responsibility
towards the steps taken by the group.
We have been able to achieve the true objectives of the survey and upgrade our knowledge in
handling of the instrument, working procedure, problem-solving, and field booking precisely.
This survey camp gave us the practical knowledge of overcoming the technical difficulties and
developing skill in tackling it. It encouraged us to cope with the team members, as the surveying
involved all the members equally during the field procedures, calculations and plotting and
report preparations.

Every effort has been taken to ensure the accuracy in this report. However, some errors might
have occurred. We will be very much grateful to the viewers and individuals who go through
this report for bringing such errors in our notice. Furthermore, we would be very thankful for
the examiners and viewers for their suggestions in improving this report.
In conclusion, those 10 days were very much fruitful days and we are sure that these learning
and experiences gained during the camp period as a real field engineer will help us for shaping
our future career as Civil Engineer.
With Regards,
Group - 4
Survey Camp 2081
School Of Engineering

i
ABSTRACT

The Department of Civil Engineering at School of Engineering successfully conducted a 10-

day Survey Camp for third-year Civil Engineering students from Falgun 16, 2081, to Falgun
26, 2081. This camp was an integral part of the academic curriculum for the fifth semester of
Civil Engineering, mandated by the University.

The objective of the survey camp was to provide students with practical experience in the field,
focusing on topographic surveys over a large area, learning to propose road alignments, and
selecting suitable sites for bridge axes. The report reflects the methodologies, observations, and
calculations made by the students during the camp, along with corresponding drawings. The
curriculum extensively covered elements of topographic surveying, road alignment, and bridge
site surveying.

The primary aim of the Survey Camp was to enhance our practical and theoretical knowledge
of engineering surveying in real-world conditions. During the camp, students were tasked with
preparing a topographic map of a designated area, as well as conducting road and bridge site
surveys, adhering to all technical requirements. Subsequently, students worked within their
assigned sub-groups to plan and execute fieldwork, enabling them to make decisions regarding
the preparation of topographic maps, road alignments, and bridge site surveys.

This survey camp significantly contributed to building our confidence in conducting

engineering surveys with the required level of accuracy.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We extend our profound gratitude to the School of Engineering, Civil Engineering Department
for initiating and facilitating such a survey camp. Our sincerest appreciation also goes too Far
western University for seamlessly integrating this event into the civil engineering curriculum.

We are deeply indebted to the esteemed members of the college's Survey Camp committee. We
extend our heartfelt thanks to Er. Toran Prasad Bhatt, Er. Jayaram Panthi, Er. Trilok Chandra
Bist, Er. Birendra Kumar Bohara and Er. Motiram Chaudhary for their exemplary guidance,
suggestions, invaluable feedback, and unwavering encouragement during field work and every
aspect of our study.

Our gratitude also extends to the diligent non-teaching staff of the Survey Camp Committee, Mr.
Niraj Ojha and Mr. Prakash Mahara whose tireless efforts were integral to the success of our
endeavors. Additionally, we express our sincere appreciation to our colleagues for their invaluable
support and guidance throughout this journey.

Lastly, our equal gratitude is also extended to the everyone who supported us directly or indirectly
from the inception of the camp to the final submission of this report. Their effort and sincerity on
the field are always memorable to us.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

BB Back Bearing
BM Bench Mark
BPC Beginning Point of Curve
BS Back Sight

EPC End Point of Curve

FB Fore Bearing

FS Fore Sight
HA Horizontal Angle
HCR Horizontal Circle Reading
HI Height of Instrument
IP Intersection Point
IS Intermediate Sight
km Kilometer
L Length of Curve
m Meter

MC Mid of Curve

PBM Permanent Bench Mark

QB Quadrantal Bearing
RB Reduced Bearing

RL Reduced Level

SBM Site Bench Mark

TBM Temporary Bench Mark

TL Tangent Length
VA Vertical Angle
VCR Vertical Circle Reading
WCB Whole Circle Bearing

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PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................ i

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.............................................................................................................. iii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ....................................................................................... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................v

LIST OF FIGURES ..........................................................................................................................x

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... xi

1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................12

1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................12

1.2 Surveying .........................................................................................................................13

1.2.1 Primary Division of Survey .....................................................................................14

1.2.2 Classification of survey ............................................................................................16

1.3 Principles of surveying ....................................................................................................16

1.4 Accuracy and Errors ........................................................................................................19

1.5 Sources of errors ..............................................................................................................19

1.6 Kind of error ....................................................................................................................19

1.7 Permissible error ..............................................................................................................20

1.8 Objectives of Survey Camp ............................................................................................. 20

1.9 Project Area .....................................................................................................................21

1.9.1 Location and Accessibility .......................................................................................21

1.9.2 Topography and Geology ......................................................................................... 21

1.9.3 Climate, Rainfall and Vegetation .............................................................................22

1.10 Camping Schedule .......................................................................................................22

2 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY ..............................................................................................23

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 2.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................23

2.2 Brief Description of the area ...........................................................................................23

2.3 Technical Specification (Norms) .....................................................................................23

2.4 Equipment and Accessories .............................................................................................25

2.5 Methodology....................................................................................................................25

2.5.1 Reconnaissance ........................................................................................................26

2.5.2 Traversing.................................................................................................................27

2.5.3 Major Traverse .........................................................................................................28

2.5.4 Minor Traverse .........................................................................................................29

2.5.5 Coordinate Computation ..........................................................................................31

2.5.6 Detailing ...................................................................................................................31

2.5.7 Levelling ..................................................................................................................32

2.5.8 Computation and Plotting ........................................................................................40

2.5.9 Analytical Resection ................................................................................................46

2.5.10 Analytical Intersection .............................................................................................46

2.5.11 Contouring................................................................................................................48

2.5.12 Output.......................................................................................................................50

2.5.13 Comments and Conclusion.......................................................................................50

3 BRIDGE SITE SURVEY ......................................................................................................52

3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................52

3.2 Objectives ........................................................................................................................52

3.3 Brief description of the area ............................................................................................53

3.4 Hydrology, Geology and Soil ..........................................................................................53

3.5 Norms (Technical Specification) .....................................................................................53

3.6 Equipment and Accessories .............................................................................................54

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 3.7 Methodology....................................................................................................................55

3.7.1 Site Selection ............................................................................................................55

3.7.2 Control Point Fixed ..................................................................................................55

3.7.3 Topographic Survey .................................................................................................56

3.7.4 Longitudinal Section ................................................................................................57

3.7.5 Cross Section ............................................................................................................57

3.7.6 Levelling ..................................................................................................................58

3.7.7 Detailing ...................................................................................................................60

3.7.8 Computation and Plotting: .......................................................................................60

3.7.9 Comments and Conclusion.......................................................................................60

4 ROAD ALIGNMENT SURVEY ...........................................................................................61

4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................61

4.2 Objectives ........................................................................................................................61

4.3 Brief description of the area ............................................................................................62

4.4 Hydrology, Geology and Soil ..........................................................................................62

4.5 Classification of roads according to NRS (Nepal Road Standards) ................................62

4.6 Norms (Technical Specification District Road) ...............................................................63

4.7 Equipment and Accessories: ............................................................................................64

4.8 Methodology....................................................................................................................64

4.8.1 Reconnaissance ........................................................................................................64

4.8.2 Selection of road alignment and fixing of intersection point (I.P.): .........................64

4.8.3 Topographical survey: ..............................................................................................65

4.8.4 Horizontal alignment: ...............................................................................................65

4.8.5 Vertical alignment: ...................................................................................................66

4.8.6 Longitudinal section: ................................................................................................67

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4.8.7 Cross section: ...........................................................................................................67

4.8.8 Curve setting: ...........................................................................................................67

4.8.9 Structures ..................................................................................................................73

4.8.10 Computation and plotting.........................................................................................73

4.8.11 Comments and conclusion .......................................................................................74

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Primary division of Surveying ....................................................................................... 15

Figure 2: Working from Whole to the Part ................................................................................... 17
Figure 3: Location of a point by measurement from the two points of reference ......................... 18
Figure 4: Figure shown for determining Reducing Level ............................................................. 37
Figure 5: Figure for Analytical Intersection .................................................................................. 47
Figure 6: Reciprocal Levelling ...................................................................................................... 59
Figure 7: Elements for Simple Circular Curve.............................................................................. 68
Figure 8: Analytical Resection ...................................................................................................... 85
Figure 9: Analytical Intersection ................................................................................................... 86
Figure 10 Two Peg Test ................................................................................................................ 88
Figure 11: Figure showing Base Triangle and Another Triangle................................................ 112
Figure 12: Figure for Reciprocal Levelling................................................................................. 123

ix
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Table format for determining RL by Collimation Method ..............................................37

Table 2: Table format for determining RL by Rise and Fall Method ............................................38
Table 3: Comparison between Collimation method and Rise & Fall method ...............................39

x
 CHAPTER-I

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Surveying, the first step of starting a new civil engineering project, is a very important branch of
civil engineering. To understand the techniques of surveying a student must carefully study the
basics of it. Surveying includes the technique of establishing points by predetermined angular and
linear measurements. A map represents the horizontal projection of the area surveyed and not the
actual area. But the vertical distance can be represented more correctly by drawing sections.

The B.E. Survey Camp 2081, Kaluwapur, Kanchanpur organized by the Department of Civil
Engineering Survey Camp Committee, School of Engineering for the partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the Bachelor's Degree in Civil Engineering as per the syllabus of Far Western
University in the third year carrying a total of 100 marks. The total duration of the survey camp
was 10 days, from 16th of Falgun to 26th of Falgun, 2081.

This is a detailed report of the works performed by group no. 4 during the camp period. It briefly
explains the working procedures and technique along with the observations, calculations, and
methods of adjustment of error. In addition, it also contains the main problem faced during work
and their solution, results of all calculations.

The first task mainly dealt during the camping is topographic survey. The major traverse is run to
cover the entire area. As the area is very large, the overall area is divided into different parts for
detailing of minor traverse. Then each area is surveyed by the different groups. So, to cover all the
details of own area, minor traverses are established in suitable direction and position which can
control all the area. The no of station in minor traverse is kept more than two. So, we have
established two minor traverse stations for detailing. Then the topographic map of own area is
prepared and presented here. The level is first transferred from PBM to the TBM using fly
levelling. Then after TBM to the all major and minor traverse stations. All the calculation and
plotting of the above-mentioned task are presented in systematic way in this report.

The second task dealt during the camp is Bridge Site Survey. It is mainly oriented on preliminary
knowledge on selection and planning of the site for the future construction of bridge. This survey

12
focused on collecting the preliminarily data such as normal water flow, high water level, geological
features of the ground for planning and designing of the bridge. The L-section along the river, few
cross-sections of upstream and downstream of the bridge axis and topographical map of the site
and the control survey i.e., Triangulation survey is presented here. All the calculation and plotting
of the above-mentioned task are presented in systematic way in this report.

The third task dealt during the project is road alignment survey. It is mainly focused on the fixing
the alignment of the road depending on field condition. The curve designing, L-section along the
proposed road alignment, Cross-section at every 15m interval and other geological and
topographical information of the site are also presented on this report. All the calculation and
plotting of the above-mentioned task are presented in systematic way in this report.

Broadly speaking, this camp contains all type of problem of real Engineering work, which we have
to face in the future. From above mentioned points, we can conclude that this Survey Camp makes
us capable to face the problem on future and make independent to complete any type of survey
works.

The work done during the camp duration can be categorized into:

 Topographical survey
 Bridge site survey
 Road alignment survey

1.2 Surveying
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of distinctive features of surface of the
earth or beneath the surface of the earth, by the means of measurement of distances, directions and
elevations. The main objective of surveying is to prepare plans and maps of areas. Thus, the subject
emerges out to be the most important before and during all engineering works like civil engineering
works such as designing and construction of highways, water supply systems, irrigation projects,
buildings etc.

The knowledge of surveying is advantageous to many phases of engineering as it requires skills as

well as knowledge of physics, mathematics and astronomy.

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Surveying is the most essential work before and during the construction of civil engineering
projects like dam, bridge, highway, railways, buildings, irrigation project, water supply system and
many more. Most of the measurements of length in surveying is taken as horizontal it's because
the main objective of surveying is to prepare the plan or map this means the horizontal projection
of the land.

Surveying is the initial sets of work that is done before the execution of any civil engineering
projects. Surveying is not a new science rather it is the science that has been developing since the
initial stage of human civilization according to their requirements. The map preparation that is
done after surveying is not a new thing but the instrument that was used in ancient times is not
same to the instruments that are used today. The surveying that used to take a long time can now
be completed in a fraction of that time. In the absence of the map, it is nearly impossible to layout
the alignments of road, canals tunnels, transmission power line, and microwave or television
relaying towers and so on in an effective manner. Hence the surveying is an important aspect of a
project and is a most.

1.2.1 Primary Division of Survey

As to whether the surveyor must retard the earth surface as curved or may regard it is a plane
depends upon the character and magnitude of the survey, and upon the precision required.
Primarily, surveying can be divided into plane and geodetic.

In plane surveying, mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and spheroidal shape is
neglected, all triangle formed are considered as plane triangles, level line is considered as straight
and plumb line are considered parallel. It is reasonable for the area involving less than 260 sq. km.
since length of an arc 12 km long lying on the earth surface is only 1 cm greater than the subs
tended chord. And the difference between the sum of angles in a plane triangle and sum of those
in spherical triangle is only 1 second for a triangle at the earth surface having area of 195 sq. km.

In geodetic surveying, the shape of the earth is taken into account. All lines are curved line, all
triangle are spherical triangle so, it involves spherical trigonometry. The object of geodetic survey
is to determine the precise position on the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant point
which forms the control station to which survey of less precision may be referred.

14
The earth is an oblate spheroid of revolutions, the length of its polar axis (12,713,800 meters) being
somewhat less than that of its equatorial axis (12,756,750 meters). Thus, the polar axis is shorter
than the equatorial axis by 42.95 kilometers. Relative to the diameter of the earth this is less than
0.34 percent.

If we neglect the irregularities of the earth, the surface of the imaginary spheroid is a curved
surface, every element of which is normal to the plumb line. The intersection of such a surface
with a plane passing through the center of the earth will form a line continuous around the earth.
The portion of such a line is known as ‘level line’ and the circle defined by the intersection is
known as ‘great circle’.

In Fig., the distance between two points P and Q is the length of the arc of the great circle passing
through these points and is evidently somewhat more than the chord intercepted by the arc.
Consider three points P, Q and R (Fig.) and three level lines passing through these points. The
surface within the triangle PQR so formed is a curved surface and the lines forming its sides are
arcs of great circles. The figure is a spherical triangle. The angles p, q and r of the spherical triangle
are somewhat more than corresponding angles p′ q′ and r′ of the plane triangle. If the points are far
away, the difference will be considerable. If the points are nearer, the difference will be negligible.

As to whether the surveyor must regard the earth’s surface as curved or may regard it is as plane
depends upon the character and magnitude of the survey, and upon the precision required.

Figure 1: Primary division of Surveying

15
1.2.2 Classification of survey
Survey may be classified on the different heading depending upon the uses or purpose of resulting
map.

A. Based on Nature of Field Survey:

 Land Survey
 Hydrographic survey
 Astronomical survey
B. Based on object of survey:
 Engineering survey
 Military survey
 Mine survey
 Geological survey
 Archaeological survey
C. Based on Instrument used:
 Chain survey
 Theodolite survey
 Traverse survey
 Triangulation survey
 Tachometric survey
 Plane table survey
 Photogrammetric survey
 Aerial survey

1.3 Principles of surveying

The fundamental principles of plane surveying are:
1. Working from whole to the part

16
 The main principle of surveying is to work from whole to the part. To achieve this in actual
practice, sufficient number of control points, are established with higher precision in and
around the area to be detail surveyed. Minor control points in between the primary control
points, are established with less precise method. Further details are surveyed with the help
of these minor control points by adopting any one of the survey methods. The main idea of
working from the whole to the part is to prevent accumulation of errors and to localize
minor error within the frame works of the control points. On the other hand, if survey is
carried out from the part to the whole, the errors would expand to greater magnitudes and
the scale of the survey will be distorted beyond control.

Figure 2: Working from Whole to the Part

2. Location of a point by measurement from the two points of reference

In this principle of surveying, the control points are selected in the area and the distance
between them is measured accurately. The line is then plotted to a convenient scale on a
drawing sheet. In case, the control points are coordinated, their locations may be plotted
with the system of co-ordinates i.e. Cartesian or spherical. Simply the relative position of
points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at least two (preferably three)
points of reference, the position of which have already been fixed. The location of

17
 the required point may then be plotted by making two measurements from the given control
points as shown below:

Figure 3: Location of a point by measurement from the two points of reference

3. Consistency in the work

Survey work should be consistent in linear as well as in angular and in any other
measurement. Consistency of work is measured in respect of accuracy obtained in
the different measurement works with the different instrument of same precision.
The survey work should be performed by keeping consistency in method,
instrument, observer etc. to get desired level of accuracy.

4. Economy of Accuracy

Accuracy in survey works does not represent for a constant amount, it represents
the certain range of perfection required. We should try to achieve that range of
accuracy which represents that work with required degree of perfection. If we try
to achieve the accuracy much greater than the required accuracy, survey work will
become less economical due to wastage of time, money and effort. Similarly, if we

18
 target the accuracy much lower than that of required, the result will show to repeat
the same works. Proper method and proper instrument should be used depending
upon amount of accuracy required. Accuracy of angular and linear values should
be compatible.

5. Independent check:

Error check during surveying is more important job. We should check in linear
as well as in angular observations independently. Every measurement taken in
the field must be checked by some independent field observation so that the
mistake is not passed unnoticed.
1.4 Accuracy and Errors
Precision is the degree of perfection used in the instrument, the methods and the observations.
Accuracy is the degree of perfection obtained which depend on precise instrument to simplify the
work, save time and provide economy, on precise method to reduce the effect of all type of error,
and good planning to save time and reduce the possibility of errors. The important function of
surveyor is to secure measurements which are correct within a certain limit of error prescribed by
nature and purpose of particular survey. A discrepancy is the difference between two measured
values of the same quantity, it is not an error.

1.5 Sources of errors

Error may arise from these sources:

1. Instrumental error: Error arising due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the instrument
with which measurement is being taken. E.g. a tape too short.
2. Personal error: Error arising due to want of perfection of human sight in observing and of
touch in manipulating instrument. E.g. error in taking level reading.
3. Natural error: Error due to variation in natural phenomenon such as temperature, refraction,
magnetic declination etc.

1.6 Kind of error

Error may be classified as:

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 1. Mistake: Error arising from inattention, inexperience, carelessness and confusion in the
mind of observer. If undetected, it produces a serious effect. Hence, every measurement to
be recorded in the field must be checked by independent check.
2. Systematic error: Error that under the same condition will always be of same size and sign,
a correction can be determined and applied, these make the result too great or too small
accordingly treated as positive or negative error.
3. Accidental error: Are those which remain after mistake and systematic error have been
eliminated and caused by a combination of reason beyond the ability of observer to control.
They tend sometimes in one direction sometimes in other. Accidental error represented the
limit of precision in the determination of value.

1.7 Permissible error

It is the maximum allowable limit that a measurement may vary from the true value or from a
value previously adopted is correct. Its magnitude in any given case depends upon the scale,
purpose of the survey, the instrument available, class of the work etc. the limit of error cannot be
given once for all. The best surveyor is not he, who is extremely accurate in all his work, but he
who does it just accurately enough for the purpose without waste of time and money.

1.8 Objectives of Survey Camp

The main objectives of survey camp are as follows:

i. To consolidate & update theoretical and practical knowledge in

surveying.
ii. To make familiar with Method, Accuracy and Handling of instruments.
iii. To develop confidence for surveying in actual field conditions and
problems.
iv. To collect required data in the field in systematic way.
v. To enhance the capacity of computations, adjustment and plotting.
vi. To complete the assigned work within scheduled time.
vii. To enable to prepare a Report on survey work.

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1.9 Project Area
1.9.1 Location and Accessibility
The project area for our survey camp was located at Ward no. 11 Kaluwapur, Shuklaphanta
Municipality at 28°54'02"N and 80°22'00"E about 22km east from Far-Western University,
Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur. The project area was easily accessible as it was about 100m south from
the East-west highway.

1.9.2 Topography and Geology

Kaluwapur has gently rolling topography. It is covered with forest & partially populated. The area
contains ground features ranging from rolling slope to almost flat grounds. These features were
shown by contours. The area also shows a variation in the elevation up to 6m. The geological
structure is in good condition, so there is no any geological disasters and eruption. The soil is of
alluvial type and soil near project area is also well suitable for cultivation. No any rock type
structure.

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1.9.3 Climate, Rainfall and Vegetation
The project area has moderate climate condition and very low rain fall. The climate of Kaluwapur
varies seasonably. The area is situated at the height of more than 200m. above the sea level. Hence
summer is warm with the maximum and minimum temperature 40˚C and 18˚C. Winter is cold with
maximum and minimum temperature of 24˚C and 8˚C. However, in winter days are sunny and a bit
warm. The average rainfall in Kaluwapur area is measured by rain gauge station located at 500m
south of Kaluwapur. Moderate rainfall occurred during our survey camp in the project area. The
project area was full of vegetation almost paddy and pea mixed type of cropping.

1.10 Camping Schedule

Survey camp was scheduled for 10 days starting from of 16th of Falgun to 26th of Falgun. Field
work in the camp started from 7:00 AM to 6.00 PM.

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 CHAPTER-II

2 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

Topographical surveys or land surveys are detailed accurate plan drawings identifying both natural
and man-made features within a specified area. The plan will show all features such as buildings,
boundaries, services covers and site levels. Topographic surveys are three dimensional, they
provide the techniques of plane surveying and other special techniques to establish both horizontal
and vertical control. The topographic maps are very essential for the planning and designing of the
most of the engineering projects such as highways, design of irrigation and drainage systems,
developments of water power, layout of the industrial plants and city plannings. Topographic is
simply the graphical representation of the earth’s surface.

Hence the fieldwork in a topographical surveying consists of three parts.

i. It establishes both horizontal and vertical control.

ii. It locates the contours.
iii. It locates the details such as rivers, streams, lakes, roads, houses and trees etc.

2.1 Objectives
The main Objective is to prepare the topographic map of the given area with horizontal control
and vertical control with required accuracy. This also includes the calculation and diagrammatic
Representation of the area with the help of coordinates in the paper with gridlines.

2.2 Brief Description of the area

A survey was conducted near Kaluwapur Bazaar in Shuklaphanta Municipality–11 Kanchanpur,
starting about 240 meters south of the east-west highway. The traverse covered parts of the national
highway, a health post, and the ward office of Shuklaphanta Municipality - 11. The objective was to
create a topographic map of the surveyed area, including features like Chautaro and the primary health
post.

2.3 Technical Specification (Norms)

 Conduct reconnaissance survey of the given area. Form a close traverse (major and minor)
around the perimeter of the area by making traverse station. In the selection of the traverse

23
 station the ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg should be equal to or
less than 1:2 for major traverse and 1:3 for minor traverse.
 Measure the traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions by means of a total station
provided in the field, note that discrepancy between forward and backward measurement
should be lesser than 1:5000 for major traverse and 1:3000 for minor traverse.
 Traverse angles were observed on two set for major traverse and one set for minor traverse.
The difference between two set reading within 20 second also notice that difference
between face left and face right is within 180°±20 seconds.
 Perform two-peg test before the start of leveling. Note that collimation error should be less
than 1:10000. Maintain equal fore sight and back sight distances to eliminate collimation
error. Permissible error for ordinary leveling is 25√k mm. where k is the distance in
kilometer, Given RL of PBM =213.500m
 Balance the traverse. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles of the
traverse should be less than ±30"√N and ±1'√N for major and minor traverse respectively.
The sum of interior/exterior angles in a closed traverse was found to be equal to (2n-4) *
90° where, n is total number of stations. For major and minor traverse, the relative closing
error found to be less than 1:5000 and 1:3000 respectively.
 Distribute the error to all traverse leg and finally find the corrected angle.
 Calculate bearing of all line using following formula:

Bearing of next line(θ) = Bearing of Previous line + Included angle ± 180° - 540°

 Calculate Latitude and Departure as, Lat = Lcos(θ)and Dep = Lsin(θ)

 Find Total sum of Latitude and Departure
 For Closed loop, the total sum of Latitude and Departure must be zero. Then, calculate the
closing error as Closing error =√ (ΣLat2 + ΣDep2) and accuracy =1/ (Length of
perimeter/Error)
 Distribute the error using Bowditch or Transit rule. Bowditch rule distributes the error to
each traverse according to their respective length. Bowditch method is used when both
linear and angular distribution are of equal precision. We use Bowditch rule for distributing
the error.

24
  Plot the major and minor traverse stations by coordinate method in appropriate scale
(1:1000 for major traverse and 1:500 for minor traverse) in grid sheet.
 Carry out the detail survey of the given sub area by total station and tachometric surveying
with reference to the major and minor traverse, which have been already plotted. Use
conventional symbols for plotting.

2.4 Equipment and Accessories

1. Total Station
2. Theodolite
3. Leveling staffs (5m)
4. Ranging Rods
5. Measuring Tapes (50m)
6. Leveling instrument
7. Hammer
8. Pegs
9. Tripod stand
10. Plumb bob
11. Compass
12. Prism
13. Prism Clamp
14. Marker
15. Reflector
16. Field Book, Drawing Paper, Grid sheet etc.

2.5 Methodology
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying. They are as follows:

1. Working from whole to a part.

2. Independent check
3. Consistency of work
4. Accuracy required

The different methodologies were used in surveying to solve the problems that arise in the

25
field are as follows:

2.5.1 Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance means the exploration or scouting of an area. In survey, it involves walking around
the survey area and roughly planning the number of stations and the position of the traverse
stations. Reconnaissance is primarily done to get an overall idea of the site. This helps to make the
necessary observations regarding the total area, type of land, topography, vegetation, climate,
geology and intervisibility conditions that help in detailed planning. The following points have to
be taken into consideration for fixing traverse stations:

 The adjacent stations should be clearly intervisible.

 The whole area should include the least number of stations possible.
 The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as far as possible, which may
cause inaccuracy in taping.
 The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid the refraction
 Thinking the above given points into consideration, the traverse stations were fixed. Then
two-way taping was done for each traverse leg.

2.5.1.1 Field Procedure

 Reconnaissance survey of the provided area was performed, and then closed major traverse
was established, consisting minor traverse framework within or outside the major
framework.
 Inspection of whole area was done by walking all over the site.
 When selecting the stations, ensured that they have direct line of sight to one another and
obstacles between them was avoided as far as possible.

2.5.1.2 Technical Specification

After recci, fixing of station it is ensured in such a way that;

For major traverse:

26
  Traverse was made to run in anticlockwise direction, and work was performed in that
direction.
 Leg ratio was maintained within 2:1. Leg ratio means the ratio of the length of the longest
leg to that of the shortest leg. Leg ratio higher than 2:1 is considered inappropriate as it
leads to disproportionate balancing during the Bowditch Method of correction to closing
error.
 We did not let the traverse leg form an angle less than 30° and within 180° ± 20".
 Stations was properly spaced such that the whole area can be surveyed with the least
number of stations.
 A more or less leveled surface were sought, avoiding steep slopes and badly broken
grounds, to ensure the setting up of the tripod will be safe and easy.
 The Traverse line of sight should not pass near the ground level to avoid refraction, we
maintained it in the field.

For minor traverse:

 Leg ratio up to 3:1 was allowed. It was maintained within 3:1

 Stations were maintained in such a way that they were located at the commanding location
from where a large area can be controlled at a single instrument setup.

2.5.2 Traversing
Traversing is a type of surveying in which a number of connected survey lines form the framework.
It is also a method of control surveying. The survey consists of the measurement of

 Angle between successive lines or bearing of each line

 The length of each line

There are two types of traverses. They are as follows:

i. Close Traverse

The traverse in which final station coincide with initial station is called closed traverse. In other
words, the traverse in which traverse line runs in between known co-ordinates is also known as
close traverse. Linked traverse is one of the examples of closed traverse.

ii. Open Traverse

27
The traverse in which final station does not coincide with initial station is called open traverse.

Theodolite traversing is defined as the course taken when measuring a connected series of straight
lines, each line joining two points on the ground. These points are called traverse station. The
straight line between two consecutive traverse stations is called a traverse leg The angle at any
station between two consecutive traverse legs is known as traverse angle.

The directions and the lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an angle-measuring
instrument such as Theodolite and a tape. If the co-ordinates of the first station and the bearing of
the first line are known, the co-ordinates of all successive points can be computed as follows:

XB= XA+ L cosθ

YB= YA+ L sinθ

Where, L=Length of traverse leg

2.5.3 Major Traverse

The skeleton of lines joining those control points, which covers the whole entire area, is caller
Major Traverse. It is a controlling framework in which the angle and distance measurements are
done in a highly precise manner. It should run in anticlockwise direction.

2.5.3.1 Field Procedure

 Referencing of each traverse station was taken and shown in sketch which had done by
taking measurements from three permanent points making Y-shape and orienting the sketch
approximately towards the north direction.
 Station pegs were marked as 4Ml for major traverse.
 Prefix number 4 was our survey camp group number.
 Letter M denoted the Major traverse station.
 Suffix number denoted the traverse station number.
 We used the same notation in plotting except for common station (used CP1 and CP2 for
common station).
 16 major control stations were formed which included 4M1, 4M2, .....4M14 and two
reference control points CP1 and CP2.

28
  Distance of each leg was measured in both forward and backward direction with precision
ratio within 1:5000 using EDM.
 Two sets (0° set and 90º set) of horizontal angle observation were done. In each set, face
left and face right observations were taken.
 The sum of interior angle was observed 2520° 00' 49" with error 0' 49" which is within
permissible limit.
 Precision of total length was obtained with precision.

2.5.3.2 Technical Specification

Horizontal Control (Angular Measurement)

 Two sets of horizontal circle reading of major traverse stations were taken by Total Station.
The difference between face left and face right reading was maintained within 180°±20"
and the difference between the mean angles of two sets reading was observed within a
minute.
 The traverse was balanced by proper way adjusting angular and linear closing errors. The
theoretical sum of interior/exterior angles in a closed traverse should be equal to (2n-4) *
90º. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles of the traverse should be
less than 30"√n for major traverse, it was accurately observed within permissible limit.

Horizontal control (Linear Measurement)

 Two-way traverse leg distance was measured (i.e. in the forward and backward directions)
by total station.
 The precision for major traverse on forward and backward distance measurements by Total
Station should be ≥1:5000, which was precisely observed by taking observations.
 Relative precision or total error of closure should be less than 1:5000 for major traverse
which was precisely observed.

2.5.4 Minor Traverse

For the detailed topographical survey, the detail points may not be sufficiently obtained from the
control stations of the major traverse. For this minor traverse need to be laid. Minor traverse is that
one which runs through the area to make detailing easy. Minor Traverse covers only small area.
Less precise work than that of major traverse is acceptable so that single set reading is sufficient.

29
The minor traverse had 3 control stations. The stations were named as 4ml, 4m2 and 4m3. The leg
ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was maintained within 3:1. The precision
in length between the forward measurements and the backward measurements of all the traverse
legs was within 1:3000.

2.5.4.1 Field Procedure

 Referencing of each traverse station was taken and shown in sketch which had done by
taking measurements from three permanent points making Y-shape and orienting the
sketch approximately towards the north direction.
 Station pegs were marked as 4ml for major traverse.
 Prefix number 4 was our survey camp group number.
 Letter m denoted the minor traverse station.
 Suffix number 1 denoted the traverse station number.
 Two minor stations were fixed between 4M3 and 4M11, named 4m1, 4m2 and 4m3.
 Distance of each leg was measured in both forward and backward direction with precision
ratio within 1:3000 using EDM.
 Single set of horizontal angle observation were taken. In this set of observation, face left
and face right observations were taken.
2.5.4.2 Technical Specification
Horizontal Control (Angular Measurement)

 Single set of horizontal circles reading of major traverse stations were taken by Total
Station. The difference between face left and face right reading was maintained within
180°±20"
 The interior angle required to be observed was (n+2), where n= no of minor stations.
 The traverse was balanced by proper way adjusting angular and linear closing errors. The
theoretical sum of interior/exterior angles in a closed traverse should be equal to (2n-4) *
90º. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles of the traverse should be
less than l'√N for minor traverse, it was accurately observed within permissible limit.

30
  The bearings of legs were calculated and applied check in bearing of leg 7M9-7M10, the
allowable error in bearing is ±1.5' √N.

Horizontal Control (Linear Measurement)

 Two-way traverse leg distance was measured (i.e. in the forward and backward directions)
by total station.
 The horizontal distance required to be observed was (n+1), where n=no of minor stations.
 The precision for minor traverse on forward and backward distance measurements by Total
Station should be ≥1:3000, which was precisely observed by taking observation of
minimum two times.
 Relative precision or total error of closure should be less than 1:3000 for minor traverse
which was precisely obtained.

2.5.5 Coordinate Computation

The length of the traverse is measured by total station. The traverse angles are measured with a
total station by setting up the instrument at each station. The bearing of the CPI-CP2 traverse leg
was given and the entire traverse angle measured the bearing of all the legs can be calculated by:

Bearing of next line (θ) = Previous line bearing(θ) + Included angle ± 180° - 540°

If θ is the bearing of line and L be the length of that line and provided that co-ordinate of the Bench
Mark (BM) is known, then we can calculate the co-ordinate of the point 'A' can be calculated.

X-Coordinate of A = X-Coordinate of BM + Departure (L sin θ)

Y-Coordinate of A = Y-Coordinate of BM + Latitude (L cos θ)

2.5.6 Detailing
Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing can be done by either
plane table surveying or tachometric surveying. Plane tabling needs less office work than
tachometric survey. Nevertheless, during our camp, we used the tachometric method.

2.5.6.1 Tachometry
Tachometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of
points are obtained by optical means. Though it only has accuracy about 1/3000 to 1/5000, it is
faster and convenient then the measurements by tape or chain.

31
It is very suitable for steep or broken ground, deep ravines, and stretches of water or swamp where
taping is impossible and unreliable.

The objective of tachometry survey is to prepare of contour maps or plans with both horizontal
and vertical controls. For the survey of high accuracy, it provides a check on the distances
measured by tape.

The formula for the horizontal distances is

H = K*S* Cos2 θ + C Cos θ

The formula for the vertical distances is

V = K*S*(Sin(2θ) / 2) + C Sin θ

Where, K=100, C=0 (for analytical lens)

S = staff intercept

θ = Vertical Angle

If the angle is used in zenithal angle than,

H = 100*S* Cos2 θ

V = 100*S*(Sin(2θ) /2)

Where, θ = Zenithal Angle

2.5.7 Levelling
Levelling is an art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth or beneath
the surface of the earth.

Levelling is the branch of surveying of the object which is:

1. To find the elevation of given points with respect to given or assumed datum.
2. To establish points at a given elevations or at different elevations with respect to a given
or assumed datum.

32
The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second operation is
required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals with measurements
in a vertical plane.

To provide vertical controls in topographic map, the elevation of the relevant points must be known
so that complete topography of the area cab be explored.

Two types of levelling were performed at the site, namely direct levelling (spirit levelling) and
indirect levelling (trigonometric levelling).

1. Direct Leveling

It is the branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line
(perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative difference in
elevation between two adjacent points. A level provides horizontal line of sight, i.e. a line
tangential to a level surface at the point where the instrument stands. The difference in elevation
between two points is the vertical distance between two level lines. With a level set up at any place,
the difference in elevation between any points within proper lengths of sight is given by the
difference between the rod reading taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations
and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained.

Following are some special methods of direct (spirit) levelling:

a) Differential levelling:

It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to determine the difference in
elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the points with respect of each
other. This type of levelling is also known as fly levelling.

b) Profile levelling:

It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is to determine the elevations of points at
measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line.

33
 c) Cross-sectioning:

Cross-sectioning or cross levelling is the process of taking levels on each side of main line at right
angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the surface of the ground, or of
underlying strata, or of both.

d) Reciprocal levelling:

It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two points is accurately
determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible to set up the level between
the two points.

2. Indirect Levelling

Indirect method or trigonometric levelling is the process of levelling in which the elevations of
points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances in the field, just as the length
of any side in any triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric relations.

2.1. Temporary adjustment of level:

The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following:

i. Setting up the level:

The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the stand and leveling the instrument
approximately.

ii. Leveling up:

Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels. The
purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical. It is done bv adiusting the screws.

iii. Removal of parallax:

Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective is not in the lane of the cross hairs.
Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross hairs and by
focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross hairs.

34
 2.2. Permanent adjustment of level:

To check for the permanent adjustment so level Two peg test is done;

Before starting fly levelling, two peg test was carried out to check the accuracy of the level used.

 In a perfect level the line of collimation should be perpendicular to the vertical axis and
parallel to the axis of level tube.
 With constant use and mishandling of instrument, it may go out of perfect adjustments.
 Two peg Test is conducted to check the perfectness of instrument (whether the line of
collimation is perpendicular to the vertical axis and parallel to axis of the level tube or not).
 If the leveling instrument is not in perfect condition (the precision obtained is less than 1
in 10,000) then per anent adjustment is required.

To conduct two peg test, two points were fixed on a level firm ground at distance of about 40m &
two set observations were taken.

When instrument is placed in between A and B:

 Points A and B were selected on fairly level ground ad a distance 40m.

 The auto level was set (centered, leveled) at point P, exactly at midway between the points
A and B on the line AB.
 The levelling staff was held vertically (not allowed to tilt slightly) at points A and B and
the staff readings were taken.

Say, the staff reading at A is 'a' and the staff reading at B is "b'.

As the distances of the staff A & B from the level are equal, the errors due to inclined sight, if any,
will be equal. (error at A = error at B = error/ea=eb=e). So correct staff reading at A is (a - c) &
correct staff reading at B is (b - c).

Level difference between A & B is h,

assuming B was higher than A;

h=correct staff reading at A - correct staff reading at B

h=(a-ea) - (b-eb) = a - e - b + e = a - b

35
True Level Difference between A and B is, h= a - b

When instrument is placed near A:

 The level was shifted near A at a distance of d=D/10 from A on the line AB produced.
 After setting the level at E, the staff was vertically held at point A & B, and the staff
readings were taken.

Say, staff reading at A is equal to = a1 & staff reading at B is equal to = bl

Level difference between point A and B is h1.

Hl=staff reading at A - Staff reading at B = al - bl

Apparent level difference between point A & B is, h1 =al - bl

2.5.7.1 Methods of Reducing Levels - HI and Rise & Fall Method, Arithmetic checks
There are two methods of working out the reduced levels of the point from the staff readings taken
in the field:

i. Height of Instrument or Collimation Method, and

ii. Rise and Fall Method.
1. Collimation Method:

It consists in finding the elevation of the plane of collimation i.e. (H.I.) for every setting of the
instrument and then obtaining the reduced levels of the points with reference to the respective plan
of collimation.

To start with, the H.I is calculated by adding the back sight of the R.L. of the starting point. The
reduced levels of the intermediate point and the first change point are then obtained by subtracting
the respective readings from the H.I. When the instrument is shifted, a new plane of collimation is
set up and the height of which is calculated by adding back sight reading to the R.L. of the first
change point.

36
The reduced levels of the successive points and the second change point are found out by
subtracting their staff readings from this new H.I. The process is repeated until all the RLs are
worked out, and then the arithmetical check is applied.

Figure 4: Figure shown for determining Reducing Level

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks

Table 1: Table format for determining RL by Collimation Method

Arithmetical Check:

The difference between the sum of the back sights and the sum of the fore sights should be equal to
the difference of the first and the last RLs

i.e. Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. -First R.L.

This check verifies the calculation of R.Ls. of the planes of collimation and of the change points
only. There is no check on the reduction of R.Ls. of the intermediate points.

2. Rise and Fall Method:

In this method, the difference between consecutive points is calculated by comparing each point
after the first with that immediately preceding it. The difference of their staff reading indicates rise
or fall according as any staff reading is smaller or greater than that at the preceding point. The R.L.

37
of each point is then found by adding rise or subtracting fall to or from the R.L. of the preceding
point.

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

Table 2: Table format for determining RL by Rise and Fall Method

If a staff reading (fore reading) is greater than that at the preceding point, then there is fall and if
smaller than there is a rise.

Arithmetical Check:

In this method, there are three checks on the accuracy of reduction of levels. The difference
between the sum of the back sights and the sum of the fore sights is equal to the difference between
the sum of the rises and that of the falls is equal to the difference between the first and the last RLs.

i.e. Σ B S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ fall = Last R.L. – 1st R.L.

Comparison of the Collimation and Rise and Fall Methods of Reduction of Levels:

S.N. Collimation method Rise and fall method

1. In the case of more intermediate readings,It is a laborious method as staff reading of each
there is considerable saving of labor andpoint on the ground, after the first is compared
time as it involves only a with that preceding it, and the difference of

few calculations. level entered as a rise or fall.

2. There is no check on the RLs of There is a complete check on the reduction of

intermediate stations. RLs. of intermediate stations.

3. There are two checks for arithmeticalThere are three checks for arithmetical accuracy.
accuracy i.e. the difference between theThe difference between the sum of the back sights
sum of back sights of fore sights should be and the sum of the fore sights should be equal to

38
 S.N. Collimation method Rise and fall method

equal to the difference of the Ist and last that between the sum of the sum of rises and the
R.Ls. sum of the falls as well as that

between the Ist. and the last R.Ls.

4. It is generally used for longitudinal andIt is generally used for earth work calculationsand
cross levelling operations and for givingother precise levelling operations.
levels of roads and canals and

similar constructional works.

5. Errors if any in intermediate sights Errors in intermediate sights are noticed as

are not detected. these are used for finding out rises and falls.

Table 3: Comparison between Collimation method and Rise & Fall method

2.5.7.2 Fly Levelling

The fly levelling was carried out between PBM and TBM, where one site bench mark was fixed
between them (i.e. SBM1) and check levelling were performed to check the results.

2.5.7.2.1 Technical Specification

 To check the accuracy of leveling work, Permissible Closing Error-24√K mm where K is
loop distance in km.
 In this leveling balance sights were taken (B.S. distance - F.S. distance to neutralize or
minimize the effect collimation, refraction & curvature. The permissible difference in BS
distance & FS distance is 1 m)
 Three wires (Top, Middle & Bottom) readings were taken, to compute horizontal distance
between Instrument & staff and also to check the observed reading. (Distance=100*(Top-

39
 Bottom reading) = 100*S & (T+M+B)/3 = Middle reading, ±3 mm difference is
permissible)
 The staff reading was kept in between 0.6 to 2 m to reduce the effect of curvature, refraction
& non-verticality of staff.

2.5.8 Computation and Plotting

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method (latitude and departure
method).

In this method, two terms latitude and departure are used for calculation. Latitude of a survey line
may be defined as its coordinate lengths measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction. The
latitude (L) of a line is positive when measured towards north, and termed Northing and it is
negative when measured towards south, and termed Southing. The departure (D) of a line is
positive when measured towards east, and termed Easting and it is negative when measured
towards south, and termed Westing.

The latitude and departures of each control station can be calculated using the relation

Latitude = L Cos θ and Departure = L Sin θ

Where, L=distance of the traverse legs

θ = Whole Circle Bearing

40
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of the traverse will not
coincide exactly with the starting point. Such error is known as closing error.

Mathematically,

Closing error =√ΣLat2 + ΣDep2

Accuracy = 1/(Length/Error)

2.5.8.1 Computation and Plotting of Major Traverse

 Interior angles were observed, error was computed, correction can be applied and finally
corrected interior angles was computed.
 Observed sum of interior angle Addition of all observed angles
 Theoretical sum of interior angle = (2n-4) * 90°
 Error (e) - Sum of observed angle - Sum of theoretical angle
 If Error (e) < Permissible Error (p.e.), then calculate the correct angle by subtracting or
adding error equally to all the angles but avoid the fractional distribution, by subtracting
or adding more in large angle
 The observed interior angle was within precision and it was corrected by applying
correction.
 The bearing of one line CP| and CP2 was observed by using compass.
 The bearing of remaining sides was calculated with the help of known bearing and
observed horizontal angle, where traverse progress is in anti-clockwise direction.

2.5.8.1.1 Computation analysis

Bearing of any line = Bearing of preceding line + Included angle ± 180° or - 540°

Knowing the Length and bearing of traverse sides, Latitude (L) & Departure (D) of all the sides
were calculated.

Latitude (L) = L cos θ & Departure (D) = Lsin θ

The algebraic sum of all the Latitude & Departure should be zero if there was no error but due to
error in observations, the algebraic sum of all the Latitude & Departure occurred as Δ L & Δ D.
Then, the magnitude & direction of closing was computed.
41
Magnitude of closing error = (Δ L)2 + (ΔD)2

Direction of closing error (θ) = tan-1 (Δ𝐷)

Δ𝐿

Δ L) in Reduced Bearing (R.B.) system

Permissible closing error = 1 in 5000 (measurement was taken with Total station)

If error is less than permissible error, then coordinates is balanced by Bowditch's method or by
Transit method.

 In our observation, the error was less than permissible error, then the coordinates were
balanced by Bowditch's method.

Relative closing error:

The closing error is commonly expressed as a fraction having the numerator equal to unity and
this fraction is called relative closing error. It is computed with reference of perimeter of the
traverse.

Relative closing error = closing error / Perimeter of traverse = 𝑒 = 1

𝑝 𝑝/𝑒

2.5.8.1.2 Balancing of traverse

To balance the traverse, total error in Latitude & Departure was determined. Then magnitude of
closing error was determined. If closing error is less than permissible error then errors an adjusted
in such way that algebraic sum of all the latitudes and departure should be equal to zero, means
sum of northing should be equal to sum of southing and sum of easting should be equal to sum of
westing. The traverse can be balanced by using one of the following methods:

1. Bowditch’s Method

2. Transit Method

1. Bowditch's Method:

This method is used to balance the traverse when angular and linear measurements are taken in
equal precision during field observations. The error in latitude and departure is distributed in
proportion to the lengths of the sides. It is most common method used in balancing the traverse.
42
 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧 𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 × 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞
Correction to Latitude of any side =
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧 𝐃𝐞𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 × 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞

Correction to Departure of any side =
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞

2. Transit Method:

This method is used to balance the traverse when angular measurements are taken more precisely
than linear measurements during field observations. The error in latitude and departure is
distributed in proportion to the latitudes and departure of the sides.

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧 𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 × 𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞

Correction to Latitude of any side =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧 𝐃𝐞𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 × 𝐃𝐞𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞

Correction to Departure of any side =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞

We applied Bowditch’s method to balance the major traverse.

Calculation of Independent coordinate:

Coordinate (Easting) of new point = Coordinate (Easting) of known point +

Length of side × Sin (bearing of sides)

Coordinate (Northing) of new point = Coordinate (Northing) of known point +

Length of side × Cos (bearing of sides)

Example,

Coordinate of point B is, EB = EA+ L× sinθ

NB = NA+ L × cosθ

2.5.8.1.3 Plotting
Knowing X, Y & Z (Easting, Northing & Elevation) co-ordinates of traverse points, traverse was

plotted on drawing paper. Major traverse was plotted in scale of 1: 1000 & minor traverse in scale

of 1: 500. Plotting of balanced traverse was done and was plotted as,
43
1. The co-ordinates of traverse stations were listed.

2. The maximum Northing & Minimum Northing was noted.

3. The required length for plotting was computed (Max. Northing - Min. Northing).

4. The available length in N-S direction (Length between upper side & lower side of drawing

sheet) was measured.

5. The difference between available length & required length was calculated. It gave us the

total margin on drawing sheet.

6. Now the margin had given at Top & Bottom equal to half of the total margin.

7. Now the suitable value of co-ordinate at starting point of Northing was selected.

8. Similarly, the maximum Easting & minimum Easting was Noted, required length in E-W

direction was computed, available length in E-W direction was measured, the difference

between available & required length was computed to compute the total margin, the margin

was given at left and right side equal to half of the total margin & finally the suitable value

of co-ordinate is selected at starting point of Easting.

9. Now plotting of balanced major traverse was done.

44
45
2.5.9 Analytical Resection
Resection is the process used for determining the position of unknown point with the help of
already defined known coordinated points. The readings are taken from the unknown points by
placing instrument at the unknown point. Either two-point resection or three-point resection can
be performed. We performed three-point resection in the field by using Tienstra Formula.

 To determine the co-ordinate of unknown traverse station over which the Total station /
Theodolite is set-up with reference to National Grid Points, we should observe two set
horizontal angle at unknown traverse station towards three known points of National Grid
performing Analytical Resection.
 We can use Tienstra formula, Collins method or Φ -45 method. However, we used
Tienstra formula in the field.
 If it is difficult to observe National Grid point from any traverse station then a link traverse
can be established near the Major traverse station.

2.5.10 Analytical Intersection

It is the method of determining the position of unknown points by means of observations of
horizontal & vertical angles from at least two/ three known points towards the unknown point
whose position is to be determined.

46
A minimum of two control stations is required for this operation, with the unknown point visible
from each of them. It is not essential that the control stations are inter-visible, but it makes it easier
if they are.

The total station is set up at each of the stations (control points) A, B and C in turn. At station A,
the telescope is first sighted on B and then transited round to P, measuring the angle a. Similarly,
at B the angle b between line BA and line BP. Similarly, at C the angle c between line CB and CP.

 Let A, B & C be the three known points of the Traverse & we have to find the coordinate
of distant point P by analytical Intersection.
 Observation of horizontal angle at pt. A, B &C were done as shown in figure.
 We observed Two Set clockwise horizontal angle at A, B &C by closing horizon. That is
angle between AT &AB, AB &AT; BA & BT, BT &BC, BC &BA and CB & CT, CT &CB
(<TAB & <BAT; < ABT, < TBC &<CBA; <BCT & <TCB)
 We Checked and Computed error, compared with permissible error & adjusted it.
 Finally, the computed Mean angle <TAB, <ABT, <TBC &<BCT.

C
A

B
Figure 5: Figure for Analytical Intersection

Computation:

In Δ TAB,

<TAB = Known, <ABT= Known, &<BTA= Can be computed. (. i.e. 180°- <A - <B)

Side, AB can be Computed, AB = √ [(NB - NA)2 + (BA - EB)2]

47
Now the sides AT & BT can be computed using sine law,

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐶

𝐸𝐵−𝐸𝐴
Then, we Computed the Bearing of line AB = tan−1
𝑁𝐵−𝑁𝐴

Now, Bearing of AT = Bearing of AB - Horizontal angle <TAB = say Φ

Computation of the Coordinate of point T:

We have, Coordinate of A, Length & Bearing of line AT, hence coordinate of point T can be
calculated as,

NT = NA + AT Cos Φ

ET = EA+ AT Sin Φ

Checking

 We Computed the coordinate of point T from triangle TBC using similar procedure.
(We Found the length of side BC, Computed the length BT & CT using sine law, computed
the bearing of line CB & CT or BC & BT and finally computed the coordinate of point T
with respect of B or C)
 By comparing two coordinates accuracy of observation & calculation can be checked.

2.5.11 Contouring
A contour is defined as an imaginary line passing through the points of equal elevation. Thus,
contour lines on a plan illustrates the configuration of the ground. The method of representing the
relief of the ground by the help of contour is called contouring. The vertical distance between two
consecutive contours is called contour interval. Every 5th contour which is 5 times of the contour
interval is the index contour which is generally darkened in the, contour and is known as Index
Contour. The least horizontal distance between two consecutive contours is called the horizontal
equivalent.

Methods of contouring

48
There are two ways of contouring. They are namely

1. The Direct method

2. The Indirect method
1) The direct method:

In this direct method, the equal elevated points are joined. For this, firstly the points with the same
elevations are found out by setting out the instrument at a point and by hit and trial method of
searching the points which gives the same required staff reading.

2) The indirect method:

In this method, some suitable guide points are selected and surveyed, the guide points need not
necessarily be on the contours. There are some of the indirect methods of locating the ground
points:

a) By squares
b) By cross-sections
c) By tacheometric method

Contour Interpolation

The process of drawing contours proportionately between the plotted ground points or in between
the plotted contours is called interpolation of the contours. Interpolation of contours between points
is done assuming that the slope of ground between two points is uniform.

It may be done by anyone of following methods.

1. Estimation
2. Arithmetic calculation
3. Graphical method

Contour Characteristics

 Two contour lines do not intersect each other except in the case of overhanging cliff.
 A contour line must close onto itself not necessarily within the limits of a map.
 Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the case of a
vertical cliff.

49
  Two contour lines do not unite to form a single one except in the case of perpendicular
cliff.
 Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a gentle slope.
 Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are parallel, equidistant
and straight, these represent an inclined plane surface.
 A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring contours
with lower values inside depict a pond or a depression without an outlet.
 When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes across them.
Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of higher value contour lies towards the
next lower value contour and on the other hand these represent a valley if the concavity of
the lower value contour, lies toward the higher value contours s
 The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley.
 Contours do not have sharp turnings.

2.5.12 Output
 Topographical map of the given area.
 Major traverse
 Minor traverse

2.5.13 Comments and Conclusion

The given topography survey camp work was finished satisfactorily within the given span of time.
The subject survey needs practice as much as possible. The site for the survey camp was suitable
for us to practice the theoretically acquired knowledge in the field. Laying control stations,
carrying out level works and angular measurement became difficult while laying stations on jungle
side. The obstructions due to trees created problem. The work was slowed down as some of the
instruments provided were with errors. In surveying, theory can be taken only as the introduction
but if there is practice, there will be much gain of knowledge about the techniques of surveying.
The subject survey needs practice as much as possible. Thus, this camp helps us by practicing the
survey work to gain the much essential knowledge as far as possible. It is better to say that it
provides us a confidence to perform survey and apply the techniques at any type of problem facing
during the actual work in the future career.

50
All the groups prepared their topography map of the given area of Kaluwapur survey camp in the
same scale. The whole area was divided in such a way that area allocated for one group contains
some part of the area allocated for another group. One traverse leg is common to all groups and
hence the combination of all group’s effort will provide a perfect and complete topographic map of
Kaluwapur survey camp after combining it.

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 CHAPTER-III

3 BRIDGE SITE SURVEY

3.1 Introduction
A bridge is a structural engineering marvel designed to span physical obstacles such as bodies of
water, valleys, roads, or other geographic barriers. The primary function of a bridge is to provide
a passage over these obstacles, facilitating the movement of people, vehicles, and goods. Bridges
are essential components of transportation networks, enabling connectivity and accessibility. The
primary goal of a bridge site survey is to gather comprehensive and accurate data about the
proposed site to inform and optimize the design for bridge axis, construction, and operation of the
bridge. A topographic survey is a crucial component of the preliminary work for a bridge project.
It involves detailed mapping of the site’s physical features to accurately represent the geography
of the area. This includes plotting contour lines to illustrate elevation changes and establishing
both horizontal and vertical control to obtain precise coordinates. In most cases, the horizontal
control in bridge site surveys is carried out by triangulation because the nature of the site often
involves narrow strips of land, such as riverbanks or valleys.

3.2 Objectives
The main objective of a bridge site survey for students is to provide them with practical, hands-on
experience and a comprehensive understanding of the essential surveying techniques and processes
involved in bridge construction. The purpose of a bridge site survey indeed encompasses more
than just preparation. It involves achieving several critical objectives to ensure the successful
design, construction, and long-term performance of the bridge. They are as follows:

 To select the possible bridge site and axis for the construction of bridge.
 To carry out surveying for topographical mapping, longitudinal and cross sections at both
the upstream and downstream side of the river.
 To determine the physical properties of the river such as discharge, velocity of water, bed
slope etc.
 To find the best location for a bridge over the river considering the factors like convenience,
economy and geological stability.

52
3.3 Brief description of the area
The bridge site survey was done over the Sunbara Nadi. The bridge site was surrounded by bushes.
There were no rocks. The ground was damp and swampy. The hill slopes on both sides were not very
steep and are thus geologically stable. The width of stream is not so big but high flood level covers
large area.
3.4 Norms (Technical Specification)

The topographical survey of the bridge site was completed, and triangulation was used to
determine the bridge axis's alignment. We were also required to read the river's downstream and
upstream L- and X-sections in addition to these. By using tacheometric surveying, a topographic
map of the region was created, along with a longitudinal and cross-sectional profile.
When conducting the field study of the bridge site, the following guidelines were adhered to:

 Control point fixing as well as determining the length of the bridge axis had to be done by
the method of triangulation. While forming triangles, proper care had to be taken such that
the triangles were well conditioned, i.e., none of the angles of the triangle were greater than
120° or less than 30°.
 In triangulation, distance of Base Line must be measured in an accuracy of 1:2000.
 The triangulation angle had to be measured on two sets of readings by Theodolite and the
difference between the mean angles of two sets of readings had to be within a minute.

53
  Carry out reciprocal levelling to transfer level from one bank to other bank of the river
within a precision of ±25k mm. Determine the RL of the other triangulation stations by
fly levelling from the end point of bridge axis.
 Plot a topographic map indicating contour lines at suitable interval (contour interval = 1m).
 The scale for plotting the topographical map was given to be 1:500
 The scale for plotting is as follows:
a) Scale of L-Section:

Horizontal Scale = 1:1000

Vertical Scale = 1:100

b) Scale of Cross Section:

Horizontal Scale = 1:100

Vertical Scale = 1:100

3.5 Equipment and Accessories

 Theodolite
 Total station
 Prisms and poles
 Tripod stand
 Ranging Rod
 Auto level
 Marker
 Measuring tapes
 Arrow
 Staffs
 Compass
 Pegs
 Hammer
 Tripod

54
3.6 Methodology
Site selection, triangulation, leveling (fly and reciprocal leveling), detailing by total station, cross
section, and L-section were among the techniques used during the bridge site survey. Below are
succinct summaries of various methodologies:

3.6.1 Site Selection

The most important step in the bridge construction process is site selection. There are several
factors that influence the bridge's site selection. The selection of a bridge site is guided by factors
such as geological condition, socioeconomic status, and ecological impact. As a result, the site was
chosen so that it could be built on the very stable rocks at the river's bed as far as possible without
disrupting the ecological balance of the site's flora and fauna. The proposed bridge's location was
chosen so that the heights of the roads it would connect were nearly identical. This minimized the
amount of cutting and filling required to maintain a gentle gradient. The bridge axis should be
located so that it is roughly perpendicular to the flow direction, while the river width should be
kept narrow for economic reasons, with a free board of at least 5m. The starting point of the bridge
axis should not be on or near the road's curve. A site that blends into the topography and landscape
will be visually appealing.

As a result, the site was chosen so that it could be built on the very stable rocks at the river's bed
as far as possible without disrupting the ecological balance of the site's flora and fauna. The
proposed bridge's location was chosen so that the heights of the roads it would connect were nearly
identical. This minimized the amount of cutting and filling required to maintain a gentle gradient.
The bridge site was chosen so that the bridge axis was perpendicular to the flow direction and had
a shorter span, making construction more cost effective. The starting point of the bridge axis was
not located on the curve of the road.

3.6.2 Control Point Fixed

Fixing of control points as well as determining the length of the bridge axis had to be accomplished
by the method of triangulation. Triangulation was used to survey the bridge site's topography.
First, the bridge axis was established, and horizontal control stations were installed on either side
for detailing. The distances between stations on the same sides of the river, known as the base line,
were precisely measured using tape. The interconnecting triangles were then formed, and
horizontal angles (two sets) were measured using a theodolite. They are adjusted for each case to

55
meet the geometrical condition because the closing angular error is within the acceptable range.
When applying the correction, only unaffected angles are considered. From the measured bearing
of line, the bearing of all traverse legs is computed, the coordinates of each leg are calculated, and
the closing error which is found to be within the permissible limit is adjusted using the Bowditch's
method. Thus, the horizontal control was set out. For vertical control, the level was transferred
from the SBM (located at right bank) to the control points and was transferred to the station on the
next bank by reciprocal levelling. Two points on either bank of the river were fixed as control
points and one of the sides of triangle was taken as the bridge axis. Then two triangles from each
bank were fixed. Base line was measured accurately with the tape and sine law was applied to
determine the bridge span after each angle of the triangle was measured by taking two sets of HCR
reading by theodolite. To reduce plotting error as much as possible, well-conditioned triangles were
constructed with angles greater than 30 degrees, less than 120 degrees, and closer to 60 degrees.
Each triangle in the triangulation should be well-conditioned for the accuracy. The best triangle is
equilateral triangle.

3.6.3 Topographic Survey

The topographic survey of a bridge site included triangulation, which is a method of measuring
the angles of a chain or network to determine the length of the bridge axis. Horizontal control
stations were installed on either side of the river, and the distances between them were measured
using tape. Interconnected triangles were formed, and angles were measured using a theodolite.
The bridge axis length was calculated using the sine rule. Vertical control involved transferring
levels from a benchmark to stations on the next bank via reciprocal leveling or direct level transfer.

3.6.3.1 Horizontal control:

It is used to measure the position of the points in the horizontal plane. It contains horizontal angle
measurement and horizontal distance measurement.

 In triangulation, measure the distance of the base line with an accuracy of 1:2000, using
tape.
 Two sets of horizontal circle readings were observed by the theodolite to measure the angle
of base triangles and one set in another triangle.

56
  Difference between the mean angles of two sets should be within 1 minute. Angular
misclosure for base triangle was ±30"N and other triangle ±1'N, it was observed within
precision.
 The length of proposed bridge axis was computed by triangulation survey from two
adjacent base triangles by using sine law and the length of bridge axis was calculated by
taking average length. Mean length of bridge axis was computed from two base triangles
should be ≥ 1:2000.
 Gale's Table for all triangles were prepared and it was found that observed data are within
precision.

3.6.3.2 Vertical control

It is used to establish the vertical datum of a coordinate system.

 Fly levelling was conducted to transfer the R.L. from given Permanent BM to main
triangulation point (station A).
 Loop levelling was conducted to transfer the R.L. from triangulation station A to
Triangulation Station C.
 Reciprocal levelling was carried out to transfer level from one bank to other bank of the
river stream (A to B) within a precision of +24VK mm.
 The RL of the other triangulation station D was calculated by loop levelling from the end
point of bridge axis.

3.6.4 Longitudinal Section

The L-Section of the river is necessary to provide information on the bed slope, characteristics of
the riverbed, and elevation variations at various places throughout the river's length. Keeping the
instrument at the control (traverse) stations on the river banks, staff readings were collected at
various sites along the river's center line at intervals ranging from 25m to 50m upstream and
downstream, assuming a chainage of 0+000m at the bridge axis. The levels of the various river
locations were computed using the previously known R.L. of the traverse stations. The L-Section
of the riverbed was then plotted on graph paper using vertical and horizontal scales.

3.6.5 Cross Section

The cross section can be used to calculate the volume and discharge of water at the particular
section if the velocity at the cross section is known. The cross-section of a river at a given place is
57
the profile of the lateral sides from the centerline of the river cut transverse to the L-section at that
point. If the cross-section's velocity is known, the volume and discharge of water may be
calculated. Cross sections were obtained at 25-meter intervals, reaching 150 meters upstream and
50 meters downstream of the river. Staff readings of points along a line perpendicular to the flow
of the river were obtained from the station's points, and their elevations were computed using
tachometric methods.

3.6.6 Levelling
It is a branch of survey to measure a height of specified relative points to a datum. The principle
of levelling is however to obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to which vertical distances of
the points above or below this line of sight are found. Levelling was done in two steps which
involves:

 Transferring the R.L. from the provided B.M. to any traverse station.
 Transferring the R.L. from that traverse station to all other stations including detailing.

At first B.M. was on the Boulder then the R.L. was transferred by fly leveling from the B.M. to a
station using auto level, forming a closed loop and making the necessary adjustments. Then fly
leveling was done in order to transfer the level from that station to all the other stations of the
traverse.

The principles of differential levelling is the method which is used in order to find the difference
in elevation between two points: a) If they are too far apart, b) If the difference in elevation between
them is too great c) If there are obstacles intervening. The elevation difference between two staff
stations can be achieved by keeping the instrument equidistant from them. This can be achieved
by placing the machine midway between staffs. If midway is not possible, reciprocal leveling is
used to carry forward the level on the other side of the obstruction, such as when leveling across
large water bodies or deep valley.

Reciprocal leveling is used when leveling is needed across obstacles like rivers or ravines, where
foresight and back sight are not equal. This method helps eliminate errors like instrument
adjustment errors, earth's curvature effects, atmospheric refraction, and variations in average
refraction, ensuring accurate measurements and avoiding potential hazards.

58
Let A and B be two places on the opposing bank of the river. The difference in level between A
and B can be determined as follows:

1. Set the level near A.

2. Keeping the bubble of the level tube central, take readings on the staffs at A and B.
3. Let the staff readings for A and B be a1 and b1, respectively.
4. Move the instrument to B and position it extremely close to B.
5. With the bubble in the center of the run, read the staff held at A and B.
6. Let the staff readings at A and B be a2 and b2, respectively.

Level difference in first set (h1) = a1-(b1-e)

Level difference in second set (h2) =(a2-e)-b2

This approach is appropriate when the taping is impeded but not the vision. For transferring the
RL across the bridge, reciprocal leveling was used. This approach avoids errors caused by
focusing, collimation, earth's curvature, and atmospheric refraction, among other factors.

Figure 6:Reciprocal Levelling

59
3.6.7 Detailing
The total station was used to detail the entire bridge site, obtaining angles, horizontal and vertical
distances from the control station. Details were booked up to 100m upstream and 50m downstream,
including important details not included in cross-section data and calculations tabulated in a
systematic manner.

3.6.8 Computation and Plotting:

The total station simplifies the detailing process by providing direct horizontal distances and
vertical height differences between the station point and the detailing point. The RLs of points can
be calculated using the formula:

RL of unknown point = RL of station + HI ± VD - Middle Hair Reading (M).

After calculations, the topographic map, longitudinal section, and cross section were plotted on
different scales, with control stations accurately plotted on grid paper. All details and contours
were plotted with reference to the control stations using angle and distance methods.

3.6.9 Comments and Conclusion

A bridge site survey was conducted to determine the axis of the proposed bridge. Triangulation
was used to determine the length of the bridge, with two stations chosen in one bank and two on
the next. The triangulation station was challenging due to limited area and a tree blocking vision.
Despite these issues, the proposed bridge span was 50.615 m, with a perpendicular axis located in
the river's straight portion. The distance between the stations was calculated using taping. Cross-
section and longitudinal sections were performed, with X-sections at 25m intervals and
longitudinal sections 100m upstream and 50m downstream. Details of existing structures, such as
cliffs, bridges, and boulders, were taken. Cross-sections were taken at river banks and middle to
understand the river's profile. High and low flood levels were also recorded. The bridge's design
prioritizes economy and durability, ensuring minimum span length and safe location. A bridge site
survey was conducted to understand the importance of reciprocal levelling, triangulation concepts,
and bridge site concepts.

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 CHAPTER-IV

4 ROAD ALIGNMENT SURVEY

4.1 Introduction
A road is a thoroughfare for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use
by vehicles and pedestrians. The construction of roads has been influenced by various civilizations,
offering quick and assured deliveries, flexible services, door-to-door service, and high
employment potential. The safe, efficient, and economic operation of a highway is largely
governed by the careful geometric design, which includes horizontal and vertical alignment, sight
distance, X-section components, lateral and vertical clearances, and control of access. Before the
construction of the road, preliminary survey is done. Road alignment is the preliminary stage of
road construction. Selection of Intersection Points (IP) is the foundation of construction of the
road.
General guidelines for selecting alignment and locating routes include handling traffic efficiently,
having minimum gradients and curvature, minimizing environmental impact, and being located
along property edges. Hill roads should adopt a ruling gradient, avoid unstable hill features, steep
terrain, hair-pin bends, align preferably on the side of the hill exposed to sun during winter, avoid
deep cuttings and costly tunnels, and develop alignment to suit obligatory points like passes,
saddles, valleys, and crossing points of major rivers. In countries like Nepal, where air and
waterways are scarce, roads play a crucial role in the transportation system, making them nearly
as important as air and waterways.

4.2 Objectives
The main objectives include identifying the project’s boundaries. Evaluating the existing road
network, if applicable. Assessing the general terrain and geographical features. They are as
follows:

 To collect necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage, and soil.
 To compare different proposal in view of the requirement of good alignment.
 To estimate the quantity of earthwork.
 To finalize the best alignment.
 To lay out the road from CP2 to badwal chautara about 800m.

61
  To choose the best possible route for the road such that there was a minimum of number of
intermediate points (IP) there by decreasing the number of turns on the road.
 To design smooth horizontal curves at points where the road changed its direction in order
to make the road comfortable for the passengers and the vehicles traveling on it
 To take the sufficient data of the details including the spot height around the road to prepare
the topographical map of the area, cross section of the road segment hence making it
convenient to determine the amount of cut and fill required for the construction of the road.

4.3 Brief description of the area

The place where we had conducted Road alignment survey was with big Sal trees, herbs and shrubs,
temples, roads, buildings and undulated ground.
4.4 Hydrology, Geology and Soil
The proposed site is undulated with no large boulders or rocks, and the soil is uniform throughout
the road's length. The site is geologically stable, with a built-up mass of soil that is mostly dry due
to the sun's exposure.

4.5 Classification of roads according to NRS (Nepal Road Standards)

Roads in Nepal are classified according to different guidelines & standards developed by the
government of Nepal. The major guidelines are Nepal Road Standard 2070 (NRS 2070), Nepal
Rural Road Standard 2071 (NRRS 2071), Nepal Urban Road Standard 2076 (NURS 2076), etc.

According to Nepal Road Standard 2070 the roads in Nepal can be classified as follows:

62
  National Highways
 Feeder Roads
 District Roads
 Urban Roads

Our task for road alignment survey focused on district roads, which are crucial roads within a
district serving production and market areas, connecting with other roads or main highways.

4.6 Norms (Technical Specification District Road)

Reece alignment selection was carried out of the road corridor considering permissible gradient,
obligatory points, bridge site and geometry of tentative horizontal curves. The road setting
horizontal curve, cross sectional detail in 20m interval and longitudinal profile were prepared.
Geometric curves, road formation width, right of way, crossings and other details were shown in
the map.

While performing the road alignment survey, the following norms were strictly followed:

 The road had to be designed of minimum 600m starting from the given station IP0 (CP2).
 If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°, curves need not be
fitted.
 Simple horizontal curves had to be laid out where the road changed its direction,
determining and pegging three points on the curve - the beginning of the curve, the middle
point of the curve and the end of the curve along the centerline of the road.
 The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and safe.
 The gradient of the road had to be maintained below 12 %.
 Cross sections had to be taken at 15 m intervals and at the beginning, middle and end of
the curve, along the centerline of the road - observations being taken for at least 10 m on
either side of the centerline.
 Plan of the road had to be prepared on a scale of 1:1000.
 L-Section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100
vertically.
 The cross section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:100 (both vertical and
horizontal).

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  The amount of cutting and filling required for the road construction had to be determined
from the L-Section and the cross sections. However, the volume of cutting had to be
roughly equal to the volume of filling.

4.7 Equipment and Accessories:

 Theodolite
 Tripod Stand
 Levelling Instrument
 Leveling Staffs
 Ranging Rods
 Measuring Tape
 Pegs
 Arrow head
 Marker

4.8 Methodology
The detailed explanation of various methodologies used for road alignment surveys is provided
below.

4.8.1 Reconnaissance
The reconnaissance survey is an extensive study of an entire area that might be used for a road or
airfield. Its purpose is to eliminate those routes or sites which are impractical or unfeasible and to
identify the more promising routes or sites. Existing maps and aerial photographs may be of great
help. It was conducted along a route, estimating intersection points and adjusting the inter-visibility
of stations using theodolite. Pegs with IP numbers were driven at these points. Road alignment
inspection was done by walking from beginning to end.

4.8.2 Selection of road alignment and fixing of intersection point (I.P.):

The road's starting point is IP0, and it's crucial to consider obligatory points, permissible gradient,
and geometry of tentative horizontal and vertical curves. Longitudinal gradient should not exceed

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12%, horizontal curve radius should be 12m, and two successive curves should not overlap. The
intersection point in a road alignment survey is the point where the tangents of a curve intersect
and the straight portion of road bends, with the angle of deflection not exceeding ±90° and not
near the ending of one curve and the beginning of the next.

4.8.3 Topographical survey:

The road alignment site was surveyed using IP data to understand the geological and topographical
aspects. The deflection angle at intersection points, tangent points, and middle points was
measured using linear measurements and formulas. Staff readings were taken at every change of
slope, important features, existing roads, and electrical poles. The survey also considered the
chainage of intersection points, tangent points, and middle points.

4.8.4 Horizontal alignment:

The horizontal alignment of a road survey refers to the layout of the road in the horizontal plane,
i.e., the plan view or map view. This aspect of road design is crucial for ensuring safe, efficient,
and economical transportation routes. The location of horizontal curves was determined based on
stability and turning radius, with I.P.s fixed to 9-12m gradient. Theodolite was stationed at each
I.P., and deflection angles (A) were measured. The distance between I.P.s was measured using the
Tachometer method, ensuring a stable road.

H = K*s * cos2θ

Where, θ = vertical angle

S = Top – Bottom

K = 100 for analytical lens

The horizontal curves were created using angular methods using Theodolite at I.P. and tape, with
the radius.The interior angles were observed using Total Station at each IP and then deflection
angles were calculated.

Deflection angle = HA - 180°

If positive, the survey line deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of preceding line and
deflects left if negative (anti-clockwise). The radius(R) was assumed according to the deflection

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angle. Then the tangent length, EC, MC, BC along with their chainage was found by using
following formula:

 Tangent length (T) = R*tan (∆/2)

 Length of curve (L) = (Π*R*∆)/180
 Apex distance = R*(Sec (∆/2) - 1)
 Chainage of BPC = Chainage of IP – T
 Chainage of MPC = Chainage of BPC +L/2
 Chainage of EPC = Chainage of MPC + L/2

= Chainage of BPC + L

The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length from the apex
and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that the tangent does not
overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from IP along the line bisecting the
interior angle.

4.8.5 Vertical alignment:

The vertical alignment of road generally defined as the presence of heights and depths in vertical
axis with respect to horizontal axis of alignment. These heights and depths in roads may be in the
form of gradients (straight lines in a vertical plane) or vertical curves. Vertical alignment of
highways consists of

 Gradients
 Grade compensation
 Vertical curves (valley curve, summit curve)

The vertical alignment provides information on the road alignment's vertical profile. The L-section
of the Road alignment was plotted with a maximum gradient of 12%. According to Nepal Road
Standard, the gradient of the road cannot exceed 12%. In the vertical alignment, we designed the
vertical curve properly. Vertical curves can be either summit or valley curves. When determining
the vertical alignment, consider if the cutting and filling were balanced. However, in our road
alignment study, we did not create the vertical curve.

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4.8.6 Longitudinal section:
The ground's nature and elevation variations along the road's length are crucial for road
construction. To determine the amount of cutting and filling required at the road site for
maintaining a gentle slope and to obtain data for the L-Section, staff readings were taken at 15m
intervals along the centerline, beginning, ending, and apex of the curve with the help of a level by
the method of fly leveling. After performing the necessary calculations, the level was transferred
to all points in relation to the R.L. of the given B.M. The RL of each point was calculated, and the
profile was plotted at a 1:1000 horizontal scale and 1:100 vertical scale.

4.8.7 Cross section:

Cross sections are drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal section of a road to present the ground's
lateral outline and determine the required cut and fill for road construction. These sections were
taken at 15m intervals along the centerline and at points with sharp elevation changes. The
horizontal distances and vertical heights were measured using tape and a measuring staff. The R.L.
was transferred to all points and plotted on graph paper on a 1:100 scale. Cross sections were run
at right angles to the longitudinal profile on either side up to 10m distances, and the change in
slope was directly measured using staff.

4.8.8 Curve setting:

Curve setting is the process of establishing the geometry of a curve on a highway. The main
purpose of these curves is to gradually change the direction of the road. This is extremely important
to avoid accidents along curves, and also prevent any discomfort to the passengers when the
vehicle is traversing such curves. There may be different types of curves: They are. Simple Circular
curve, Compound curve, Reverse curve, Transition curve.

4.8.8.1 Simple Circular Curve:

A simple circular curve is the curve, which consists of a single are of a circle. It is tangential to
both the straight lines. The elements of simple circular curves are tangent length, external distance,
length of curve, length of long chord, mid ordinate. The notations used are back tangent, forward
tangent, point of intersection, point of curve, point of tangency, external deflection angle, normal
chord, sub chord etc. The sharpness of the curve is either designated by its radius or by its degree
of curvature.

Setting out of curve can done by two methods depending upon the instrument used.

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  Linear Method: In this method, only a chain or tape is used. Linear methods are used
when a high degree of accuracy is not required and the curve is too short.
 Angular Method: In this method, an instrument like Theodolite is used or without chain
or tape. Before a curve is set out, it is essential to locate the tangents, point of intersection,
point of curves and point of tangent.

The linear methods for setting out simple circular curve are:

1. By ordinate from long chord.

2. By successive bisection of arcs.
3. By offsets from tangents.
4. By offsets from chord produced.

The angular methods for setting out simple circular curve are:

1. The Rankine's method.

2. By two theodolite method.
3. The tachometric method.

4.8.8.1.1 Elements of simple circular curve

Figure 7: Elements for Simple Circular Curve

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  Tangent length (T) = R*tan (∆/2)
 Length of curve (L) = (𝜋*R*∆)/180
 Apex distance = R*(Sec (∆/2) - 1)
 Chainage of BPC = Chainage of IP – T
 Chainage of MPC = Chainage of BPC +L/2
 Chainage of EPC = Chainage of MPC + L/2

= Chainage of BPC + L

4.8.8.1.2 Setting out of simple circular curve

1. Liner method: Linear methods are used when high accuracy is not required and the curve
is short. Examples include offsets from long chords, tangents, successive bisection of
chords, and offsets from produced chords.
i. Offset from Long Cord Method:
Mid-ordinate can be determined by the relation:

O mc = R-√ [R2 - (L/2)2]

The Ordinate at a distance 'x' is given by,

Ox = √ (R2 - X2) - (R- O mc)

Where, O mc = mid-ordinate

Ox = ordinate at distance x from the mid-point of the chord,

L = length of the long chord

R = Radius of the curve

2. Angular method: In this method, theodolite is used with or without chain or tape. Example
Rankine's Method of Tangential Deflection Angles Two Theodolite Method.
i. Rankine’s method:
The Rankine method is a method that measures the deflection angle to any point
on a circular curve by dividing the angle subtended by the arc from the point of
curve to that point. It is most accurate since each point is fixed independently.

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 It assumes equal curve and chord lengths for larger radius. The angle subtended
by the first sub-chord is given by:

δ1= (1718.9C * C1)/R minutes

The angle subtended by each normal chord is given by the formula

δ = (1718.9*C)/R minutes

If δ1, δ2.... δ n are the tangential angles made by successive chords with their
tangents and Δ1, Δ2............ Δ n are the total deflection angles, then

Δ1 = δ1

Δ2= Δ1 + δ1 = δ1 + δ2..

Similarly,

Δ n = Δ n-1 + δ n = δ1 + δ2 +δ3+ .................... + δ3= Δ/2

Field Method/Procedure:
1. The theodolite was set up at an Intersection Point (first at IP1) and zero was set along
previous Intersection Point (i.e. IP0, Starting Point) and distance was also measured by
taping (if not measured before) and distance to next Intersection Point (i.e. IP 2) was also
measured.
2. The theodolite was sighted to the next IP and HCR was noted in A4 paper, it's because
further calculation had to be done so cannot be noted in field book directly.
3. The deflection angle (Δ) was calculated by using formula, Deflection angle Δ =HCR-180°
4. The suitable radius of the Circular curve was assumed for setting of the curve so that we
had to locate the position of Beginning of Curve (BPC), Middle of the Curve (MPC) and
Ending of the Curve (EPC).
5. The radius of circular curve for highway shouldn't be less than 12m so we fulfilled the
criteria. While assuming the radius of the horizontal curve, radius in the multiple of 5 or
10 was selected.
6. The tangent length was calculated by using formula:
Tangent Length (T) = R*tan (Δ/2)

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7. The length of circular curve was calculated by using formula:
Length of Curve (l) = (𝜋*R*∆)/180
8. The apex distance was calculated by using formula:
Apex distance (E) = R*(Sec (∆/2) - 1)
9. The chainage of BPC, MPC and EPC for first station (IP1) was calculated as:
 Chainage of BPC1 = Chainage of IP0 (i.e. 0+000) + (IP0-IP1, distance) - Tangent
length(T1)
 Chainage of MPC1= Chainage of BPC1+ l/2
 Chainage of EPC1 = Chainage of BPC1+ l

After the calculation of chainage of BC, MC, & EC, the chainage and point name was
written in white paper then the arrow with paper was moved to the located point on curve.
The process of location of point on curve was carried out as;

Location of BPC1

For location of Point BC1, tangent length T1 was measured in line IP1 – IP0 the IP1

Location of MPC1

If θ MC1 be the HCR for that zero set (to the previous line), there were two cases while
locating MC1:

When Deflection angle (Δ) was positive (i.e. Right-hand deflection):

θ MPC1= ∆+180°+ (180°-∆)/ 2 =270°+ ∆/2

When Deflection angle (A) was negative (i.e. Left-hand deflection):

θ MPC1=∆180°- ∆ - (180°-∆)/ 2 =90°-∆/2

Then the HCR of θ MC1 was set up and the ranging rod was taken to the line with HCR of
θ MC1 then the apex distance E1 was measured in θ MC1 line then MC1 was located.

Location of EPC1

For location of Point EC1, tangent length T1 was measured in line IP1- IP2 from the IP1.

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 Then, the instrument was shifted to next Intersection Point (IP2) then, zero was set along
previous Intersection Point (i.e. IP1) and distance was also measured by taping (if not
measured before) and distance to next Intersection Point (Le. IP3) was also measured then
the process from 2-9 was repeated.

10. The chainage of BPC, MPC and EPC for 2nd station (IP2) was calculated as:

Chainage of BPC2 = Chainage of EPC1 + (IP1 -IP2 distance) - previous tangent length (T1)
- this station's tangent length (T2)

i.e. Chainage of BPC2 = Chainage of EPC1 + (IP1 -IP2 distance) – T1 – T2

Chainage of MPC2 = Chainage of BPC2 + l/2

Chainage of EPC2 = Chainage of BPC2 + l

The location of BC2, MC2 & EC2 was done similarly as done from IP1.

11. Similarly, the BC, MC & EC of the other curve from that IP was located and similarly same
process is done in IP2 and it was continued until we reach the chainage of last point i.e.
751.656 m.

4.8.8.2 Vertical Curves

A vertical curve is used to join two intersecting grade lines of railways, highways, or other routes
to smooth out the chainage in vertical motion. The vertical curve contributes to the safety, increase
sight distance, give comfort in driving and have a good appearance.

A grade, which is expressed as percentage or 1 vertical in N horizontal, is said to be upgrade or +

(positive) grade when elevation along it increases, while it is termed as downgrade or-ve grade
when the elevation decreases along the direction of motion.

The vertical curves may be of following types:

1. Summit Curve: It is formed when an upgrade followed by a downgrade, an upgrade

followed by another upgrade, a downgrade followed by another downgrade.
2. Valley Curve: It is formed when a downgrade followed by an upgrade, an upgrade
followed by another upgrade, a downgrade followed by another downgrade. In vertical
curve all distance along the curve is measured horizontally and all offsets from the tangent
to the curve are measured vertically. The methods for setting out vertical curves are:

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  The tangent correction method.
 Elevation by chord gradient method.
 Co-ordinate method.
The length of vertical method must be long enough to provide at least minimum required
sight distance throughout the vertical curve.

4.8.8.3 Transition Curve

Transition curve is a curve of varying radius introduced between a straight line and a circular curve.
While the vehicle moves on the straight line of infinite radius to the curve, the passenger feels
uncomfortable and even the vehicle may overturn. This is due to the causes of the centrifugal force
couple with the inertia of the vehicle. To avoid these effects, a curve of changing radius must be
introduced between the straight and the circular curve, which is known as the transition curve.

The main function of the transition curve are as follows:

 To accomplish gradually the transition curve from the tangent to the circular curve, so that
the curvature increased gradually from zero to a specific value.
 To provide a medium for the gradual introduction or change of required super elevation.

4.8.9 Structures
Retaining structures, side drains, cross drains, bio-engineering structures, etc. are the primary
structures used in construction of roads. Where the slope is crucial, retaining structures are
installed. Examples of dry masonry constructions are gabion structures.

4.8.10 Computation and plotting

The L-Section of the road was then plotted on a graph paper with a vertical scale of 1:100 and a
horizontal scale of 1:1000 once the required observations were completed. The level was then
transferred to all those spots with respect to the R.L. of the specified B.M. Additionally, the staff
readings at BC, EC, and Apex were recorded. Every point's relative length was computed. To show
the lateral shape of the ground, cross sections at various points are drawn perpendicular to the
longitudinal section of the road on each side of its centerline. Determining the quantity of cut and
fill needed for road building can also be done with cross sections. Cross sections were obtained at
intervals of 15 meters along the road's centerline and at locations where the elevation changed

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suddenly. In the process, a measuring staff was used to measure the vertical heights of the various
locations and a tape was used to measure the horizontal distances of the points from the centerline.
After making the required computations and transferring the RL to each location, the cross sections
at the various sections were plotted on a graph paper at a scale of 1:100 for both vertical and
horizontal dimensions.

4.8.11 Comments and conclusion

The road alignment survey aims to make it economical, comfortable, and durable, with extra case
to prevent soil erosion and ecological damage. Horizontal curves are set according to Road Design
Standards for comfort and other factors. The minimum IP points should be taken as far as possible
and deflection angles should be minimal. Assigning proper location for IP took time, especially
when deflection angles reached marginal values and road width was insufficient.

The procedure for setting out the curve was easy, but other methods like the Rankine Method are
yet to be practiced. Laying out road alignment requires technical knowledge, calculation
consciousness, and manpower. Proper attention is needed when calculating chainage at each IP.

The road was aimed at being short, accessible, easy, and economical, with many instances of
diverting the road to avoid heavy cutting/excavation work. After plotting the cross section and
profile of the road, the graph showed a balance between cut and fill at every cross-section and a
gentle gradient in the longitudinal profile. The curves were smooth with deflection angles below
90° at each IP.

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