MODULE - 1

Monsoon, its types and behaviour in India:

In India, the monsoon is a seasonal wind pattern characterized by distinct wet and dry periods,
with two main types: the southwest monsoon (June-September) bringing heavy rainfall and the
northeast monsoon (October-December) primarily impacting the southeastern coast.
Types of Monsoons in India:
• Southwest Monsoon (June-September):
• This monsoon is characterized by winds blowing from the southwest, picking up moisture from the
Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea.
• It is responsible for the majority of India's rainfall, especially in the western and central regions.
• The southwest monsoon is divided into two branches: the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal
branch.
• The Arabian Sea branch causes orographic rainfall along the western slopes of the Western Ghats.
• The Bay of Bengal branch moves over the Bay of Bengal, collecting moisture on the way, and strikes
the northeastern part of India.
• Northeast Monsoon (October-December):
• This monsoon is characterized by winds blowing from the northeast, originating from the Bay of
Bengal.
• It primarily affects the southeastern coast, particularly Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
• The northeast monsoon is also known as the "winter monsoon" or "retreating monsoon".

Factors Influencing the Indian Monsoon:

• Differential Heating of Land and Water: The landmass of India heats up faster than the surrounding oceans
during summer, creating a low-pressure area over the land.
• Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): The ITCZ, a region of low pressure near the equator, shifts
northward during the summer, influencing the direction of monsoon winds.
• Tibetan Plateau: The high altitude and intense heating of the Tibetan Plateau create a low-pressure area
that draws in moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean.
• Topography: The Himalayas and the Western Ghats act as barriers, influencing rainfall patterns and causing
orographic rainfall.
• Ocean Currents: The Indian Ocean currents also play a role in the monsoon system, influencing the
moisture content of the winds.
• El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): ENSO events, particularly El Niño, can have a significant impact
on the Indian monsoon, potentially leading to weaker or stronger monsoons.
Behavior of the Monsoon:
• Onset: The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June, with the winds advancing northward and
bringing heavy rainfall.
• Advance: The monsoon winds advance across the country, reaching different regions at different times.
• Break: The monsoon can experience breaks or periods of reduced rainfall, followed by renewed activity.
• Recession: The monsoon begins to recede in late September, with the winds shifting towards the northeast.
• Retreat: The monsoon winds retreat from the country, marking the end of the rainy season.

Impact of the Monsoon:

• Agriculture: The monsoon is crucial for India's agriculture, providing the necessary rainfall for crop
cultivation.
• Water Resources: The monsoon replenishes rivers, lakes, and groundwater, which are essential for drinking
water and irrigation.
• Economy: The monsoon has a significant impact on India's economy, affecting agricultural production,
trade, and overall economic growth.
• Floods and Droughts: While the monsoon brings much-needed rainfall, it can also cause severe flooding in
some regions and droughts in others.
Rainfall characteristics and distribution in India:
India's rainfall is characterized by the monsoon system, with the majority (75%) received
during the southwest monsoon season (June-September), and exhibits significant spatial and
temporal variability.

Rainfall Characteristics:
• Monsoon System: India's rainfall is primarily driven by the monsoon system, which brings heavy rainfall
during the southwest monsoon season (June-September).
• Spatial Variability: Rainfall distribution varies significantly across India, with the highest rainfall occurring
in the northeastern regions and the windward slopes of the Western Ghats.
• Temporal Variability: Rainfall also varies significantly over time, with the monsoon season bringing the
majority of rainfall, while other seasons experience less precipitation.
• High Rainfall Zones: Areas like the west coast, Western Ghats, and the sub-Himalayan areas in the northeast
receive over 200 cm of rainfall annually, with some parts of the Khasi and Jaintia hills receiving over 1000
cm.
• Low Rainfall Zones: Regions like western Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Deccan Plateau experience less than
50 cm of rainfall annually.
• Snowfall: Snowfall is limited to the Himalayan region.

Rainfall Distribution:
• Northeast India: This region experiences very high rainfall, with some areas like Mawsynram in the Khasi
hills receiving the highest average rainfall in the world.
• West Coast: The western coast, particularly the windward side of the Western Ghats, receives heavy rainfall
due to the orographic effect.
• Eastern India: Most of Eastern India experiences heavy precipitation, with rainfall ranging from 200 to 300
cm.
• Peninsular India: The southern peninsula experiences moderate to heavy rainfall, with areas like Tamil
Nadu and Kerala receiving significant rainfall.
• Northern Plains: The northern plains receive moderate rainfall, with areas like the Ganga plain experiencing
rainfall between 100 to 200 cm.
• Desert and Semi-desert Regions: The states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and adjacent areas are classified as desert
or semi-desert based on the amount of rainfall they receive.
Onset and withdrawal of effective rains in India:
In India, the monsoon onset, marked by the start of heavy rains, typically begins in early June
over the southern peninsula and advances northward, while the withdrawal starts from the northwest
around September and from the south by October.
• Onset:
• The southwest monsoon, which brings the majority of India's rainfall, usually reaches the
southern tip of the Indian peninsula (Kerala) in early June.
• The monsoon then advances northward, covering the rest of the country by mid-July.
• The onset of the monsoon is declared when there's a significant transition in large-scale
atmospheric and ocean circulations in the Indo-Pacific region, and at least 60% of designated
meteorological stations in Kerala and Lakshadweep record at least 2.5 mm of rain for two
consecutive days.
• Withdrawal:
• The monsoon starts to withdraw from the northwest region around the first week of September.
• The withdrawal from the southern peninsula occurs by mid-October.
• The withdrawal of the monsoon is characterized by the retreat of the monsoon winds and a
decrease in rainfall.
• Interannual Variation:
It's important to note that the onset and withdrawal dates of the monsoon can vary significantly from
year to year.
• Importance of the Monsoon:
The monsoon rains are crucial for India's agriculture, water resources, and overall economy.

Dry spells and Wet spells in India:

In India, rainfall during the monsoon season occurs in spells, with periods of heavy rain (wet
spells) interspersed with periods of less rain or no rain (dry spells). These spells vary spatially and
temporally, impacting agriculture, water resources, and other sectors.
What are Wet and Dry Spells?
• Wet Spells:
Prolonged periods of wet days, often associated with active monsoon conditions, can lead to heavy rainfall
and flooding in some areas.
• Dry Spells:
Prolonged periods of dry days, also known as "break in monsoon," can lead to drought conditions and water
scarcity.
Rainfall Patterns During Monsoon:
• Seasonal Phenomenon:
Rainfall in India is a seasonal phenomenon, with the Indian summer monsoon (June-September) bringing
the majority of the country's annual rainfall.
• Spells, Not Continuous Deluge:
The monsoon rain doesn't fall continuously; instead, it comes in spells of active and break periods.
• Spatial and Temporal Variations:
The frequency, duration, and intensity of wet and dry spells vary significantly across different regions and
over time.
• Definition:
A wet spell is defined as a period of consecutive wet days, and a dry spell is defined as a period of
consecutive dry days.

Impacts of Dry Spells:

• Agricultural Impact:
Dry spells can lead to moisture stress for crops, potentially causing significant yield losses, especially in
rainfed areas.
• Water Resource Management:
Understanding the frequency and duration of dry spells is crucial for planning agricultural activities and
managing water resources.
• Drought Conditions:
Prolonged dry spells can lead to drought conditions, impacting water availability for human and livestock
consumption, as well as for irrigation.

Examples of Dry Spells in India:

• North-Western India:
This region, being an arid area, experiences longer and less frequent dry spells.
• Southern Peninsular India:
During certain periods, the probability of dry spells remains high over the entire country, except for pockets
in Jammu & Kashmir and Southern Peninsular India.
• Impact on Crops:
Crops like groundnut and pearl millet are particularly vulnerable to dry spells, experiencing higher durations
of moisture stress.
Critical dry spells:
• Definition:
Dry spells are defined as extended periods of dry days (days with rainfall below a certain threshold)
within a season, indicating moisture stress.
• Impact:
These spells can lead to reduced crop yields, water scarcity, and economic losses, especially in rain-fed
agricultural areas.
• Causes:
In India, dry spells can be caused by delayed or early withdrawal of the southwest monsoon, partial or
complete monsoon failure, and the lack of strong western disturbances during the winter months.

Water loss from soil:

Water loss from soil occurs primarily through evaporation (direct loss from the soil surface)
and transpiration (water uptake by plants and release as vapor through leaves).
• Evaporation:
This is the process where water at the soil surface changes from a liquid to a gaseous (vapor) state and
is lost to the atmosphere, driven by factors like temperature, wind, and humidity.
• Transpiration:
Plants take up water through their roots and release it as water vapor through tiny pores (stomata) on
their leaves, a process called transpiration.
• Evapotranspiration (ET):
This term combines both evaporation and transpiration to represent the total water loss from the soil and
vegetation.
• Factors Affecting Water Loss:
• Soil Type: Compacted soil loses water more readily than soil with good structure.
• Temperature: Higher temperatures lead to increased evaporation.
• Wind: Strong winds can accelerate evaporation and transpiration.
• Humidity: Lower humidity allows for more water to evaporate.
• Soil Moisture Content: Wetter soils evaporate water faster than drier soils.
• Vegetation: Plants, including weeds, can significantly increase water loss through
transpiration.
 • Minimizing Water Loss:
• Mulching: Covering the soil surface with organic materials (like straw or wood chips) or plastic
sheeting can reduce evaporation.
• Windbreaks: Structures that reduce wind speed can decrease evaporation and transpiration.
• Efficient Irrigation: Applying water only when needed and using methods that minimize
evaporation (like drip irrigation) can help conserve water.
• Weed Control: Removing weeds reduces transpiration losses.
• Crop Selection: Choosing drought-tolerant crops can help reduce water demands.
• Soil Water Balance:
Understanding the soil water balance, which considers precipitation, evaporation, and water uptake by
plants, is crucial for managing water resources effectively.

Measurement of water loss from soil:

Water loss from soil, or evapotranspiration (ET), can be measured using various methods,
including gravimetric analysis, tensiometers, and micro-lysimeters, with ET often expressed in
millimeters per day or energy per unit area.
1. Gravimetric Method:
• This method involves weighing a moist soil sample, drying it in an oven, and reweighing to determine the
mass of water lost.
• The water content is then calculated as a percentage of the dry soil weight.
• Formula: Water content (%) = [(weight of moist soil - weight of dry soil) / weight of dry soil] * 100
2. Tensiometers:
• Tensiometers are instruments used to measure soil water tension or matrix suction in the unsaturated soil
zone.
• They consist of a sealed water-filled tube with a porous ceramic cup at the bottom end, which is inserted
into the soil.
• The porous cup allows water to move into or out of the tube, depending on the soil water potential.
3. Micro-lysimeters (MLs):
• MLs are small soil cores installed in bare fields or under crop canopies.
• They are checked daily to detect changes in soil water storage, allowing for direct measurement of soil
evaporation.
4. Evapotranspiration (ET) Measurement:
• ET accounts for water loss from the soil through both evaporation and transpiration.
• It is often expressed in millimeters per day or energy per unit area (e.g., MJ m-2 day-1).
 • Example: 1 mm of water loss corresponds to 10 m3 of water per hectare.
5. Other Considerations:
• Water Use Efficiency: This can be measured by the transpiration ratio (total water transpired by a plant to
the dry weight of the harvested plant).
• Crop Water Use Efficiency: It is the ratio of crop yield (Y) to the amount of water depleted by the crop in
the process of evapotranspiration (ET).
• Field Water Use Efficiency: It is the ratio of crop yield (Y) to the total amount of water used in the field
(WR), which include ET, deep percolation and that used in plant metabolic processes.

Hydrological Cycle:

The hydrological cycle, also known as the water cycle, is the continuous movement of water
on, above, and below the Earth's surface, driven by solar energy and gravity, involving processes like
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.
Key Processes:
• Evaporation: The sun's heat causes water from oceans, lakes, rivers, and even soil to turn into water
vapor (a gas) and rise into the atmosphere.
• Transpiration: Plants release water vapor into the atmosphere through their leaves.
• Condensation: As the water vapor rises and cools, it condenses, forming clouds.
• Precipitation: When the water droplets in clouds become too heavy, they fall back to Earth as rain, snow,
sleet, or hail.
• Runoff: Precipitation that falls on land flows over the surface into streams, rivers, and eventually the
ocean.
• Infiltration: Some precipitation soaks into the ground, becoming groundwater.
• Sublimation: Water can also directly change from a solid (ice or snow) to a gas (water vapor) without
becoming a liquid, and vice versa.

Importance of the Hydrological Cycle:

• Water Recycling:
The hydrological cycle is essential for replenishing Earth's water resources, ensuring a continuous supply of
fresh water for all life forms.
• Climate Regulation:
The cycle plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's climate by influencing temperature, precipitation patterns,
and atmospheric circulation.
• Ecosystem Function:
The cycle is vital for supporting ecosystems, as it provides water for plants, animals, and humans, and
influences soil moisture and nutrient cycling.

Importance and Issues relating water status:

Water is vital for life, supporting human health, agriculture, and ecosystems, but facing
significant issues like scarcity, pollution, and climate change impacts, demanding sustainable
management and conservation efforts.
Importance of Water:
• Human Health: Clean water is essential for drinking, sanitation, and hygiene, preventing waterborne
diseases and improving overall health.
• Agriculture: Water is crucial for irrigation, crop production, and food security, supporting livelihoods and
economies.
• Ecosystems: Water sustains diverse ecosystems, including rivers, wetlands, and oceans, providing habitats
for wildlife and regulating climate.
• Economic Development: Water resources are vital for industries, energy production, and various economic
activities.

Issues Related to Water Status:

• Water Scarcity: Growing populations, climate change, and unsustainable water use are leading to water
shortages in many regions.
• Water Pollution: Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage contaminate water sources,
posing risks to human health and ecosystems.
• Climate Change Impacts: Changing rainfall patterns, droughts, floods, and rising sea levels exacerbate
water scarcity and pollution.
• Inefficient Water Management: Lack of infrastructure, outdated irrigation techniques, and poor water
governance hinder sustainable water use.
• Water Conflicts: Competition over water resources can lead to conflicts, both locally and internationally.
• Sanitation Deficiencies: Lack of access to adequate sanitation facilities exacerbates water pollution and
health risks.
• Water as a Human Right: Access to clean water and sanitation is a fundamental human right, yet billions
lack access.

Scenario of water in Karnataka: Sources, Geographical distribution,

Quality:
Karnataka's water scenario involves seven river basins, with the Krishna and Cauvery rivers
being major sources, and a significant reliance on groundwater. Geographically, the state has uneven
water distribution, with west-flowing rivers carrying a larger share of surface water, and groundwater
quality is a concern due to overuse and contamination.
Water Sources:
• Surface Water: Karnataka has seven major river basins: Krishna, Cauvery, Godavari, West Flowing Rivers,
North Pennar, South Pennar, and Palar.
• Rivers: The Krishna and Cauvery rivers, along with their tributaries, are major sources of surface water.
• Groundwater: Groundwater is a significant source of water, particularly for irrigation and domestic use.
• Tanks: There are 36,753 tanks in the state with a capacity of about 684518 hectares.
Geographical Distribution:
• Western Ghats: The Western Ghats act as a major divide for river basins, with rivers flowing westward into
the Arabian Sea and eastward towards the Bay of Bengal.
• West-Flowing Rivers: Rivers flowing westward into the Arabian Sea carry 40% of the state's surface water,
while those flowing eastward carry 60%.
• Uneven Distribution: Karnataka receives erratic rainfall, which is unevenly distributed, leading to water
scarcity in certain regions.
• Drought-Prone Areas: A significant portion of the state is considered drought-prone, highlighting the
challenges of water management.

Water Quality:
• Groundwater Contamination: Over-extraction of groundwater has led to quality problems, including the
depletion of resources and a drop in water levels.
• Pollution: Industrial and agricultural activities contribute to water pollution, impacting both surface and
groundwater resources.
• Water Treatment: There are efforts to improve water quality through treatment and water harvesting
techniques.
• Rural Water Supply: A significant portion of the rural population relies on untreated surface water, hand
pumps, and wells for their daily needs.
• Jal Nirmal Yojana: The Karnataka State Government, as part of its World Bank-assisted Jal Nirmal Yojana
program, implemented through the Karnataka Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency, took an initiative
to adopt a Geographical approach to provide safe drinking water to its rural communities.

Influence of human activities on the water cycle:

1. Deforestation and Land Use Changes:
• Reduced Vegetation:
Trees and other vegetation play a crucial role in the water cycle by absorbing water, releasing it into the
atmosphere through transpiration, and preventing soil erosion. Deforestation, therefore, reduces these
natural processes, leading to:
• Decreased Evapotranspiration: Less water is returned to the atmosphere, potentially leading to
drier conditions.
• Increased Runoff: With less vegetation to absorb rainfall, more water flows over the surface,
increasing the risk of flooding and reducing groundwater recharge.
• Soil Erosion: Loss of vegetation cover exposes the soil to erosion, which can lead to sedimentation
of water bodies and decreased water quality.
• Urbanization:
The expansion of urban areas, with their impervious surfaces (roads, buildings, etc.), also disrupts the water
cycle:
• Reduced Infiltration: Impervious surfaces prevent rainwater from seeping into the ground, reducing
groundwater recharge.
• Increased Runoff: Rainwater flows directly off impervious surfaces, leading to increased runoff and
flooding.
• Water Pollution: Urban runoff can carry pollutants (e.g., chemicals, sediments, sewage) into water
bodies, degrading water quality.
2. Agricultural Practices:
• Irrigation:
While essential for food production, irrigation can have significant impacts on the water cycle:
• Water Depletion: Irrigation can deplete groundwater and surface water resources, leading to water
scarcity in some regions.
• Waterlogging and Salinization: Excessive irrigation can lead to waterlogging (saturation of soil)
and salinization (accumulation of salts in the soil), making land infertile.
• Pollution: Agricultural runoff can carry fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemicals into water bodies,
causing pollution and harming aquatic ecosystems.
• Deforestation for Agriculture:
Clearing forests to create farmland can have the same negative impacts as deforestation mentioned above,
leading to decreased water availability and increased runoff.
3. Industrial Activities:
• Water Withdrawal:
Industries, especially those involved in energy production (e.g., power plants) and manufacturing, require
large amounts of water for cooling, processing, and other operations.
• Pollution:
Industrial wastewater can contain toxic chemicals and heavy metals, which can contaminate water bodies
and harm aquatic life.
• Climate Change:
Burning fossil fuels for industrial processes contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, which can lead to
global warming and changes in precipitation patterns.
4. Other Human Activities:
• Dam Construction:
Dams can alter the flow of rivers and create reservoirs, which can have both positive (water storage,
hydropower) and negative (habitat destruction, altered water flow) impacts on the water cycle.
• Groundwater Pumping:
Overpumping groundwater can lead to aquifer depletion, subsidence (sinking of the land surface), and
saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers.
• Waste Disposal:
Improper waste disposal can contaminate groundwater and surface water, leading to water pollution and
health problems.

Surface water resources:

Surface water resources are the water found on the Earth's surface in bodies like rivers, lakes,
wetlands, and oceans, vital for human and ecological needs, and replenished by precipitation.
• Definition:
Surface water refers to water found on the Earth's surface, including rivers, streams, creeks, lakes,
wetlands, and reservoirs.
• Importance:
Surface water resources are crucial for various purposes, including drinking water, irrigation, industrial
uses, and supporting ecosystems.
• Examples:
• Natural: Rivers, streams, lakes, wetlands, and oceans.
• Human-made: Reservoirs, canals, and artificial ponds.
• Replenishment:
Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) and lost through evaporation,
discharge to oceans, and groundwater recharge.
• Hydrologic Cycle:
Surface water plays a key role in the hydrologic cycle, which involves the movement of water between
the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and groundwater.
• Surface Water vs. Groundwater:
Surface water is distinct from groundwater, which is water found beneath the Earth's surface in aquifers.
• Water Quality:
The quality of surface water is important, and it can be affected by pollution and contamination.
• Water Management:
Effective management of surface water resources is crucial for ensuring sustainable water supplies and
protecting ecosystems.
 MODULE - 2

General Aquifer:
An aquifer is an underground layer of porous or permeable rock or sediment that can store and transmit
groundwater, acting as a natural reservoir for water.
• Definition:
An aquifer is essentially a body of saturated rock or sediment that can yield usable quantities of water.
• Porosity and Permeability:
The key characteristics of an aquifer are its porosity (the amount of pore space within the rock or sediment)
and permeability (the ability of the rock or sediment to allow water to flow through it).
• Groundwater Source:
Groundwater enters an aquifer as precipitation seeps through the soil and into the ground.
• Types of Aquifers:
• Unconfined Aquifers: These are not bounded by impermeable layers and are directly connected
to the surface, allowing for easy recharge and depletion.
• Confined Aquifers: These are bounded by impermeable layers above and below, meaning the
water is under pressure and can rise to the surface in wells.
• Leaky Aquifers: These are partially confined, with some water able to move in and out of the
aquifer.
• Importance:
Aquifers are a vital source of freshwater for human use, agriculture, and ecosystems.
• Examples
Sand and gravel aquifers are common and widespread
Water quality and its impact on human beings:
Water quality refers to the condition and characteristics of water that determine its suitability
for various uses and the health of aquatic ecosystems. It encompasses the chemical, physical, and
biological properties of water and the presence of contaminants and pollutants. Monitoring and
maintaining good water quality is crucial for human health, ecosystem sustainability, and the overall
well-being of communities.
In natural water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans, various factors can influence water
quality. These include natural processes like weathering, erosion, and biological interactions, as well
as human activities such as industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal.
Contaminants commonly found in water include organic and inorganic substances, pathogens, heavy
metals, pesticides, and nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus.
Measuring and assessing water quality involves analyzing multiple parameters, including
temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen levels, turbidity, conductivity, nutrient concentrations, and
specific pollutants. This data helps scientists and environmental agencies understand the health of
water ecosystems, identify sources of contamination, and develop appropriate management
strategies.
Contaminated water can pose serious risks to human health when consumed or used for
bathing and irrigation. It can lead to waterborne diseases, reproductive problems, and long-term
health issues. Additionally, aquatic organisms and ecosystems can suffer detrimental effects, such as
reduced biodiversity, habitat degradation, and the decline of sensitive species.
Waterborne Diseases:
• Pathogens:
Contaminated water can harbor bacteria, viruses, and parasites, causing diseases like cholera, typhoid,
dysentery, and hepatitis A.
• Diarrheal Diseases:
Unsafe drinking water is a major cause of diarrheal diseases, which can be fatal, especially in children.
• Other Waterborne Illnesses:
Other illnesses linked to contaminated water include giardia and schistosomiasis.
Chemical Contamination:
• Heavy Metals:
Exposure to heavy metals like lead, mercury, and arsenic through contaminated water can lead to serious
health problems, including neurological disorders, developmental issues, and cancer.
• Pesticides:
Pesticides in water can cause various health problems, including reproductive issues and developmental
problems.
• Industrial Chemicals:
Industrial runoff can introduce toxic chemicals into water sources, leading to long-term health effects.
Other Health Impacts:
• Skin Irritations: Contact with polluted water can cause skin irritations, rashes, and other dermatological
problems.
• Respiratory Problems: Water pollutants can evaporate and mix with air, causing respiratory problems
when inhaled.
• Cardiovascular Issues: Exposure to certain water contaminants can contribute to cardiovascular
problems.
 • Reproductive Issues: Certain chemicals in water can disrupt the reproductive system.
• Cancer: Long-term exposure to certain water contaminants can increase the risk of developing cancer.
• Developmental Problems: Exposure to contaminated water, especially during pregnancy, can lead to
developmental problems in children.
• Kidney and Liver Damage: Some pollutants can cause damage to these organs.

Water harvesting: Need, Principles and Methods of water harvesting:

Water harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater for later use, addressing water
scarcity and promoting sustainable water management. Its principles focus on capturing runoff and
infiltrating water into the ground, while methods include rooftop collection, recharge pits, and check
dams.
Need for Water Harvesting:
• Address Water Scarcity: Raichur, like many regions in India, faces water scarcity, especially during dry
seasons, making water harvesting essential for supplementing water resources.
• Sustainable Water Management: Water harvesting promotes sustainable water management by reducing
reliance on groundwater and surface water sources, which can be overexploited.
• Reduce Flooding and Erosion: By capturing and storing rainwater, water harvesting helps reduce the
risk of flooding and soil erosion, especially in areas prone to heavy rainfall.
• Recharge Groundwater: Water harvesting helps recharge groundwater aquifers, ensuring a sustainable
source of water for the future.
Principles of Water Harvesting:
• Catchment Area: Identifying and utilizing areas where rainwater can be effectively collected, such as
rooftops, open spaces, or natural depressions.
• Runoff Conveyance: Designing systems to channel rainwater efficiently from the catchment area to
storage or recharge areas.
• Storage: Implementing storage structures, such as tanks, ponds, or wells, to hold the harvested water for
later use.
• Infiltration: Encouraging the infiltration of rainwater into the ground to recharge groundwater aquifers.
• Water Quality: Maintaining water quality through proper filtration and storage to ensure the harvested
water is suitable for intended uses.
Methods of Water Harvesting:
1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
• How it works: Rainwater is collected from rooftops using gutters and downpipes and then stored in tanks
or cisterns for later use.
 • Benefits: Simple, cost-effective, and can provide a reliable water source for domestic use, irrigation, and
other purposes.
• Example: A homeowner can install gutters and a storage tank to collect rainwater from their roof.
2. Surface Runoff Harvesting:
• How it works: This method involves collecting rainwater runoff from open surfaces like roads, fields,
and other areas, and directing it into storage reservoirs or infiltration systems.
• Benefits: Can be used to recharge groundwater aquifers and provide water for irrigation and other uses.
• Example: Creating small dams or ponds to capture and store runoff from a field or watershed.
3. Groundwater Recharge:
• How it works: This involves directing rainwater into the ground to replenish groundwater resources.
• Methods: This can be done through recharge pits, recharge trenches, or by using borewells to recharge
aquifers.
• Benefits: Helps to increase the availability of groundwater for drinking, irrigation, and other uses.
• Example: Constructing recharge pits or trenches to allow rainwater to infiltrate into the soil and recharge
the groundwater table.
4. Other Methods:
• Khadin Water Harvesting: A traditional method in India that involves constructing earthen
embankments across the contours of hills or plateaus to capture and store runoff.
• Percolation Tanks: These are small, shallow tanks that are designed to allow rainwater to percolate into
the ground, recharging groundwater.
• Check Dams/Nala Bunds: These are small dams or bunds constructed across streams or gullies to slow
down water flow and allow it to infiltrate into the ground.
• Rain Barrels: Simple, portable containers that can be used to collect and store rainwater from rooftops.
• Community Rainwater Harvesting: This involves large-scale rainwater harvesting systems that can
supply water to entire communities.

Rainwater harvesting: Methods, Classes, Benefits, Approaches

Rainwater harvesting, a method of water conservation, involves collecting and storing
rainwater for various uses, including irrigation, domestic use, and groundwater recharge. It can be
implemented through rooftop collection, surface runoff harvesting, or groundwater recharge
techniques, offering numerous benefits like water conservation, reduced water costs, and
environmental protection.
Methods of Rainwater Harvesting:
• Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
• Collection: Rainwater is collected from rooftops using gutters and downspouts.
• Filtration: Collected water is filtered to remove debris and contaminants.
• Storage: The filtered water is stored in tanks or cisterns for later use.
• Recharge: Water can be directed to recharge groundwater aquifers through recharge pits or
trenches.
• Surface Runoff Harvesting:
• Collection: Rainwater is captured from surfaces like roads, gardens, and open fields.
•Storage: The collected water is stored in reservoirs, ponds, or other storage structures.
• Groundwater Recharge:
• Infiltration: Rainwater is directed to recharge groundwater aquifers through infiltration techniques.

• Recharge Structures: Recharge structures like recharge pits or trenches can be used to facilitate
groundwater recharge.
Classes of Rainwater Harvesting Systems:
• Individual/Household Systems: Small-scale systems designed for individual homes or buildings.
• Community Systems: Larger-scale systems designed to serve a community or a group of households.
• Agricultural Systems: Systems designed for irrigation and other agricultural purposes.
• Industrial Systems: Systems designed for industrial water needs.
Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting:
• Water Conservation: Reduces reliance on traditional water sources and conserves water resources.
• Reduced Water Costs: Lower water bills due to reduced reliance on municipal water supplies.
• Environmental Protection: Reduces stormwater runoff, soil erosion, and water pollution.
• Groundwater Recharge: Helps recharge groundwater aquifers, ensuring long-term water sustainability.
• Sustainable Water Use: Promotes sustainable water management practices.
• Reduced Flooding: Helps manage stormwater runoff and reduces the risk of flooding.
• Improved Water Quality: Rainwater is naturally soft and free from chemicals, making it ideal for
irrigation and other uses.
• Food Security: In arid and semi-arid regions, rainwater harvesting can support agriculture and improve
food security.
Approaches to Rainwater Harvesting:
• Community-Based Approach: Involves community participation in the planning, implementation, and
maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems.
• Government Support: Government policies and incentives can encourage rainwater harvesting adoption.
• Private Sector Involvement: Private companies can play a role in the development and installation of
rainwater harvesting systems.
• Education and Awareness: Educating the public about the benefits of rainwater harvesting can promote its
adoption.
• Technological Innovation: Developing and implementing innovative rainwater harvesting technologies can
improve efficiency and effectiveness.

Rooftop rainwater harvesting:

Rooftop rainwater harvesting is a sustainable water management technique that involves
collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops for various uses like irrigation, domestic purposes,
and groundwater recharge.
How it works:
• Collection: Rainwater is channeled from rooftops through gutters and downspouts.
• Filtration: A filter removes debris and impurities before the water enters the storage tank.
• Storage: The filtered water is stored in tanks or cisterns.
• Utilization: The stored water can be used for various purposes, including gardening, washing, and even
potable uses after proper filtration and treatment.
• Groundwater Recharge: Excess water can be used to recharge groundwater through bore wells, dug
wells, or percolation tanks.
Several factors play a vital role in the amount of water harvested. Some of these factors are:
• The quantum of runoff
• Features of the catchments
• Impact on the environment
• Availability of technology
• The capacity of the storage tanks
• Types of the roof, its slope and its materials
• The frequency, quantity and the quality of the rainfall
• The speed and ease with which the rainwater penetrates through the subsoil to recharge the
groundwater.
Benefits / Advantages:
• Water Conservation: Reduces reliance on conventional water sources and conserves groundwater and
surface water resources.
• Cost-Effective: A cost-effective way to manage water sustainably.
• Environmental Benefits: Helps reduce water runoff, replenishes groundwater, and promotes efficient
water management.
• Sustainable Water Source: Provides a supplementary water source for domestic or agricultural use.
• Help in reducing the water bill.
• Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
• This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
• It reduces soil erosion, stormwater runoff, flooding, and pollution of surface water with fertilizers,
pesticides, metals and other sediments.
• It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no chemicals, dissolved salts and free from
all minerals.

Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting

In addition to the great advantages, the rainwater harvesting system has a few disadvantages like
unpredictable rainfall, unavailability of the proper storage system, etc.

Listed below are a few more disadvantages of the rainwater harvesting process.

• Regular maintenance is required.

• Requires some technical skills for installation.
• Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of rainwater.
• If not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and other waterborne diseases.
• One of the significant drawbacks of the rainwater harvesting system is storage limits.
Dykes/Subsurface barrier:
Subsurface dykes, also known as groundwater dams or subsurface barriers, are structures built
below the riverbed to arrest subsurface flow and increase water storage in aquifers, offering a
sustainable water solution, especially in dry regions.
• Function: Subsurface dykes act as underground barriers, impeding the natural flow of groundwater and
raising the water table.
• Purpose: They are designed to control groundwater flow, increase water storage in aquifers, and provide
a sustainable source of water for drinking and irrigation, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.
• Advantages:
• Reduced Evaporation: Since the stored water is underground, there's minimal water loss due
to evaporation, making them more efficient than surface dams in dry areas.
• No Loss of Cultivable Land: They don't require any land for construction, unlike surface dams,
which can displace farmland.
• Sustainable Water Supply: They help create a sustainable water supply for local communities
without negatively impacting the local river ecology.
• Construction: Subsurface dykes are constructed across a stream or river below the riverbed, using
materials that create an impermeable barrier to water flow.
• Effectiveness: Subsurface dykes have been proven to be effective groundwater conservation structures
in undulating/hilly terrains
• Alternative to surface dams: Subsurface dykes are more advantageous than surface dams in dry regions
as they suffer virtually no loss of stored water from evaporation.
Farm ponding:
Farm ponding, or the construction of farm ponds, involves creating small, artificial water
bodies on farms to harvest and store rainwater, which can be used for irrigation, livestock, and other
agricultural purposes, especially during dry periods.
What are farm ponds?
• Farm ponds are essentially dug-out or embankmented water reservoirs designed to collect and store
rainwater or surface runoff.
• They act as a source of water during dry spells, ensuring crops and livestock have access to water even
when natural water sources are scarce.
• They can also be used for fish farming and other aquaculture activities.
Benefits of farm ponds:
• Water Storage:
Farm ponds provide a reliable source of water for irrigation, livestock watering, and other farm needs.
• Increased Crop Yields:
By providing water during dry periods, farm ponds can lead to increased crop yields and improved
agricultural productivity.
• Multiple Cropping:
Farm ponds can enable farmers to cultivate multiple crops throughout the year, enhancing their income and
food security.
• Soil and Moisture Conservation:
 Farm ponds help to conserve soil and moisture by capturing and storing rainwater, which can reduce soil
erosion and improve soil fertility.
• Diversification of Income:
In addition to irrigation, farm ponds can be used for fish farming, providing an additional source of income
for farmers.
• Improved Livelihoods:
Farm ponds can significantly improve the livelihoods of farmers in drought-prone areas by providing a
reliable water source and enabling them to cultivate more crops and diversify their income.
• Wildlife Habitat:
Farm ponds can also provide a habitat for local wildlife, enhancing biodiversity.
Construction and Design:
• Farm ponds are typically constructed by excavating a pit or creating an embankment to hold water.
• The size and depth of the pond depend on the available land, rainfall patterns, and the water needs of the
farm.
• Proper design and construction are crucial to ensure the pond's longevity and effectiveness.
• Inlet and Outlet: Farm ponds usually have an inlet for collecting water and an outlet for releasing excess
water or for irrigation purposes.
• Bunds: A bund, or embankment, is often constructed around the pond to prevent erosion and contain the
water.
• Lining: In some cases, the pond may be lined with a waterproof material to prevent water seepage.
• Maintenance: Regular maintenance, such as cleaning out sediment and repairing any damage, is
necessary to ensure the pond's continued functionality.
 MODULE - 3

Ground water recharge:

What is Groundwater Recharge?
• Natural Recharge:
This occurs naturally when precipitation, like rain or snowmelt, infiltrates the ground and percolates through
soil and rock layers to reach the water table.
• Artificial Recharge:
This involves human-engineered methods to enhance or supplement natural recharge, such as rainwater
harvesting, recharge pits, recharge wells, or injection wells.
• Importance:
Groundwater recharge is essential for maintaining the water table, ensuring a sustainable water supply for
agriculture, industry, and domestic use, and preventing land subsidence and seawater intrusion in coastal
areas.

Methods of Groundwater Recharge:

• Natural Recharge:
• Infiltration: Water seeps into the ground through cracks and pores in the soil and rock.
• Percolation: Water moves downwards through the soil and rock layers.
• Artificial Recharge:
• Recharge Pits: These are excavated pits that allow rainwater to infiltrate into the ground.

• Recharge Wells: These are wells designed to collect and inject water into the aquifer.
• Injection Wells: These are wells that inject treated water or surface water directly into the aquifer.
• Dug Well Recharge: Using existing dug wells to recharge groundwater by diverting water into
them.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for later use, which can also be used for
recharge.
• Spreading Techniques: Using methods like check dams, nala bunds, and percolation tanks to allow
surface runoff to percolate into the ground.

Benefits of Groundwater Recharge:

• Sustainable Water Supply: Ensures a reliable and sustainable source of water for various uses.
• Water Quality Improvement: Soil filtration during recharge can improve water quality by removing
pollutants.
• Alleviation of Land Subsidence: Recharge can help to prevent land subsidence caused by excessive
groundwater extraction.
• Control of Seawater Intrusion: Recharge can help to prevent saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers
in coastal areas.
• Storage of Water: Groundwater recharge provides a natural storage mechanism for water, which can be
accessed during dry periods.

Factors affecting ground water recharge:

Natural Factors:
• Precipitation: The amount and intensity of rainfall or snowfall are crucial for recharge, with higher
precipitation generally leading to greater recharge.
• Soil and Rock Permeability: The ability of soil and rock layers to allow water to pass through them
(permeability) significantly impacts recharge rates. Highly permeable materials facilitate faster recharge.
• Topography: The shape and slope of the land influence water flow and its ability to recharge aquifers. Low-
lying areas and depressions tend to promote recharge.
• Geology: The type of rocks and their structure (porosity and permeability) determine how much water can
be stored and transmitted underground.
• Vegetation: Vegetation cover can influence infiltration rates, with dense vegetation potentially reducing
recharge due to increased evapotranspiration.
• Climate: Climate patterns, including temperature and precipitation, play a vital role, with arid and semi-arid
regions experiencing lower recharge rates compared to humid regions.
• Depth to Groundwater: In general, the deeper the aquifer, the less the recharge.
• Soil Properties: Soil texture and structure, water content, and temperature all influence infiltration rates,
which in turn affect recharge.
• Evapotranspiration: The loss of water through evaporation and transpiration by plants can reduce the
amount of water available for recharge.
• Drainage Density: The density of streams and rivers in an area can influence groundwater recharge, with
higher drainage density potentially leading to less recharge.

Human-Induced Factors:
• Land Use and Land Cover: Urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices can alter the natural
landscape and reduce recharge potential. Impermeable surfaces prevent water from seeping into the ground.
• Groundwater Abstraction: Excessive groundwater extraction for irrigation or other purposes can lead to a
decline in groundwater levels and reduce recharge.
• Pollution: Contamination of groundwater can reduce its usability and potentially impact recharge processes.
• Artificial Recharge: Human-induced recharge methods, such as the injection of water into the subsurface,
can enhance recharge rates in specific areas.
• Infrastructure: Roads, buildings, and other infrastructure can impede infiltration and reduce recharge.

Traditional techniques of water harvesting:

• Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting rainwater from rooftops and storing it in tanks or cisterns for
drinking and domestic use, a common practice in arid and semi-arid regions like Rajasthan.
• Khadins: In Rajasthan, embankments are built to collect surface runoff and store it for agricultural use, also
recharging groundwater.
• Johads: These are small, earthen dams or check dams used to collect and store rainwater for irrigation and
groundwater recharge.
• Kunds/Tankas: Underground, cylindrical, paved structures, or small water storage vessels, used for
collecting and storing rainwater for drinking water.
• Bawadis/Stepwells: Multi-level wells with steps leading down to the water source, used for water storage
and access in arid regions.
• Eris/Earthen Embankments: Used to collect runoff from rainwater and direct it into storage tanks or ponds
in Tamil Nadu.
• Guls and Kuls: Simple channels used to divert water, particularly in hilly and mountainous regions of the
Western Himalayas.
• Inundation Channels: Channels developed in the floodplains of Bengal to irrigate fields.
• Bamboo Drip Irrigation Systems: Using bamboo pipes to divert water for irrigation in certain regions.
• Afforestation: Planting trees to increase water infiltration and reduce runoff, a traditional practice in water-
scarce areas.

Other Regions
• Qanats: Underground tunnels or canals used to collect and transport water from aquifers, prevalent in arid
regions of the Middle East and Central Asia.
• Contour-Bench Terracing: Creating stepped terraces on hillsides to reduce soil erosion and collect
rainwater for irrigation.
• Spate Irrigation: Utilizing the flow of floodwaters from streams and rivers for irrigation, common in arid
and semi-arid regions.
• Khuskhaba System: A traditional water harvesting system in the Himalayas, involving the construction of
small dams and channels to collect and store water.
Calculation of available rainwater for harvesting:
1. Gather Necessary Data:
• Catchment Area: This refers to the area of the roof or surface from which you intend to collect
rainwater. Measure the length and width of your roof or area and calculate the area in square meters (m²).
• Average Annual Rainfall: Research the average annual rainfall for Raichur, Karnataka. You can find this
data from weather sources or meteorological reports.
• Runoff Coefficient: This factor accounts for the amount of rainfall that actually flows off the catchment
area. For a typical concrete roof, the runoff coefficient is around 0.70-0.80.
• Optional: Filter Efficiency: If you are planning to use a filter, you can also factor in the filter efficiency to
determine the amount of water that will be collected.

2. Calculate the Harvestable Rainwater Volume:

• Formula:
Volume of Harvestable Rainwater (in m³) = Catchment Area (in m²) * Average Annual Rainfall (in mm) *
Runoff Coefficient.
Examples:
1) A roof area of 120 m² and average annual rainfall is 450 mm, with a runoff factor of 0.9. Calculate how
much water is collected annually.
• 450 mm (rainfall) * 120 m² (roof area) * 0.9 (runoff factor) = 48,600 liters
Therefore, we can expect to collect approximately 48,600 liters of rainwater annually.

2) In a rainwater harvesting system, a roof area of 100 square meters receives 10 cm of rainfall. What
volume of water, in liters, is collected, assuming 80% runoff ?
• Step 1: Calculate the total volume of water (in cubic centimeters) collected on the roof.
• Rainfall (depth) = 10 cm
• Roof area = 100 square meters = 100 * 10000 = 1000000 square centimeters
• Total volume = Rainfall * Area = 10 cm * 1000000 cm² = 10,000,000 cm³
• Step 2: Account for the runoff percentage.
• Runoff percentage = 80% = 0.8
• Collected volume (after runoff) = Total volume * Runoff percentage = 10,000,000 cm³ * 0.8 =
8,000,000 cm³
• Step 3: Convert cubic centimeters to liters.
• 1 liter = 1000 cm³
• Collected volume in liters = 8,000,000 cm³ / 1000 cm³/liter = 8000 liters

Preparation of suitable technical drawing and design of rainwater

harvesting structure:
Rainwater may be harvested in areas, having rainfall of considerable intensity, spread over the larger part
of the year e.g. the Himalayan areas, northeastern states, Andaman Nicobar, Lakshadweep islands and southern
parts of Kerela and Tamil Nadu. This is an ideal solution to the water problem where there is inadequate
groundwater supply and surface sources are either lacking or insignificant. Rainwater is bacteriologically pure,
free from organic matter and soft in nature.
In this system, only roof top is the catchment (see Figures). The roofing should be of galvanized iron
sheets (G.I.), aluminium, clay tiles, asbestos or concrete. In the case of thatch-roof, it may be covered with
waterproof LDPE sheeting. For collection of water, a drain is provided (Gutter) along the edge of the roof. It is
fixed with a gentle slope towards down pipe, which is meant for free flow of water to the storage tank. This may
be made up of G.I. sheet, wood, bamboo or any other locally available material. The down pipe should be at least
100 mm diameter and be provided with a 20 mesh wire screen at the inlet to prevent dry leaves and other debris
from entering it.
 During the period of no rain, dust, bird droppings etc. accumulate on the roof. These are washed off with
the first rain and enter the storage tank to contaminate the water. This can be prevented by two methods:
(a) Simple diversion of foul water
(b) Installation of foul flush system

Under method (a), the down pipe is moved away from the inlet of the storage tank initially during the
rains, until clean water flows. Under method (b), storage provision for initial rain is kept in a pipe. These are
cleaned off after each heavy rain. These are provided between downpipe and the storage tank. Filter materials
such as sand, gravel or coconut/ palm/ betalnut fibre etc. are used as filter media.
Storage tanks can be constructed underground or above ground. The underground tank may be masonry
or R.C.C. structure suitably lined with water proofing materials. The surface tank may be of G.I. sheet, R.C.C.,
Plastic/ HDP or Ferrocement Tank placed at a little higher elevation on a raised platform. To facilitate cleaning of
the tank, an outlet pipe may be fitted and fixed in the tank at bottom level. The size of the tank will depend upon
the factors such as daily demand, duration of dry spell, catchment area and rainfall.
The tank is provided with:
- a manhole of 0.50 m × 0.50 m size with cover
- vent pipe/ overflow pipe (with screen) of 100 mm dia.
- drain pipe (100 mm dia.) at bottom
Choice of the tank depends on locally available materials and space available. When the tank is constructed
underground, at least 30 cm of the tank should remain above ground. The withdrawal of water from the
underground tank is made by installing a hand pump on it. In case of surface tank, taps can be provided.
Water Availability
Since the available roof area is usually limited, the system is used to meet water requirements during the
summer months i.e. about 90 days.
Site Assessment
Assessing the site conditions together with the future tank owners is the first step towards a sound system
design. The five main site conditions to be assessed are,
• availability of suitable roof catchment
• foundation characteristics of soil near the house
• location of trees
• estimated runoff to be captured per unit area of the roof
• availability and location of construction material
Estimating the Size of the Required Systems
In actual field conditions, the size of the collector and storage system is dictated by the available roof area
and the rainfall. Both these factors are beyond our control except that some modifications can be made in the type
of roof covering to improve the runoff. The water harvested from the available roof area, therefore, is more or
less fixed and has to be judiciously used. In rare cases we have the real option of building enough roof area to
meet the predetermined per capita requirement of a given family or community. However, for the purpose of
illustration, the planning and design procedure for such a system is discussed below:
The size of the catchment area and tank should be enough to supply sufficient water for the users during
the dry period. Assuming a full tank at the beginning of the dry season (and knowing the average length of the
dry season and the average water use), the volume of the tank can be calculated by the following formula:
V = (t × n × q) + et
Where,
V = Volume of tank (litres)
t = Length of the dry season (days)
n = Number of people using the tank
q = Consumption per capita per day (litres)
et = Evaporation loss during the dry period
Since evaporation from a closed storage tank is negligible, the evaporation loss (et) can be ignored (=zero)
Catchment area (i.e. area of the roof) = (Volume of the tank X runoff coefficient) / Accumulated average
rainfall volume
Experience shows that with the water storage tanks next to their houses, people use between 20-40 litres
of water per person per day (lpd). However, this may rise in time as people relax their water use habits because
of easy access. This contrasts with a maximum of l0 lpd consumption levels under similar environments with
people fetching water from distant sources. Together with the community/ family, a decision must be taken on
how the water will be used or what affordable service level can be provided.
General Design Features
Rooftop water harvesting systems can provide good quality potable water if the design features outlined
below are taken into account.
• The substances that go into the making of the roof should be non-toxic in nature.
• Roof surfaces should be smooth, hard and dense since they are easier to clean and are less likely to be
damaged and release materials/ fibres into the water.
• Roof painting is not advisable since most paints contain toxic substances and may peel off.
• No overhanging trees should be left near the roof.
• The nesting of birds on the roof should be prevented.
• All gutter ends should be fitted with a wire mesh screen to keep out leaves, etc.
• A first-flush rainfall capacity, such as detachable down pipe section, should be installed.
• A hygienic soak away channel should be built at water outlets and a screened overflow pipe should be
provided.
 • The storage tank should have a tight fitting roof that excludes light, a manhole covers and a flushing pipe
at the base of the tank (for standing tanks).
• There should be a reliable sanitary extraction device such as a gravity tap or a hand pump to avoid
contamination of the water in the tank.
• There should be no possibility of contaminated wastewater flowing into the tank (especially for tanks
installed at ground level).
• Water from other sources, unless it is reliable source, should not be emptied into the tank through pipe
connections or the manhole cover.
Design of System Components
By now, it is clear that a rooftop catchment system has three main components, viz. a roof, a guttering and
first flush device and a storage tank.

(a) Roof: The roof should be smooth, made of non-toxic substances and sufficiently large to fill the tank with the
available rainfall conditions. Existing roofs of houses and public buildings can be used for a rooftop catchment
system. In some cases, enlarged or additional roofed structures can be built.

(b) Guttering and first-flush device: Guttering is intended to protect the building by collecting the water running
off the roof and direct it, via a down pipe, to the storage tank. Gutters should have a uniform slope of 0.5 percent
large enough to collect the heavy runoff from high-intensity rain. With all roof catchment tanks, the first rainwater
running off the roof should be discarded. This helps keep the water potable because this first flush of rainwater
contains large quantities of leaves and bird droppings. The importance of such first flush devices became clear
from a study undertaken in Malaysia. The study showed how the faecal coliform count in runoff water was
reduced from 4 to 60 per litre to zero, as the first five litres of runoff washed a roof measuring 15 m2.

(c) Tank: Water tanks using ferrocement technology come in different designs with volumes ranging between 2
and 200 m3. For example, a freestanding cylindrical tank can be built in sizes between 10 and 30 m3, while a
capacity of upto 200 m3 is possible with sub-surface covered tanks. The latter is most economical when the
capacity exceeds 50 m3.
The principles of construction of ferrocement tanks involving the use of a corrugated iron moulds are
widely adopted. An alternate design avoiding framework involves erecting a circular frame made of welded-mesh
bars spaced at 15 cm and covered with chicked wire mesh (2.5 cm gauge) onto a reinforced concrete base. This
is then covered on the outside with sacks or cloth and two coats of a 1.5 cm layer of mortar (1 part cement, 3 parts
sand) plastered along the inner walls to produce the tank wall. Two further coats of plaster are added, one on the
outside after removing the sacks and one on the inside to provide a tank wall thickness of 5 cm. A waterproof
coat of just cement and water is then added to the tank’s inner wall.
When the wall is complete, a wooden frame is constructed inside the tank to support the metal template
made from old oil drums, which forms the mould for the domed roof. The roof is also reinforced with weld-mesh
and chicken wire. For quality, the floor, walls and the roof need to be cured by moistening their surface for at
least a week. This should start immediately after each component is ready.
Roof top catchment tanks, like all water supply systems, demand periodic management and maintenance
to ensure a reliable and high quality water supply. If the various components of the system are not regularly
cleaned, water use is not properly managed, problems are not identified or necessary repairs not performed, the
roof catchment system will cease to provide reliable, good quality supplies.
On the following page is a rough timetable of maintenance and management requirements that gives a
basis for monitoring checks.
1. During the rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment, gutters, pipes, screens, first-flush and
overflow) should be checked before and after each rain and preferably cleaned after every dry period
exceeding a month.
2. At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is anticipated, the storage tank
should be scrubbed and flushed of all sediment and debris (the tank should be re-filled afterwards with a
few centimetres of clean water to prevent cracking). Ensure timely service (before the first rains are due)
of all tank features, including replacement of all worn screens and servicing of the outlet tap or hand pump.
 MODULE - 4

Importance of water conservation:

1. Protecting Human Health and Well-being:
• Access to Clean Water: Conserving water ensures a sufficient supply of clean water for drinking, sanitation,
and hygiene, which is essential for public health and preventing waterborne diseases.
• Food Security: Water is vital for agriculture, and conserving it helps ensure food production and prevents
food shortages.
• Economic Stability: Water conservation can lead to reduced water and wastewater treatment costs, saving
money for individuals and communities.

2. Protecting the Environment and Ecosystems:

• Ecosystem Health: Water conservation helps maintain healthy ecosystems by ensuring sufficient water for
rivers, lakes, wetlands, and other natural habitats, which are home to diverse plant and animal species.
• Biodiversity: Protecting water resources helps preserve biodiversity by supporting the survival of various
species that depend on clean water and healthy ecosystems.
• Reduced Pollution: Conserving water reduces the amount of water needed for industrial and agricultural
processes, which can lead to less pollution and better water quality.
• Climate Change Mitigation: Reducing water consumption also lowers the energy needed for water
treatment and delivery, which in turn reduces carbon emissions and helps mitigate climate change.

3. Sustainable Resource Management:

• Water Scarcity: Conserving water helps address the growing problem of water scarcity, which is becoming
increasingly prevalent in many parts of the world.
• Groundwater Recharge: Water conservation can help recharge groundwater reserves, which are an
important source of freshwater.
• Future Generations: By conserving water, we ensure that future generations will have access to this vital
resource.

4. Everyday Actions for Water Conservation:

• Fixing Leaks: Addressing leaks in pipes, faucets, and other plumbing fixtures can significantly reduce water
waste.
• Using Water Wisely: Taking shorter showers, turning off the tap while brushing teeth, and using water-
efficient appliances can make a difference.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and using rainwater for irrigation and other non-potable purposes can
reduce reliance on municipal water supplies.
• Promoting Water-Efficient Landscapes: Choosing drought-tolerant plants and using efficient irrigation
methods can help conserve water in gardens and landscapes.
• Raising Awareness: Educating others about the importance of water conservation and promoting
sustainable water practices is crucial for making a collective impact.

Water conservation strategies:

Home & Everyday Life:
• Fix Leaks: Regularly check and repair leaks in faucets, pipes, and toilets, as even a small drip can waste a
significant amount of water over time.
• Water-Efficient Appliances: Install low-flow showerheads, toilets, and faucets to reduce water
consumption.
• Reduce Water Usage:
• Take shorter showers.
• Turn off the tap while brushing teeth or shaving.
• Don't let the tap run while rinsing dishes.
• Wash clothes and dishes in full loads.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Collect rainwater from rooftops and use it for non-potable purposes like watering
plants or flushing toilets.
• Water Wisely in the Garden:
• Water lawns and gardens in the morning or evening to minimize evaporation.

• Adjust sprinklers to water lawns and not driveways or sidewalks.

• Use mulch to retain soil moisture and reduce the need for watering.
• Consider drought-resistant plants for your garden.

Agriculture & Land Management:

• Drip Irrigation: Use drip irrigation systems to deliver water directly to plant roots, reducing water waste
through evaporation and runoff.
• Deficit Irrigation: Implement deficit irrigation techniques, which involve reducing water consumption
while still maintaining acceptable crop yields.
• Dry Farming: Practice dry farming techniques, which aim to enhance water storage in the soil and limit
water consumption.
• Wastewater Reuse: Treat and reuse wastewater for irrigation purposes, reducing the strain on freshwater
resources.
• Compost and Mulch: Use compost and mulch to improve soil health and water-holding capacity.
• Conservation Tillage: Practice conservation tillage methods, which minimize soil disturbance and improve
water infiltration.
• Watershed Management: Implement watershed management practices to improve water quality and
regulate water flows.

Conservation/Saving of water in daily use:

In the Bathroom:
• Shorten Showers: Aim for shorter showers, perhaps using a timer to keep them under 5 minutes.
• Turn Off the Tap: Turn off the tap while brushing your teeth, shaving, or washing your face.
• Fix Leaks: Address any dripping faucets or running toilets promptly, as these can waste significant
amounts of water.
• Install Water-Saving Fixtures: Consider installing water-saving showerheads and low-flow toilets.
In the Kitchen:
• Run Full Loads: Only run the dishwasher and washing machine with full loads.
• Wash Dishes Efficiently: Use a washing-up bowl instead of letting the water run continuously while
washing dishes.
• Store Drinking Water: Keep a bottle of tap water in the fridge to avoid wasting water while waiting for
it to cool.
• Fill Kettle Sparingly: Only fill the kettle with the amount of water you need.
Outdoors:
• Water Wisely: Water your lawn and garden in the early morning or evening to reduce evaporation.
• Mulch Plants: Apply a layer of mulch around trees and plants to help retain moisture.
• Collect Rainwater: Consider installing a rain barrel to collect rainwater for later use.
• Choose Drought-Tolerant Plants: Opt for drought-tolerant plants and shrubs for your garden.
General Tips:
• Educate Yourself and Others: Learn about water conservation and share tips with family and friends.
• Become Water-Conscious: Make water conservation a habit in your daily routine.
• Check Your Water Meter: Regularly check your water meter to detect any leaks or unusual water usage.
• Use Water-Friendly Equipment: Choose water-efficient appliances and equipment.
Conservation/Saving of water in agriculture:

1. Efficient Irrigation Methods:

• Drip Irrigation: This method delivers water directly to the plant roots, minimizing evaporation and runoff.
• Sprinkler Irrigation: While not as efficient as drip irrigation, sprinklers can be used to distribute water
more evenly across fields.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for later use can be a valuable water source,
especially in regions with seasonal rainfall.
• Irrigation Scheduling: Optimizing irrigation timing and frequency based on crop water needs and soil
conditions can reduce water wastage.

2. Soil Management Practices:

• Mulching: Applying a layer of organic material (like straw or compost) to the soil surface helps retain
moisture and reduce evaporation.
• Cover Cropping: Planting cover crops between main crops can improve soil structure, reduce erosion, and
enhance water infiltration.
• Compost and Organic Matter: Adding compost and other organic materials to the soil improves water-
holding capacity.
• Conservation Tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance through tillage can help retain soil moisture and reduce
erosion.
• Soil Moisture Sensors: Using sensors to monitor soil moisture levels can help farmers determine when and
how much to irrigate.

3. Crop and Livestock Management:

• Drought-Resistant Crops: Choosing crops that are naturally adapted to dry conditions can reduce irrigation
needs.
• Crop Rotation: Rotating crops can help improve soil health and water use efficiency.
• Rotational Grazing: Managing livestock grazing in a rotational manner can improve soil health and reduce
water runoff.

4. Other Water Conservation Strategies:

• Dry Farming: Utilizing natural rainfall and soil moisture for crop production in areas with limited irrigation
resources.
• Water Recycling and Reuse: Reusing treated wastewater for irrigation can be a sustainable water source.
• Smart Irrigation Systems: Using technology to monitor soil moisture and irrigation needs can optimize
water use.

Conservation/Saving of water in Industry:

• Fix Leaks: Regularly inspect and repair leaks in pipes, faucets, and other water-using equipment.
• Install Water-Saving Fixtures: Replace old, water-inefficient fixtures with low-flow faucets, toilets, and
showerheads.
• Optimize Water-Intensive Processes: Analyze and adjust water usage in key processes to minimize
consumption.
• Utilize Recycled Water: Explore opportunities to reuse treated wastewater for non-potable purposes like
irrigation, cooling, or cleaning.
• Monitor Water Usage: Track water consumption to identify areas where improvements can be made.
• Implement Water-Saving Policies: Develop and enforce policies that promote water conservation
among employees.

Limiting the consumption; Reuse and Recycle of water:

1. Limiting Water Consumption:
• Reduce Unnecessary Use: Be mindful of water usage in daily activities like showering, brushing teeth, and
washing dishes.
• Fix Leaks Promptly: Address any leaks in pipes or faucets immediately to prevent water wastage.
• Use Water-Efficient Appliances: Opt for water-efficient appliances like low-flow showerheads and toilets.
• Water-Smart Gardening: Use drought-tolerant plants and implement efficient irrigation techniques like
drip irrigation.

2. Water Reuse:
• Greywater Reuse: Collect and reuse greywater (water from sinks, showers, and laundry) for non-potable
purposes like toilet flushing or watering gardens.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Install rain barrels or tanks to collect rainwater from rooftops and use it for irrigation
or other non-potable uses.
• Reclaimed Water: Utilize treated wastewater for irrigation in parks, golf courses, and agricultural lands.

3. Water Recycling:
• Wastewater Treatment: Implement advanced wastewater treatment technologies to convert wastewater
into a usable resource.
• Industrial Recycling: Recycle wastewater within industrial processes to reduce water consumption and
wastewater discharge.
• Reverse Osmosis Recycling: Utilize reverse osmosis (RO) systems to recycle water rejected from RO
processes back into the main system.
• Circular Water Economy: Promote a circular water economy where wastewater is treated and reused,
minimizing water waste and maximizing resource utilization.

Strategies to eliminate water losses:

1. Leak Detection and Repair:

• Active Leakage Control: Implement systems for proactive leak detection and rapid repairs.
• Efficient Leakage Management: Prioritize preventive measures and efficient leak detection and repair
processes.
• Divide the Network: Segment the water distribution network into smaller sections (District Metered Areas
- DMAs) for easier leak detection and management.
• Technology Usage: Utilize modern leak detection technologies, including hardware and software-based
tools, to identify problem areas and leaks quickly.
2. Pressure Management:
• Optimal Pressure Levels: Maintain water pressure at a minimum to protect pipes from bursts while ensuring
adequate consumer needs are met.
• Pressure Reduction: Lowering pressure in the system can significantly reduce leakage from pipes and
connections.

3. Infrastructure Management:
• Pipe Replacement and Rehabilitation: Implement targeted pipe replacements and pipeline rehabilitation
measures.
• Infrastructure Maintenance: Regularly inspect and maintain the water infrastructure, including pipes,
valves, and other equipment.

4. Consumer Education and Engagement:

• Awareness Campaigns: Educate consumers about water conservation practices and the importance of
reporting leaks.
• Meter Installation: Encourage the installation of permanent meters to measure water consumption and
identify potential leaks.
• Regular Monitoring: Encourage consumers to regularly monitor their water usage and promptly report any
unusual patterns or leaks.

5. Other Strategies:
• Water Audits: Conduct regular water audits to identify and quantify water losses.
• Economic Regulation: Implement economic measures, such as tariffs and performance benchmarks, to
incentivize water utilities to reduce water losses.
• Collaboration: Foster collaboration between water utilities, regulators, and consumers to address water
losses effectively.

Pollution prevention of water:

1. Proper Waste Disposal:

• Don't litter: Dispose of garbage properly in designated bins and avoid throwing litter into streets or gullies,
as this can lead to runoff into waterways.
• Properly dispose of chemicals: Never pour chemicals, oils, or medicines down the drain or into the toilet,
instead, dispose of them at designated collection points.
• Avoid using the toilet as a trash bin: Properly dispose of paper goods, cleaning products, and other non-
flushable items in a wastebasket.

2. Water Conservation:
• Use water wisely: Avoid leaving taps running unnecessarily and reduce water usage for activities like
washing.
• Install water-efficient fixtures: Consider installing low-flow toilets, showerheads, and faucets.
• Take shorter showers and baths: This can significantly reduce water consumption.
• Conserve water in the home: Run dishwashers and clothes washers only with full loads, and use the
minimum amount of detergent and bleach.

3. Reduce Chemical Use:

• Use phosphate-free detergents: Opt for phosphate-free soaps and detergents to minimize the impact on
water quality.
• Minimize pesticide and fertilizer use: Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers, especially near water
sources, to prevent runoff into waterways.
• Choose eco-friendly products: Opt for cleaning products, personal care products, and laundry detergents
that are eco-friendly and don't contain harmful chemicals.

4. Community Involvement:
• Participate in community cleanups: Help clear water bodies of debris and litter.
• Educate others: Spread awareness about the importance of water conservation and pollution prevention.
• Report water polluters: If you witness any water pollution incidents, report them to the relevant authorities.

5. Other Important Actions:

• Properly maintain your car: Ensure your car is well-maintained to prevent oil leaks and other pollutants
from entering waterways.
• Don't pour grease down the drain: Dispose of cooking grease and fats properly to prevent them from
clogging drains and polluting water sources.
• Shop with water pollution in mind: Choose products that are packaged sustainably and avoid single-use
plastics.
• Eat more organic food: Support sustainable farming practices that reduce the use of harmful chemicals.
 MODULE - 5

Subsurface investigation for groundwater:

It involves methods like test drilling, borehole sensing, and geophysical logging to gather data on subsurface
formations, groundwater quality, and well construction, helping to understand and locate groundwater resources.
• Test Drilling:
This method involves drilling boreholes to collect samples and logs of subsurface materials, providing
direct observations of geological formations and identifying potential aquifers.
• Borehole Sensing (Television Logging):
This technique uses tools lowered into boreholes to examine the borehole walls, geologic strata, and
well casing/screen, providing detailed information about the borehole's condition and surrounding
formations.
• Geophysical Logging:
This involves using various geophysical techniques to measure physical properties of subsurface
formations, such as resistivity, spontaneous potential, and radiation, which can indicate lithology,
porosity, and groundwater flow characteristics.

Geophysical methods of Subsurface investigation for groundwater:

Surface Geophysical Methods:
• Electrical Resistivity:
Measures variations in the Earth's electrical resistivity to identify subsurface rock types and structures,
including aquifers.
• Seismic Methods:
• Seismic Refraction: Uses the refraction of seismic waves to determine depth to subsurface layers
and identify geological structures that control groundwater flow.
 • Seismic Reflection: Analyzes reflected seismic waves to image subsurface structures and identify
potential groundwater zones.

• Gravity Method:
Measures variations in the Earth's gravity field to detect density anomalies, which can indicate the presence
of subsurface features like aquifers.
• Magnetic Method:
Measures variations in the Earth's magnetic field to identify subsurface features, particularly those related
to geological structures that can influence groundwater flow.
• Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR):
Uses radar pulses to image the subsurface, useful for detecting shallow groundwater features and delineating
geological boundaries.

Borehole Geophysical Methods:

• Borehole Logging: Measures physical properties like resistivity, natural radiation, and temperature
within a borehole to characterize subsurface formations and identify aquifers.
• Geophysical Well Logging: Measures Self Potential (SP), Single Point Resistance (SPR), Short Normal
Resistivity (N16”), Long Normal Resistivity (N64”) and Natural Gamma (NG) parameters to decipher the
depth range of saturated sand, gravel formations for designing the well assembly.

• Radioactivity Logging: Uses natural gamma rays or gamma-gamma techniques to identify lithology and
determine porosity.
• Neutron Logging: Measures hydrogen content to estimate porosity and moisture levels.
 • Temperature and Fluid Resistivity Logging: Provide additional information about groundwater.

Importance of Geophysical methods:

1. Understanding Subsurface Conditions:
• Hydrogeological Mapping: Geophysical methods help delineate subsurface structures, such as aquifers,
aquitards, faults, and fractures, which significantly influence groundwater occurrence, distribution, and
movement.
• Aquifer Identification: Techniques like resistivity surveys can identify and characterize aquifers based on
their electrical resistivity, helping to locate areas with high groundwater potential.
• Bedrock Depth and Stratigraphy: Geophysical methods can determine the depth to bedrock and identify
different geological layers, providing valuable information for understanding the subsurface structure.
• Fracture and Fault Mapping: Geophysical surveys can detect and map fractures and faults, which often
act as pathways for groundwater flow and recharge.
• Water Table Depth: Techniques like Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity can be used
to determine the depth to the water table.

2. Assessing Groundwater Potential:

• Identifying Suitable Borehole Locations: Geophysical data helps in selecting optimal locations for
boreholes and wells, ensuring efficient groundwater extraction and resource utilization.
• Evaluating Aquifer Characteristics: Geophysical methods can assess aquifer properties like permeability,
porosity, and thickness, which are crucial for understanding groundwater storage and recharge capacity.
• Detecting Contamination: Geophysical surveys can help identify potential sources of groundwater
contamination and map the extent of contaminated areas.
• Mapping Groundwater Flow Paths: Geophysical data can help understand groundwater flow paths, which
is essential for managing groundwater resources and preventing pollution.

3. Advantages of Geophysical Methods:

• Non-Invasive: Geophysical methods are non-destructive and do not require drilling or excavation, making
them a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional subsurface investigations.
• Rapid Data Acquisition: Geophysical surveys can collect data quickly and efficiently, providing a rapid
assessment of subsurface conditions.
• Cost-Effective: Compared to drilling and other intrusive methods, geophysical surveys are often more cost-
effective, especially for large-scale investigations.
• Multi-Purpose: Geophysical data can be used for various purposes, including groundwater exploration,
geotechnical investigations, and environmental studies.

4. Common Geophysical Methods Used in Groundwater Investigations:

• Electrical Resistivity: Measures the electrical resistance of subsurface materials to identify different
geological layers and formations.
• Seismic Refraction: Uses seismic waves to determine the depth and velocity of subsurface layers.
• Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Uses radar waves to image subsurface structures and identify features
like faults and fractures.
• Electromagnetic Methods: Measure the electromagnetic properties of the subsurface to identify conductive
zones and fractures.
• Magnetic Methods: Detect magnetic anomalies to map subsurface structures and geological features.

Present law regarding water management:

• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: This Act establishes the Central and State
Pollution Control Boards (CPCB and SPCBs) to prevent and control water pollution, setting water quality
standards and penalizing polluters.
• Environment Protection Act, 1986: This Act provides an umbrella framework for environmental
protection, including water pollution control, and mandates environmental clearances for water-intensive
projects.
• Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956: This Act facilitates the resolution of disputes over sharing
inter-state river waters through tribunals.
State-Level Laws (Karnataka):
• Karnataka Groundwater (Regulation and Management) Act, 2011: This Act regulates and manages
groundwater resources within the state.
• Karnataka Water Resources Act, 2011: This Act deals with the management of water resources,
including surface and groundwater, and addresses issues like water rights and allocation.
• Karnataka Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: This is the state-level
implementation of the Central Act, with the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB)
responsible for enforcing water quality standards and regulations.

Water footprint:
• Definition:
The water footprint represents the total volume of freshwater used in the production chain of a product or
service, from raw material extraction to manufacturing, transportation, and consumption.
• Purpose:
It helps to raise awareness about water consumption and its environmental impact, enabling more sustainable
decisions and water management practices.
• Measurement:
Water use is measured in terms of water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time.
• Types of Water Footprints:
• Green water: Water from rainfall that is used by plants and evaporated back into the atmosphere.

• Blue water: Surface and groundwater used for irrigation, industry, and domestic purposes.
• Grey water: Water polluted by the production of goods and services.
Why it matters:
• Sustainability: Understanding water footprints helps to identify areas where water use can be reduced and
efficiency improved.
• Resource Management: It allows for a more informed approach to water resource management, ensuring
that water is used sustainably.
• Decision Making: Water footprint assessments can inform decisions related to water allocation,
infrastructure, and sustainable practices.
• Global Perspective: Water footprints can be calculated for individuals, communities, businesses, countries,
and even globally, providing a comprehensive view of water consumption patterns.

Examples of Water Footprints:

• Product: The water footprint of a pair of jeans, including the water used to grow the cotton, process the
fabric, and manufacture the garment.
• Country: The total water footprint of a country, encompassing the water used to produce all the goods and
services consumed by its citizens, including imported goods.
• Business: The water footprint of a company, including the water used in its operations and supply chain.
• Individual: The water footprint of an individual, encompassing the water used for their daily activities,
including food consumption, energy usage, and product consumption.

Blue water footprint:

The blue water footprint quantifies the amount of freshwater withdrawn from rivers, lakes, aquifers, and
other surface and groundwater sources, which is then either evaporated, used in manufacturing, incorporated
into a product, or returned to a different location or time.
Examples:
• Agriculture: Irrigation water used to grow crops contributes significantly to the blue water footprint.
• Industry: Water used in manufacturing processes, cooling, and other industrial activities also
contributes to the blue water footprint.
• Domestic use: Water used for household activities like washing, cooking, and sanitation also
contributes to the blue water footprint.
Sustainability:
A blue water footprint is considered unsustainable when it exceeds the available renewable blue water
resources, leading to environmental flow violations and groundwater depletion. According to
ScienceDirect.com, blue water footprint is unsustainable when it exceeds the available renewable blue water,
thereby violating the environmental flow standard and depleting groundwater.
Water Footprint Network:
The Water Footprint Network defines blue water as fresh surface and groundwater, including water in
freshwater lakes, rivers, and aquifers.
Other types of water footprints:
• Green water footprint: Refers to the volume of rainwater that is used for evapotranspiration by plants.

• Grey water footprint: Refers to the amount of fresh water needed to assimilate pollutants and maintain
water quality standards.

Green water footprint:

• Definition:
Green water footprint is the amount of water from precipitation (rain or snow) that is stored in the root
zone of the soil and is either evaporated, transpired, or incorporated by plants.
• Relevance:
It's especially important for understanding the water consumption of agricultural, horticultural, and
forestry products.
• Examples:
This includes the water used by crops, trees, and other vegetation to grow and produce goods.
• Importance:
Understanding the green water footprint helps in assessing the sustainability of water use in these sectors
and identifying potential areas for water conservation and management.
• Other water footprint types:
Besides green water, there are also blue and grey water footprints, with blue water referring to surface
and groundwater use, and grey water referring to the water needed to assimilate pollutants.
• Green water scarcity:
The ratio of green water footprint to green water availability, which varies within the year and from
year to year.
• Green water footprint impact index:
An aggregated and weighted measure of the environmental impact of a green water footprint at
catchment level, based on the green water footprint and the green water scarcity.

Grey water footprint:

• Definition:
The grey water footprint is the volume of fresh water required to dilute pollutants to a level that meets
agreed-upon water quality standards.
• Focus:
It focuses on the impact of pollution on water resources, rather than just water consumption.
• Assessing Water Quality:
It helps assess the sustainable, efficient, and equitable use of water resources by quantifying the water needed
for pollution assimilation.
• Pollution Sources:
It considers various sources of pollution, including industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and untreated
wastewater.

How it's calculated:

• Pollutant Load: The calculation involves determining the amount of pollutants discharged into a water
body.
• Water Quality Standards: It compares the pollutant load with the natural background concentration and
existing water quality standards.
• Freshwater Volume: The grey water footprint is the volume of freshwater required to dilute the pollutant
load to meet the water quality standards.

Why it's important:

• Water Sustainability: It helps identify areas where water resources are being stressed by pollution and
informs strategies for sustainable water management.
• Policy and Decision-Making: The grey water footprint provides a tool for assessing the impacts of different
production processes and consumption patterns on water quality.
• Supply Chain Analysis: It can be used to analyze the water footprint of products and services throughout
their supply chains, highlighting areas where pollution reduction efforts can be focused.
• Examples:
The grey water footprint can be calculated for specific products (e.g., food, clothing), industries (e.g.,
agriculture, manufacturing), or regions.

Sustainability assessment:
1. Defining Groundwater Sustainability
• Groundwater sustainability: is defined as the development and use of groundwater resources to meet
current and future beneficial uses without causing unacceptable environmental or socioeconomic
consequences.
• It's about balancing the needs of current and future generations while protecting the environment and its
dependent ecosystems.
 • Key aspects include:
o Maintaining the quantity of groundwater available.
o Protecting groundwater quality from pollution.
o Ensuring that groundwater extraction does not negatively impact ecosystems or human activities.
• The term "safe yield": is commonly used to quantify sustainable groundwater development, representing
the amount of water that can be extracted without causing long-term depletion of the aquifer.

2. Key Factors Influencing Groundwater Sustainability

• Over-extraction:
Excessive pumping of groundwater can lead to depletion of aquifers, reduced streamflow, and land
subsidence.
• Water quality degradation:
Pollution from agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and other sources can contaminate groundwater,
making it unsuitable for human consumption or other uses.
• Climate change:
Changes in precipitation patterns and increased temperatures can affect groundwater recharge and
evapotranspiration, leading to water scarcity.
• Human activities:
Population growth, urbanization, and industrialization can increase water demand and put further stress on
groundwater resources.

3. Methods for Assessing Groundwater Sustainability

• Sustainability Indicators:
• Water balance: Comparing groundwater recharge and discharge to assess the sustainability of the
aquifer.
• Groundwater level reduction: Monitoring changes in groundwater levels to assess the impact of
extraction on the aquifer.
• Exploitation volume: Assessing the amount of groundwater extracted and its impact on the aquifer.
• Groundwater recharge: Evaluating the rate at which groundwater is replenished to ensure it can
meet demand.
• Relationship between groundwater and surface water: Understanding how groundwater and
surface water interact to assess the overall water resources of an area.
• Groundwater quality parameters: Monitoring the concentration of pollutants in groundwater to
assess its suitability for different uses.
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS):
GIS can be used to integrate data from various sources and create maps that visualize groundwater resources
and their sustainability.
• Hydrological Models:
These models can simulate groundwater flow and recharge processes to assess the impact of different
management scenarios.
• Remote Sensing:
Satellite imagery and other remote sensing techniques can be used to monitor changes in groundwater
storage and other relevant parameters.
• Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) Framework:
This framework can be used to develop a conceptual model for groundwater sustainability assessments.

4. Examples of Groundwater Sustainability Assessment

• India: Studies have shown that groundwater storage depletion in India has major contributions from non-
precipitation factors, and that growing water demand has increased groundwater stress on the eastern coast
of the Indian peninsula.
• Middle East: A study assessed groundwater sustainability in the Middle East using a groundwater drought
index, revealing a complex relationship between reliability, resilience, vulnerability, and a combined
sustainability index.
• South-eastern parts of the Western Region: A study assessed the water quality of boreholes in the area,
determined the groundwater types, and identified groundwater sustainability areas using GIS.