RESURGENCE ACADEMIC AID BOARD STUDY MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Overview of the concept of International Relations

2. Scope of the study of International Relations

3. Major features of International politics

4. The conception of the state

5. Basic Theories of International Relations

• Realism

• Liberalism

• Constructivism

• Marxism

• The English School

• Feminism

6. The concept of power in international politics

• Hard Power

• Soft Power

• Smart Power

• Balance of power theory

7. The concept of Nationalism

• Nation

• Features of a Nation

8. The concept of Sovereignty

• Sovereignty
• Separatism

• Intervention

• The Peace of Westphalia

• Elements of State Sovereignty

• Different Kinds of Sovereignty

• Humanitarian Intervention

• Responsibility To Protect (R2P)

9. Globalisation, Global Governance and International Organisations

• Elements of Globalisation

• Mechanisms of Globalisation

10. War, Peace and Security

• Negative and Positive Peace

• The Democratic Peace Theory

11. Foreign Policy

• Foreign Policy Analyses

12. Diplomacy

13. International Law

14. The Rise of China

TOPIC 1: Overview of the concept of International Relations

International Relations is a field of study that examines the interactions and relationships between
states, non-state actors, and other entities that are part of the global political system. It deals with
how countries interact with each other, as well as with how non-state actors, such as international
organizations, multinational corporations, and non-governmental organizations, affect international
politics.
The core concepts of IR include sovereignty, power, security, diplomacy, cooperation, and conflict.
These concepts are used to understand and analyze the behavior of states and other actors in the
global system.

International Relations theory includes several different schools of thought, including realism,
liberalism, constructivism, and feminism. Realism emphasizes the importance of power and security
in international politics, while liberalism focuses on cooperation and the role of international
institutions. Constructivism, on the other hand, emphasizes the role of ideas and norms in shaping
international relations.

International Relations also involves the study of international law, global governance, international
political economy, and security studies. These subfields deal with issues such as international trade,
development, human rights, terrorism, and the environment, among others

Overall, International Relations is a broad and complex field that seeks to understand how the world
works. It deals with the interactions between states, non-state actors, and the global political system
as a whole. IR theories provide different ways of understanding and analyzing international politics,
while IR subfields provide a deeper analysis of specific issues and aspects of international relations.

TOPIC 2: Scope of the study of International Relations

The scope of the study of International Relations is vast and diverse, encompassing many different
aspects of global politics. Here are a few areas that fall within the scope of International Relations:

State-to-state relations: This includes diplomacy, alliances, conflicts, and trade agreements between
countries.

Non-state actors: IR also studies the role and impact of non-state actors, such as international
organizations, multinational corporations, and non-governmental organizations.

Global governance: This includes the study of international organizations, such as the United
Nations, and the way they shape global politics.

International law: IR examines the role of international law and institutions in shaping the behavior of
states and other actors.

Security: IR studies the issues of national security, global security, and human security, including
issues such as terrorism, arms control, and peacekeeping.

Political economy: IR examines the role of economics in international relations, including issues such
as trade, finance, and development.

Culture and identity: IR looks at the role of culture and identity in international politics, including
issues of nationalism, ethnicity, and religion.

To sum up, the study of International Relations encompasses a wide range of topics, from state-to-
state relations to non-state actors, global governance, international law, security, political economy,
and culture and identity. These areas provide a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of
global politics and the interactions between different actors in the international system.

TOPIC 3: . Major features of International politics

International politics, also known as world politics, has several key features that shape the dynamics
of global relations. Here are some of the major features:

State sovereignty: States are the primary actors in international politics, each with its own territory,
population, and legal authority. States are considered equal in status and have the right to make
their own decisions without interference from other states.

Power: Power is a central concept in international politics, as states compete for influence and
resources. Power can be military, economic, or cultural, and it shapes the relationships between
states.

Alliances and Coalitions: States often form alliances and coalitions to advance their interests and
protect their security. These alliances can be formal, such as NATO, or informal, such as the Quad.

Globalization: Globalization has led to increased interdependence between states and actors, as
economies, cultures, and populations become more interconnected. This has had a significant
impact on international politics, as states must navigate a complex global landscape.

International law: International law provides a framework for states to interact and resolve disputes,
but it is often contested and unevenly applied.

International Organizations: International organizations like the United Nations (UN), World Trade
Organization (WTO), and European Union (EU) play a significant role in global governance, providing
a forum for states to cooperate and address global issues.

Regionalism: Regional organizations, such as the African Union, Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), and More, have become more influential in shaping international politics and
addressing regional concerns.

TOPIC 4: The conception of the state

A state in international relations is a sovereign, political entity that has defined borders, a population,
a government, and the capacity to interact with other states. The features that qualify a territory for
statehood in international relations are as follows:
Territory: A state must have a defined and recognized territory within which it exercises sovereignty.

Population: A state must have a permanent population residing within its borders, who are
recognized as citizens and subject to its laws.

Sovereignty: A state must have supreme authority within its borders, meaning that it is not subject to
the authority of other states.

Government: A state must have an organized government capable of exercising authority within its
borders, collecting taxes, and providing services to its citizens.

Legitimacy: A state must be recognized as legitimate by other states and international organizations,
which is usually achieved through the process of diplomatic recognition.

Identity: A state should have a shared identity among its population, based on common history,
language, or culture, which helps to provide stability and legitimacy to the state.

In summary, a state in international relations is a sovereign political entity that has a defined
territory, population, government, legitimacy, and identity. These features are necessary for a
territory to be recognized as a state in international relations, which gives it the right to interact with
other states, as well as to enjoy certain privileges such as diplomatic recognition and membership in
international organizations.

TOPIC 5: Basic Theories of International Relations

International Relations is a complex field of study that seeks to explain and understand the
interactions and relations between states, non-state actors, and other entities in the global political
system. To make sense of this complexity, International Relations scholars have developed a variety
of theoretical frameworks to analyze the behavior of states and other actors in the international
arena. These theories, which include Realism, Liberalism, Constructivism, Marxism, and Feminism,
provide different perspectives on how international relations work, and offer competing explanations
for the causes of war and peace, cooperation and conflict, and other key issues in global politics.

REALISM

Realism is a key theoretical framework in international relations that emphasizes the competitive and
conflictual nature of global politics. Realists see world politics as a perpetual struggle among self-
interested states operating in an anarchic international system, where there is no overarching
authority to regulate state behavior.

The core of realism revolves around power politics, national interest, and the pursuit of security and
self-preservation. In this view, states are rational actors that prioritize their survival by engaging in
strategic use of military force and alliances. This often leads to a balance of power among nations,
which realists see as essential for maintaining global stability.

Realism asserts that war is inevitable due to the anarchic nature of the international system, where
states, driven by the need for security, may unintentionally provoke conflict through the security
dilemma—a situation where defensive actions by one state lead others to feel threatened, escalating
tensions.

Realism contrasts with other international relations theories like idealism and liberalism. While
liberalism emphasizes cooperation, institutions, and the rule of law, realism argues that states act
primarily in pursuit of their own interests, with limited room for ethical norms or justice in
international politics.

COMMON REALIST ASSUMPTIONS

State-Centrism:

- States are the most important actors in the international system.

- No higher authority exists above states to regulate their interactions, so states must navigate
relationships on their own.

Anarchy:

- The international system is anarchic, meaning it exists in a state of constant antagonism with no
central authority.

- States are left to their own devices to secure their interests and ensure their survival.

Rationality and Relative Gain:

- States are rational actors that pursue self-interest and strive to accumulate as many resources as
possible.

- In the absence of central regulation, states focus on relative gains over others to maintain or
enhance their position in the global hierarchy.

Power Politics:

- Power and security are the primary concerns of all states.

- States build up military capabilities to ensure survival, leading to potential security dilemmas as
their actions may provoke similar responses from others.
TYPES OF REALISM:

Classical Realism:

- Classical realism attributes state behavior to human nature, arguing that the drive for power and
dominance is an inherent aspect of humanity.

- According to this view, individuals and states prioritize interests over ideologies due to the
fundamental nature of human beings.

Neorealism (Structural Realism):

- Neorealism, while derived from classical realism, shifts focus from human nature to the anarchic
structure of the international system.

- The lack of a central authority compels states to act as primary actors, driven by the system's
structure rather than individual motives.

- Neorealists also analyze the international system through different levels of analysis, considering
both state behavior and the structural forces that constrain state actions.

KEY THINGS TO NOTE ABOUT REALISM:

- Realism emphasizes the enduring nature of power struggles and competition in global politics.

- States operate in an anarchic system, where security concerns drive them to prioritize power and
self-interest.

- War and conflict are seen as inherent aspects of the anarchic international system.

- Realism contrasts with liberalism by focusing on the pursuit of national interests and downplaying
the potential for international cooperation based on ethical norms or justice.

LIBERALISM

Liberalism is a prominent theory in international relations that focuses on the possibility of

cooperation and peace among states. Unlike realism, which emphasizes power politics and conflict
as inevitable in an anarchic international system, liberalism argues that states can achieve mutual
benefits through collaboration, and that war is not the only outcome of international interactions.

Liberalism is built on three interrelated principles:

Rejection of Power Politics: Liberalism challenges the realist view that international relations are
inherently defined by power struggles and security concerns. Instead, it emphasizes that states can
work together to resolve conflicts through peaceful means.

Mutual Benefits and International Cooperation: Liberalists believe that states are not solely self-
interested actors driven by power; they can cooperate to achieve common goals that benefit all
parties involved.

Role of International Organizations and Non-Governmental Actors: International organizations, such

as the United Nations (UN), and non-state actors play a critical role in shaping state preferences and
encouraging cooperation among states.

THE KEY FACTORS ENCOURAGING COOPERATION IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM ACCORDING

TO LIBERALISTS:

Liberalism highlights several factors that promote cooperation and reduce the likelihood of conflict
among states:

International Institutions: Organizations like the UN provide forums for states to resolve disputes
peacefully, reducing the need for military solutions. These institutions create frameworks for
international law, norms, and diplomacy, which help states manage conflicts in a non-violent manner.

International Trade:Economic interdependence through trade encourages peaceful relations. When

states are economically interconnected, war becomes costly and counterproductive. Trade creates
incentives for cooperation, as economic prosperity is linked to maintaining stable international
relations.

Spread of Democracy:Liberalism argues that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other,
a concept known as the "Democratic Peace Theory." If more states become democracies, the
likelihood of interstate wars decreases, promoting global peace.

Interdependence and Cooperation: Liberals argue that interdependence among states—through

economic, financial, and cultural interactions—reduces the focus on security and military concerns.
This interdependence fosters cooperation as states are tied together in various non-military ways.
Diplomacy is also emphasized as a crucial tool for encouraging honest interaction and nonviolent
solutions to global problems.

Liberalism holds that with the right institutions and diplomatic efforts, states can work together to
maximize prosperity and minimize conflict. Through international cooperation, states can achieve
more lasting peace and stability, rather than constantly vying for power.

KEY THINGS TO NOTE ABOUT LIBERALISM:

- Liberalism challenges the idea that power politics and conflict are the only outcomes of
international relations.

- International institutions, trade, and democracy are seen as key elements in fostering cooperation
and reducing the likelihood of war.

- Interdependence and diplomacy are central to liberalism's approach to achieving lasting peace and
prosperity among states.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism is a social theory in International Relations (IR) that emphasizes the role of ideational
factors particularly shared beliefs and collective ideas in shaping the identities, interests, and
behaviors of actors on the global stage. Unlike theories like realism and rational choice, which
prioritize material power or individual calculations, constructivism argues that the international
system and the interactions within it are socially constructed. This means that the identities of
actors (such as states) and their interests are not fixed but are continuously formed and reformed
through social interactions and practices.

CORE ARGUMENTS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Social Construction of Identities and Interests:

Constructivists hold that the identities and interests of states and other international actors are not
static but are socially constructed through interaction and collective ideas. They challenge the
assumption that actors' identities and interests are exogenously given and unchangeable.

This contrasts with neorealism, which assumes that the anarchic structure of the international

system dictates certain fixed behaviors, such as self-help.

Role of Ideas:

Ideas and shared beliefs play a central role in constructivist theory. Alexander Wendt famously
stated, "anarchy is what states make of it," emphasizing that the meaning of international anarchy is
determined by the shared understandings and social practices of states, rather than being an
inherently material or deterministic structure.

This implies that different states may interpret anarchy differently—some may see it as a competitive
self-help system, while others may view it as an opportunity for cooperation and collective security.

Social Structures and Material Factors:

Constructivists do not dismiss the importance of material factors such as military power or
economic resources. However, they argue that the significance of these material factors is mediated
by social structures, such as norms, identities, and shared beliefs. In other words, material forces are
important, but they gain meaning only through the lens of social context.

For instance, the impact of military power depends on how states perceive one another as enemies,
rivals, or allies.

Agent-Structure Relationship:

Central to constructivism is the dynamic relationship between agents (such as states) and
structures (such as international norms and institutions). Constructivists argue that agents and
structures are mutually constitutive: structures shape the identities and interests of agents, and
agents, through their actions and interactions, continually shape and reshape the structures.

Causality and Constitution:

Constructivist research is concerned both with causal explanations—how certain phenomena come
about—and with how things are constituted. For example, in the realm of national security,
constructivists explore how culture and identity influence security policies and behaviors, rather than
assuming that security is purely a response to material threats.

CONSTRUCTIVISTS' CRITICISM OF NEOREALISM AND NEOLIBERALISM

Constructivism challenges the foundational assumptions of neorealism and neoliberalism,

particularly the view that the anarchic nature of the international system leads inexorably to self-help
and power politics. Constructivists argue that:

The causal powers attributed to "structure" by neorealists are not "given" but are the product of
social practices and the meanings that states attach to structures such as anarchy.

Anarchy does not necessarily lead to conflict and competition. Instead, how states understand and
respond to anarchy depends on their identities, interests, and social interactions. States that
conceive of security in cooperative or collective terms, rather than in competitive terms, may pursue
peaceful and cooperative strategies under anarchy.

Therefore, the behavior of states in the international system cannot be fully explained by material
forces alone, but must also account for ideational factors and the processes of social construction.

In conclusion, constructivism offers a subtle approach to understanding international relations by

emphasizing the role of ideas, norms, and social practices in shaping the behavior of states and
other international actors. It challenges the deterministic assumptions of neorealism and
neoliberalism, proposing instead that the international system is not governed solely by material
power or static structures, but is continuously constructed and reconstructed through social
interaction. This perspective opens up the possibility for change in international relations, as shifts in
social practices and shared ideas can lead to changes in how states interact and pursue security,
cooperation, and other goals on the global stage.

MARXISM

Marxism in international relations (IR) is a critical theory that applies the concepts of Marxist
philosophy to the study of international politics. This theory argues that the international system is
fundamentally shaped by economic relations and class struggles, particularly between two main
classes: the capitalists (the bourgeoisie) and the workers (the proletariat). The structure of global
power and politics, from a Marxist perspective, is heavily influenced by capitalist modes of
production, which in turn generate global inequality and exploitation.

MAIN ASSUMPTIONS:

Economic Determinism: Marxism posits that the economic base (mode of production) fundamentally
determines the superstructure of politics, law, culture, and international relations. In other words,
global political structures and relations are a reflection of the underlying economic systems and
relationships, especially those of capitalism.

Class Struggle: International relations are viewed as an extension of the class struggle that occurs
within societies. The global system is marked by a conflict between the capitalist class (who own the
means of production) and the working class (who sell their labor). This class struggle extends
beyond national borders, shaping the interactions between states and non-state actors.

Imperialism: One of the key contributions of Marxist theory to international relations is the concept of
imperialism, which was further developed by Lenin. Marxists argue that the global expansion of
capitalism leads to imperialist practices, where powerful capitalist states exploit weaker, developing
nations for resources, labor, and markets. This creates a global system of economic dependency and
inequality.

Dominant Ideology and Culture: Marxists argue that the dominant ideology and culture in
international relations reflect the interests and values of the ruling capitalist class. These ideologies
serve to justify and legitimize the exploitation and oppression of the subordinate classes, both within
individual nations and in the global system. Concepts such as free trade, liberal democracy, and even
human rights can be seen as tools to maintain capitalist dominance.

Global Capitalism and Dependency Theory: Marxist international relations theorists often emphasize
the global nature of capitalism and the resulting dependency of less developed nations on the
advanced capitalist countries. Dependency theory, closely associated with Marxism, argues that the
global economic system perpetuates the underdevelopment of poorer nations by exploiting their
resources and labor, which benefits the richer, industrialized countries.

THE ENGLISH SCHOOL

The English School provides a broad, historical approach to studying international relations by
analyzing the social structures of international orders. Unlike many theories that focus on specific
aspects of international relations (IR), the English School offers a holistic view, seeing the world as a
whole. It seeks to balance between the opposing theories of realism and liberalism by distinguishing
between three core concepts: international system, international society, and world society.

KEY CONCEPTS

International System: Defined by Hedley Bull as emerging when two or more states interact with
enough frequency and impact to cause them to behave as parts of a whole. Characterized by power
politics and shaped by the anarchic structure of the international environment.

International Society: Forms when states share a common set of rules and work through common
institutions. Focuses on the maintenance of shared norms, rules, and institutions that govern state
interactions.

World Society: Extends beyond state interactions and focuses on individual human beings and non-
state actor. Centers on global societal identities and arrangements that transcend the state system.

The English School offers a middle ground in IR theory by balancing the concepts of power and
justice, state sovereignty, and global human rights. It uses the pluralist/solidarist debate to explore
how international society relates to world society, focusing on finding a working balance between the
needs of states and humanity. Through its historical and theoretical approach, the English School
remains a vital tool for understanding the complexities of international relations and the ongoing
tensions between order and justice in the global arena.

FEMINISM

Feminism in international relations seeks to address the gendered power dynamics and inequalities
within the global political landscape. It challenges traditional IR theories by emphasizing the
importance of gender in shaping international politics.

KEY ASPECTS OF FEMINISTS' FOCUS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS:

Gendered Analysis: Feminist IR examines how gender shapes international relations, highlighting the
impact of patriarchy, masculinity, and femininity on global politics.

Intersectionality: It considers how gender intersects with other social categories such as race, class,
and sexuality, recognizing that individuals experience multiple forms of oppression.

Critique of Traditional Theories: Feminist IR critiques traditional IR theories for their neglect of gender
issues and their reinforcement of male-centric perspectives.

Advocacy for Inclusivity: It advocates for the inclusion of women's voices and experiences in
policymaking, peacebuilding, and conflict resolution.

Emphasis on Empowerment: Feminist IR aims to empower women and marginalized groups,

promoting gender equality and challenging existing power structures.

Feminist IR theory has influenced the study and practice of international relations by shedding light
on the gendered dimensions of global politics and advocating for more inclusive and equitable
approaches to international affairs.

TOPIC 6: THE CONCEPT OF POWER IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

In international relations, power is a crucial concept that underlies much of the behavior of states,
non-state actors, and other entities in the global system. Power refers to the ability of a state or
actor to influence and shape the behavior of others to achieve desired outcomes. It can manifest in
many forms, including military strength, economic might, cultural influence, diplomatic prowess, and
other factors.

Power is a central concept in the study of international relations because it helps explain how and
why states and other actors behave the way they do.

Power is often seen as a zero-sum game in which one actor's gain of power is perceived as a loss for
another. This competition for power can create tensions and lead to conflict between states, as each
seeks to secure its own interests and preserve its power in the international system.

However, power is not static or fixed. It can shift and evolve over time, and can be affected by a
variety of factors, including changes in technology, economics, demographics, and political
leadership. States and other actors may also seek to build alliances and coalitions to enhance their
power and influence in the global arena.

HARD POWER

Hard Power: This type of power involves the use of physical force or coercion to achieve objectives. It
can be achieved through military might, economic sanctions, or other forms of direct pressure. Hard
power is often associated with traditional conceptions of power, where states seek to impose their
will on others through force or the threat of force. Examples include the United States' military
interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan, or Russia's annexation of Crimea.

SOFT POWER

Soft Power: Soft power, on the other hand, involves the use of cultural influence, diplomacy, and
other forms of attraction to shape the preferences and behavior of others. States with high levels of
soft power often use their cultural influence or diplomatic prowess to persuade others to adopt their
values and policies. Examples include the global appeal of American culture, such as Hollywood
movies or pop music, or the use of Chinese economic diplomacy in the form of the Belt and Road
Initiative. Soft power is often viewed as a less coercive form of power, but it can be just as effective in
shaping global dynamics.

SMART POWER

Smart Power: Smart power, as the name suggests, represents a more nuanced and flexible approach
to power that combines elements of both hard and soft power. It recognizes that different situations
may call for different strategies, and that a mix of force and persuasion can be more effective than
either alone. Examples include the United States' approach to Afghanistan in the early 2000s, which
combined military operations with reconstruction efforts to build goodwill and support among the
Afghan population. Smart power represents an attempt to use power more strategically, taking into
account the specific circumstances and potential outcomes of different courses of action.

THE BALANCE OF POWER THEORY

Balance of Power Theory is a key concept in international relations, which refers to the idea that
national security is enhanced when military power is distributed so that no single nation or alliance is
dominant.

Since the international system is that of a self help system, States seek to maintain equilibrium by
preventing any one state or coalition from gaining too much power. This balance is achieved through
alliances, armament, and diplomatic strategies. The international system is anarchic, meaning there
is no overarching authority. States are primarily concerned with their survival, leading them to form
alliances or build up their military capabilities to counterbalance threats.

That is, when one state or alliance becomes too powerful, others will join forces to counterbalance
that power. This can be seen historically in the shifting alliances in Europe prior to World War I or
during the Cold War. The balance of power theory can also explain the formation of regional
alliances, such as NATO in Europe and ASEAN in Southeast Asia. These alliances are formed not just
for economic benefits but also as a means of balancing against potential threats, such as a rising
China or an aggressive Russia and more.
TOPIC 7: The concept of Nationalism

Nationalism in international relations refers to the belief in the nation as a central organizing
principle. It emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a particular nation state.

Nationalism in international relations is not simply a passive belief, but rather a dynamic force that
actively shapes the interactions between nation-states on a global scale. It is a collective sentiment
that embraces the idea of the nation as a distinct political entity, often ascribing it a unique set of
values, history, and aspirations.

Nationalism can take different forms and can be both constructive and destructive. It can fuel
patriotism, strengthen national unity, and lead to collective action for common goals. However, it can
also incite hostility and violence towards other nations perceived as threats to national identity.

NATION

In international relations, a nation is typically defined as a group of people who share a common
identity and culture, often including a shared language, history, and values. The concept of a nation
is distinct from the idea of a state, which refers to a political entity with sovereignty over a defined
territory and a population.

A nation may not necessarily correspond to a single state, as there can be multiple nations within a
single state (such as Scotland within the United Kingdom), or a nation may span several states (such
as the Kurdish people, who inhabit parts of Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran).

FEATURES OF A NATION

In international relations, a nation is characterized by several key features that shape its interactions
with other nations. These features include:

Territory: A defined geographical area over which the nation exercises sovereignty and control.

Population: The people who inhabit the territory and are considered citizens or members of the
nation.

Sovereignty: The ability of the nation to govern itself independently without external interference.

Government: The system or body that exercises authority and control over the population and
territory.

Recognition: The acknowledgment of the nation's status as a sovereign entity by other nations in the
international community.

Foreign Policy: The set of principles and strategies that guide the nation's interactions with other
nations.

National Identity: The shared sense of belonging and common characteristics that define the nation's
culture, history, and values.

Diplomacy: The practice of maintaining relationships and conducting negotiations with other nations
to promote the nation's interests.

TOPIC 8: The concept of Sovereignty

SOVEREIGNTY

Sovereignty refers to the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any
interference from outside sources or bodies. In international relations, it implies the autonomy of a
state to govern its own territory, make its own laws, and conduct its own foreign policy.

Sovereignty can be understood as having two dimensions:

Internal Sovereignty: The authority a state exercises within its own territory, including making and
enforcing laws, and maintaining order.

External Sovereignty: The recognition by other states of a state’s autonomy and independence. This
includes conducting foreign relations and being free from external interference.

SEPARATISM

Separatism in international relations refers to the movement or advocacy of a region, ethnic group, or
political entity seeking to break away from a larger state to form its own independent nation or
obtain greater autonomy. Separatist movements often arise due to various factors such as ethnic,
religious, cultural, or linguistic differences, as well as economic or political grievances.

KEY FACTORS BEHIND SEPARATISM

1. Ethnic and Cultural Differences: In many cases, separatist movements are driven by ethnic or
cultural groups who feel marginalized or underrepresented within the larger state. They may seek to
preserve their identity, language, or traditions.

2. Economic Disparities: Economic inequality between regions within a country can fuel separatist
sentiments. A wealthier region might want to secede to retain more control over its resources, while a
poorer region might feel neglected by the central government.

3. Political and Historical Grievances: Long-standing political tensions, colonial history, or historical
territorial claims can play a significant role in separatist movements.
4. Religious Differences: In some cases, religious conflicts or differences can contribute to separatist
movements, particularly if a religious group feels oppressed or discriminated against.

INTERVENTION

Intervention in international relations refers to actions taken by a state or group of states to interfere
in the affairs of another state, typically without the consent of that state, to influence its domestic or
foreign policies. Interventions can take various forms, including diplomatic, economic, military, and
humanitarian actions. The concept of intervention raises important questions about state
sovereignty, the legitimacy of external involvement, and the moral responsibility of the international
community.

THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA

The Peace of Westphalia is a series of treaties signed between May and October 1648, marking the
end of two major conflicts in Europe: the Thirty Years' War(1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire
and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic. The treaties are
considered a foundational moment in international relations, shaping the modern state system.

PROVISIONS OF THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA:

1. Religious Freedom: The treaties recognized the principle of *cuius regio, eius religio*, allowing
rulers to determine the religion of their own territories (Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism), while
also granting limited religious freedoms to minority groups within states.

2. Sovereignty: One of the most significant outcomes was the formal recognition of state
sovereignty. This principle emphasized that states should not interfere in the internal affairs of other
states, laying the groundwork for the modern international order based on independent, sovereign
states.

3. Territorial Changes: The treaties redrew borders across Europe. For example:

- The Dutch Republic was formally recognized as an independent state.

- France gained territory in Alsace and other regions, enhancing its influence in Europe.

- Sweden gained territories in northern Germany and the Baltic region, solidifying its status as a
European power.

- The Holy Roman Empire saw a reduction in the emperor’s power, with its constituent states
gaining greater autonomy.

4. End of Hostilities: The Peace of Westphalia effectively ended the Thirty Years' War, which had
devastated much of Central Europe, particularly Germany, and brought an end to the religious wars
in Europe. It also ended the Eighty Years' War, marking Spain’s decline as a dominant European
power.

SIGNIFICANCE IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

1. Birth of the Modern State System: The Peace of Westphalia is often considered the starting point
of the modern international system. It established the concept of national sovereignty, where states
are recognized as having authority over their own territory and domestic affairs without external
interference.

2. Secularization of International Relations: The treaties marked a shift away from religiously
motivated conflict towards a system in which secular politics and state interests became the
dominant forces in European affairs.

3. Balance of Power: The Peace of Westphalia contributed to the development of the balance of
power doctrine, as European powers sought to prevent any single state from becoming too
dominant. This principle would guide European diplomacy for centuries to come.

4. Diplomatic Precedent: The negotiations leading to the treaties involved a large number of
European states, and the Peace of Westphalia set a precedent for future international diplomacy
through multilateral treaties and negotiations.

ELEMENTS OF STATE SOVER EIGNTY

1. Territorial Integrity: This element refers to a state's exclusive right to control and govern the land
within its borders. It emphasizes that the state's borders are inviolable, and no other state can
legitimately interfere with or violate that territory without consent. Territorial integrity is a
fundamental component of the Westphalian model of sovereignty.

2. Political Independence*l: States have the right to determine their own political systems, policies,
and government structures without external interference. Political independence allows a state to
make decisions on its internal governance, laws, and administration without being subject to the
dictates of other states or international organizations.

3. Legal Authority: Sovereignty involves the legal capacity of a state to enact and enforce laws within
its territory. This includes having an independent judiciary and the ability to create laws governing all
aspects of life within the state, from criminal justice to economic regulation.

4. Control over Foreign Relations: A sovereign state has the authority to conduct its own foreign
policy, engage in diplomacy, enter into treaties, and join international organizations. This element
underscores the state’s ability to represent itself in the international arena and make decisions
regarding alliances, trade agreements, and international obligations.

5. Monopoly on the Use of Force: A sovereign state is recognized as having the exclusive right to
maintain and use armed forces to defend itself, enforce its laws, and maintain order within its
territory. The state’s monopoly on the legitimate use of force is a crucial aspect of sovereignty, as it
ensures that the government retains control over military and police functions.

6. Non-Intervention: This principle holds that states should not interfere in the internal affairs of
other states. Non-intervention is closely linked to sovereignty, as it reinforces the idea that each state
has the right to manage its own domestic issues without foreign interference. This principle is
enshrined in the United Nations Charter and is a cornerstone of international law.

7. Self-Determination: Sovereignty includes the right of a people or nation to determine its own
political status and pursue its own economic, social, and cultural development. Self-determination is
often seen as a manifestation of internal sovereignty, where the population has the authority to
decide its government and policies.

8. Recognition by Other States: While not an inherent element of sovereignty, international

recognition by other states and international organizations is crucial for a state to fully exercise its
sovereign rights on the global stage. Recognition confers legitimacy and allows a state to participate
in the international system as an equal actor.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOVEREIGNTY

Legal Sovereignty: Refers to the recognized right of a state to rule and make laws within its territory.
This is the de jure (legal) sovereignty that is often codified in international law.

Political Sovereignty: Refers to the actual capacity of a state to make decisions and implement
them. This is the de facto (actual) sovereignty that may vary depending on a state’s power and
political situation.

Popular Sovereignty: Refers to the principle that the authority of the government derives from the
consent of the governed. This is often associated with democratic governance where the legitimacy
of the state comes from the will of the people.

Economic Sovereignty: Refers to a state's control over its own economy, resources, and economic
policies. This includes making decisions about trade, investments, and managing economic
relationships with other countries.

HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION

Humanitarian intervention in international relations refers to the use of force or other forms of
coercive action by one or more states or international organizations in the territory of another state,
with the primary aim of preventing or halting severe human rights abuses, such as genocide, ethnic
cleansing, war crimes, or crimes against humanity. These interventions are typically justified on
moral or humanitarian grounds, despite the principle of state sovereignty and non-intervention
enshrined in international law.

RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT (R2P)

The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a global norm in international relations that establishes the
duty of the international community to prevent mass atrocities such as genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing, and crimes against humanity. Adopted by the United Nations in 2005, R2P seeks to
redefine the concept of state sovereignty by asserting that sovereignty is not just a right but also a
responsibility. If a state fails to protect its population from such crimes, the international community
has a responsibility to step in, using diplomatic, humanitarian, and, as a last resort, military means.

CRITERIA FOR INTERVENTION

1. Just Cause: There must be a threat of serious harm to civilians, such as genocide, war crimes,

ethnic cleansing, or crimes against humanity.

2. Right Intention: The primary motive for intervention must be to prevent human suffering and
protect civilians. The intervention should not be driven by self-interest or geopolitical gains.

3. Last Resort: All non-military options, such as diplomacy, sanctions, or negotiations, must have
been exhausted before considering military intervention.

4. Proportional Means: Any intervention must be proportional to the threat and must be carried out
with the minimum necessary force to achieve humanitarian objectives.

5. Reasonable Prospects: There should be a reasonable chance of success, with the intervention
likely to protect civilians and improve the situation rather than making it worse.

6. Legitimate Authority: Military interventions under R2P should ideally be authorized by the UN
Security Council to ensure international legitimacy. If the Security Council is deadlocked, alternative
mechanisms, such as regional organizations, may be considered, but this raises questions about
legitimacy and legality.

TOPIC 9: Globalisation, Global Governance and International Organisations

Globalization

In international relations, globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and

interdependence of countries across the world. It involves the free flow of goods, services,
information, people, and capital across borders, facilitated by advances in technology,
communication, and transportation. Globalization leads to deeper economic, political, cultural, and
social integration at a global scale, influencing domestic and international policies.

Globalization in international relations emphasizes how national borders become less significant as
global networks expand, leading to increased cooperation but also challenges like economic
inequality, cultural homogenization, and environmental degradation. It can also affect state
sovereignty as global forces often transcend individual national boundaries, reshaping global power
dynamics.

Global Governance

Global governance in international relations refers to the collective management of global issues and
challenges through international cooperation and institutions. It encompasses the frameworks,
rules, processes, and norms that guide global interactions among states, international
organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other actors.

Global governance seeks to address issues that transcend national boundaries, such as climate
change, global health crises, and international security. It involves the creation and enforcement of
agreements, treaties, and standards that regulate behavior on the global stage. Unlike traditional
governance, global governance lacks a central authority; instead, it operates through decentralized
mechanisms, often relying on consensus-building and multilateral cooperation.

International Organizations

International organizationsare entities created by states through treaties or other formal

agreements to facilitate cooperation and coordination on specific issues. They play a crucial role in
international relations by providing platforms for dialogue, negotiation, and dispute resolution. These
organizations can be global (e.g., the United Nations), regional (e.g., the European Union), or issue-
specific (e.g., the World Health Organization).

International organizations can have various functions, such as promoting peace and security,
facilitating trade, protecting human rights, or addressing environmental issues. They operate based
on agreed-upon rules and norms, and their effectiveness depends on the participation and
commitment of member states. These organizations often serve as instruments of global
governance, helping to implement international agreements and manage global challenges.

ELEMENTS/ MECHANISMS OF GLOBALISATION

1.Economic Integration:

Trade and Investment: The expansion of international trade and cross-border investments
facilitates economic growth and integration. Multinational corporations operate globally, and
markets are interconnected.

Global Financial Markets: The flow of capital across borders, including foreign direct investment,
portfolio investment, and financial services, integrates global financial markets.

2. Technological Advancements:

Communication Technology: The rise of the internet, mobile technology, and digital communication
has revolutionized the speed and ease of information exchange, connecting people and businesses
worldwide.

Transportation: Advances in transportation technology, such as container shipping and low-cost

airlines, have reduced the cost and time of moving goods and people internationally.

3. Cultural Exchange:

Media and Entertainment: Global media, including television, film, music, and online content,
spreads cultural products and influences across borders, leading to cultural exchange and
sometimes homogenization.

Cultural Interaction: Increased travel and migration promote cultural interactions, blending cultural
practices, languages, and traditions.

4. Political and Legal Integration:

International Institutions: Organizations like the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and
International Monetary Fund play roles in shaping global policies, regulations, and norms.

Global Governance: Efforts to address global issues through cooperative mechanisms and
international agreements, such as climate change accords and human rights conventions, reflect
political and legal integration.

5. Social Movements and Civil Society:

NGOs and Advocacy: Non-governmental organizations and social movements operate on a global
scale, addressing issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and development.

Global Citizenship: The rise of global awareness and advocacy for global issues fosters a sense of
global citizenship and collective responsibility.

6. Global Supply Chains:

Production Networks: The organization of production processes across multiple countries, where
different stages of production occur in different locations, creates complex global supply chains.

Outsourcing and Offshoring: Companies outsource and offshore various business processes to
take advantage of cost efficiencies and specialized expertise in different regions.

TOPIC 10: War, Peace and Security

WAR

In the context of international relations, war refers to a conflict between states or organized groups
that involves the use of armed force. It typically encompasses sustained and violent engagements,
including battles and military operations, with the objective of achieving political, territorial, or
strategic goals. War can also arise from disputes over resources, ideologies, or territorial claims. In
international relations, war is often seen as a breakdown of diplomacy and a failure of peaceful
conflict resolution mechanisms.

PEACE

Peace in international relations signifies the absence of war and conflict between states or groups. It
involves a state of harmony where countries engage in cooperative and non-violent interactions.
Peace can be achieved through diplomacy, treaties, and international agreements that resolve
disputes and prevent conflict. It also encompasses efforts to build stable and friendly relations,
promote human rights, and support economic and social development, contributing to long-term
stability and well-being among nations.

SECURITY

Security in international relations refers to the protection of a state or group from threats and
dangers, including military, political, economic, and social risks. It involves measures and strategies
designed to safeguard a nation’s sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political stability. Security
encompasses both national security, focusing on defense and protection against external threats,
and human security, which addresses broader concerns such as economic stability, health, and
human rights. International security efforts often involve alliances, treaties, intelligence sharing, and
conflict prevention strategies to maintain stability and protect against various forms of aggression
and instability.

NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PEACE

Negative Peace:

Negative peace in international relations refers to the absence of direct, active conflict or violence
between states or groups. It represents a situation where hostilities have ceased, but underlying
issues, grievances, or sources of tension remain unresolved. Negative peace focuses on the
cessation of war or fighting, often achieved through ceasefires, peace treaties, or military
withdrawals, without necessarily addressing the root causes of conflict or promoting long-term
reconciliation.

Positive Peace:

Positive peace in international relations refers to the presence of conditions that promote harmony,
justice, and well-being beyond the mere absence of violence. It involves addressing and resolving
underlying causes of conflict, such as social, economic, and political inequalities. Positive peace
encompasses the establishment of equitable institutions, the promotion of human rights, economic
development, and social cohesion, creating a stable and just environment where conflicts are less
likely to arise.

THE DEMOCRATIC PEACE THEORY

Democratic Peace Theory in international relations posits that democracies are less likely to engage
in war with other democracies compared to their interactions with non-democratic states. This
theory suggests that the nature of democratic governance characterized by political transparency,
accountability, and the rule of law, creates a stabilizing effect on international relations.
Democracies, due to their institutional checks and balances and the influence of public opinion, are
believed to resolve disputes through diplomacy and negotiation rather than military conflict with
fellow democracies. This is contrasted with their potential for conflict with non-democratic states,
where democratic norms and processes are absent.

TOPIC 11: FOREIGN POLICY

Foreign policy in international relations refers to a government's strategy or plan of action designed
to achieve its national objectives and interests in its interactions with other countries. It
encompasses the decisions, principles, and practices that guide how a state engages with the
international community, including its stance on issues like diplomacy, trade, defense, and
international cooperation. Foreign policy aims to advance a state's goals, protect its national
security, promote its economic interests, and enhance its global influence. It involves both the
strategies a state uses to interact with other nations and the specific actions it takes in the
international arena.

FOREIGN POLICY ANALYSIS

Foreign policy analysis is the study and examination of how and why states formulate and
implement their foreign policies. It involves analyzing the decision-making processes, motivations,
and influences that shape a state's foreign policy. This field of study explores various factors, such
as political leadership, domestic interests, international pressures, and historical context, that affect
policy choices. Foreign policy analysis seeks to understand the factors driving state behavior, the
impact of different actors and institutions on policy decisions, and the outcomes of foreign policy
actions. It aims to provide insights into the complexities of policy-making and the implications of
foreign policy for international relations.

TOPIC 12: DIPLOMACY

Diplomacy is the formal process by which states and other international actors communicate and
negotiate to manage their relationships, resolve conflicts, and advance their interests peacefully. It is
a critical tool of statecraft that allows nations to interact without resorting to violence, using
dialogue, negotiation, and persuasion to achieve foreign policy goals.

Diplomacy typically involves the use of diplomats official representatives of states who conduct
negotiations, represent their country in foreign territories or at international organizations, and
engage in discussions to promote cooperation, avoid misunderstandings, and resolve disputes.
These interactions can occur on bilateral levels (between two countries) or in multilateral settings
(involving multiple countries or international organizations).

In its essence, diplomacy is about managing relationships. It helps countries establish and maintain
connections, create alliances, negotiate treaties, and respond to international crises. The ultimate
aim of diplomacy is to create outcomes that serve the interests of the state while it's maintaining
peaceful international relations, ensuring stability, and fostering mutual cooperation.

TOPIC 13: INTERNATIONAL LAW

International law refers to a body of rules and principles that govern the legal interactions and
relationships between sovereign states and other international actors, such as international
organizations and individuals. It sets the framework for how states should conduct themselves on
the global stage, promoting order, justice, and cooperation in the international system.

There are two primary components of international law:

1. Public International Law: This regulates the conduct of states and international organizations. It
covers a broad range of issues including treaties, diplomatic relations, the law of the sea,
international humanitarian law, and human rights law. It ensures that states follow agreed-upon
rules in their interactions, helping to prevent conflicts and promote cooperation.

2. Private International Law: Also known as conflict of laws, this deals with legal disputes that have
a foreign element, such as cross-border trade or family matters involving citizens of different
countries. It determines which legal system applies in cases where more than one state’s laws could
be relevant.

International law is generally based on treaties, customary law, and legal precedents established by
international courts such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ). States enter into treaties or
conventions to formalize their commitments on specific issues, and customary international law
emerges from consistent state practices followed out of a sense of legal obligation.

Though international law aims to be binding, its enforcement relies on the willingness of states to
comply, and on mechanisms such as international courts, diplomacy, or sanctions to ensure
adherence.

TOPIC 14: THE RISE OF CHINA

The rise of China in international relations refers to the rapid economic, military, and diplomatic
growth of China, which has positioned it as a major global power, challenging the traditional
dominance of Western nations, particularly the United States. This rise has significantly influenced
global politics, altering power dynamics and reshaping international relations. China’s rise began
with the economic reforms initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, shifting the country from a centrally
planned economy to a more market-oriented one. This led to a sustained period of rapid economic
growth, making China the second-largest economy in the world. China's development has been
driven by manufacturing, exports, and massive infrastructure investments. The country's integration
into global trade through the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 further cemented its role as a
central player in the global economy.

Alongside its economic growth, China has modernized its military, particularly focusing on naval
power, cyber capabilities, and missile technology. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has undergone
significant advancements, allowing China to assert its influence in its surrounding regions, such as
the South China Sea, and beyond. This military development has enabled China to challenge U.S. and
Western military dominance in the Indo-Pacific region.

China has become more involved in international organizations, from the United Nations to regional
bodies like the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). China has used its growing influence to
shape global governance, promoting its principles of sovereignty and non-interference in domestic
affairs, contrasting with Western ideals of democracy and human rights intervention.

China has invested heavily in technology, becoming a leader in areas like telecommunications (e.g.,
Huawei and 5G), artificial intelligence, and renewable energy. These advancements are part of
China's strategy to become a global technological superpower, allowing it to challenge the
dominance of Western companies and governments in these sectors.

A key part of China’s rise is its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a global infrastructure development
strategy launched in 2013. Through BRI, China has invested in infrastructure projects in over 140
countries, enhancing its economic and strategic influence across Asia, Africa, Europe, and beyond.
The BRI has helped China build closer ties with many developing nations, giving it significant leverage
in international relations.

HOW HAS THE RISEOF CHINA INFLUENCE INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

In international politics, the rise of China has had significant impact or influence on the system in the
following areas:

1. Shifting Global Power Dynamics: China’s rise has challenged the unipolar dominance of the United
States that was established after the Cold War. The world is now moving towards a more multipolar
structure, where power is distributed more evenly among several key players, with China at the center
of this shift. This has led to increasing competition between the U.S. and China, often referred to as
great power rivalry, which shapes global policies, alliances, and strategic calculations.

2. Economic Interdependence and Rivalry: China’s integration into the global economy has created a
deep economic interdependence between China and many other countries, especially the U.S. and
European nations. However, this has also led to economic rivalry, as countries compete with China in
areas like trade, technology, and investment. The U.S.-China trade war is a direct result of this
competition, as both countries impose tariffs and sanctions on each other, affecting global markets
and supply chains.

3. Regional Influence and Tensions: China’s rise has increased its influence in the Asia-Pacific region,
where it has territorial disputes with countries like Japan, the Philippines, and Vietnam, particularly in
the South China Sea. China’s assertiveness in claiming these territories has led to tensions with
neighboring countries and has drawn in other powers, especially the U.S., which has conducted
freedom of navigation operations to challenge China’s claims.

4. Technological Competition: China’s advancements in technology, particularly in 5G, artificial

intelligence, and cybersecurity, have created a new domain of competition between China and other
powers, especially the U.S. This technological rivalry has led to concerns about espionage,
cybersecurity, and the control of global digital infrastructure. Countries are increasingly forced to
choose between Chinese and Western technologies, influencing their diplomatic and economic
alignments.

5. Soft Power and Cultural Influence: China has also sought to expand its soft power through
cultural diplomacy, educational exchanges, and media outreach. The establishment of Confucius
Institutes around the world and China’s presence in international media reflect its efforts to shape
global perceptions of its rise. However, China's soft power has faced challenges, particularly due to
criticisms of its human rights record, especially regarding the treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang and
the crackdown on political freedoms in Hong Kong.

6. Impact on Global Institutions: China’s rise has led to shifts in the functioning of global institutions.
China has used its growing influence to push for reforms in the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
and World Bank to reflect the interests of emerging economies. Additionally, China’s involvement in
organizations like the G20 and its push for alternative financial systems, such as the AIIB, have
provided developing nations with new opportunities for funding and development, shifting influence
away from traditional Western institutions.
Reference

International Relations open text book library

International Relations theories and approaches Oxford University Press

Themes in international relations - Cambridge University Press

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