Regulatory focus theory
Edward E. Higgins, suggests that people have two self-regulatory systems: promotion and
prevention.
Promotion focus: focused on achieving hopes, aspirations, and positive outcomes. Promotion-
focused individuals are motivated by pursuing their goals and approaching success. They
seek opportunities for growth, improvement, and new challenges. Are driven by pursuing
aspirations and positive outcomes.such individuals are influenced by positive role models,
motivated by success-oriented strategies, and persist in tasks framed in terms of gains.
Example: A promotion-focused student would actively seek ways to improve their grades,
take on new academic challenges, and view problems as exciting opportunities to overcome.
Prevention focus: concerned with fulfilling duties, obligations, and avoiding negative
outcomes. motivated by preventing failures and minimizing risks. They tend to be more
cautious and avoid situations that may lead to negative outcomes. Such individuals recall
information related to avoiding failure, are inspired by negative role models, and exhibit
motivation in tasks framed in terms of losses.
Example: A prevention-focused student would focus on avoiding mistakes, sticking to
familiar routines, and concentrating on avoiding failure rather than striving for the highest
possible grades.
Individual differences in regulatory focus can arise from various factors, including childhood
experiences of rewards and discipline. The way individuals were raised and the type of
encouragement or discipline they received can shape their regulatory focus.
Additionally, the immediate context also plays a role in influencing an individual's regulatory
focus. Depending on the environment and situational cues, people can shift their focus
between promotion and prevention.
Self-Perception Theory
Aim: To understand how individuals form their self-concept and gain self-knowledge through
their behavior. It explains how we gain self-knowledge by observing our own behavior. It
emphasizes that our behavior provides insights into our self-concept. By understanding this
theory, we can better understand how our actions shape our understanding of ourselves.
Principles:
Principle 1: Attribution for behavior : We make attributions (explanations) for our behavior,
just like we do for other people's behavior. Example: If I always help others, I attribute it to
my caring nature.
Principle 2: Behavior shapes self-concept: Our behavior gives us clues about who we are.
We construct our self-concept by attributing our actions to our internal qualities. I see myself
as a confident person because I often volunteer to speak in public.
Inferences from behavior: When internal cues are weak, we infer aspects of our identity from
our observable behavior.
Imagined behavior influences self-conception: Imagining ourselves engaging in certain
behaviors can impact how we perceive ourselves and subsequently affect our performance.
Overjustification effect: When external rewards or punishments are prominent, our
motivation to engage in a behavior may decrease as we attribute our actions to external
factors rather than personal enjoyment or commitment.
Rewards and intrinsic motivation: Providing external rewards for tasks that were previously
intrinsically motivated can reduce motivation and enjoyment, potentially leading to worse
performance.
Paradoxical control of behavior: Antisocial behavior may be better controlled by rewarding
positive behavior rather than solely relying on punishment.
For example, if someone regularly volunteers at a local animal shelter without receiving any
external rewards, they may conclude that they genuinely care about animal welfare. In this
case, their behavior of volunteering shapes their self-perception and reinforces their belief
that they are compassionate towards animals.
Social Comparison Theory: Leon Festinger
Definition: Social comparison theory explains how we learn about ourselves by comparing
our behaviors and opinions with those of others to establish socially approved ways of
thinking and behaving.
Example: When we see our friends dressing a certain way or adopting a specific fashion
trend, we may feel the need to conform and dress similarly to fit in and be accepted by the
group.
Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model: Tesser (1988)
Definition: The self-evaluation maintenance model suggests that people try to maintain their
self-esteem by either downplaying their similarities with others who outperform them or by
withdrawing from relationships with such individuals.
Example: If a person is a talented musician but feels threatened by a more skilled musician,
they may distance themselves from that person to protect their self-esteem.
Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing): Cialdini and colleagues (1976)
Definition: BIRGing refers to the tendency to associate ourselves with successful individuals
or groups to enhance our self-esteem and social identity.
Example: When our favorite sports team wins a game, we may proudly say "we won" even
though we did not actively contribute to the team's success, as it allows us to share in their
glory and feel a sense of belonging.
Self-Categorization Theory: Turner et al. (1987)
Definition: Self-categorization theory explains how individuals categorize themselves as
members of a particular group, internalize the attributes associated with that group, and
derive their self-concept from it.
Example: When individuals identify themselves as part of a political party or a sports team,
they adopt the beliefs, values, and behaviors associated with that group, which shapes their
self-perception and social identity.
These theories are related to self-knowledge as they highlight the role of comparison with
others, managing self-esteem, and social identity in shaping individuals' understanding of
themselves. They demonstrate how individuals rely on external cues and social contexts to
gain insights into their own attitudes, behaviors, and self-concept.
Social Identity Theory:
Origin: Social Identity Theory was developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, studying how
people categorize themselves and others into social groups.
Aim: The theory aims to understand how belonging to different groups affects how we see
ourselves and how we behave towards other groups.
Social Identity and Personal Identity:
Social Identity: Social identity is how we define ourselves based on the groups we belong to,
like being a fan of a sports team or identifying as American.
Personal Identity: Personal identity is how we see ourselves as individuals, based on our
unique traits and personal relationships.
Metacontrast Principle:
Prototype: A group's prototype is the ideal representation of the group, highlighting its
distinguishing characteristics.
Metacontrast Principle: Group prototypes emphasize similarities within groups and
differences between groups, reinforcing the boundaries between "us" and "them."
For example, in a scenario with two rival sports teams, Team A and Team B, their respective
prototypes emphasize the unique characteristics and values of each team. This emphasis on
differences strengthens the boundaries between the two teams and reinforces the sense of
belonging within each group.
Processes of Social Identity Salience:
Social Categorization: We categorize people into social groups based on observable cues like
appearance and behavior.
Structural and Normative Fit: How well a social identity fits with the similarities and
differences between people, and how well it explains their behavior, determines its salience.
Consequences of Social Identity Salience:
Depersonalization: When a social identity becomes prominent, people focus more on group
membership than individual traits, leading to depersonalization.
Group Behavior and Beliefs: Social identity influences thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and
behaviors, shaping how individuals interact with other groups.
Group Status and Self-Esteem: Group status and perceptions of intergroup relationships
impact individuals' self-esteem and can influence their attitudes and actions towards other
groups.
Applications of Social Identity Theory:
Understanding and managing intergroup dynamics and conflicts.
Exploring group behavior and dynamics within organizations.
Informing marketing and consumer behavior strategies by considering group identities.
Analyzing social movements and activism through the lens of group identities.
Guiding conflict resolution and peacebuilding efforts by addressing social identities and
intergroup relations.
Self-Motives
I. Introduction: The search for self-knowledge involves various practices, ranging from
scientific personality tests to more dubious methods like astrology and palmistry. Individuals
have preferences regarding the type of information they want about themselves, and they can
be dismayed by unexpected or unwanted discoveries.
Self-motives: People are motivated to seek self-knowledge because their sense of self is
crucial for adaptive living. There are three main motives that influence the search for self-
knowledge: self-assessment, self-verification, and self-enhancement.
II. Three Classes of Motives:
A. Self-Assessment:
Motive: Desire for accurate and valid information about oneself. People strive to learn the
truth about themselves, regardless of its favorability.
Examples: Engaging in self-reflection and seeking objective feedback.
B. Self-Verification:
Motive: Quest for confirmation of existing self-beliefs.People seek out self-consistent
information to confirm what they already know about themselves.
Examples: Individuals with a negative self-image actively seeking negative information to
confirm their beliefs.
C. Self-Enhancement:
Motive: Desire to learn favorable things about oneself and revise unfavorable self-views.
People are guided by a self-enhancement motive to maintain a positive self-concept.
Examples: Publicly affirming positive aspects of oneself, engaging in self-affirmation after a
threat to self-esteem.
III. Study on Self-Affirmation:
Study involving Mormon women in Salt Lake City.
Baseline condition: 50% of women agreed to help a community food cooperative.
Threat conditions: Mentioning negative attributes related to self-concept significantly
increased agreement to help.
Positive reinforcement condition: Positive mention of self-concept increased agreement,
albeit to a lesser extent.
IV. Dominance of Self-Enhancement:
Sedikides' experiments pitted the three motives against each other.
Self-enhancement emerged as the strongest motive, followed by self-verification and self-
assessment.
Desire for positive self-perception dominates the pursuit of both accurate self-knowledge and
information that confirms existing beliefs.
V. Strategies for Self-Enhancement:
People employ various strategies to enhance or protect their positive self-concept.
Examples: Engaging in self-deception, engaging in esteem-enhancing and esteem-protecting
behaviors.
In summary, self-enhancement is the most fundamental and prevailing motive in the pursuit
of self-knowledge. People strive to learn positive things about themselves and maintain a
positive self-concept, employing strategies to enhance or protect it. Self-assessment and self-
verification also play roles but are less dominant compared to self-enhancement.
Self-Presentation and Impression Management
I. Introduction
Impression management: Impression management refers to the conscious or subconscious
process of controlling or influencing the impressions others form about oneself. It involves
carefully crafting one's behavior, appearance, and communication to create a desired
impression and shape how others perceive and evaluate them. In essence, it is the strategic
management of one's image to achieve specific social goals or outcomes.
Our self-image is shaped through interactions with others. We strive to control the way we
present ourselves to others, as it affects their reactions towards us.
Goffman (1959) likens this process to a theatrical performance, where we play different roles
for different audiences.
Self-monitoring refers to how much attention a person pays to their own behavior and the
way they present themselves in different situations. High self-monitors tend to be more aware
of social cues and adjust their behavior to fit the expectations of their audience or the
situation. They strategically shape their behavior to create a specific impression. On the other
hand, low self-monitors are less responsive to changing social demands and are more likely
to express themselves naturally without much concern for how they are perceived.
A. Strategies for Self-Presentation
Jones and Pittman (1982) identified five strategic motives:
1.Self-promotion: Trying to convince others of our competence.
2.Ingratiation: Seeking others' approval and likability.
3.Intimidation: Attempting to project a dangerous image.
4.Exemplification: Demonstrating moral respectability.
5.Supplication: Appealing to others for pity and help.
B. Expressive Self-Presentation
Self-presentation refers to the intentional effort made by individuals to shape how others
perceive them.
Expressive self-presentation: This is driven by the desire to demonstrate and gain validation
for one's self-concept through actions. The emphasis is more on self-expression and personal
identity rather than influencing others. Individuals seek validation from others because a self-
concept holds little value if it is not recognized and affirmed by others.
For instance, if you see yourself as a caring person, you might actively engage in acts of
kindness and surround yourself with people who value and recognize your caring nature.
III. Importance of Social Validation
Validation of our self-concept by others is crucial for it to be meaningful and serve a useful
function.
People prefer social situations that align with their self-concept.
Partners who agree with our self-images are preferred.
IV. Impact on Self-Concept
Publicly performed behavior has a stronger influence on self-concept than privately
performed behavior.
Self-concept change relies on how others perceive us, not just our internal perception.
Research by Snyder (1984) shows how expectations and behaviors can shape one's self-
concept.
V. Implications of Impression Management
Self-presentation involves deliberate efforts to create a favorable impression.
Impression management strategies vary among individuals and situations.
Self-monitoring involves carefully controlling how we present ourselves.
EXAMPLES:
A person may act confident and competent in a job interview to promote themselves.
Complimenting others to gain their liking and approval is an example of ingratiation.
Displaying aggressive behavior to intimidate others and establish dominance.
Self-presentation involves consciously shaping how others perceive us, while impression
management refers to the strategies used to create a positive impression. Self-monitoring is
the degree to which individuals regulate their behavior based on the situational demands.
These concepts highlight the significance of social validation and the influence of public
behavior on self-concept.
Self, and Identity in the Cultural Context.
Different cultures have distinct ways of understanding self and identity. One significant
contrast is between individualistic cultures and collectivist cultures. Individualistic cultures,
such as those in Western Europe, North America, and Australia, prioritize personal
independence and self-expression. In contrast, collectivist cultures, found in regions like
Asia, South America, and Africa, emphasize group harmony and interdependence.
Individualistic Cultures: In Western cultures like Western Europe, North America, and
Australia, there is a focus on individualism. People in these cultures tend to have an
independent self-concept, where they view themselves as separate and autonomous
individuals. Their self-identity is based on their personal goals, achievements, and inner
thoughts and feelings. here, self-expression and personal autonomy are highly valued. People
strive for uniqueness and assert their independence. They often prioritize personal
achievements and self-fulfillment.
For example, in Western societies, it is common for individuals to emphasize their personal
achievements and pursue personal fulfillment even if it means prioritizing their own interests
over group harmony.
Collectivist Cultures: In contrast, many other cultures in Asia, South America, and Africa are
collectivist. These cultures prioritize group harmony and interconnectedness. People in
collectivist cultures have an interdependent self-concept, which means they define
themselves in relation to their connections and relationships with others. Their self-identity is
shaped by their roles and responsibilities within the community or family. the self is defined
by relationships and interconnectedness. Here, People prioritize maintaining harmonious
relationships with others and fulfilling their social roles. They may emphasize loyalty,
cooperation, and interdependence within their social groups.
For instance, in collectivist societies, individuals may prioritize the needs of their family or
community over their personal desires and may define their identity based on their familial
roles, such as being a dutiful son or daughter.
Distinctions between Independent and Interdependent Selves:
Independent self: Found in individualistic cultures, it focuses on personal autonomy and
uniqueness.
Interdependent self: Found in collectivist cultures, it emphasizes relationships and
connections with others.
Example: A person with an independent self-concept may prioritize personal
accomplishments, while someone with an interdependent self-concept may prioritize
maintaining harmonious relationships with their community or family.
Cultural Influences on Self and Identity:
Cultural norms shape self-conceptions and influence how individuals perceive themselves.
Economic activity is often linked to cultural differences in self and identity. Individualistic
cultures have developed economic systems based on mobility and transient relationships.
Collectivist cultures prioritize long-term relationships and group cohesion.
Example: In Western cultures, where economic mobility is emphasized, values like
independence and uniqueness are highly valued. In contrast, collectivist cultures prioritize
connectedness and enduring relationships.
Understanding these cultural differences helps us appreciate diverse perspectives and
facilitates effective communication in a globalized world. It is important to note that
individuals within cultures may deviate from cultural norms, and cultural hybridity is
becoming more prevalent in contemporary society.
