HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MT

st
2 YEAR
WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
1 SEM
Department of Medical Technology – Southwestern University PHINMA
TRANSCRIBED BY: COMENDADOR, KIM MAE
Sources: PPT/Modules/Book
LECTURE

THE HUMAN ORGANISM

ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY
 Human anatomy and physiology is  is the scientific discipline that deals
the study of the structure and with the processes or functions of
function of the human body. living things.
 It is the scientific discipline that  Human physiology is the study of
investigates the structure of the a specific organism, the human,
body. whereas cellular physiology and
 It means to dissect, or cut apart and systemic physiology are
separate, the parts of the body for subdivisions that emphasize specific
study. organizational levels.
 It examines the relationship
between the structure of a body
part and its function
Microscopic Anatomy STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
Study of the structure of cells, tissues,
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
and organs of the body as seen with a
microscope. SEX STRUCTURAL LEVELS
Gross Anatomy Chemical Level
When we look at our body or study  Simplest level of structural ladder.
large body structures such as the heart  Atoms
or bones. It is seen in our naked eye.  This is important because a
Two basic approaches to the study of molecule’s structure determines its
anatomy function.
 Systemic anatomy is the study of  involves how atoms, such as
the body by systems, such as the hydrogen and carbon, interact and
cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, combine into molecules.
and muscular systems. Cell Level
 Regional anatomy is the study of  The smallest unit of living thing.
the organization of the body by  The basic structural and functional
areas, such as the head, abdomen, units of organisms, such as plants
or arm, all systems are studied and animals.
simultaneously.  Molecules can combine to form
Anatomists have two general ways to organelles, which are the small
examine the internal structures of a structures that make up some cells.
living person:
 Surface anatomy is the study of Tissue Level
 A tissue is a group of similar cells
external features, such as bony
and the materials surrounding
projections, which serve as
them.
landmarks for locating deeper  The many tissues that make up the
structures.
 Anatomical imaging involves the body are classified into four primary
types: epithelial, connective,
use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic
muscle, and nervous.
resonance imaging (MRI), and other
Organ Level
technologies to create pictures of  An organ (a tool) is composed of
internal structures, such as when
two or more tissue types that
determining if a bone is broken or a
together perform one or more
ligament is torn.
common functions.
Organ System Level
 An organ system is a group of extinct.
organs classified as a unit because
of a common function or set of
functions. Integumentary System
Organism Level external covering of the body or the
 An organism is any living thing skin.
considered as a whole, whether cushions and protects the deeper tissues
composed of one cell, such as a from injury.
bacterium, or of trillions of cells, waterproof
such as a human. receptors are located in the skin.
helps regulate the body temperature.
is a barrier to pathogens and chemicals.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE prevents water loss.

SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Skeletal System

Organization consist of bones, cartilages, ligaments
 refers to the specific relationship of and joints.
the many individual parts of an supports to the body and provides
organism, from cell organelles to frameworks of the muscle.
organs, interacting and working protective function
together. Living things are highly formation of blood cells
organized. (hematopoiesis).
Metabolism protects internal organs.
 is the ability to use energy to
perform vital functions, such as Muscular System
growth, movement, and contract- causes the muscular to
reproduction. shorten.
Responsiveness machines of the body.
 is the ability of an organism to mobility reflects the activity of skeletal
sense changes in the environment muscles.
and make the adjustments that help every muscle (main and/or supporting
maintain its life. function).
Growth moves the skeleton.
 refers to an increase in size of all or produces heat.
part of the organism. It can result
from an increase in cell number, cell Nervous System
size, or the amount of substance the body’s fast acting control system.
surrounding cells. the CPU of the body.
Development brain, spinal cord, nerves, even sensory
 includes the changes an organism receptors.
undergoes through time. Human it tells our system what to do/how to
development begins when the egg respond to any stimulus.
is fertilized by the sperm and ends regulates body functions such as
with death. movements by means of electrical
 Differentiation is change in cell impulses.
structure and function from interprets sensory information.
generalized to specialized.
Reproduction Endocrine System
 is the formation of new cells or new control the body activities, much more
organism. slowly.
 Without reproduction of cells, responsible for the release of hormones
growth and tissue repair are into our bloodstreams and travel to the
impossible. organs that needs it.
 secretes the hormones to regulate the
Without reproduction of the
structure.
organism, the species becomes

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

2
regulates body functions such as growth manipulation of food, breakdown and
and reproduction by means of hormones. delivery of the products to the blood and
to the tissue.
COMMON GLAND undigested food leaves the body from
PANCREA Insulin (Lowers blood anus by a form of feces.
S sugar levels; stimulates changes to simple chemicals that can be
metabolism of glucose, absorbed and used by the body.
protein, and fat).
PITUITARY  Adrenocorticotropic Urinary System
GLAND hormone (ACTH) disposing wastes that the body produces
 Growth Hormone as by product of its normal function.
 Oxytocin maintains the water and salt balance.
OVARIES Estrogen (development of maintain the acid base balance of blood.
female sexual regulates volume and pH of blood and
characteristics and tissue fluid.
reproductive development, removes waste products from the blood.
important for functioning of
uterus and breasts; also Reproduction System
protects bone health) produce offspring
PINEAL Melatonin (Releases testes produce sperm
GLAND melatonin during night ovaries produce ova
hours to help with sleep) in women provides a site for the
developing embyo.
Cardiovascular System within the context of producing
heart and blood vessels offspring, the reproductive system has for
circulatory system functions:
carry oxygen, nutrients, hormones and  To produce egg and sperm cells.
other substances to and from the tissue  Transport and sustain these cells.
cells.  To nurture the developing offspring.
heart (independent organ)
transports oxygen and nutrients to
tissue and removes waste products. HOMEOSTASIS
 is the existence and maintenance of a
Lymphatic System relatively constant environment within the
compliments the cardiovascular system. body despite fluctuations in either the
return the fluid leaked from the blood external environment or the internal
back to the vessels so that blood can be environment.
kept continuously throughout the body.  homeostasis is “unchanging” (homeo =
maintain body fluid levels and remove the same; stasis = standing still).
cellular waste.
destroys pathogen that enter the body Homeostatic mechanisms
and provides immunity.  such as sweating or shivering, normally
play a big role in immunity. maintain body temperature near an
average normal value, or set point.
Respiratory System  are governed by the nervous system or
keeps the body constantly supplied with the endocrine system.
oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
gases are transported to and from the
blood.

Digestive System
tube running through the body from
mouth to the anus.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

3
 Negative Feedback
 maintain homeostasis
 negative means “to decrease.”
 Negative feedback is when any
deviation from the set point is made
smaller or is resisted.
It does not prevent variation but
maintains variation within a normal range.
Example is the maintenance of
normal body temperature.

Positive Feedback
It occurs when the initial stimulus
further stimulates the response.
 Positive (increase) means that the
deviation from the set point becomes even
greater.
this type of response is required to re-
achieve homeostasis.
Example is during blood loss, birth and
pregnancy.

This example has three components of

homeostatis:
 Receptor monitors the value of a
variable, such as body temperature, by
detecting stimuli.
 Control center, such as part of the
brain, determines the set point for the
variable and receives input from the
receptor about the variable.
 Effector, such as the sweat glands, can
change the value of the variable when
directed by the control center.
 A changed variable is a stimulus
because it initiates a homeostatic
mechanism.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

4
 nose is located in a medial position on the
face, and the ears are lateral to the nose.
TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN  Superficial refers to a structure close
to the surface of the body, and deep is
Body Positions toward the interior of the body. For
 Anatomical position refers to a example, the skin is superficial to muscle
person standing upright with the face and bone.
directed forward, the upper limbs hanging
to the sides, and the palms of the hands
facing forward.
 A person is supine when lying face
upward and prone when lying face
downward.

Directional Terms

 Right and left are used as directional

terms in anatomical terminology.
 Superior is used for above, or up.
 Inferior is used for below, or down.
 Anterior is used for front. Body Parts and Regions
 Posterior is used for back.
 Ventral means belly. For example, the
anterior surface of the human body can
also be called the ventral surface, because
the belly “goes first” when we are walking.
 Posterior means “that which follows”
and the Dorsal means “back.” Thus, the
posterior surface of the body is the dorsal
surface, or back, which follows as we are
walking.
 Proximal means nearest and the
Distal means distant. These terms are
used to refer to linear structures, such as
the limbs, in which one end is near
another structure and the other end is
farther away. Each limb is attached at its
proximal end to the body, and the distal Anterior Body Landmarks
end, such as the hand, is farther away. TERM LOCATION
 Medial means toward the midline, and Abdomina Anterior body trunk inferior
lateral means away from the midline. The l to ribs

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

5
Acromial Point of shoulder illustrated along with the
Antebrach Forearm posterior body landmarks.
ial
Antecubit Anterior surface of elbow
al
Axillary Armpit
Brachial Arm
Buccal Cheek area
Carpal Wrist
Cervical Neck region
Coxal Hip
Crural Leg
Deltoid Curve of shoulder formed
by large deltoid muscle.
Digital Fingers, toes BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS
femoral Thigh
Fibular Lateral part of leg  When the section is made through the
Frontal Forehead body wall or through an organ, it is made
Inguinal Area where thigh meets along an imaginary line called a plane.
body trunk; groin
Mental Chin
Nasal Nose
Oral Mouth
Orbital Eye area
Patellar Anterior knee
Pelvic area overlying the pelvis
anteriorly
Pubic Genital region
Sternal Breastbone area
Tarsal Ankle region Sagittal Section
Thoracic Chest  is a cut along the lengthwise, or
Umbilical navel longitudinal, plane of the body, dividing
the body into right and left parts.
If the cut is down the median plane of
Posterior Body Landmarks the body and the right and left parts are
TERM LOCATION equal in size, it is called a median
calcaneal heel of foot (midsagittal) section. All other sagittal
cephalic head sections are parasagittal sections (para
Femoral Thigh = near).
Gluteal Buttock
Lumbar Area of back between ribs Frontal Section
and hips; the loin  is a cut along a lengthwise plane that
Occipital Posterior surface of head or divides the body (or an organ) into
base of skull anterior and posterior parts. It is also
Olecranal Posterior surface of elbow called a coronal (“crown”) section.
Popliteal Posterior knee area
Sacral Area between hips Transverse Section
Scapular Shoulder blade region  is a cut along a horizontal plane,
Sural The posterior surface of dividing the body or organ into superior
leg; the calf and inferior parts. It is also called a cross
Vertebral Area of the spinal column section.
Plantar Sole of the foot, actually on
region the inferior body surface, is

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

6
  Thoracic cavity is separated from the
rest of the ventral cavity by a dome-
shaped muscle, the diaphragm. The
organs in the thoracic cavity (lungs, heart,
and others) are somewhat protected by
the rib cage.
Mediastinum is the central region that
separates the lungs into right and left
cavities in the thoracic cavity. The
mediastinum itself houses the heart,
trachea, and several other visceral organs.
 Abdominopelvic cavity is the cavity
inferior to the diaphragm. Subdivide it into
a superior abdominal cavity, containing
the stomach, liver, intestines, and other
organs, and an inferior pelvic cavity,
with the reproductive organs, bladder, and
rectum.

BODY CAVITIES

The Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Dorsal Body Cavity

 has two subdivisions, which are
continuous with each other.
 Cranial cavity is the space inside the
bony skull. The brain is well protected
because it occupies the cranial cavity
 Spinal cavity extends from the cranial
cavity nearly to the end of the vertebral
column.

Ventral Body Cavity

 much larger than the dorsal cavity.
It contains all the structures within the
chest and abdomen, that is, the visceral
organs in those regions. the ventral
body cavity is subdivided.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

7
 Other Body Cavities
Cavities Description
Oral and commonly called the
digestive mouth, contains the
cavities teeth and tongue. This
cavity is part of and
continuous with the
cavity of the digestive
organs, which opens to
the exterior at the
anus.
Nasal cavity Located within and
posterior to the nose,
the nasal cavity is part
of the respiratory
TERM LOCATION system passageways.
Umbilical is the centermost Orbital The orbital cavities
region region, deep to and cavities (orbits) in the skull
surrounding the house the eyes and
umbilicus (navel). present them in an
Epigastric is located superior to anterior position.
region the umbilical region Middle ear The middle ear cavities
(epi = upon, above; cavities. carved into the skull lie
gastric = stomach). just medial to the
Hypogastric is inferior to the eardrums. These
(pubic) region umbilical region (hypo cavities contain tiny
= below). bones that transmit
Right and left are lateral to the sound vibrations to the
iliac, or hypogastric region hearing receptors in
inguinal, (iliac = superior part of the inner ears.
regions the hip bone).
Right and left lie lateral to the Serous Membranes
lumbar umbilical region  line the trunk cavities and cover the
regions (lumbus = loin). organs of these cavities.
Right and left flank the epigastric
hypochondria region and contain the
c regions lower ribs (chondro =
cartilage).

 The part of the balloon in contact with

your fist (the inner balloon wall)
represents the visceral serous membrane.
the outer part of the balloon wall
represents the parietal serous
membrane.

 The cavity, or space, between the

visceral and parietal serous membranes is
normally filled with a thin, lubricating film
of serous fluid produced by the
membranes.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

8
Thoracic cavity contains three serous called the peritoneal (to stretch
membrane-lined cavities: over) cavity.
 Pleurisy is inflammation of the
Heart pleura.
 The pericardial (around the
heart) cavity surrounds the heart.
The
 visceral pericardium covers the Abdominopelvic
heart.  Parietal peritoneum lines the
 Parietal pericardium forms the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity
outer layer of the sac around the and the inferior surface of the
heart. The fluid-filled pericardial diaphragm. The peritoneal cavity is
cavity is the space between the located between the visceral
visceral pericardium and the peritoneum and the parietal
parietal pericardium. The fluid peritoneum and contains peritoneal
filling the pericardial cavity is fluid.
called pericardial fluid.
 Pericarditis is inflammation of the
pericardium.

Lungs The serous membranes can become

 Pleural cavity surrounds each inflamed—usually as a result of an
lung. Each lung is covered by infection.
visceral pleura. visceral peritoneum covers the outer
 Parietal pleura lines the inner surface of the small intestine.
surface of the thoracic wall, the  Peritonitis is inflammation of the
lateral surfaces of the peritoneum. One form of peritonitis
mediastinum, and the superior occurs when the appendix ruptures as a
surface of the diaphragm. The result of appendicitis.
pleural cavity is located between Appendicitis is an inflammation of the
the visceral pleura and the parietal appendix that is usually caused by a
pleura and contains pleural fluid. bacterial infection.
 Mesenteries, which consist of two
layers of peritoneum fused together,
connect the visceral peritoneum of some
abdominopelvic organs to the parietal
peritoneum on the body wall or to the
visceral peritoneum of other
abdominopelvic organs. The mesenteries
anchor the organs to the body wall and
provide a pathway for nerves and blood
vessels to reach the organs.

 The abdominopelvic cavity contains

a serous membrane lined cavity

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

9
 spectrum, which includes
X rays, infrared radiation
(heat energy), visible
light, radio, and ultraviolet
waves.

Matter, Mass, and Weight

 Matter is anything that occupies space
and has mass.
 Solids, such as bones and teeth, have
 Parietal peritoneum covers these a definite shape and volume.
other organs, which are said to be Liquids have a definite volume, but
retroperitoneal (behind). The they conform to the shape of their
retroperitoneal organs include the kidneys, container.
the adrenal glands, a portion of the  Gases have neither a definite shape
pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the nor a definite volume.
urinary bladder.  Physical changes do not alter the
basic nature of a substance.
BASIC CHEMISTRY  Chemical changes do alter the
composition of the substance—often
CONCEPTS OF MATTER AND ENRGY substantially.
Energy  Mass is the amount of matter in an
 has no mass and does not take up object.
space. Weight is the gravitational force acting
 It can be measured only by its effects on an object of a given mass.
on matter.  Kilogram (kg) is the international unit
 Kinetic energy is displayed in the for mass. It is the mass of a platinum-
constant movement of the tiniest particles iridium cylinder kept at the International
of matter (atoms) as well as in larger Bureau of Weights and Measurements in
objects, such as a bouncing ball. France.
 Potential energy is when energy is
inactive or stored.
Elements and Atoms
FORMS OF ENERGY  Element is the simplest type of matter
Chemical is stored in the bonds of having unique chemical properties.
Energy chemical substances.
When the bonds are
broken, the (potential)
stored energy is
unleashed and becomes
kinetic energy (energy in
action).
Electrical results from the
energy movement of charged
particles. The nervous
system uses electrical
currents called nerve
impulses to transmit
messages from one part
of the body to another.
Mechanic is energy directly involved
al energy in moving matter.
Radiant travels in waves; that is, it
energy is the energy of the
electromagnetic

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
 Atom (indivisible) is the smallest Planetary and Orbital Models of an
particle of an element that has the Atom
chemical characteristics of that element.  Planetary model of an atom portrays
the atom as a miniature solar system
Atomic Structure (Figure 2.1a) in which the protons and
 Atoms are composed of subatomic neutrons are clustered at the center of the
particles, some of which have an electrical atom in the atomic nucleus.
charge.
 Electrical charge is the tendency of
particles to be attracted to each other or
repulsed from each other. There are two
types of electrical charge: positive and
negative.

The three major types of subatomic

particles are:
 Neutrons do not have an electrical
charge.
 Protons have positive charges,
and  Orbital model depicts the general
 Electrons have negative charges. location of electrons outside the nucleus
as a haze of negative charge referred to as
the electron cloud.

 The positive charge of a proton is equal

in magnitude to the negative charge of an
electron.
The number of protons and number of
electrons in each atom are equal, and the
individual charges cancel each other.
 Electron cloud is where electrons are
most likely to be found.
 Atomic number is the number of
protons in each atom.
 Protons and neutrons have about the
same mass, and they are responsible for
most of the mass of atoms.
 The mass number of an element is the
number of protons plus the number of
neutrons in each atom. For example, the
MOLECULES AND COMPOUND
mass number for carbon is 12 because it
 Molecules are formed when two or
has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
more atoms combine chemically.
 Isotopes have the same number of
protons and electrons but vary in the
Example:
number of neutrons they contain.
 When two hydrogen atoms bond, a
 Radioisotopes is the heavier isotopes
molecule of hydrogen gas is
of certain atoms are unstable and tend to
formed:
decompose to become more stable.
H (atom) + H (atom) → H2 (molecule)
 Radioactivity is the process of
 Compound is when two or more
spontaneous atomic decay and can be
different atoms bind together to form a
compared to a tiny explosion.
molecule.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
  Four hydrogen atoms and one
carbon atom can interact
chemically to form methane:
4H + C = CH4 (methane)

CHEMICAL BONDS AND CHEMICAL

REACTIONS
 Chemical reactions occur whenever
atoms combine with or dissociate from
other atoms.
When atoms unite chemically, chemical
bonds are formed.

Bond Formation

Role of Electrons
 Electron shells, or energy levels is Types of Chemical Bonds
the regions of space around the nucleus. Ionic bonds
 form when electrons are completely
transferred from one atom to another.
Atoms are electrically neutral, but when
they gain or lose electrons during bonding,
their positive and negative charges are no
longer balanced, and charged particles,
called ions, result.
 Both anions and cations result when an
 The maximum number of electron shells
ionic bond is formed.
in any atom known so far is seven, and
 Example is the formation of sodium
these are numbered 1 to 7 from the
chloride (NaCl), and common table salt.
nucleus outward.
Valence shell is the atom’s outmost
shell and its electrons determine the
chemical behavior of the atom.
 When the valence shell contains fewer
than eight electrons, an atom will tend to
gain, lose, or share electrons with other
atoms to reach a stable state.

Covalent Bond
 Electrons do not have to be completely
lost or gained for atoms to become stable.
Instead, they can be shared in such a way
that each atom is able to fill its valence
shell at least part of the time.
 Covalent molecules is molecules in
which atoms share electrons.
their bonds are covalent bonds (co =
with; valent = having power).
 For example, hydrogen, with its single
electron, can become stable if it fills its
valence shell (energy level 1) by sharing a
pair of electrons—its own and one from
another atom.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
  The formation of a protein molecule by
the joining of amino acids into long chains
is a synthesis reaction.

other example, two oxygen atoms, each

with six valence-shell electrons, can share
two pairs of electrons (form double bonds)
with each other to form a molecule of
oxygen gas (O2).

Decomposition reactions
occur when a molecule is broken down
into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions and
 Polar Covalent Bond is an unequal can be indicated by:
sharing of electrons between two atoms AB → A + B
results in a slightly positive charge (δ+) on  synthesis reactions in reverse.
one side of the molecule and a slightly Bonds are always broken, and the
negative charge (δ– ) on the other side of products of these reactions are smaller
the molecule. and simpler than the original molecules.
 Nonpolar Covalent Bond is an equal As bonds are broken, chemical energy is
sharing of electrons between two atoms released.
results in an even charge distribution  underlie all catabolic (destructive)
among the atoms of the molecule. processes that occur in body cells; that is,
they are molecule-degrading reactions.
Hydrogen bonds Examples of decomposition reactions
 are extremely weak bonds formed when that occur in the body include the
a hydrogen atom bound to one electron- digestion of foods into their building blocks
hungry nitrogen or oxygen atom is and the breakdown of glycogen (a large
attracted by another electron hungry carbohydrate molecule stored in the liver)
atom, and the hydrogen atom forms a to release glucose when blood sugar levels
“bridge” between them. start to decline.
 is common between water molecules
and is reflected in water’s surface tension.
 are also important intramolecular
bonds; that is, they help to bind different
parts of the same molecule together into a
special three-dimensional shape.

PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Synthesis Reactions
 occur when two or more atoms or
molecules combine to form a larger, more
complex molecule, which can be simply
represented as:
A + B → AB
 Synthesis reactions underlie all anabolic Exchange reactions
(constructive) activities that occur in body involve both synthesis and
cells. decomposition reactions; bonds are both
They are particularly important for made and broken.
growth and for repair of worn-out or During exchange reactions, a switch is
damaged tissues. made between molecule parts (changing

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
partners, so to speak), and different substances, called solutes (which
molecules are made. may be gases, liquids, or solids),
exchange reaction can be generally can be dissolved or suspended. The
indicated as: resulting mixture is called a
AB + C → AC + B and AB + CD → AD + CB solution when the solute particles
 Example, when ATP reacts with glucose are exceedingly tiny, and a
and transfers its end phosphate group to suspension when the solute
glucose, forming glucose phosphate. At particles are fairly large.
the same time, the ATP becomes ADP. Translucent mixtures with solute
particles of intermediate size are
called colloids.
 Chemical reactivity. Water is an
important reactant in some types
of chemical reactions. For example,
to digest foods or break down
biological molecules, water
molecules are added to the bonds
of the larger molecules. Such
reactions are called hydrolysis
reactions, a term that specifically
recognizes this role of water (hydro
= water; lys = splitting).
BIOCHEMISTRY: THE CHEMICAL  Cushioning. Water also serves a
COMPOSITION OF LIVING MATTER protective function. In the form of
cerebrospinal fluid, water forms a
Two major classes of molecules: cushion around the brain that helps
Inorganic compounds lack carbon and to protect it from physical trauma.
tend to be small, simple molecules.
Examples of inorganic compounds found in  Salt is an ionic compound containing
the body are water, salts, and many (but cations other than H+ and anions other
not all) acids and bases. than the hydroxyl ion (OH−). When
dissolved in body fluids, salts easily
Organic compounds are carbon- separate into their ions. This process,
containing compounds. The important called dissociation, occurs rather easily
organic compounds in the body are because the ions have already been
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic formed.
acids.  All salts are electrolytes (because ions
are charged particles) —substances that
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS conduct an electrical current in solution.
Water is the most abundant inorganic  Acids and Bases are also electrolytes.
compound in the body. It accounts for
about two-thirds of body weight. Among Characteristics of Acids
the properties that make water so vital are  Acids have a sour taste and can
the following: dissolve many metals or “burn” a hole in
 High heat capacity. Water has a your rug.
high heat capacity; that is, it  Acids are also defined as proton
absorbs and releases large donors.
amounts of heat before its  When acids are dissolved in water, they
temperature changes appreciably. release hydrogen ions and some anions.
 Polarity/solvent properties.  The ionization of hydrochloric acid (an
Because of its polarity, water is an acid produced by stomach cells that aids
excellent solvent; indeed, it is often digestion) is shown in the following
called the “universal solvent.” A equation:
solvent is a liquid or gas in which
smaller amounts of other

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 Strong acids are acids that ionize
completely and liberate all their (example
is hydrochloric acid).
 Weak acids are acids that ionize
incompletely, as do acetic and carbonic
acid.
For example: For example, when carbonic
acid dissolves in water, only some of its
molecules ionize to liberate H+.

Characteristics of Bases
 Bases have a bitter taste, feel slippery,
and are proton acceptors.
The hydroxides ionize and dissociate in
water; the hydroxyl ion (OH−) and some
cations are released. The ionization of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), commonly
known as lye, is shown as:

 When acids and bases are mixed, they

react with each other (in an exchange
reaction) to form water and a salt:

 The pH scale is a measure of the H+

 This type of exchange reaction, in which concentration of a solution.
an acid and a base interact, is more The scale ranges from 0 to 14.
specifically called a neutralization A neutral solution has an equal
reaction. number of H+ and OH− and thus a pH of
7.0.
pH: Acid-Base Concentrations An acidic solution has a greater
The relative concentration of hydrogen concentration of H+ than of OH− and thus
(and hydroxyl) ions in various body fluids a pH less than 7.0.
is measured in concentration units called A basic, or alkaline, solution has
pH units. fewer H+ than OH− and thus a pH greater
 The idea for a pH scale was devised in than 7.0.
1909 by a Danish biochemist (and part-  The lower the pH number, the higher
time beer brewer) named Sørensen and is the H+ concentration.
based on the number of protons in  As the pH value becomes smaller, the
solution expressed in terms of moles per solution becomes more acidic; as the pH
liter. value becomes larger, the solution
becomes more basic.
 A change of one unit on the pH scale
represents a 10-fold change in the H+
concentration.
For example:
A solution with a pH of 6.0 has 100 times
more H+ than a solution with a pH of 8.0.
Thus, small changes in pH represent large
changes in H+ concentration.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
 The normal pH range for human blood is  Oxygen (O2) is a small, nonpolar,
7.35 to 7.45. If blood pH drops below 7.35, inorganic molecule consisting of two
a condition called acidosis results. oxygen atoms bound together by a double
 If blood pH rises above 7.45, alkalosis covalent bond.
results.  Carbon dioxide (CO2) consists of one
carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms.
SALTS Each oxygen atom is bound to the carbon
 A salt is a compound consisting of a atom by a double covalent bond. Carbon
positive ion other than H+ and a negative dioxide is produced when food molecules,
ion other than OH−. Salts are formed by such as glucose, are metabolized within
the reaction of an acid and a base. the cells of the body.
For example:
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) combines with WATER
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form the salt  Water (H2O) is an inorganic molecule
sodium chloride (NaCl): that consists of one atom of oxygen joined
by polar covalent bonds to two atoms of
hydrogen. Water is polar. Stabilizing body
temperature, providing protection,
BUFFERS facilitating chemical reactions, and
 A buffer is a chemical that resists transporting substances are the unique
changes in pH when either an acid or a contributions to living organism.
base is added to a solution containing the
buffer. ORGANIC MOLECULES
When an acid is added to a buffered  The four major groups of organic
solution, the buffer binds to the H+, molecules essential to living organisms are
preventing these ions from causing a carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
decrease in the pH of the solution. acids.

CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
 The molecules are called carbohydrates
because each carbon (carbo-) is combined
with the same atoms that form water
(hydrated).
 The simplest carbohydrates are
monosaccharides (one sugar), or simple
sugars.
Monosaccharides are considered the
building blocks of carbohydrates.
Glucose (blood sugar) and fructose
(fruit sugar) are important
monosaccharide energy sources for many
of the body’s cells.
 Disaccharides (two sugars) are formed
when two monosaccharides are joined by
a covalent bond.
For example:
Glucose and fructose combine to form the
INORGANIC MOLECULES disaccharide sucrose (table sugar).
Inorganic chemistry deals with those
substances that do not contain carbon.
Organic chemistry is the study of
carbon-containing substances.

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 Polysaccharides (many sugars) Fats are important energy-storage
consist of many monosaccharides bound molecules; they also pad and insulate the
in long chains. body. The building blocks of fats are
Glycogen, or animal starch, is a glycerol and fatty acids.
polysaccharide of glucose.

Glycerol is a 3-carbon molecule with a

hydroxyl group (—OH) attached to each
carbon atom, and fatty acids consist of a
carbon chain with a carboxyl group
attached at one end. A carboxyl group
LIPIDS consists of both an oxygen atom and a
hydroxyl group attached to a carbon atom
(—COOH):

 Triglycerides have three fatty acids

bound to a glycerol molecule. And is most
common type of fat.
 Most naturally occurring fatty acids
contain 14 to 18 carbon atoms.
A fatty acid is saturated if it contains
only single covalent bonds between the
carbon atoms.

 The carbon chain is unsaturated if it

has one or more double covalent bonds.

 Lipids are substances that dissolve in  Monounsaturated fats, such as olive

nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or and peanut oils, have one double covalent
acetone, but not in polar solvents, such as bond between carbon atoms.
water. Polyunsaturated fats, such as
Lipids are composed mainly of carbon, safflower, sunflower, corn, and fish oils,
hydrogen, and oxygen, but other have two or more double covalent bonds
elements, such as phosphorus and between carbon atoms.
nitrogen, are minor components of some  Trans fats are unsaturated fats that
lipids. have been chemically altered by the
 Fats, phospholipids, eicosanoids, addition of H atoms.
and steroids are examples of lipids.  Phospholipids are composed of a
polar region containing phosphate and a

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
nonpolar region consisting of two fatty The building blocks of proteins are
acid chains. amino acids, which are organic acids
containing an amine group (–NH2), a
carboxyl group, and a side chain
designated by the symbol R.

 A polar molecule or region of a

molecule, such as the phosphate head of
the phospholipid, is said to be
hydrophilic (water-loving), or water-
soluble.
 Nonpolar molecules do not dissolve in
water and so are called hydrophobic
(water-fearing), or water-insoluble.
 Eicosanoids are a group of important
chemicals derived from fatty acids.
 Example of eicosanoids is Fibrous and Globular Proteins
prostaglandins, which have been  Fibrous proteins, also called
implicated in regulating the secretion of structural protein.
some hormones, blood clotting, some  They are very important in binding
reproductive functions, and many other structures together and providing strength
processes. in certain body tissues.
 Steroids are composed of carbon Example is Keratin is the structural
atoms bound together into four ringlike protein of hair and nails and the material
structures. that makes skin tough.
Cholesterol is an important steroid
because other steroid molecules are
synthesized from it.
 For example, bile salts, which are
important for fat digestion, are derived
from cholesterol, as are the reproductive
hormones estrogen, progesterone, and
testosterone.

Globular proteins (water-soluble) are

mobile, generally compact, spherical
molecules that have at least tertiary
structure. They are also called functional
proteins.

PROTEINS
 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen, and most have
some sulfur.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
  Enzymes increase the rate of chemical
reactions by lowering the activation
energy, which is the energy necessary to
start a chemical reaction.

 Humans can synthesize 12 of them

from simple organic molecules, but the
remaining 8 so-called essential amino
acids must be obtained in the diet.
 When their three dimensional structures
are destroyed, the proteins are said to be  The lowered activation energies enable
denatured and can no longer perform their reactions to proceed at rates that sustain
physiological roles. life.
Denaturation is when protein are
broken, the protein becomes nonfunctional
and it can be caused by abnormally high
temperatures or changes in pH.

Enzymes and enzymes activity

 Enzyme is a protein catalyst that
increases the rate at which a chemical
reaction proceeds without the enzyme
being permanently changed.
 Catalyst is a substance that increases
the rate of a chemical reaction without
becoming part of the product or being
changed itself.
Enzymes accomplish this feat by binding
to and “holding” the reacting molecules
(the substrates) in the proper position for Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
chemical interaction. While the substrates  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the
are bound to the enzyme’s active site, genetic material of cells, and copies of
they undergo structural changes that DNA are transferred from one generation
result in a new product. of cells to the next. It is double stranded.
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is single-
nucleotide strand and exists in three forms
that are important for protein synthesis.
 The nucleic acids are large molecules
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
nitrogen, and phosphorus. They make up Transfer RNA ferries amino acids to the
the genes, which provide the basic ribosomes.
blueprint of life. Ribosomal RNA forms part of the
Both DNA and RNA consist of basic ribosomes, where it oversees the
building blocks called nucleotides. translation of the message and the
 Nucleotides, are quite complex. Each binding together of amino acids to form
consists of three basic parts: a nitrogen- the proteins.
containing base, a pentose (5-carbon)
sugar, and a phosphate group. Adenosine Triphosphate
 ATP is often called the energy currency
of cells because it is capable of both
storing and providing energy.
 ATP stores energy, which can be used
in cell processes.
 ATP is a modified nucleotide; it consists
of an adenine base, ribose sugar, and
three phosphate groups.

 When high-energy phosphate bonds are

broken by hydrolysis, energy is liberated
and can be used immediately by the cell
 DNA has two strands of nucleotides to do work or power a particular activity—
joined together to form a twisted, such as synthesizing proteins, transporting
ladderlike structure called a double helix. substances across its membrane, or, in the
 DNA is the genetic material found case of muscle cells, contracting.
within the cell nucleus (the control center
of the cell). It has two fundamental roles:
(1) It replicates itself exactly before a cell
divides, thus ensuring that the genetic
information in every body cell is identical;
and (2) it provides the instructions for
building every protein in the body.
 As ATP is used to provide cellular
 The sides of the ladder are formed by
energy, adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
covalent bonds between the sugar
accumulates, and ATP supplies are
molecules and phosphate groups of
replenished by oxidation of food fuels.
adjacent nucleotides.
 RNA is located outside the nucleus and
can be considered the “molecular slave”
of DNA; that is, RNA carries out the orders
for protein synthesis issued by DNA.
 Messenger RNA carries the
information for building the protein from
the DNA genes to the ribosomes, the
protein-synthesizing sites.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
The poison cyanide is toxic because it
interferes with the production of ATP by
mitochondria.

OVERVIEW OF THE CELLULAR BASIS

OF LIFE
 In the late 1600s, Robert Hooke saw Functions of the cells
some cubelike structures that reminded  Cell metabolism and energy use.
him of the long rows of monk’s rooms (or  Synthesis of molecules.
cells) at the monastery, so he named  Communication.
these structures cells.  Reproduction and inheritance.
 A cell is the basic structural and
functional unit of living organisms.  All cells have three main regions or
parts—a nucleus, cytoplasm, and a plasma
ANATOMY OF THE GENERALIZED CELL membrane.

The nucleus is usually located near the

center of the cell. It is surrounded by the
semifluid cytoplasm, which in turn is
enclosed by the plasma membrane, which
forms the outer cell boundary.

THE NUCLEUS

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

21
 For cells, “headquarters,” or the control PLASMA MEMBRANE
center, is the gene-containing nucleus  Plasma membrane (cell membrane) is
(nucle = kernel). a fragile, transparent barrier that contains
The genetic material, or the cell contents and separates them from
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is much the surrounding environment.
like a blueprint that contains all the  Substances outside the cell are called
instructions needed for building the whole extracellular substances, and those
body. inside the cell are called intracellular
 DNA has the instructions for building substances.
proteins. DNA is necessary for cell  Cell membrane supports the cell
reproduction. contents, acts as a selective barrier that
 Structures of nucleus: the nuclear determines what moves into and out of
envelope, nucleoli, and chromatin. the cell, and plays a role in communication
between cells.
Nuclear Envelope  The cell membrane is primarily made
 The nucleus is bounded by a double up of two major types of molecules:
membrane barrier called the nuclear phospholipids and proteins.
envelope, or nuclear membrane.
The Fluid Mosaic Model
 The structure of the plasma membrane
consists of two lipid (fat) layers arranged
“tail to tail” in which protein molecules
float.

 The nuclear membrane encloses a

jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm in which
other nuclear elements are suspended.
 Most of the lipid portion is phospholipids
(some with attached sugar groups), but a
substantial amount of cholesterol is found
in plasma membranes too.
 The olive oil–like lipid bilayer forms the
Nucleoli basic “fabric” of the membrane. The polar
 Nucleus contains one or more small, “heads” of the lollipop-shaped
dark staining, essentially round bodies phospholipid molecules are hydrophilic
called nucleoli. (“water loving”).
 Nucleoli are sites where cell structures  Their nonpolar “tails,” being
called ribosomes are assembled. hydrophobic (“water hating”), avoid
 Most ribosomes eventually migrate into water and line up in the center (interior) of
the cytoplasm where they serve as the the membrane.
actual sites of protein synthesis.  The hydrophobic makeup of the
Chromatin membrane interior makes the plasma
 DNA is combined with protein and forms membrane relatively impermeable to most
a loose network of bumpy threads called water-soluble molecules.
chromatin that is scattered throughout The cholesterol helps keep the
the nucleus. membrane fluid.
 When a cell is dividing to form two
daughter cells, the chromatin threads coil Membrane Junctions
and condense to form dense, rodlike  Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as
bodies called chromosomes. an adhesive or cellular glue.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

22
 Wavy contours of the membranes of  Organelles are the metabolic
adjacent cells fit together in a tongue-and- machinery of the cell.
groove fashion.  Inclusions are stored nutrients or
 Special membrane junctions are cell products. They include the lipid
formed. droplets common in fat cells,
glycogen granules abundant in
liver and muscle cells, pigments
such as melanin in skin and hair
cells, mucus and other secretory
products, and various kinds of
crystals.

Cytoplasmic Organelles
 It is called “little organs,” and are
specialized cellular compartments each
performing its own job to maintain the life
of the cell.

 Tight junctions are impermeable

junctions that encircle the cells and bind
them together into leak-proof sheets. In
tight junctions, adjacent plasma
membranes fuse together tightly like a
zipper and prevent substances from
passing through the extracellular space
between cells.
 Desmosomes are anchoring junctions
scattered like rivets along the sides of
abutting cells. They prevent cells
subjected to mechanical stress (such as
heart muscle and skin cells) from being
pulled apart. They are button-like MITOCHONDRIA
thickenings of adjacent plasma  Mitochondria (singular:
membranes (plaques), which are mitochondrion) are usually depicted as
connected by fine protein filaments. tiny, lozenge-like or sausage-shaped
 Gap junctions, commonly seen in the organelles.
heart and between embryonic cells,
function mainly to allow communication. In
gap junctions, the neighboring cells are
connected by hollow cylinders composed
of proteins (called connexons) that span
the entire width of the abutting
membranes.

THE CYTOPLASM
 Cytoplasm is the cellular material
 Mitochondria are the major sites of
outside the nucleus and inside the plasma
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production
membrane.
within cells.
It is the site of most cellular activities.
 The mitochondrial wall consists of a
Three major elements of cytoplasm:
double membrane, equal to two plasma
 Cytosol is semitransparent fluid
membranes, placed side by side.
that suspends the other elements.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

23
The outer membrane is smooth and
featureless, but the inner membrane has
shelf-like protrusions called cristae.
 Mitochondria supply most of this ATP,
they are the “powerhouses” of the cell.

RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomes are tiny, bi-lobed, dark ER is a system of fluid-filled cisterns
bodies made of proteins and one variety of (tubules, or canals) that coil and twist
RNA called ribosomal RNA. through the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes are the actual sites of It serves as a mini circulatory system for
protein synthesis in the cell. the cell because it provides a network of
channels for carrying substances
Production of ribosomes (primarily proteins) from one part of the
cell to another.
There are two types of ER, the rough
ER and smooth ER.
Rough ER is so called because it is
studded with ribosomes.
 The proteins made on its ribosomes
migrate into the tubules of the rough ER,
where they fold into their functional three-
dimensional shapes and then are
dispatched to other areas of the cell in
transport vesicles.

 Whole ribosome-membrane  Rough ER is especially abundant in

combination is called the rough cells that make and export proteins.
endoplasmic reticulum.  Smooth ER plays no role in protein
synthesis. It functions in lipid metabolism
Endoplasmic Reticulum (cholesterol and fat synthesis and
 The endoplasmic reticulum “network breakdown), and detoxification of drugs
within the cytoplasm”). and pesticides.

Golgi Apparatus
 The Golgi apparatus appears as a
stack of flattened membranous sacs,
associated with swarms of tiny vesicles.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

24
 that enter the cell, lysosomes function as
the cell’s demolition sites.
Lysosomes are abundant in
phagocytes, the cells that dispose of
bacteria and cell debris.

Actions of Lysosomes

It is generally found close to the nucleus

and is the principal “traffic director” for
cellular proteins.
Its major function is to modify and
package proteins.

Peroxisomes
 As proteins “tagged” for export  Peroxisomes are membranous sacs
accumulate in the Golgi apparatus, the containing powerful oxidase enzymes that
sacs swell. use molecular oxygen (O2) to detoxify a
Then their swollen ends, filled with number of harmful or poisonous
protein, pinch off and form secretory substances, including alcohol and
vesicles, which travel to the plasma formaldehyde.
membrane.  Free radicals are highly reactive
When the vesicles reach the plasma chemicals with unpaired electrons that can
membrane, they fuse with it, the scramble the structure of proteins and
membrane ruptures, and the contents of nucleic acids.
the sac are ejected to the outside of the Free radicals are normal by products of
cell. cellular metabolism, but if allowed to
 The Golgi apparatus pinches off sacs accumulate, they can have devastating
containing proteins and phospholipids effects on cells.
destined for a “home” in the plasma  Peroxisomes convert free radicals to
membrane or other cellular membranes. It hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The enzyme
also packages hydrolytic enzymes into catalase then converts excess hydrogen
membranous sacs called lysosomes that peroxide to water.
remain in the cells.
Cytoskeleton
Lysosomes  Cytoskeleton, acts as a cell’s “bones
 Lysosomes (“breakdown bodies”), and muscles” by furnishing an internal
which appear in different sizes, are framework that determines cell shape,
membranous “bags” containing powerful supports other organelles, and provides
digestive enzymes. the machinery for intracellular transport
 Lysosomal enzymes are capable of and various types of cellular movements.
digesting worn-out or non-usable cell
structures and most foreign substances

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

25
It is made up of microtubules,
intermediate filaments, and
microfilaments.

 Intermediate filaments help form

desmosomes and provide internal guy
wires to resist pulling forces on the cell.
Microfilaments (such as actin and
myosin) are most involved in cell motility
and in producing changes in cell shape.
 Microtubules determine the overall
shape of a cell and the distribution of
organelles. They are very important during
cell division.

Centrioles
 They are rod-shaped bodies that lie at
right angles to each other; internally they
are made up of a pinwheel array of fine
microtubules.
Centrioles are best known for their role
in generating microtubules, and during cell
division, the centrioles direct the
formation of the mitotic spindle.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

26
 - Its concave disc shape provides
extra surface area for the
uptake of oxygen and
streamlines the cell so it flows
easily through the bloodstream.
2. Cell that covers and lines body organs:
 Epithelial cell.
 Hexagonal shape
 This shape allows epithelial
cells to pack together in sheets.
CELLS EXTENSION  Abundant intermediate
Cilia and Flagella filaments that resist tearing
 Cilia (“eyelashes”) are whip-like cellular when the epithelium is rubbed
extensions that move substances along or pulled.
the cell surface.
 When a cell is about to make cilia, its
centrioles multiply and then line up
beneath the plasma membrane at the free
cell surface. 3. Cells that move organs and body parts:
Microtubules then begin to “sprout” from  Skeletal muscle and smooth
the centrioles and put pressure on the muscle cells.
membrane, forming the projections. - elongated and filled with
 Flagella is the projections formed by abundant contractile
the centrioles are substantially longer. filaments, so they can
shorten forcefully and move
Microvilli the bones or change the
 Microvilli (“little shaggy hairs”) are size of internal organs.
tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
membrane that project from an exposed
cell surface.
 They increase the cell’s surface area
tremendously and so are usually found on
the surface of cells active in absorption
like intestinal and kidney tubule cells. 4. Cell that stores nutrients:
Microvilli have a core of actin filaments  Fat cell. The huge spherical
that extend into the internal cytoskeleton shape of a fat cell is produced
of the cell and stiffen the microvillus. by a large lipid droplet in its
cytoplasm.
CELL DIVERSITY 5. Cell that fights disease:
1. Cells that connect body parts: - Macrophage (a phagocytic
 Fibroblast. cell).
 elongated shape - This cell extends long
 It has an abundant rough ER pseudopods (“false feet”) to
and a large Golgi apparatus to crawl through tissue to reach
make and secrete the protein infection sites.
building blocks of these fibers.

 Erythrocyte (red blood cell). 6. Cell that gathers information and

- This cell carries oxygen in the controls body functions:
bloodstream.  Nerve cell (neuron).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

27
  This cell has long processes neurotransmitters, salts, and waste
(extensions) for receiving products.
messages and transmitting  Plasma membrane is a selectively
them to other structures in the permeable barrier.
body. Selective permeability means that a
barrier allows some substances to pass
through it while excluding others and it
allows nutrients to enter the cell but keeps
many undesirable substances out.
The plasma membrane in basically two
ways—passively or actively.
7. Cells of reproduction:
In passive processes, substances are
 Oocyte (female).
transported across the membrane without
 The largest cell in the body, this
any energy input from the cell.
egg cell contains several copies
In active processes, the cell provides
of all organelles, for distribution
the metabolic energy (ATP) that drives the
to the daughter cells that arise
transport process.
when the fertilized egg divides
to become an embryo.
Passive Processes: Diffusion and
 Sperm (male).
Filtration
 This cell is long and stream
 Diffusion is an important means of
lined, built for swimming to the
passive membrane transport for every cell
egg for fertilization.
of the body. Filtration, generally occurs
only across capillary walls.

Diffusion
 Diffusion is the process by which
CELL PHYSIOLOGY molecules move away from a region where
Membrane Transport they are more concentrated (more
 Solution is a homogeneous mixture of numerous) to a region where they are less
two or more components. Examples concentrated (fewer of them).
include the air we breathe (a mixture of  All molecules possess kinetic energy.
gases), seawater (a mixture of water and  As the molecules move about randomly
salts), and rubbing alcohol (a mixture of at high speeds, they collide and change
water and alcohol). direction with each collision and with this,
 Solvent (or dissolving medium) is the molecules move down their
substance present in the largest amount in concentration gradient, and the greater
a solution. Example is water. the difference in concentration between
Solutes is a substances present in the two areas, the faster diffusion occurs.
smaller amounts and it is tiny that they
cannot be seen with the naked eye and do
not settle out.
 Intracellular fluid (collectively, the
nucleoplasm and the cytosol) is a solution
containing small amounts of gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients,
and salts, dissolved in water.
 Interstitial fluid is the fluid that
continuously bathes the exterior of our  Molecules will diffuse through the
cells. plasma membrane if:
 It contains thousands of ingredients,  The molecules are small
including nutrients (amino acids, sugars, enough to pass through the
fatty acids, vitamins), regulatory membrane’s pores (channels
substances such as hormones and formed by membrane proteins).
 The molecules are lipid-soluble.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

28
  The molecules are assisted by a
membrane carrier.
 Simple diffusion is the unassisted
diffusion of solutes through the plasma
membrane. Solutes transported this way
are either lipid-soluble (fats, fat-soluble
vitamins, oxygen, carbon dioxide).

FILTRATION
 Filtration is the process by which
water and solutes are forced through a
membrane (or capillary wall) by fluid, or
hydrostatic, pressure.
 Filtration is a passive process, and a
gradient is involved.
In filtration, the gradient is a pressure
gradient that actually pushes solute-
Osmosis is the diffusion of water containing fluid (filtrate) from the higher-
through a selectively permeable pressure area to the lower-pressure area.
membrane such as the plasma membrane.
 Because water is highly polar, it is Active Processes
repelled by the (non-polar) lipid core of the  Whenever a cell uses some of its ATP
plasma membrane, but it can and does supply to move substances across the
pass easily through special pores called membrane, the process is referred to as
aquaporins (“water pores”) created by active.
the proteins in the membrane.  The two most important means of
active membrane transport are active
transport and vesicular transport.

Active Transport
 Sometimes called solute pumping.
Active transport requires protein
carriers that combine specifically and
reversibly with the substances to be
transported across the membrane.
 Uses ATP to energize its protein carriers,
 Facilitated diffusion provides passage which are called solute pumps.
for certain needed substances (notably
glucose) that are both lipid-insoluble and
too large to pass through the membrane
pores.
It follows the laws of diffusion—that is,
the substances move down their own
concentration gradient—a protein
membrane channel.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

29
 enclosing them in a small membranous
vesicle.

 If the engulfed substances are relatively

Vesicular Transport large particles such as bacteria or dead
 Vesicular transport, which involves body cells, and the cell separates them
help from ATP, moves substances into or from the external environment by flowing
out of cells without their actually crossing cytoplasmic extensions called
the plasma membrane. pseudopods, the endocytosis process is
The two types of vesicular transport are more specifically called phagocytosis, a
exocytosis and endocytosis. term that means “cell eating”.
 Exocytosis (“out of the cell”) moves  Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”), the cell
substances out of cells. “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid. It is
important in cells that function in
absorption.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Both the receptors and high
concentrations of the attached target
molecules are internalized in a vesicle,
and then the contents of the vesicle are
dealt with in one of the ways shown in the
figure (Figure 3.13a).

CELL DIVISION
 Cell life cycle is the series of changes
a cell goes through from the time it is
formed until it divides. The cycle has two
major periods: interphase (metabolic
phase), in which the cell grows and carries
 Cells actively secrete hormones, mucus, on its usual metabolic activities, and cell
and other cell products or eject certain division, during which it reproduces itself.
cellular wastes.
The product to be released is first Preparations: DNA Replication
“packaged” (typically by the Golgi  The process begins as the DNA helix
apparatus) into a small membranous sac uncoils and gradually separates into its
called a vesicle. two nucleotide chains. Each nucleotide
 Endocytosis (“into the cell”) includes strand then serves as a template, or set of
those ATP-requiring processes that take instructions, for building a new nucleotide
up, or engulf, extracellular substances by strand.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

30
 chromosomes appear.
each chromosome is
made up of two
chromatids and held
together by a small button-
like body called a
centromere.
 The centrioles separate
from each other and begin
to move toward opposite
sides of the cell, directing
the assembly of a mitotic
spindle.
 The nuclear envelope and
the nucleoli have broken
down and disappeared, and
the chromosomes have
attached randomly to the
spindle fibers by their
Events of Cell Division centromeres.
 Mitosis, or division of the nucleus, Metaph The chromosomes cluster
occurs first. The second event is division ase and line up metaphase plate
of the cytoplasm, cytokinesis, which (the center of the spindle
begins when mitosis is nearly completed. midway between the
centrioles) so that the
straight line of chromosome
is seen.
Anaphas The centromeres that
e have held the chromatids
together split.
The chromatids (now
called chromosomes again)
begin to move slowly apart,
drawn toward opposite ends
of the cell.
Telopha The chromosomes at
se opposite ends of the cell
uncoil to become threadlike
chromatin again.
The spindle breaks down
and disappears, a nuclear
MITOSIS envelope forms around each
 Mitosis results in the formation of two chromatin mass, and
daughter nuclei with exactly the same nucleoli appear in each of
genes as the mother nucleus. the daughter nuclei.
 When the nucleus divides, each Cytokin usually begins during late
daughter cell ends up with exactly the esis anaphase and completes
same genetic information as the original during telophase.
mother cell and the original fertilized A contractile ring made of
egg from which it came. microfilaments forms a
Stages of Mitosis cleavage furrow over the
Prophas As cell division begins, the midline of the spindle, and it
e chromatin threads coil and eventually squeezes or
shorten so that visible bar- pinches the original
like bodies called cytoplasmic mass into two

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

31
 parts.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Gene is defined as a DNA segment that
carries the information for building one
protein or polypeptide chain.
Fibrous (structural) proteins are the
major building materials for cells.
Globular (functional) proteins, do
things other than build structures.
Enzymes, biological catalysts that
regulate chemical reactions in the cells,
are functional proteins.
Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins and are joined during protein
synthesis.

The Role of RNA

RNA is a single-stranded and in having
ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose and a
uracil (U) base.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are
small cloverleaf-shaped molecules.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps form the Transcription
ribosomes, where proteins are built. Transcription involves the transfer of
Messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are information from DNA’s base sequence
long, single nucleotide strands that into the complementary base sequence of
resemble half of a DNA molecule and carry Mrna.
the “message” containing instructions for Only DNA and mRNA are involved in
protein synthesis from the DNA gene in transcription.
the nucleus to the ribosomes in the Each three base sequence specifying a
cytoplasm. particular amino acid on the DNA gene is
Protein synthesis involves two major called a triplet.
phases: The corresponding three-base
 Transcription, when sequences on mRNA are called codons.
complementary mRNA is made at If the sequence of DNA triplets is AAT-
the DNA gene. CGT-TCG, the related codons on mRNA
 Translation, when the would be UUA-GCA-AG.
information carried in mRNA
molecules is “decoded” and used Translation
to assemble proteins. Translation phase of protein synthesis,
the language of nucleic acids (base
sequence) is “translated” into the
language of proteins (amino acid
sequence).
Translation occurs in the cytoplasm
and involves three major varieties of RNA.
Once the mRNA attaches to the
ribosome, tRNA comes into the picture. Its
job is to transfer, or ferry, amino acids to
the ribosome, where they are bound
together by enzymes in the exact
sequence specified by the gene (and its
mRNA).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

32
 tRNA also have to recognize the mRNA  Epithelial tissues have no blood supply
codons “calling for” the amino acid they of their own (that is, they are avascular)
are toting. and depend on diffusion from the
 They can do this because they have a capillaries in the underlying connective
special three-base sequence called an tissue for food and oxygen.
anticodon on their “head” that can bind  Epithelial cells regenerate themselves
to the complementary codons. easily.
 Once the first tRNA has maneuvered
itself into the correct position at the Classification of Epithelium
beginning of the mRNA message, the  The classifications by cell arrangement
ribosome moves the mRNA strand along, (layers) are:
bringing the next codon into position to be  Simple epithelium (one layer of
read by another tRNA. As amino acids are cells)
brought to their proper positions along the
length of mRNA, they are joined together
by enzymes.
 As an amino acid bonds to the chain, its
tRNA is released and moves away from the
ribosome to pick up another amino acid.
When the last codon (the termination, or
“stop,” codon) is read, the protein is
released.

BODY TISSUES  Stratified epithelium (more than

 Tissues are a groups of cells that are one cell layer)
similar in structure and function.
The four primary tissue types—
epithelium, connective tissue, nervous
tissue, and muscle.
 Tissues are organized into organs such
as the heart, kidneys, and lungs.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Epithelium is the lining, covering, and
glandular tissue of the body.
 Epithelial functions include protection,
absorption, filtration, and secretion. Simple Epithelia
 Simple epithelia are usually very thin,
Characteristic of Epithelial: protection is not one of their specialties
 Epithelial cells fit closely together to and are most concerned with absorption,
form continuous sheets. secretion, and filtration.
 The membranes always have one free
(unattached) surface or edge. This so-
called apical surface is exposed to the
body’s exterior or to the cavity of an
internal organ. The exposed surfaces of
some epithelia are slick and smooth, but
others exhibit cell surface modifications,
such as microvilli or cilia.
 The lower surface of an epithelium rests
on a basement membrane, a structureless
material secreted by both the epithelial
cells and the connective tissue cells that
abut the epithelium.
Simple Squamous Epithelium

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

33
 Simple squamous epithelium is a single
layer of thin squamous cells resting on a
basement membrane.
 It usually forms membranes where
filtration or exchange of substances by
rapid diffusion occurs.
It is in the air sacs of the lungs, where
oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged.

Epithelial membranes that line body

cavities open to the body exterior are
called mucosae or mucous membranes.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

 All of the cells of pseudostratified
columnar epithelium rest on a
basement membrane.
 Simple squamous epithelium also forms  This mainly functions in absorption and
serous membranes, or serosae, the slick secretion.
membranes that line the ventral body  Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
cavity and cover the organs in that cavity. epithelium lines most of the respiratory
tract.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
 Simple cuboidal epithelium, which is
one layer of cuboidal cells resting on a
basement membrane.
Common in glands and their ducts.
It also forms the walls of the kidney
tubules and covers the surface of the
ovaries.

 The mucus produced by the goblet cells

in this epithelium traps dust and other
debris, and the cilia propel the mucus
upward and away from the lungs.

Stratified Epithelia
 Stratified epithelia consist of two or
more cell layers.
Simple Columnar Epithelium It is more durable than the simple
 Simple columnar epithelium is made up epithelia, these epithelia function primarily
of a single layer of tall cells that fit closely to protect.
together.
 Goblet cells are often seen in this type Stratified Squamous Epithelium
of epithelium.  Stratified squamous epithelium consists
 Simple columnar epithelium lines the of several layers of cells.
entire length of the digestive tract from  Stratified squamous epithelium is found
the stomach to the anus. in sites that receive a good deal of abuse
or friction, such as the esophagus, the
mouth, and the outer portion of the skin.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

34
 them to make their secretion, which they
then discharge.
 Two major types of glands:
 Endocrine glands lose their
connection to the surface (duct);
thus they are often called ductless
glands. Their secretions (all
hormones) diffuse directly into the
blood vessels that weave through
the glands. Examples of endocrine
Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified glands include the thyroid,
Columnar Epithelia adrenals, and pituitary.
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium  Exocrine glands retain their
typically has just two cell layers with (at ducts, and their secretions empty
least) the surface cells being cuboidal in through the ducts to the epithelial
shape. surface. Exocrine glands, which
The surface cells of stratified include the sweat and oil glands,
columnar epithelium are columnar cells, liver, and pancreas, are both
but its basal cells vary in size and shape. internal and external.
 These epithelia are fairly rare in the
body, found mainly in the ducts of large CONNECTIVE TISSUE
glands.  Connective tissues perform many
functions, but they are primarily involved
Transitional Epithelium in protecting, supporting, and binding
 Transitional epithelium is a highly together other body tissues.
modified, stratified squamous epithelium
that forms the lining of only a few organs Characteristics of Connective Tissue:
—the urinary bladder, the ureters, and  Variations in blood supply.
part of the urethra.  Extracellular matrix
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Extracellular matrix has to main
elements, a structureless ground
substance and fibers.
 Ground substance is composed
largely of water plus some adhesion
proteins and large, charged
polysaccharide molecules.
When the organ is distended with urine,  Cell adhesion proteins serve as a glue
the epithelium thins, and the surface cells that allows the connective tissue cells to
flatten and become squamous-like. attach themselves to the matrix fibers
This ability of transitional cells to slide embedded in the ground substance.
past one another and change their shape  As these polysaccharides become more
(undergo “transitions”) allows the ureter abundant, they cause the matrix to vary
wall to stretch as a greater volume of from fluid to gel-like to firm in its
urine flows through that tube-like organ. In consistency.
the bladder, it allows more urine to be  Various types and amounts of fibers are
stored. deposited in the matrix and form part of it.
Such as, collagen (white) fibers, elastic
Glandular Epithelium (yellow) fibers, which have the ability to
 Gland consists of one or more cells that be stretched and then recoil, and
make and secrete a particular product reticular fibers, which are fine collagen
called a secretion. fibers that form the internal “skeleton” of
 Secretion also indicates an active soft organs such as the spleen.
process in which the glandular cells obtain
needed materials from the blood and use TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

35
 The major connective tissue classes are
bone, cartilage, dense connective
tissue, loose connective tissue, and
blood.

BONE
 Sometimes called osseous tissue.
Composed of osteocytes (bone cells)
sitting in cavities called lacunae (pits).
These pits are surrounded by layers of a
very hard matrix that contains calcium Elastic cartilage is found in structures
salts in addition to large numbers of with elasticity. For example, it supports the
collagen fibers. external ear.
 It protects and supports other body
organs. Dense Connective Tissue
 Dense connective tissue, also called
dense fibrous tissue, collagen fibers are
the main matrix element.

Cartilage
 Cartilage is less hard and more flexible
than bone.  Dense connective tissue forms strong,
Its major cell type is chondrocytes ropelike structures such as tendons and
(cartilage cells). ligaments.
Most widespread is hyaline cartilage, Tendons attach skeletal muscles to
which has abundant collagen fibers hidden bones; ligaments connect bones to bones
by a rubbery matrix with a glassy, blue- at joints.
white appearance. Ligaments are more stretchy and
contain more elastic fibers than do
tendons.
Dense connective tissue also makes up
the lower layers of the skin (dermis),
where it is arranged in sheets.

Loose Connective Tissue

 Loose connective tissues are softer
and have more cells and fewer fibers than
any other connective tissue type except
It forms the supporting structures of the blood.
larynx, or voice box, attaches the ribs to
the breastbone, and covers the ends of Areolar Tissue
many bones, where they form joints. It is a soft, pliable, “cobwebby” tissue
Highly compressible fibrocartilage forms that cushions and protects the body
the cushion-like disks between the organs it wraps.
vertebrae of the spinal column.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

36
 blood cells (largely lymphocytes) in
lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, the
spleen, and bone marrow.

Blood
 Blood, or vascular tissue, is considered
a connective tissue because it consists of
blood cells surrounded by a nonliving, fluid
matrix called blood plasma.
 It functions as a universal packing
tissue and connective tissue “glue”
because it helps to hold the internal
organs together and in their proper
positions. A soft layer of areolar
connective tissue called the lamina
propria underlies all mucous membranes.
 (areola = small open space).
 Areolar connective tissue provides a
reservoir of water and salts for the  Blood is the transport vehicle for the
surrounding tissues, and essentially all cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients,
body cells obtain their nutrients from and wastes, respiratory gases, and many other
release their wastes into this “tissue fluid.” substances throughout the body.
 When a body region is inflamed, the
areolar tissue in the area soaks up the MUSCLE TISSUE
excess fluid like a sponge, and the area Types of Muscle Tissue
swells and becomes puffy, a condition
called edema. Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle tissue is packaged by
Adipose Tissue connective tissue sheets into organs called
 Adipose tissue, is commonly called skeletal muscles, which are attached to
fat. the skeleton.
 Fat cells are sometimes called signet It can be controlled voluntarily (or
ring cells. consciously), form the flesh of the body,
 Adipose tissue forms the subcutaneous called muscular system.
tissue beneath the skin, where it insulates The cells of skeletal muscle are long,
the body and protects it from bumps and cylindrical, multinucleate, and they
extremes of both heat and cold. have obvious striations (stripes).
They are often called muscle fibers.
Reticular Connective Tissue
 Reticular connective tissue consists
of a delicate network of interwoven
reticular fibers associated with reticular
cells, which resemble fibroblasts.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle is found only in the
heart.
As it contracts, the heart acts as a pump
 It forms the stroma (literally, “bed” or and propels blood through the blood
“mattress”), or internal framework of an vessels.
organ. The stroma can support many free

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

37
It has striations, but cardiac cells are
uninucleate, relatively short, branching
cells that fit tightly together (like clasped
fingers) at junctions called intercalated
discs.
Cardiac muscle is under involuntary
control.

A special group of supporting cells called

neuroglia insulate, support, and protect
the delicate neurons in the structures of
the nervous system—the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves.

Smooth Muscle
Smooth (visceral) muscle has no
striations are visible.
Cells have a single nucleus and are
spindle-shaped (pointed at each end).
It is found in the walls of hollow
organs such as the stomach, uterus, and
blood vessels.
Smooth muscle contracts much more
slowly than the other two muscle types.
Peristalsis, a wavelike motion that
keeps food moving through the small
intestine, is typical of its activity.

TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING)

When tissue injury does occur, it
stimulates the body’s inflammatory and
NERVE TISSUE immune responses, and the healing
All neurons receive and conduct process begins almost immediately.
electrochemical impulses from one part of Inflammation is a generalized
the body to another; thus, irritability and (nonspecific) body response that attempts
conductivity are their two major to prevent further injury.
functional characteristics. Tissue repair, or wound healing, occurs
in two major ways: by regeneration and
by fibrosis.
Regeneration is the replacement of
destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells.
Fibrosis involves repair by dense
(fibrous) connective tissue by the
formation of scar tissue.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

38
Tissue injury sets a series of events into
motion:
 Inflammation sets the stage.
This allows fluid rich in clotting
proteins and other substances to
seep into the injured area from the
bloodstream.
 Granulation tissue forms.
Granulation tissue is a delicate pink
tissue composed largely of new
capillaries that grow into the
damaged area from undamaged
blood vessels nearby. Granulation Mucous Membranes
tissue also contains phagocytes Mucous membrane (mucosa) is
that eventually dispose of the composed of epithelium resting on a loose
blood clot and connective tissue connective tissue membrane called a
cells (fibroblasts) that produce the lamina propria.
building blocks of collagen fibers It lines all body cavities that open to the
(scar tissue) to permanently bridge exterior, such as those of the hollow
the gap. organs of the respiratory, digestive,
 Regeneration and fibrosis urinary, and reproductive tracts.
effect permanent repair. As the
surface epithelium begins to
regenerate, it makes its way across
the granulation tissue just beneath
the scab. The scab soon detaches,
and the final result is a fully
regenerated surface epithelium
that covers an underlying area of
fibrosis (the scar).

CLASSIFICATION OF BODY
MEMBRANES Most mucosae contain either stratified
There are two major categories of body squamous epithelium or simple columnar
membranes— epithelial and connective epithelium.
tissue.
Serous Membranes
Epithelial Membranes Serous membrane (serosa) is
Also called covering and lining composed of a layer of simple squamous
membranes, include the cutaneous epithelium resting on a thin layer of
membrane (skin), the mucous areolar connective tissue.
membranes, and the serous membranes. It lines body cavities that are closed to
the exterior (except for the dorsal body
Cutaneous Membrane cavity and joint cavities).
Cutaneous membrane is your skin. Serous membranes occur in pairs,
Its superficial epidermis is composed of parietal (parie = wall) layer lines a
a keratinizing stratified squamous specific portion of the wall of the ventral
epithelium. body cavity.
The underlying dermis is mostly dense It folds in on itself to form the visceral
(fibrous) connective tissue. layer, which covers the outside of the
organs in that cavity.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

39
 Synovial membranes are composed of
soft areolar connective tissue and contain
no epithelial cells at all.
These membranes line the fibrous
capsules surrounding joints, where they
provide a smooth surface and secrete a
lubricating fluid.
They also line small sacs of connective
tissue called bursae and the tubelike
tendon sheaths.

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (SKIN)

Functions of Integumentary System

Serous layers are separated not by air

but by a scanty amount of thin, clear fluid,
called serous fluid, which is secreted by
both membranes.
Serous fluid allows the organs to slide
easily across the cavity walls and one
another without friction as they carry out
their routine functions.
The serosa lining the abdominal cavity
and covering its organs is the
peritoneum.
In the thorax, serous membranes isolate It insulates and cushions the deeper
the lungs and heart from one another. The body organs and protects the entire body
membrane surrounding the lungs is the from mechanical damage (bumps and
pleura; that around the heart is the cuts), chemical damage (such as from
pericardium. acids and bases), thermal damage (heat
and cold), ultraviolet radiation (in
sunlight), and bacteria.
The uppermost layer of the skin is full of
keratin and is cornified, or hardened, to
help prevent water loss from the body
CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES surface.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

40
Cutaneous sensory receptors, which Most cells of the epidermis are
are actually part of the nervous system, keratinocytes (keratin cells), which
are located in the skin. These tiny produce keratin, the fibrous protein that
sensors, which include touch, pressure, makes the epidermis a tough protective
temperature, and pain receptors, provide layer.
us with a great deal of information about The deepest cell layer of the epidermis,
our external environment. They alert us to the stratum basale, lies closest to the
bumps and the presence of tissue dermis and is connected to it along a wavy
damaging factors as well as to the feel of borderline that resembles corrugated
wind in our hair and a caress. cardboard.
Basal layer (stratum germinativum
“germinating layer”) contains the most
adequately nourished of the epidermal
cells.
The daughter cells are pushed upward,
away from the source of nutrition, to
become part of the epidermal layers closer
to the skin surface.
As they move away from the dermis and
become part of the more superficial
layers, the stratum spinosum and then
the stratum granulosum, they become
flatter and increasingly full of keratin
(keratinized). As they leave the stratum
granulosum, they die, forming the clear
stratum lucidum.
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
The skin is composed of two kinds of
tissue.
The outer epidermis is made up of
stratified squamous epithelium that is
capable of keratinizing, or becoming hard
and tough.
The underlying dermis is made up
mostly of dense connective tissue.
Deep to the dermis is the
subcutaneous tissue, or hypodermis,
which essentially is adipose tissue. It is
not considered part of the skin, but it does
anchor the skin to underlying organs and
provides a site for nutrient (fat) storage.
Subcutaneous tissue serves as a
shock absorber and insulates the deeper
tissues from extreme temperature The outermost layer, the stratum
changes occurring outside the body. corneum, is 20 to 30 cell layers thick but
it accounts for about three-quarters of the
Epidermis epidermal thickness.
Epidermis is composed of up to five The shingle like dead cell remnants,
layers, or strata (“bed sheets”). completely filled with keratin, are referred
From the inside out these are the to as cornified or horny cells (cornu =
stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, horn).
lucidum, and corneum. Melanin, a pigment that ranges in color
The epidermis is avascular; that is, it from yellow to brown to black, is produced
has no blood supply of its own. by special spider-shaped cells called

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

41
melanocytes, found chiefly in the Elastic fibers give the skin its elasticity
stratum basale. when we are young.
As the melanocytes produce melanin, it Dermis is abundantly supplied with
accumulates within them in membrane- blood vessels that play a role in
bound granules called melanosomes. maintaining body temperature
Freckles and moles are seen where homeostasis.
melanin is concentrated in one spot.
Scattered in the epidermis are SKIN COLOR
epidermal dendritic cells, which are Three pigments contribute to skin color:
important in alerting and activating  The amount and kind (yellow,
immune system cells to a threat such as reddish brown, or black) of
bacterial or viral invasion. melanin in the epidermis.
Epidermal-dermal junction are  The amount of carotene deposited
Merkel cells, which are associated with in the stratum corneum and
sensory nerve endings and serve as touch subcutaneous tissue. (Carotene is
receptors called Merkel discs. an orange-yellow pigment plentiful
in carrots and other orange, deep
Dermis yellow, or leafy green vegetables.)
It is a strong, stretchy envelope that The skin tends to take on a yellow-
helps to bind the body together. orange cast when the person eats
The dense (fibrous) connective tissue large amounts of carotene-rich
making up the dermis consists of two foods.
major regions—the papillary and the  The amount of oxygen-rich
reticular areas. hemoglobin (pigment in red blood
cells) in the dermal blood vessels.
Emotions also influence skin color, and
many alterations in skin color signal
certain disease states:
 Redness, or erythema.
Reddened skin may indicate
embarrassment (blushing), fever,
hypertension, inflammation, or
allergy.
 Pallor, or blanching. Under
certain types of emotional stress
Papillary layer is the upper dermal
(fear, anger, and others), some
region. It is uneven and has peg-like
people become pale.
projections from its superior surface,
 Pale skin may also signify anemia,
called dermal papillae (papill = nipple),
low blood pressure, or impaired
which indent the epidermis above.
blood flow into the area.
 Used for identifying films of sweat
 Jaundice, or a yellow cast. An
called fingerprints on almost anything
abnormal yellow skin tone usually
they touch.
signifies a liver disorder in which
Reticular layer is the deepest skin
excess bile pigments are absorbed
layer. It contains irregularly arranged
into the blood, circulated
connective tissue fibers, as well as blood
throughout the body, and
vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep
deposited in body tissues.
pressure receptors called lamellar
 Bruises, or black-and-blue
corpuscles.
marks. Black-and blue marks
Both collagen and elastic fibers are
reveal sites where blood has
found throughout the dermis.
escaped from the circulation and
Collagen fibers are responsible for the
has clotted in the tissue spaces.
toughness of the dermis; they also attract
Such clotted blood masses are
and bind water and thus help to keep the
called hematomas. An unusual
skin hydrated.
tendency to bruising may signify a

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

42
 deficiency of vitamin C in the diet Seborrhea ( “fast-flowing sebum”),
or hemophilia (bleeder’s disease). known as “cradle cap” in infants, is caused
by over activity of the sebaceous glands. It
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN begins on the scalp as pink, raised lesions
Skin appendages include cutaneous that gradually form a yellow to brown
glands, hair and hair follicles, and nails. crust that sloughs off oily scales.

Cutaneous Glands Sweat Glands

Cutaneous glands are all exocrine also called sudoriferous (sudor =
glands that release their secretions to the sweat) glands, are widely distributed in
skin surface via ducts. the skin.
They fall into two groups: sebaceous  These glands are part of the body’s
glands and sweat glands. heat-regulating apparatus.
There are two types of sweat glands,
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands eccrine and apocrine.
Sebaceous glands, or oil glands, are Eccrine glands produce sweat, a clear
found all over the skin, except on the secretion that is primarily water plus some
palms of the hands and the soles of the salts (sodium chloride), vitamin C, traces
feet. of metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea, uric
Their ducts usually empty into a hair acid), and lactic acid (a chemical that
follicle, but some open directly onto the accumulates during vigorous muscle
skin surface. activity).
They are supplied with nerve endings
that cause them to secrete sweat when
the external temperature or body
temperature is high.
Apocrine glands are largely confined
to the axillary (armpit) and genital areas of
the body.
They are usually larger than eccrine
glands, and their ducts empty into hair
follicles.
Their secretion contains fatty acids and
proteins, as well as all the substances
present in eccrine secretion; consequently,
it may have a milky or yellowish color.
The secretion is odorless, but when
bacteria that live on the skin use its
The product of the sebaceous glands, proteins and fats as a source of nutrients
sebum (seb = grease), is a mixture of oily for their growth, it takes on a musky,
substances and fragmented cells. unpleasant odor.
Sebum is a lubricant that keeps the skin Apocrine glands begin to function
soft and moist and prevents the hair from during puberty under the influence of
becoming brittle. It also contains androgens (male sex hormones).
chemicals that kill bacteria, so it is  Apocrine glands play a minimal role in
important in preventing the bacteria thermoregulation.
present on the skin surface from invading
the deeper skin regions. The sebaceous Hair and Hair Follicles
glands become very active when male HAIRS
sex hormones are produced in increased A hair, produced by a hair follicle, is a
amounts (in both sexes) during flexible epithelial structure.
adolescence. That part of the hair enclosed in the
Acne is an active infection of the follicle is called the root.
sebaceous glands accompanied by The part projecting from the surface of
pimples on the skin. the scalp or skin is called the shaft.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

43
 claw of other animals. Each nail has a
free edge, a body (visible attached
portion), and a root (embedded in the
skin).
The borders of the nail are overlapped
by skin folds, called nail folds.
The edge of the thick proximal nail fold
is commonly called the cuticle.

A hair forms by division of the well-

nourished stratum basale epithelial cells in
the matrix (growth zone) of the hair bulb
at the inferior end of the follicle.
Hair is made up of a central core called
the medulla, consisting of large cells and
air spaces, surrounded by a bulky cortex
layer composed of several layers of
flattened cells.
The cortex is enclosed by an outermost
cuticle formed by a single layer of cells
that overlap one another like shingles on a The stratum basale of the epidermis
roof. extends beneath the nail as the nail bed.
This arrangement of the cuticle cells Its thickened proximal area, called the
helps to keep the hairs apart and keeps nail matrix, is responsible for nail growth.
them from matting. The exception to this is the region over
Cuticle is the most heavily keratinized the thickened nail matrix that appears as
region; it provides strength and helps keep a white crescent and is called the lunule
the inner hair layers tightly compacted. It (lunul = crescent).
tends to wear away at the tip of the shaft,
allowing the keratin fibrils in the inner hair HEMOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF THE
regions to frizz out, a phenomenon called SKIN
“split ends.” Burns
Burn is tissue damage and cell death
Hair Follicles caused by intense heat, electricity,
The inner epithelial root sheath is ultraviolet radiation (sunburn), or certain
composed of epithelial tissue and forms chemicals (such as acids), which denature
the hair. proteins and cause cell death in the
The outer fibrous sheath is actually affected areas.
dermal connective tissue.  The volume of fluid lost can be
This dermal region supplies blood estimated indirectly by determining how
vessels to the epidermal portion and much of the body surface is burned
reinforces it. (extent of burns), using the rule of nines.
Its nipple-like hair papilla provides the  This method divides the body into 11
blood supply to the matrix in the hair areas, each accounting for 9 percent of
bulb (the deepest part of the follicle). the total body surface area, plus an
Small bands of smooth muscle cells— additional area surrounding the genitals
arrector pili (“raiser of hair”)—connect (the perineum) representing 1 percent of
each side of the hair follicle to the dermal body surface area.
tissue.
ADULTS
Nails
Nail is a scale-like modification of the
epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

44
 Third-degree burns destroy the entire
thickness of the skin, so these burns are
also called full-thickness burns.
The burned area appears blanched
(gray-white) or blackened, and because
the nerve endings in the area are
destroyed, the burned area is not painful.
In general, burns are considered critical
if any of the following conditions exists:
1. Over 25 percent of the body has
second-degree burns.
2. Over 10 percent of the body has
third-degree burns.
3. There are third-degree burns of the
face, hands, or feet.

Infections and Allergies

CHILDREN  Athlete’s foot. An itchy, red,
peeling condition of the skin
between the toes, resulting from
fungus infection. Also called tinea
pedis.
 Boils and carbuncles.
Inflammation of hair follicles and
sebaceous glands, common on the
dorsal neck. Carbuncles are
composite boils typically caused by
bacterial infection (often
Staphylococcus aureus).
 Cold sores (fever blisters). Small
fluid-filled blisters that itch and
Two life-threatening problems will result;
sting, caused by a herpes simplex
 The body loses its precious supply
infection. The virus localizes in a
of fluids containing proteins and
cutaneous nerve, where it remains
electrolytes as these seep from the
dormant until activated by
burned surfaces.
emotional upset, fever, or UV
 Dehydration and electrolyte
radiation. Cold sores usually occur
imbalance follow and can lead to a
around the lips and in the oral
shutdown of the kidneys and
mucosa of the mouth.
circulatory shock (inadequate
circulation of blood caused by low
blood volume).
Burns are classified according to their
severity (depth) as first-, second-, or third-
degree burns.
First-degree burns, only the epidermis
is damaged. The area becomes red and
swollen. Sunburn is usually a first-degree
burn.
Second-degree burns involve injury to  Contact dermatitis. Itching,
the epidermis and the upper region of the redness, and swelling of the
dermis. The skin is red and painful, and skin, progressing to blistering. It
blisters appear. First- and second-degree is caused by exposure of the
burns are referred to as partial thickness skin to chemicals (such as
burns. those in poison ivy) that

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

45
 provoke allergic responses in develop a central ulcer with a “pearly”
sensitive individuals. beaded edge.
 Impetigo (impet = an attack).
Pink, water-filled, raised lesions
(commonly around the mouth
and nose) that develop a yellow
crust and eventually rupture.
Caused by a highly contagious
staphylococcus infection,
impetigo is common in
elementary school–aged
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
children.
Squamous cell carcinoma arises from
the cells of the stratum spinosum.
The lesion appears as a scaly, reddened
papule (small, rounded elevation) that
gradually forms a shallow ulcer with a
firm, raised border.

 Psoriasis. A chronic condition,

characterized by
overproduction of skin cells that
results in reddened epidermal
lesions covered with dry, silvery Malignant Melanoma
scales that itch, burn, crack, Malignant melanoma is a cancer of
and sometimes bleed. Attacks melanocytes. Melanoma can begin
are often triggered by trauma, wherever there is pigment; most such
infection, hormonal changes, or cancers appear spontaneously, but some
stress. develop from pigmented moles.
It arises from accumulated DNA damage
in a skin cell and usually appears as a
spreading brown to black patch that
metastasizes rapidly to surrounding lymph
and blood vessels.

Skin Cancer
Most skin neoplasms (tumors) are
benign and do not spread (metastasize)
to other body areas.
Some skin neoplasms are malignant, or Apply the ABCD rule for recognizing
cancerous, and they tend to invade other melanoma:
body areas.  (A) Asymmetry. The two sides
of the pigmented spot or mole
Basal Cell Carcinoma do not match.
Basal cell carcinoma is the least  (B) Border irregularity. The
malignant and most common skin cancer. borders of the lesion are not
The cancer lesions occur most often on smooth but exhibit
sun-exposed areas of the face and appear indentations.
as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that later  (C) Color. The pigmented spot
contains areas of different

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

46
 colors (blacks, browns, tans,  Blood cell formation. Blood cell
and sometimes blues and reds). formation, or hematopoiesis,
 (D) Diameter. The spot is occurs within the marrow cavities
larger than 6 millimeters (mm) of certain bones.
in diameter (the size of a pencil
eraser). Classification of Bones
The adult skeleton is composed of 206
Development Aspects of Skin and bones.
Body Membranes There are two basic types of osseous, or
 The soon-to-be-born infant is covered bone, tissue:
with a downy type of hair called lanugo. Compact bone is dense and looks
This hairy cloak has usually been shed smooth and homogeneous. Made of
by birth, and when a baby is born, its skin haversian systems, which are cylindrical
is covered with vernix caseosa. arrangements of osteocytes within matrix.
 There are accumulations in the Spongy bone is composed of small
sebaceous glands, which appear as small needlelike pieces of bone and lots of open
white spots called milia, on the baby’s space. Contains osteocytes and bone
nose and forehead. matrix, but these are not arranged in
 Many men become obviously bald as haversian systems. Often contains red
they age, a phenomenon called male bone marrow.
pattern baldness.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

AN OVERVIEW
Skeleton comes from the Greek word
meaning “dried-up body”.
Subdivided into two divisions:
 Axial skeleton- the bones that
form the longitudinal axis of the
body.
 Appendicular skeleton- the
Bones are classified according to shape
bones of the limbs and girdles that
into four groups: long, short, flat, and
are “appended” (attached) to the
irregular.
axial skeleton.
The skeletal system includes joints,
cartilages, and ligaments (fibrous cords
that bind the bones together at joints).

Functions of Bones
 Support. Bones, the “steel
girders” and “reinforced concrete”
of the body, form the internal
framework that supports the body
and cradles its soft organs.
 Protection. Bones protect soft
body organs.
 Movement. Skeletal muscles,
attached to bones by tendons, use
the bones as levers to move the Long bones have a shaft with heads at
body and its parts. both ends. They are mostly compact bone.
 Storage. Fat is stored in the Bones of the arms, legs, hands, and feet.
internal (marrow) cavities of bones. All the bones of the limbs are long bones.
Bone itself serves as a store house Each consists of a diaphysis made of
for minerals, the most important of compact bone and epiphyses made of
which are calcium and phosphorus.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

47
spongy bone. The marrow canal contains Articular cartilage is glassy hyaline
yellow bone marrow. cartilage, it provides a smooth, slippery
Short bones are generally cube-shaped surface that decreases friction at joint
and contain mostly spongy bone. The surfaces.
bones of the wrist and ankle are short Epiphyseal line is a thin line of bony
bones. tissue spanning the epiphysis. It is a
Sesamoid bones, which form within remnant of the epiphyseal plate (a flat
tendons, are a special type of short bone. plate of hyaline cartilage) seen in a young,
The best-known example is the patella. growing bone.
Flat bones are thin, flattened, and The inner bony surface of the shaft is
usually curved. They have two thin layers covered by endosteum, a delicate
of compact bone sandwiching a layer of connective tissue lining.
spongy bone between them. Most bones In adults, the cavity of the shaft is
of the skull, the ribs, and the sternum primarily a storage area for adipose (fat)
(breastbone) are flat bones. tissue called yellow marrow, or
Irregular Bones are bones that do not medullary, cavity.
fit one of the preceding categories.  Red marrow is confined to cavities in
Examples is the vertebrae, which make up the spongy bone of flat bones and the
the spinal column. epiphysis of some long bones.
 Osteocytes regulate the amount of These bone markings reveal where
calcium in the bone matrix. Bone cells. muscles, tendons, and ligaments were
 Bone matrix are made of calcium attached and where blood vessels and
carbonate and calcium phosphate. nerves passed.
There are two categories of bone
STRUCTURE OF BONE markings:
Diaphysis, or shaft, makes up most of  Projections, or processes, which
the bone’s length and is composed of grow out from the bone surface.
compact bone.  Depressions, or cavities, which
are indentations in the bone.

It is covered and protected by a fibrous

connective tissue membrane, the
periosteum.
Hundreds of connective tissue fibers,
called perforating, or Sharpey’s, fibers,
secure the periosteum to the underlying
bone.
Epiphyses are the ends of the long
bone. It consists of a thin layer of compact
bone enclosing an area filled with spongy
bone.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

48
 Each complex consisting of central canal
and matrix rings is called an osteon, or
Haversian system.
Central canals run lengthwise through
the bony matrix, carrying blood vessels
and nerves to all areas of the bone.
Tiny canals, canaliculi, radiate outward
from the central canals to all lacunae.
The canaliculi form a transportation
system that connects all the bone cells to
the nutrient supply through the hard bone
matrix.
The communication pathway from the
outside of the bone to its interior (and the
central canals) is completed by
perforating (Volkmann’s) canals.

BONE FORMATION AND GROWTH

Microscopic Anatomy Skeleton is formed by cartilage and
Spongy bone has a spiky, open bone.
appearance, whereas compact bone Skeleton is primarily made of hyaline
appears to be very dense. cartilage, but in the young child, most of
Compact bone tissue is riddled with the cartilage has been replaced by bone.
passageways carrying nerves, blood This process of bone formation, or
vessels, and the like, which provide the ossification, involves two major phases:
living bone cells with nutrients and a route
for waste disposal.

The hyaline cartilage model is

completely covered with bone matrix by
bone forming cells called osteoblasts.

The mature bone cells, osteocytes, are

found within the matrix in tiny cavities
called lacunae.
The lacunae are arranged in concentric
circles called lamellae around central Osteoblasts in the periosteum add
(Haversian) canals. bone tissue to the external face of the
diaphysis as cells called osteoclasts in

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

49
the endosteum remove bone from the compound).
inner face of the diaphysis wall.
This process by which bones increase in
diameter is called appositional growth.
This process of long-bone growth is
controlled by growth hormone and,
during puberty, the sex hormones.

Bone Remodeling
Bones are remodeled continually in
response to changes in two factors:
 calcium levels in the blood.
 pull of gravity and muscles on the
skeleton.
When blood calcium levels drop below
homeostatic levels, the parathyroid glands
(located in the throat) are stimulated to A fracture is treated by reduction,
release parathyroid hormone (PTH) into which is the realignment of the broken
the blood. bone ends.
PTH activates osteoclasts, giant bone- In closed reduction, the bone ends are
destroying cells in bones, to break down coaxed back into their normal position by
bone matrix and release calcium ions into the physician’s hands.
the blood. In open reductions, surgery is
When blood calcium levels are too high performed, and the bone ends are secured
(hypercalcemia), calcium is deposited in together with pins or wires.
bone matrix as hard calcium salts. The repair of bone fractures involves
Bone remodeling is essential if bones four major events:
are to retain normal proportions and
strength during long-bone growth as the
body increases in size and weight.
PTH determines when (or if ) bone is to
be broken down or formed in response to
the need for more or fewer calcium ions in
the blood.

BONE FRACTURES
A fracture in which the bone breaks
cleanly but does not penetrate the skin is
AXIAL SKELETON
a closed (or simple) fracture.
The skeleton is divided into two parts,
When the broken bone ends penetrate
the axial and appendicular skeletons.
through the skin, the fracture is open (or
The axial skeleton forms the
longitudinal axis of the body.
It can be divided into three parts—the
skull, the vertebral column, and the
thoracic cage.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

50
 The frontal bone forms the forehead,
the bony projections under the eyebrows,
and the superior part of each eye’s orbit.

Parietal Bones
The paired parietal bones form most of
the superior and lateral walls of the
cranium. They meet in the midline of the
skull at the sagittal suture and form the
coronal suture, where they meet the
frontal bone.

Temporal Bones
The temporal bones lie inferior to the
parietal bones; they join them at the
squamous sutures.
Several important bone markings appear
on the temporal bone:
 External acoustic meatus is a
canal that leads to the eardrum
and the middle ear. It is the route
SKULL by which sound enters the ear.
Skull is formed by two sets of bones.  The styloid process, a sharp,
The cranium encloses and protects the needlelike projection, is just inferior
fragile brain tissue. to the external auditory meatus.
The facial bones hold the eyes in an  Zygomatic process is a thin
anterior position and allow the facial bridge of bone that joins with the
muscles to show our feelings through cheekbone (zygomatic bone)
smiles or frowns. anteriorly.
Bones of the skull are joined together by  The mastoid process, which is full
sutures, which are interlocking, of air cavities (mastoid sinuses), is
immovable joints. a rough projection posterior and
inferior to the external acoustic
Cranium meatus. It provides an attachment
Composed of eight large flat bones. site for some muscles of the neck.
Except for two paired bones (the parietal Mastoid sinuses are so close to
and temporal), they are all single bones. the middle ear—a high-risk spot for
infections—that they may become
infected too, a condition called
mastoiditis.
 Jugular foramen, at the junction
of the occipital and temporal
bones, allows passage of the
jugular vein, the largest vein of the
head, which drains the brain.

Frontal Bone

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

51
 Optic canal, which allows the optic
nerve to pass to the eye.
Superior orbital fissure, through
which the cranial nerves controlling eye
movements.
The central part of the sphenoid bone is
riddled with air cavities, the sphenoidal
sinuses.

 Just anterior to it in the cranial

cavity is the internal acoustic
meatus, which transmits cranial
nerves VII and VIII (the facial and
vestibulocochlear nerves).
 Anterior to the jugular foramen on
the skull’s inferior aspect is the
carotid canal, through which the
internal carotid artery runs,
supplying blood to most of the
brain.
Ethmoid Bone
Occipital Bone The ethmoid bone is very irregularly
The occipital bone is the most shaped and lies anterior to the sphenoid.
posterior bone of the cranium. It forms the It forms the roof of the nasal cavity and
base and back wall of the skull. The joins part of the medial walls of the orbits.
the parietal bones anteriorly at the Projecting from its superior surface is
lambdoid suture. the crista galli, literally “cock’s comb”.
In the base of the occipital bone is a These holey areas of crista galli, the
large opening, the foramen magnum cribriform plates, allow nerve fibers
(literally, “large hole”). carrying impulses from the olfactory
The foramen magnum surrounds the (smell) receptors of the nose to reach the
lower part of the brain and allows the brain.
spinal cord to connect with the brain. Extensions of the ethmoid bone, the
Lateral to the foramen magnum on each superior and middle nasal conchae,
side are the rockerlike occipital condyles, form part of the lateral walls of the nasal
which rest on the first vertebra of the cavity and increase the turbulence of air
spinal column. flowing through the nasal passages.

Sphenoid Bone FACIAL BONES

The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone Fourteen bones compose the face.
spans the width of the skull and forms part Twelve are paired; only the mandible
of the floor of the cranial cavity. and vomer are single.
In the midline of the sphenoid is a small
depression, the sella turcica, or Turk’s
saddle, which forms a snug enclosure for
the pituitary gland. The foramen ovale,
a large oval opening in line with the
posterior end of the sella turcica, allows
fibers of cranial nerve V (the trigeminal
nerve) to pass to the chewing muscles of
the lower jaw (mandible).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

52
 Each lacrimal bone has a groove that
serves as a passageway for tears (lacrima
= tear).

Nasal Bones
The small rectangular bones forming the
bridge of the nose are the nasal bones.

Vomer Bone
The single bone in the median line of the
Maxillae nasal cavity is the vomer.
Maxillary bones, fuse to form the The vomer forms most of the bony nasal
upper jaw. septum.
All facial bones except the mandible join
the maxillae; thus they are the main, or Inferior Nasal Conchae
“keystone,” bones of the face. The inferior nasal conchae are thin,
The maxillae carry the upper teeth in curved bones projecting medially from the
the alveolar process. lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
Extensions of the maxillae called the
palatine processes form the anterior Mandible
part of the hard palate of the mouth. The mandible, or lower jaw, is the
Maxillae contain paranasal sinuses, largest and strongest bone of the face.
which drain into the nasal passages It joins the temporal bones on each side
which lighten the skull bones and amplify of the face, forming the only freely
the sounds we make as we speak. movable joints in the skull.
The horizontal part of the mandible (the
body) forms the chin.
Two upright bars of bone (the rami)
extend from the body to connect the
mandible with the temporal bone.
The lower teeth lie in alveoli (sockets) in
the alveolar process at the superior edge
of the mandibular body.

The Hyoid Bone

The hyoid bone it is the only bone that
Palatine Bones does not articulate directly with any other
The paired palatine bones lie posterior bone.
to the palatine processes of the maxillae. Hyoid bone serves as a movable base
Failure of these or the palatine for the tongue and as an attachment point
processes to fuse medially results in cleft for neck muscles that raise and lower the
palate. larynx when we swallow and speak.

Zygomatic Bones
The zygomatic bones are commonly
referred to as the cheekbones.
They also form a good-sized portion of
the lateral walls of the orbits, or eye
sockets.
Lacrimal Bones
The lacrimal bones are fingernail-sized
bones forming part of the medial walls of Fetal Skull
each orbit. The skull of a fetus or newborn infant is
different in many ways from an adult skull.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

53
 Before birth, the spine consists of 33
When a baby is born, its skeleton is still separate bones called vertebrae, but 9 of
unfinished. these eventually fuse to form the two
The fibrous membranes of newborn’s composite bones, the sacrum and the
skull is connecting the cranial bones are coccyx, that construct the inferior portion
called fontanels. of the vertebral column.
The largest fontanel is the diamond- Of the 24 single bones, the 7 vertebrae
shaped anterior fontanel. of the neck are cervical vertebrae, the
The fontanels allow the fetal skull to be next 12 are the thoracic vertebrae, and
compressed slightly during birth. It is also the remaining 5 supporting the lower back
flexible and it allow the infant’s brain to are lumbar vertebrae.
grow during the later part of pregnancy The individual vertebrae are separated
and early infancy. by pads of flexible fibrocartilage—
intervertebral discs— that cushion the
VERTEBRAL COLUMN OR SPINE vertebrae and absorb shocks while
The vertebral column, or spine, allowing the spine flexibility.
extends from the skull, which it supports, The discs and the S-shaped structure
to the pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the vertebral column work together to
of the body to the lower limbs. prevent shock to the head when we walk
Spine is formed from 26 irregular bones or run.
connected and reinforced by ligaments in The spinal curvatures in the thoracic and
such a way that a flexible, curved sacral regions are referred to as primary
structure results. curvatures.
Together the two primary curvatures
produce the C-shaped spine of the
newborn baby.

The curvatures in the cervical and

lumbar regions are referred to as
secondary curvatures.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

54
There are several types of abnormal
spinal curvatures: scoliosis, kyphosis,
and lordosis.

The common features of vertebrae Atlas (C1) has no body.

include the following: The superior surfaces of its
transverse processes contain large
depressions that receive the occipital
condyles of the skull.
Axis (C2) acts as a pivot for the
rotation of the atlas (and skull) above.
It has a large upright process, the
dens, which acts as the pivot point.

Cervical vertebrae
Cervical vertebrae are C3 and are
the smallest, lightest vertebrae, and
most often their spinous processes are
 Body or centrum: disc-like,
short and divided into two branches.
weight-bearing part of the vertebra
The transverse processes of the
facing anteriorly in the vertebral
cervical vertebrae contain foramina
column.
(openings) through which the vertebral
 Vertebral arch: arch formed from
arteries pass on their way to the brain
the joining of all posterior
above.
extensions, the laminae and
pedicles, from the vertebral body.
 Vertebral foramen: canal through
which the spinal cord passes.
 Transverse processes: two
lateral projections from the
vertebral arch.
 Spinous process: single
projection arising from the
posterior aspect of the vertebral
arch (actually the fused laminae).
 Superior and inferior articular
processes: paired projections
lateral to the vertebral foramen, Thoracic Vertebrae
allowing a vertebra to form joints  The 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12)
with adjacent vertebrae. are all typical.
They are larger than the cervical
Cervical Vertebrae vertebrae and are distinguished by the
Atlas and Axis fact that they are the only vertebrae to
The first two vertebrae (atlas and articulate with the ribs.
axis) are different because they
perform functions not shared by the
other cervical vertebrae.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

55
 The two transverse processes of each
thoracic vertebra articulate with the
nearby knoblike tubercles of the ribs.

Lumbar Vertebrae
 The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5)  Sacrum is formed by the fusion of five
have massive, blocklike bodies. vertebrae.
Their short, hatchet-shaped spinous Superiorly it articulates with L5, and
processes make them look like a moose inferiorly it connects with the coccyx.
head from the lateral aspect. The wing-like alae articulate laterally
with the hip bones, forming the sacroiliac
joints.
 Its posterior midline surface is
roughened by the median sacral crest,
the fused spinous processes of the sacral
vertebrae.
This is flanked laterally by the posterior
sacral foramina.
The vertebral canal continues inside the
sacrum as the sacral canal and
terminates in a large inferior opening
called the sacral hiatus.

Coccyx
Sacrum The coccyx is formed from the fusion of
three to five tiny, irregularly shaped
vertebrae.
It is the human “tailbone” a remnant of
the tail that other vertebrate animals
have.

Thoracic Cage
 The sternum, ribs, and thoracic
vertebrae make up the bony thorax.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

56
  Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of
the bony thorax.
It articulates with the vertebral column
posteriorly and then curve downward and
toward the anterior body surface.
The true ribs, the first seven pairs,
attach directly to the sternum by costal
cartilages.
False ribs, the next five pairs, either
attach indirectly to the sternum or are not
attached to the sternum at all.
The last two pairs of false ribs lack the
sternal attachments, so they are also
called floating ribs.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 The appendicular skeleton is
 Bony thorax is routinely called the composed of 126 bones of the limbs
thoracic cage because it forms a (appendages) and the pectoral and pelvic
protective, cone-shaped cage of slender girdles, which attach the limbs to the axial
bones around the organs of the thoracic skeleton.
cavity (heart, lungs, and major blood
vessels). Bones of the shoulder Girdle
 Each shoulder girdle, or pectoral girdle,
Sternum consists of two bones—a clavicle and a
 Sternum (breastbone) is a typical flat scapula.
bone and the result of the fusion of three  Clavicle, or collarbone, is a slender,
bones— the manubrium body, and doubly curved bone. It attaches to the
xiphoid process. manubrium of the sternum medially (at its
 The sternum has three important bony sternal end) and to the scapula laterally,
landmarks—the jugular notch, the sternal where it helps to form the shoulder joint. It
angle, and the xiphisternal joint. helps prevent shoulder dislocation.
 Jugular notch (concave upper border
of the manubrium) can be palpated easily;
generally it is at the level of the third
thoracic vertebra.
The sternal angle results where the
manubrium and body meet at a slight
angle to each other, so that a transverse
ridge is formed at the level of the second
ribs. It provides a handy reference point
for counting ribs to locate the second
intercostal space for listening to certain
heart valves.
The xiphisternal joint, the point where
the sternal body and xiphoid process fuse,
lies at the level of the ninth thoracic
vertebra.
 Sternal puncture is obtaining samples
from sternum of blood-forming
(hematopoietic) tissue for the diagnosis of
suspected blood diseases.

Ribs

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

57
  The arm is formed by a single bone, the
humerus, which is a typical long bone.

 Scapulae, or shoulder blades, are

triangular and are commonly called
“wings” because they flare when we move
our arms posteriorly.
Acromion, which is the enlarged end of
the spine of the scapula, and the beaklike
coracoid process. It connects with the
clavicle laterally at the acromioclavicular
joint.
The coracoid process points over the  Inferior to the head is a slight
top of the shoulder and anchors some of constriction called the anatomical neck.
the muscles of the arm. Just medial to Anterolateral to the head are two bony
the coracoid process is the large projections separated by the
suprascapular notch, which serves as a intertubercular sulcus—the greater
nerve passageway. and lesser tubercles, which are sites of
 The scapula has three borders— muscle attachment.
superior, medial (vertebral), and  Distal to the tubercles is the surgical
lateral (axillary). neck.
It also has three angles—superior,  Midpoint of the shaft is a roughened
inferior, and lateral. area called the deltoid tuberosity.
The glenoid cavity, a shallow socket  Radial groove runs obliquely down the
that receives the head of the arm bone, is posterior aspect of the shaft.
in the lateral angle.  Distal end of the humerus is the medial
trochlea and the lateral ball-like
capitulum.
 Above the trochlea anteriorly is a
depression, the coronoid fossa.
Posterior surface is the olecranon
fossa.

FOREARM
 The radius and the ulna, form the
skeleton of the forearm.
 Radius is the lateral bone; that is, it is
on the thumb side of the forearm.
 Both proximally and distally the radius
BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS and ulna articulate at small radioulnar
 Thirty separate bones form the skeletal joints.
framework of each upper limb. Two bones are connected along their
They form the foundations of the arm, entire length by the flexible interosseous
forearm, and hand. membrane.
Both the ulna and the radius have a
ARM styloid process at their distal end.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

58
 The ulna is the medial bone (on the  Each hip bone is formed by the fusion of
littlefinger side) of the forearm. three bones: the ilium, ischium, and
On its proximal end are the anterior pubis.
coronoid process and the posterior The ilium, which connects posteriorly
olecranon, which are separated by the with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joint.
trochlear notch.  The upper edge of an ala, the iliac
crest.
 The iliac crest ends anteriorly in the
anterior superior iliac spine and
posteriorly in the posterior superior
iliac spine.

HAND  Ischium is the “sit-down bone,” so

 The skeleton of the hand consists of the called because it forms the most inferior
carpals, the metacarpals, and the part of the coxal bone.
phalanges. The ischial tuberosity is a roughened
area that receives body weight.
 Ischial spine, superior to the
tuberosity.
 Greater sciatic notch allows blood
vessels and the large sciatic nerve to pass
from the pelvis posteriorly into the thigh.

 The eight carpal bones, arranged in

two irregular rows of four bones each,
form the part of the hand called the
carpus or, more commonly, the wrist.
 The palm of the hand consists of the
metacarpals. The phalanges are the
bones of the fingers.

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle  Pubis, is the most anterior part of a

 Pelvic girdle is formed by two coxal coxal bone.
bones, or ossa coxae, commonly called  Obturator foramen is an opening that
hip bones, and the sacrum. allows blood vessels and nerves to pass
 Together with the coccyx, the pelvic into the anterior part of the thigh.
girdle forms the pelvis.  The pubic bones of each hip bone fuse
anteriorly to form a cartilaginous joint, the
pubic symphysis.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

59
 The ilium, ischium, and pubis fuse at  These markings and the gluteal
the deep socket called the acetabulum. tuberosity, located on the shaft, all serve
 The false pelvis is superior to the true as sites for muscle attachment.
pelvis; it is the area medial to the flaring  Distally on the femur are the lateral
portions of the ilia. and medial condyles, which articulate
The true pelvis is surrounded by bone with the tibia below.
and lies inferior to the flaring parts of the Posteriorly these condyles are separated
ilia and the pelvic brim. by the deep intercondylar fossa.
 Outlet is the inferior opening of the Anteriorly on the distal femur is the
pelvis measured between the ischial smooth patellar surface, which forms a
spines. joint with the patella, or kneecap.
Inlet is the superior opening between
the right and left sides of the pelvic brim. LEG
 Connected along their length by an
interosseous membrane, two bones,
the tibia and fibula, form the skeleton of
the leg.
 Tibia, or shinbone, is larger and more
medial.
At the proximal end, the medial and
lateral condyles (separated by the
intercondylar eminence) articulate with
the distal end of the femur to form the
knee joint.

BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS

Thigh
 Femur, or thigh bone, is the only bone
in the thigh.

 The patellar (kneecap) ligament, which

encloses the patella, a sesamoid bone
attaches to the tibial tuberosity, a
roughened area on the anterior tibial
surface.
 Medial malleolus forms the inner
bulge of the ankle.
 Lateral malleolus, forms the outer
part of the ankle.
 Its proximal end has a ball-like head, a
neck, and greater and lesser FOOT
trochanters (separated anteriorly by the  The foot, composed of the tarsals,
intertrochanteric line and posteriorly by metatarsals, and phalanges.
the intertrochanteric crest).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

60
 Tarsus, forming the posterior half of
the foot, is composed of seven tarsal
bones.

Fibrous Joints
 Fibrous joints, the bones are united by
fibrous tissue.
 Body weight is carried mostly by the The best examples of this type of joint
two largest tarsals, the calcaneus and are the sutures of the skull.
talus.
 Five metatarsals form the sole, and
14 phalanges form the toes.
 The bones in the foot are arranged to
form three strong arches: two
longitudinal (medial and lateral) and one
transverse.

 In sutures, the irregular edges of the

bones interlock and are bound tightly
together by connective tissue fibers,
allowing essentially no movement.
In syndesmoses, the connecting fibers
are longer than those of sutures; thus the
joint has more “give.”
 Ligaments, which bind the foot bones Cartilaginous Joints
together.  The bone ends are connected by
Tendons of the foot muscles help to fibrocartilage.
hold the bones firmly. Examples of this joint type that are
slightly movable (amphiarthrotic) are the
JOINTS pubic symphysis of the pelvis and
 Joints also called articulations, are the intervertebral joints of the spinal column.
sites where two or more bones meet.
 Synarthroses or immovable joints.
Amphiarthroses or slightly movable
joints.
 Diarthroses or freely movable joints.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

61
  Articular capsule
 Joint cavity
 Reinforcing ligaments

 The hyaline-cartilage epiphyseal plates

of growing long bones and the
cartilaginous joints between the first ribs
and the sternum are immovable Bursae and tendon sheaths are not
(synarthrotic) cartilaginous joints referred strictly part of synovial joints.
to as synchondroses.

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED

ON SHAPES
 Synovial joints can be classified as
plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle,
and ball-and-socket joints.

Synovial Joints
 Synovial joints are joints in which the
articulating bone ends are separated by a
joint cavity containing synovial fluid.
(figure f-h are synovial joints)

Plane Joint
 Plane joint, the articular surfaces are
essentially flat, and only short slipping or
gliding movements are allowed. The
movements of plane joints are nonaxial,
gliding does not involve rotation around
any axis.
 The intercarpal joints of the wrist are
the best examples of plane joints.

 All synovial joints have four

distinguishing features:
 Articular cartilage

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

62
 Hinge Joint as in knuckle (metacarpophalangeal)
 In the hinge joint, the cylindrical end of joints.
one bone fits into a trough-shaped surface
on another bone.
Angular movement is allowed in just one
plane, like a mechanical hinge.
Examples are the elbow joint, ankle
joint, and the joints between the
phalanges of the fingers.
Hinge joints are classified as uniaxial
(“one axis”); they allow movement around
one axis only.
Saddle Joints
Saddle joints, each articular surface has
both convex and concave areas, like a
saddle.
These biaxial joints allow essentially the
same movements as condylar joints.
Examples are the carpometacarpal
joints in the thumb.

Pivot Joint
 The rounded end of one bone fits into a
sleeve or ring of bone (and possibly
ligaments).
Because the rotating bone can turn only
around its long axis, pivot joints are also
uniaxial joints. Ball-and-socket Joint
The proximal radioulnar joint and the Ball-and-socket joint, the spherical
joint between the atlas and the dens of head of one bone fits into a round socket
the axis are examples. in another.
It allows movement in all axes, including
rotation, and are the most freely moving
synovial joints. The shoulder and hip are
examples.

Condylar Joint
 The egg-shaped articular surface of one
bone fits into an oval concavity in another
Condylar joints allow the moving bone to HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
travel from side to side and back and  Bursitis, called “water on the knee,”
forth, but the bone cannot rotate around due to inflammation of bursae or synovial
its long axis. membrane.
Movement occurs around two axes,  Sprain, the ligaments or tendons
hence these joints are biaxial (bi = two), reinforcing a joint are damaged by

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

63
excessive stretching, or they are torn
away from the bone.
 Acute forms of arthritis usually result
from bacterial invasion and are treated
with antibiotic drugs.
 Chronic forms of arthritis include
osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and
gouty arthritis.

Osteoarthritis (OA)
 OA, also called degenerative joint Drug Therapy of RA are methotrexate
disease (DJD) and “wear-and-tear (are immunosuppressants), etanercept
arthritis,” affects the articular cartilages. (Enbrel), and aspirin (anti-inflammatory
 As the disease progresses, the exposed agent).
bone thickens and extra bone tissue,
called bone spurs, grows around the Gouty Arthritis
margins of the eroded cartilage and Gout, is a disease in which uric acid (a
restricts joint movement. normal waste product of nucleic acid
 Most commonly affected are those of metabolism) accumulates in the blood and
the fingers, the cervical and lumbar joints may be deposited as needle-shaped
of the spine, and the large, weight-bearing crystals in the soft tissues of joints.
joints of the lower limbs (knees and hips).  Common in men and rarely appears
before the age of 30.
Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)  Drugs such as colchicine, ibuprofen,
It is a chronic inflammatory disorder. and others are successful in preventing
 Occurs between the ages of 40 and 50, acute gout attacks.
but it may occur at any age.
 RA is an autoimmune disease—a
disorder in which the body’s immune THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
system attempts to destroy its own Muscle Types
tissues.  There are three types of muscle tissue—
 RA begins with inflammation of the skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
synovial membranes. Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are
The membranes thicken and the joints elongated because they have muscle
swell as synovial fluid accumulates. fibers.
Inflammatory cells (white blood cells and Its ability of muscle to shorten, or
others) enter the joint cavity from the contract, depends on two types of
blood and release a deluge of myofilaments, the muscle cell
inflammatory chemicals that destroy body equivalents of the microfilaments of the
tissues when released inappropriately as cytoskeleton.
in RA.
In time the inflamed synovial membrane
thickens into a pannus (“rag”), an
abnormal tissue that clings to and erodes
articular cartilages.
As the cartilage is destroyed, scar tissue
forms and connects the bone ends.
The scar tissue eventually ossifies, and
the bone ends become firmly fused
(ankylosis) and often deformed.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

64
 indirectly to bones, cartilages, or
connective tissue coverings.
 Tendons are mostly tough collagenic
fibers, so they can cross rough bony
projections, which would tear the more
delicate muscle tissues.

Smooth Muscle
 Smooth muscle has no striations and
is involuntary.
 Found mainly in the walls of hollow
visceral organs such as the stomach,
urinary bladder, and respiratory passages,
smooth muscle propels substances along a
Skeletal Muscle definite tract, or pathway, within the body.
 Skeletal muscle fibers are packaged  visceral, nonstriated, and
into the organs called skeletal muscles involuntary.
that attach to the body’s skeleton.  Smooth muscle cells are spindle-
 Skeletal muscle fibers are huge, cigar- shaped, have a single nucleus, and are
shaped, multinucleate cells. They are the surrounded by scant endomysium.
largest of the muscle fiber types—some
ranging up to 30 cm (nearly 1 foot) in
length.
 Skeletal muscle is also known as
striated muscle (because its fibers have
obvious stripes) and as voluntary
muscle.
 Skeletal, striated, and voluntary.

 Moving food through the digestive tract

and emptying the bowels and bladder are
examples of “housekeeping” activities
normally handled by smooth muscles.
Smooth muscle contraction is slow and
sustained.

Cardiac Muscle
Found in the heart, where it forms the
 Each muscle fiber is enclosed in a
bulk of the heart walls.
delicate connective tissue sheath called
The heart serves as a pump, propelling
endomysium.
blood into the blood vessels and to all
Several sheathed muscle fibers are then
tissues of the body.
wrapped by a coarser fibrous membrane
 cardiac, striated, and involuntary.
called perimysium to form a bundle of
 The cardiac cells are cushioned by small
fibers called a fascicle.
amounts of soft connective tissue
 Many fascicles are bound together by
(endomysium) and arranged in spiral or
an even tougher “overcoat” of connective
figure 8–shaped bundles.
tissue called an epimysium, which covers
the entire muscle.
 The epimysia blend either into strong,
cordlike tendons or into sheet-like
aponeuroses, which attach muscles

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

65
 MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
 Skeletal muscle cells are
multinucleate.

 Cardiac muscle fibers are branching

cells joined by special junctions called
intercalated discs.

MUSCLE FUNCTIONS
 Skeletal muscle plays three other
important roles in the body as well: it
maintains posture, stabilizes joints,
and generates heat.

Producing Movement
 Skeletal muscles are responsible for
mobility of the body as a whole, including  Many oval nuclei can be seen just
all locomotion and manipulating things beneath the plasma membrane, which is
with your agile upper limb. called the sarcolemma (“muscle husk”)
 They also allow us to express our in muscle cells.
emotions.  The nuclei are pushed aside by long
ribbon-like organelles, the myofibrils,
Maintaining Posture and Body which nearly fill the cytoplasm.
Position Alternating light (I) and dark (A) bands
Stabilizing Joints along the length of the perfectly aligned
 Skeletal muscles stabilize the joints of myofibrils give the muscle cell as a whole
the skeleton. its striped appearance.
Muscle tendons are extremely important  The light I band has a midline
in reinforcing and stabilizing joints that interruption, a darker area called the Z
have poorly fitting articulating surfaces disc.
(the shoulder). The dark A band has a lighter central
area called the H zone.
Generating Heat  The M line in the center of the H zone
 Body heat is generated as a by-product contains tiny protein rods that hold
of muscle activity. adjacent thick filaments together.
As ATP is used to power muscle  Myofibrils are actually chains of tiny
contraction, nearly three-quarters of its contractile units called sarcomeres, which
energy escapes as heat. are aligned end to end like boxcars in a
train along the length of the myofibrils.
Additional Functions Second, it is the arrangement of even
 Skeletal muscles protect fragile smaller structures (myofilaments) within
internal organs by enclosure. sarcomeres that actually produces the
Smooth muscles form valves to banding pattern.
regulate the passage of substances  There are two types of threadlike
through internal body openings, dilate and protein myofilaments within each of our
constrict the pupils of our eyes, and “boxcar” sarcomeres.
activate the arrector pili muscles that  Thick Filaments
cause our hairs to stand on end.  Thin Filaments

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

66
 Thick filaments, also called myosin
filaments, are made mostly of bundled
molecules of the protein myosin, but they
also contain ATPase enzymes, which split
ATP to generate the power for muscle
contraction.
 These projections, or myosin heads,
are called cross bridges when they link the
thick and thin filaments together during
contraction.
 Thin filaments are composed of the
contractile protein called actin, plus some
regulatory proteins that play a role in  When a long, thread-like extension of
allowing (or preventing) binding of myosin the neuron, called the nerve fiber or
heads to actin. axon, reaches the muscle, it branches into
The thin filaments, also called actin a number of axon terminals, each of which
filaments, are anchored to the Z disc (a forms junctions with the sarcolemma of a
disclike membrane). different muscle cell.
 When contraction occurs and the actin-  These junctions, called neuromuscular
containing filaments slide toward each junctions, contain vesicles filled with a
other into the center of the sarcomeres, chemical referred to as a neurotransmitter.
these light zones disappear because the The specific neurotransmitter that
actin and myosin filaments are completely stimulates skeletal muscle cells is
overlapped. acetylcholine or ACh.
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), is a  Synaptic cleft, is filled with tissue
specialized smooth endoplasmic (interstitial) fluid.
reticulum.
Its role is to store calcium and to release
it on demand when the muscle fiber is
stimulated to contract.

SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY

Function of muscle cells:
 Irritability, also termed
responsiveness, which is the ability
to receive and respond to a
stimulus.
 Contractility, is the ability to
shorten (forcibly) when adequately
stimulated.
 Extensibility is the ability of
muscle cells to be stretched.
 Elasticity is their ability to recoil
and resume their resting length
after being stretched.

The Nerve Stimulus and the Action

Potential
 To contract, skeletal muscle cells must
be stimulated by nerve impulses.
 One neuron and all the skeletal muscle
cells it stimulates is called a motor unit.
1. When a nerve impulse reaches the
axon terminals, calcium channels

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

67
 open, and calcium (Ca2+) enters moves the sodium and potassium ions
the terminal. back to their initial positions.
2. Calcium entry causes some of the
synaptic vesicles in the axon Mechanism of Muscle Contraction:
terminal to release acetylcholine. The Sliding Filament Theory
3. Which then diffuses across the  When muscle fibers are activated by
synaptic cleft and attaches to the nervous system, the myosin heads
receptors (membrane proteins) attach to binding sites on the thin
that are located in highly folded filaments, and the sliding begins.
regions of the sarcolemma.  Each cross bridge attaches and
4. If enough acetylcholine is released, detaches several times during a
the sarcolemma at that point contraction, generating tension that helps
becomes temporarily even more to pull the thin filaments toward the center
permeable to sodium ions (Na+), of the sarcomere.
which rush into the muscle cell,  As this event occurs simultaneously in
and to potassium ions (K+), which sarcomeres throughout the muscle cell,
diffuse out of the cell. However, the cell shortens.
more Na+ enters than K+ leaves.
This imbalance gives the cell
interior an excess of positive ions,
which reverses the electrical
conditions of the sarcolemma. This
event, called depolarization,
opens more channels that allow
Na+ entry only.
5. This “upset” generates an electrical
current called an action
potential. Once begun, the action
potential is unstoppable; it travels
over the entire surface of the
sarcolemma, conducting the
electrical impulse from one end of
the cell to the other. The result is
contraction of the muscle cell.  This “walking” of the myosin cross
6. Note that while the action potential bridges, or heads, along the thin filaments
is occurring, acetylcholine, which during muscle shortening is much like a
began the process, is broken down centipede’s gait.
to acetic acid and choline by Some myosin heads (“legs”) are always
enzymes (acetylcholinesterase, or in contact with actin (“the ground”), so
AChE) present on the sarcolemma that the thin filaments cannot slide
and in the synaptic cleft. backward as this cycle repeats again and
7. For this reason, a single nerve again during contraction.
impulse produces only one  The attachment of the myosin cross
contraction. This prevents bridges to actin requires calcium ions
continued contraction of the (Ca2+), which comes from the action
muscle cell in the absence of potentials stimulate the sarcoplasmic
additional nerve impulses. The reticulum to release calcium ions into the
muscle cell relaxes until stimulated cytoplasm.
by the next round of acetylcholine  The calcium ions trigger the binding of
release. myosin to actin, initiating filament sliding.
 The events that return the cell to its
resting state include (1) diffusion of
potassium ions (K+) out of the cell and (2)
operation of the sodium potassium pump,
the active transport mechanism that

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

68
  Until this point is reached, the muscle is
said to be exhibiting unfused, or
incomplete, tetanus.

 When the action potential ends, calcium

ions are immediately reabsorbed into the
SR storage areas, and the muscle cell
relaxes and settles back to its original Muscle Response to Stronger Stimuli
length.  Tetanus produces stronger (more
forceful) muscle contractions, but its
Contraction of the Skeletal Muscle as primary role is to produce smooth and
a Whole prolonged muscle contractions.
Graded Responses When few cells are stimulated, the
 In skeletal muscles, the “all-or-none” contraction of the muscle as a whole is
law of muscle physiology applies to the slight.
muscle cell, not to the whole muscle. When all the motor units are active and
It states that a muscle cell will contract all the muscle cells are stimulated, the
to its fullest extent when it is stimulated muscle contraction is as strong.
adequately; it never partially contracts.
 The whole muscle reacts to stimuli with Providing Energy for Muscle
graded responses, or different degrees Contraction
of shortening.  ATP is the only energy source that can
In general, graded muscle contractions be used directly to power muscle activity,
can be produced two ways: ATP must be regenerated continuously if
 by changing the frequency of contraction is to continue.
muscle stimulation. Working muscles use three pathways for
 by changing the number of muscle ATP regeneration:
cells being stimulated at one time.  Direct phosphorylation of ADP
by creatine phosphate.
Muscle Response to Increasingly
Rapid Stimulation
 Muscle twitches (single, brief, jerky
contractions) sometimes result from
certain nervous system problems.
 Nerve impulses are delivered to the
muscle at a very rapid rate, as the effects
of the successive contractions are
“summed” (added) together, and the
contractions of the muscle get stronger
and smoother.
 When the muscle is stimulated so
rapidly that no evidence of relaxation is
seen and the contractions are completely
The unique high-energy molecule
smooth and sustained, the muscle is said
creatine phosphate (CP) is found in muscle
to be in fused, or complete, tetanus, or
fibers but not other cell types. As ATP is
in tetanic contraction.
being depleted, interactions between CP

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

69
and ADP result in transfers of a high-
energy phosphate group from CP to ADP,
thus regenerating more ATP in a fraction of
a second. Although muscle cells store
perhaps five times as much CP as ATP, the
CP supplies are also soon exhausted (in
less than 15 seconds).

 Aerobic respiration

The initial steps of glucose breakdown

occur via a pathway called glycolysis,
which does not use oxygen and hence is
anaerobic (literally “without oxygen”).
During glycolysis, which occurs in the
cytosol, glucose is broken down to pyruvic
acid, and small amounts of energy are
captured in ATP bonds (2 ATP per 1
glucose molecule). As long as enough
oxygen is present, the pyruvic acid then
enters the oxygen-requiring aerobic
At rest and during light to moderate pathways that occur within the
exercise, some 95 percent of the ATP used mitochondria to produce more ATP.
for muscle activity comes from aerobic However, when muscle activity is intense,
respiration. Aerobic respiration occurs or oxygen and glucose delivery is
in the mitochondria and involves a series temporarily inadequate to meet the needs
of metabolic pathways that use oxygen. of the working muscles, the sluggish
These pathways are collectively referred aerobic pathways cannot keep up with the
to as oxidative phosphorylation. During demands for ATP. Under these conditions,
aerobic respiration, glucose is broken the pyruvic acid generated during
down completely to carbon dioxide and glycolysis is converted to lactic acid, and
water, and some of the energy released as the overall process is referred to as
the bonds are broken is captured in the anaerobic glycolysis.
bonds of ATP molecules. Although aerobic  Anaerobic glycolysis produces only
respiration provides a rich ATP harvest about 5 percent as much ATP from each
(about 32 ATP per 1 glucose), it is fairly glucose molecule as aerobic respiration.
slow and requires continuous delivery of NOTE:
oxygen and nutrient fuels to the muscle to  The fastest mechanism is direct
keep it going. phosphorylation; the slowest is aerobic
respiration.
 Anaerobic glycolysis and Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
lactic acid formation. Muscle fatigue occurs if we exercise
strenuously.
 Muscle is fatigued when it is unable to
contract even though it is still being
stimulated.
 Suspected causes are imbalances in
ions (Ca2+, K+) and problems of the
neuromuscular junction.
 The major factor is the oxygen deficit
that occurs during prolonged muscle
activity.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

70
Oxygen deficit is not a total lack of  Regular exercise increases muscle size,
oxygen; it’s also because the person is not strength, and endurance.
able to take in oxygen fast enough to keep  Aerobic, or endurance, types of
the muscles supplied with all the oxygen exercise, such as participating in an
they need when they are working aerobics class, jogging, or biking, result in
vigorously. stronger, more flexible muscles with
 When muscles lack oxygen, lactic acid greater resistance to fatigue.
begins to accumulate in the muscle via  The blood supply to the muscles
the anaerobic pathway (burning increases, and the individual muscle cells
sensation). form more mitochondria and store more
 The muscle’s ATP supply starts to run oxygen.
low, and ionic imbalance tends to occur.  It makes overall body metabolism more
efficient, improves digestion (and
Types of Muscle Contractions— elimination), enhances neuromuscular
Isotonic and Isometric coordination, and makes the skeleton
Isotonic Contractions stronger.
“same tone” or tension.  The heart enlarges (hypertrophies) so
 The myofilaments are successful in that more blood is pumped out with each
their sliding movements, the muscle beat, fat deposits are cleared from the
shortens, and movement occurs. blood vessel walls, and the lungs become
Examples are bending the knee, rotating more efficient in gas exchange.
the arms, and smiling.  Aerobic exercise does not cause the
muscles to increase much in size.
Isometric Contractions The bulging muscles of a bodybuilder or
“same measurement” or length. professional weight lifter result mainly
 Contractions in which the muscles do from resistance, or isometric, exercises.
not shorten.  The increased muscle size and strength
 The myosin myofilaments are “spinning that result are due mainly to enlargement
their wheels,” and the tension in the of individual muscle cells (they make more
muscle keeps increasing. They are trying contractile filaments).
to slide, but the muscle is pitted against
some more or less immovable object. MUSCLE MOVEMENTS, TYPES AND
Example is when you try to lift a 400- NAMES
pound dresser alone and your muscles are  Five very basic understandings about
contracting isometrically. gross muscle activity or the Five Golden
Rules.
Muscle Tone  The origin, is attached to the
 The state of continuous partial immovable or less movable bone.
contractions is called muscle tone. The insertion is attached to the
Muscle tone is the result of different movable bone, and when the muscle
motor units, which are scattered through contracts, the insertion moves toward the
the muscle, being stimulated by the origin.
nervous system in a systematic way.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 If the nerve supply to a muscle is
destroyed, the muscle is no longer
stimulated in this manner, and it loses
tone and becomes paralyzed. Soon after,
it becomes flaccid, or soft and flabby, and
begins to atrophy (waste away).

Effect of Exercise on Muscles

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

71
 Body movement occurs when muscles
contract across joints.
 The type of movement depends on the
mobility of the joint and on where the
muscle is located in relation to the joint.

Types of Body Movements

Flexion is a movement, generally in the
sagittal plane, that decreases the angle of
the joint and brings two bones closer
together. Flexion is typical of hinge joints
(bending the knee or elbow), but it is also
common at ball-and-socket joints (for Abduction is moving a limb away
example, bending forward at the hip). (generally on the frontal plane) from the
midline, or median plane, of the body.

Adduction is the opposite of abduction,

so it is the movement of a limb toward the
 Extension is the opposite of flexion, so
it is a movement that increases the angle, body midline.
Circumduction is a combination of
or the distance, between two bones or
parts of the body (straightening the knee flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction commonly seen in ball-and-
or elbow). Extension that is greater than
180° is called hyperextension. socket joints such as the shoulder. The
proximal end of the limb is stationary, and
its distal end moves in a circle. The limb as
a whole outlines a cone.

Special Movements
 Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion.
Lifting the foot so that its superior surface
approaches the shin (standing on your
heels) is called dorsiflexion, whereas
depressing the foot (pointing the toes) is
called plantar flexion. Dorsiflexion of
the foot corresponds to extension of the
 Rotation is movement of a bone
hand at the wrist, whereas plantar
around its longitudinal axis. Rotation is a
flexion of the foot corresponds to flexion
common movement of ball-and socket
of the hand.
joints and describes the movement of the
atlas around the dens of the axis (as in
shaking your head “no”).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

72
 move your thumb to touch the tips of the
other fingers on the same hand.

 Inversion and eversion. To invert the

foot, turn the sole medially. To evert the
foot, turn the sole laterally.

Interactions of the Skeletal Muscles

of the Body
 Groups of muscles that produce
opposite movements lie on opposite sides
of a joint.
 The muscle that has the major
responsibility for causing a particular
movement is called the prime mover.
 Muscles that oppose or reverse a
 Supination and pronation. The terms movement are antagonists.
supination (“turning backward”) and  Antagonists can be prime movers in
pronation (“turning forward”) refer to their own right.
movements of the radius around the ulna.  Synergists help prime movers by
Supination occurs when the forearm producing the same movement or by
rotates laterally so that the palm faces reducing undesirable movements. When a
anteriorly and the radius and ulna are muscle crosses two or more joints, its
parallel. Pronation occurs when the contraction will cause movement in all the
forearm rotates medially so that the palm joints crossed unless synergists are there
faces posteriorly. Pronation brings the to stabilize them.
radius across the ulna so that the two Example: You can make a fist without
bones form an X. A helpful memory trick: If bending your wrist because synergist
you lift a cup of soup up to your mouth on muscles stabilize the wrist joints and allow
your palm, you are supinating (“soup”- the prime mover to act on the finger
inating). joints.
 Fixators are specialized synergists.
They hold a bone still or stabilize the
origin of a prime mover so all the tension
can be used to move the insertion bone.
The postural muscles that stabilize the
vertebral column are fixators, as are the
muscles that anchor the scapulae to the
thorax.

NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES

 Direction of the muscle fibers. When
a muscle’s name includes the term rectus
 Opposition. In the palm of the hand, (straight), its fibers run parallel to that
the saddle joint between metacarpal 1 and imaginary line. For example, the rectus
the carpals allows opposition of the femoris is the straight muscle of the thigh,
thumb. This is the action by which you or femur. The term oblique as part of a
muscle’s name tells you that the muscle

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

73
fibers run obliquely (at a slant) to the
imaginary line.
Relative size of the muscle. Such
terms as maximus (largest), minimus
(smallest), and longus (long) are
sometimes used in the names of muscles
—for example, the gluteus maximus is the
largest muscle of the gluteus muscle
group.
Location of the muscle. Some
muscles are named for the bone with
which they are associated. For example,
the temporalis and frontalis muscles
overlie the temporal and frontal bones of
the skull, respectively.  The pattern is circular when the
 Number of origins. When the term fascicles are arranged in concentric rings.
biceps, triceps, or quadriceps forms part of Circular muscles are typically found
a muscle name, you can assume that the surrounding external body openings which
muscle has two, three, or four origins, they close by contracting. A general term
respectively. For example, the biceps for such muscles is sphincters
muscle of the arm has two heads, or (“squeezers”). Examples are the
origins, and the triceps muscle has three. orbicularis muscles surrounding the eyes
 Location of the muscle’s origin and and mouth.
insertion. Occasionally, muscles are
named for their attachment sites. For
example, the sternocleidomastoid muscle
has its origin on the sternum (sterno) and
clavicle (cleido) and inserts on the mastoid
process of the temporal bone.
Shape of the muscle. Some muscles
have a distinctive shape that helps to  Convergent muscle, the fascicles
identify them. For example, the deltoid converge toward a single insertion tendon.
muscle is roughly triangular (deltoid Such a muscle is triangular or fan-shaped,
means “triangular”). such as the pectoralis major muscle of the
Action of the muscle. When muscles anterior thorax.
are named for their actions, terms such as
flexor, extensor, and adductor appear in
their names. For example, the adductor
muscles of the thigh all bring about its
adduction, and the extensor muscles of
the wrist all extend the wrist.
 Parallel arrangement, the length of
the fascicles run parallel to the long axis of
Arrangements of Fascicles the muscle. These muscles are straplike.
 Skeletal muscles consist of fascicles.

Fusiform is a modification of the

parallel arrangement results in a spindle-
shaped muscle with an expanded belly

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

74
(midsection), such as the biceps brachii runs from the cranial
muscle of the arm. aponeurosis to the skin of
the eyebrows, where it
inserts. This muscle allows
you to raise your
eyebrows, as in surprise,
and to wrinkle your
forehead.
At the posterior end of
the cranial aponeurosis is
 Pennate (“feather”) pattern, short the small occipitalis
fascicles attach obliquely to a central muscle, which covers the
tendon. In the extensor digitorum muscle posterior aspect of the skull
of the leg, the fascicles insert into only and pulls the scalp
one side of the tendon and the muscle is posteriorly.
unipennate. Orbiculari The orbicularis oculi has
 If the fascicles insert into opposite sides s Oculi fibers that run in circles
of the tendon or from several different around the eyes.
sides, the muscle is bipennate or It allows you to close your
multipennate. eyes, squint, blink, and
wink.
Orbiculari The orbicularis oris is the
s Oris circular muscle of the lips.
Because it closes the
mouth and protrudes the
lips, it is often called the
“kissing” muscle.
Buccinato The fleshy buccinator
r muscle runs horizontally
across the cheek and
inserts into the orbicularis
oris.
It flattens the cheek.
It is also listed as a
chewing muscle because
it compresses the cheek to
Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles hold the food between the
Facial Muscles teeth during chewing.
Zygomati The zygomaticus extends
cus from the corner of the
mouth to the cheekbone.
It is often referred to as
the “smiling” muscle
because it raises the
corners of the mouth
upward.
Chewing Muscles
Masseter the masseter covers the
angle of the lower jaw.
This muscle closes the
jaw by elevating the
mandible.
Name Description
Temporali The temporalis is a fan-
Frontalis The frontalis, which
s shaped muscle overlying
covers the frontal bone,
the temporal bone.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

75
 It inserts into the  Those that move the vertebral
mandible and acts as a column (most of which are
synergist of the posterior antigravity muscles);
masseter in closing the  Anterior thorax muscles, which
jaw. move the ribs, head, and arms;
 Muscles of the abdominal wall,
Neck Muscles which help to move the
which move the head and shoulder vertebral column.
girdle, are small and strap-like. Anterior Muscles
Platysma The platysma is a
single sheet-like
muscle that covers
the anterolateral
neck.
It originates from
the connective tissue
covering of the chest
muscles and inserts
into the area around
the mouth.
Its action is to pull
the corners of the
mouth inferiorly,
producing a Pectoralis The pectoralis major is
downward sag of the Major a large fan-shaped
mouth (the “sad muscle covering the
clown” face). upper part of the chest.
Sternocleidoma The paired  Its origin is from the
stoid sternocleidomastoid sternum, shoulder girdle,
muscles are two- and the first six ribs.
headed muscles, one It inserts on the
found on each side of proximal end of the
the neck. humerus.
Of the two heads of This muscle forms the
each muscle, one anterior wall of the axilla
arises from the and acts to adduct and
sternum and the flex the arm.
other arises from the Intercostal The intercostal
clavicle. Muscles muscles are deep
When both muscles found between
sternocleidomastoid the ribs.
muscles contract The external
together, they flex intercostals are
your neck. important in breathing
because they help to
raise the rib cage
Homeostatic Imbalance when you inhale.
One of the sternocleidomastoid muscles The internal
may be injured and develop spasms. A intercostals, which lie
baby injured in this way has torticollis, or deep to the external
wryneck. intercostals, depress the
rib cage, helping to
Trunk Muscles move air out of the
The trunk muscles include: lungs when you
exhale forcibly.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

76
 external obliques.
Muscles of the Abdominal Girdle Transversus The transversus
The anterior abdominal muscles abdominis abdominis is the deepest
(rectus abdominis, external and internal muscle of the abdominal
obliques, and transversus abdominis) wall and has fibers that
form a natural “girdle” that reinforces run horizontally across
the body trunk. the abdomen.
The abdominal muscles form a It arises from the lower
muscular wall that is well suited for its ribs and iliac crest and
job of containing and protecting the inserts into the pubis.
abdominal contents. This muscle
Rectus The paired straplike compresses the
abdominis rectus abdominis abdominal contents.
muscles are the most
superficial muscles of Posterior Muscles
the abdomen.
They run from the
pubis to the rib cage,
enclosed in an
aponeurosis.
Their main function is
to flex the vertebral
column.
They also compress
the abdominal contents
during defecation and
childbirth and are
involved in forced
breathing.
External The external oblique
oblique muscles are paired
superficial muscles that
makeup the lateral walls Trapeziu The trapezius muscles are
of the abdomen. s the most superficial muscles
Their fibers run of the posterior neck and
downward and medially upper trunk.
from the last eight ribs They form a diamond- or
and insert into the ilium. kite-shaped muscle mass.
They flex the Each muscle runs from the
vertebral column, but occipital bone of the skull
they also rotate the down the vertebral column to
trunk and bend it the end of the thoracic
laterally. vertebrae.
The trapezius muscles
Internal The internal oblique
extend the head (thus they
oblique muscles are paired
are antagonists of the
muscles deep to the
sternocleidomastoids).
external obliques.
They also can elevate,
Their fibers run at right
depress, adduct, and
angles to those of the
stabilize the scapula.
external obliques.
They arise from the Latissim  The latissimus dorsi
iliac crest and insert into us Dorsi muscles are the two large,
the last three ribs. flat muscles that cover the
Their functions are the lower back.
same as those of the They originate on the lower

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

77
 spine and ilium and then
sweep superiorly to insert
into the proximal end of the
humerus.
Each latissimus dorsi
extends and adducts the
humerus.
These are very important
muscles when the arm must
be brought down in a power The origin of each deltoid
stroke, as when swimming or winds across the shoulder
striking a blow. girdle from the spine of the
Erector  The erector spinae group scapula to the clavicle.
Spinae is the prime mover of back The deltoids are the prime
extension. movers of arm abduction.
These paired muscles are
deep muscles of the back. Muscles of the Upper Limb
Each erector spinae is a  The upper limb muscles fall into three
composite muscle consisting groups:
of three muscle columns  The first group includes muscles
(longissimus, iliocostalis, and that arise from the shoulder girdle
spinalis) that collectively and cross the shoulder joint to
span the entire length of the insert into the humerus (pectoralis
vertebral column. major, latissimus dorsi, and
These muscles not only act deltoid).
as powerful back extensors  The second group causes
(“erectors”) but also provide movement at the elbow joint
resistance that helps control (muscles enclose the humerus and
the action of bending over at insert on the forearm bones).
the waist.  The third group includes the
Quadratu  The fleshy quadratus muscles of the forearm, which
s lumborum muscles form part insert on the hand bones and cause
Lumboru of the posterior abdominal their movement. They are thin and
m spindle-shaped.
wall.
Acting separately, each
muscle of the pair flexes the Muscles of the Humerus That Act on
spine laterally. the Forearm
they extend the lumbar  All anterior arm muscles cause elbow
spine. flexion.
These muscles arise from In order of decreasing strength these are
the iliac crests and insert into the brachialis, biceps brachii, and
the upper lumbar vertebrae brachioradialis.
Deltoid  The deltoids are fleshy, Biceps  It originates by two
triangle-shaped muscles that Brachii heads from the shoulder
form the rounded shape of girdle and inserts into the
your shoulders. radial tuberosity.
Because they are so bulky, This muscle is the
they are a favorite injection powerful prime mover for
site when relatively small flexion of the forearm and
amounts of medication (less acts to supinate the
than 5 ml) must be given forearm.
intramuscularly (into  The biceps supinates
muscle). the forearm to turn the
corkscrew and then flexes
the elbow to pull the cork.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

78
 Brachialis The brachialis lies deep
to the biceps muscle and
is as important as the
biceps in elbow flexion.
The brachialis lifts the
ulna as the biceps lifts the
radius.
Brachio  The brachioradialis is a
radialis fairly weak muscle that
arises on the humerus
and inserts into the distal
forearm.
Triceps  The triceps brachii is
Brachii the only muscle fleshing
out the posterior
humerus.
Its three heads arise
from the shoulder girdle
and proximal humerus,
and it inserts into the
olecranon process of the
ulna.
Being the powerful Gluteus  forms most of the
prime mover of elbow Maximus flesh of the buttock.
extension, it is the  It is a powerful hip
antagonist of the biceps extensor that acts to
brachii. bring the thigh in a
This muscle is often straight line with the
called the “boxer’s” pelvis.
muscle because it can Not important in
deliver a straight-arm walking, but most
knockout punch. important muscle for
extending the hip like
Muscles of the Lower Limb climbing stairs and
 They are among the largest, strongest when jumping.
muscles in the body and are specialized It originates from the
for walking and balancing the body. sacrum and iliac
 The terms origin and insertion are bones and inserts on
often interchangeable in referring to these the gluteal
muscles. tuberosity of the
 Muscles acting on the thigh are femur and into the
massive muscles that help hold the body large tendinous
upright against the pull of gravity and iliotibial tract.
cause various movements at the hip joint. Gluteus  The gluteus medius
Medius runs from the ilium to
Muscles Causing Movement at the Hip the femur, beneath the
Joint gluteus maximus.
it is a hip abductor
and is important in
steadying the pelvis
during walking.
 important site for
giving intramuscular
injections, particularly
when more than 5 ml is

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

79
 administered. flexion.
 The superolateral Their name comes from
quadrant then the fact that butchers use
overlies the gluteus their tendons to hang hams
medius muscle, which (consisting of thigh and hip
is usually a very safe muscles) for smoking.
site for an Sartorius  it is the most superficial
intramuscular injection. muscle of the thigh.
Iliopsoas  it is a fused muscle  It runs obliquely across
composed of two the thigh from the anterior
muscles, the iliacus iliac crest to the medial side
and the psoas major. of the tibia.
It runs from the iliac It is a weak thigh flexor.
bone and lower  commonly referred to as
vertebrae deep inside the “tailor’s” muscle
the pelvis to insert on because it acts as a
the lesser trochanter of synergist to bring about the
the femur. cross-legged position in
It is a prime mover of which old-time tailors are
hip flexion. often shown.
It also acts to keep Quadrice  Consists of four muscles—
the upper body from ps Group the rectus femoris and
falling backward when three vastus muscles—
we are standing erect. that flesh out the anterior
Adductor it forms the muscle thigh.
Muscles mass at the medial side  The vastus muscles
of each thigh. originate from the femur.
 they adduct, or The rectus femoris
press, the thighs originates on the pelvis.
together.  All four muscles insert into
 Special exercises are the tibial tuberosity via the
usually needed to keep patellar ligament.
them toned.  The group as a whole acts
The adductors have to extend the knee
their origin on the powerfully, as when kicking a
pelvis and insert on the football.
proximal aspect of the  Because the rectus
femur. femoris crosses two joints,
the hip and the knee, it can
Muscles Causing Movement at the also help to flex the hip.
Knee Joint The vastus lateralis and
Hamstri Muscles forming the rectus femoris are
ng muscle mass of the posterior sometimes used as
Group thigh. intramuscular injection sites,
 The group consists of particularly in infants, who
three muscles, the biceps have poorly developed
femoris, gluteus muscles.
semimembranosus, and
semitendinosus, which Muscles Causing Movement at the
originate on the ischial Ankle and Foot
tuberosity and run down the
thigh to insert on both sides
of the proximal tibia.
 They are prime movers of
thigh extension and knee

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

80
 one from each side of
the distal femur, and
inserts through the large
calcaneal (Achilles)
tendon into the heel of
the foot.
It is a prime mover for
plantar flexion of the
foot; for this reason it is
often called the “toe
dancer’s” muscle.
 If its insertion tendon
is cut, walking is very
difficult.
Soleus  Deep to the
gastrocnemius is the
Tibialis The tibialis anterior is fleshy soleus muscle.
Anterior a superficial muscle on  Because it arises on
the anterior leg. the tibia and fibula
It arises from the (rather than the femur),
upper tibia and then it does not affect knee
parallels the anterior movement, but like the
crest as it runs to the gastrocnemius, it inserts
tarsal bones, where it into the calcaneal
inserts by a long tendon. tendon and is a strong
 It acts to dorsiflex and plantar flexor of the foot.
invert the foot.
Extensor  Lateral to the tibialis
Digitorum anterior, the extensor
Longus digitorum longus muscle
arises from the lateral
tibial condyle and
proximal three-quarters
of the fibula and inserts
into the phalanges of
toes 2 to 5.
It is a prime mover of
toe extension.
Fibularis  The three fibularis
Muscles muscles— longus,
brevis, and tertius—
are found on the lateral
part of the leg.
They arise from the
fibula and insert into the
metatarsal bones of the
foot.
 The group as a whole
plantar flexes and everts
the foot.
Gastrocnemi  is a two-bellied
us muscle that forms the
curved calf of the
posterior leg.
It arises by two heads,

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

81
 Developmental Aspects of the
Muscular System
Homeostatic Imbalance
 Muscular dystrophy—a group of
inherited muscle-destroying diseases that
affect specific muscle groups. The muscles
enlarge because of fat and connective

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

82
tissue deposit, but the muscle fibers
degenerate and atrophy.
 Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy
 common for boys
 Diagnosed between the ages of 2
and 7 years.
 normal-appearing children become
clumsy and fall frequently as their
muscles weaken.
 It uses its millions of sensory
 The disease progresses from the
receptors to monitor changes
extremities upward, finally
occurring both inside and outside
affecting the head and chest
the body. These changes are called
muscles.
stimuli, and the gathered
 Children with this disease rarely
information is called sensory
live beyond their early twenties
input.
and generally die of respiratory
 It processes and interprets the
failure.
sensory input and decides what
 The diseased muscle fibers lack a
should be done at each moment—a
protein (called dystrophin) that
process called integration.
helps maintain the sarcolemma.
 It then effects, or causes, a
 Myasthenia gravis (asthen =
response by activating muscles or
weakness; gravi = heavy).
glands (effectors) via motor
 a disease characterized by
output.
drooping of the upper eyelids,
difficulty in swallowing and talking,
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
and generalized muscle weakness
and fatigability.
 The disease involves a shortage of
acetylcholine receptors at
neuromuscular junctions.
 The blood of many of these
patients contains antibodies to
acetylcholine receptors, which
suggests that myasthenia gravis is
an autoimmune disease.
 Death usually occurs as a result of
the respiratory failure.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
NERVOUS SYSTEM  Central nervous system (CNS)
OVERVIEW consists of the brain and spinal cord,
 The nervous system is the master which occupy the dorsal body cavity and
controlling and communicating system of act as the integrating and command
the body. centers of the nervous system. They
 The nervous system controls with interpret incoming sensory information
rapid electrical nerve impulses. and issue instructions.
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is
Functions the part of the nervous system outside the
CNS. It consists of spinal nerves that

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

83
carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
and cranial nerves that carry impulses to Different Types of Neuroglia
and from the brain. Astrocytes
 Abundant star-shaped cells that account
Functional classification of PNS for nearly half of the neural tissue.
Structures
Sensory Division
 The sensory, or afferent (to go
toward), division consists of nerves
(composed of nerve fibers) that convey
impulses to the central nervous system
from sensory receptors located in various
parts of the body.
 Sensory fibers delivering impulses  Astrocytes form a living barrier
from the skin. Skeletal muscles, and between capillaries and neurons, help
joints are called somatic sensory fibers. determine capillary permeability, and play
Those transmitting impulses from the a role in making exchanges between the
visceral organs are called visceral two.
sensory fibers, or visceral afferents. They help protect the neurons from
harmful substances that might be in the
Motor Division blood.
Motor, or efferent, division carries It helps control the chemical
impulses from the CNS to effector organs, environment in the brain by “mopping up”
the muscles and glands. leaked potassium ions and recapturing
These impulses activate muscles and released neurotransmitters.
glands; that is, they effect (bring about or
cause) a motor response. Microglia
 Motor division in turn has two  Spiderlike phagocytes that monitor the
subdivisions: health of nearby neurons, and dispose of
 Somatic nervous system- allows debris, including dead brain cells and
us to consciously, or voluntarily, bacteria.
control our skeletal muscles. Refer
as the voluntary nervous
system.
 Autonomic nervous system
(ANS) - regulates events that are
automatic, or involuntary, such as
the activity of smooth and cardiac
muscles and glands. This
subdivision, commonly called the
involuntary nervous system,
itself has two parts, the
sympathetic and parasympathetic.
Ependymal Cells
NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND Glial cells that line the central cavities of
FUNCTION the brain and the spinal cord.
 Nervous tissue is made up of just two The beating of their cilia helps to
principal types of cells—supporting cells circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills
and neurons. those cavities and forms a protective
cushion around the CNS.
Supporting Cells OF CNS
 Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped
together” as neuroglia, literally, “nerve
glue,” also simply called either glia or glial
cells.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

84
 Oligodendrocytes
Glia that wrap their flat extensions
(processes) tightly around the nerve
fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings
called myelin sheaths.

Supporting cells in the PNS

Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths
around nerve fibers that are found in the
PNS. Cell Body
Satellite cells act as protective,  Cell body is the metabolic center of
cushioning cells. the neuron.
 The rough ER, called Nissl bodies, and
neurofibrils (intermediate filaments that
are important in maintaining cell shape)
are particularly abundant in the cell body.

Processes
 Dendrites convey incoming messages
towards the cell body
 Axon generate nerve impulses
NEURONS (anatomy) conducting them away from the cell body
 Neurons, also called nerve cells, are  Neuron has only one axon, which arises
highly specialized to transmit messages from a cone-like region of the cell body
(nerve impulses) from one part of the called the axon hillock.
body to another.  The axon terminals contain hundreds of
 Constitute the primary functional and tiny vesicles, or membranous sacs, that
anatomic unit of the nervous system. contain chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
 Axons transmit nerve impulses away
from the cell body. When these impulses
reach the axon terminals, they stimulate
the release of neurotransmitters into the
extracellular space.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

85
 Each axon terminal is separated from  Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune
the next neuron by a tiny gap called the disease in which a protein component of
synaptic cleft. the sheath is attacked.
Such a functional junction is called a  In people with multiple sclerosis (MS),
synapse. the myelin sheaths around the fibers are
gradually destroyed, converted to
Myelin Sheaths hardened sheaths called scleroses.
 Long nerve fibers are covered with a
whitish, fatty material called myelin, Terminology
which has a waxy appearance.  Cell bodies are found in the CNS in
 Myelin protects and insulates the fibers clusters called nuclei.
and increases the transmission rate of  Small collections of cell bodies called
nerve impulses. ganglia are found in the PNS.
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron
processes) running through the CNS are
called tracts.
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron
processes) running through the PNS they
are called nerves.
White matter consists of dense
collections of myelinated fibers (tracts).
Gray matter contains mostly
unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON
Functional Classification
 Functional classification groups
neurons according to the direction the
nerve impulse is traveling relative to the
CNS.
There are three category of neurons:
 Sensory neurons
Explanation: Relationship of Schwann  Motor neurons
cells to axons in the peripheral  Interneurons or Association neuron
nervous system. Schwann cell envelops  Sensory, or afferent, neurons are
part of an axon in a trough and then carrying impulses from sensory receptors
rotates around the axon. Most of the (in the internal organs or the skin) to the
Schwann cell cytoplasm comes to lie just CNS.
beneath the exposed part of its plasma  Dendrite endings of the sensory
membrane. The tight coil of plasma neurons are usually associated with
membrane material surrounding the axon specialized receptors.
is the myelin sheath. The Schwann cell  The simpler types of sensory receptors
cytoplasm and exposed membrane are in the skin are cutaneous sense organs,
referred to as the neurilemma. and those in the muscles and tendons are
 Because the myelin sheath is formed by proprioceptors.
many individual Schwann cells, it has  The pain receptors are also called
gaps, or indentations, called nodes of nociceptors are the least specialized of
Ranvier, at regular intervals. the cutaneous receptors.
 Myelinated fibers are also found in
the central nervous system.
 There it is oligodendrocytes that form
CNS myelin sheaths.

Homeostatic Imbalance of Myelin

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

86
2

 Neurons with two processes—an axon

and a dendrite—are called bipolar
neurons. It is found only in some special
sense organs (eye, nose), where they act
in sensory processing as receptor cells.

Unipolar neurons have a single

process emerging from the cell body.
Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia are
unipolar.

 Proprioceptors detect the amount of

stretch, or tension, in skeletal muscles,
their tendons, and joints. They send this
information to the brain so that the proper
adjustments can be made to maintain
balance and normal posture. Physiology: Nerve Impulses
 Propria comes from the Latin word  Neurons have two major functional
meaning “one’s own,” and the properties:
proprioceptors constantly advise our  Irritability, the ability to respond
brain of our own movements. to a stimulus and convert it into a
 Neurons carrying impulses from the nerve impulse.
CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and  Conductivity, the ability to
glands are motor, or efferent, neurons. transmit the impulse to other
 Interneurons, or association neurons, muscles, or glands.
neurons connect the motor and sensory
neurons in neural pathways. Their cell Electrical Conditions of a Resting
bodies are typically located in the CNS. Neuron’s Membrane
 The plasma membrane of a resting, or
Structural Classification inactive, neuron is polarized, which
 Structural classification is based on the means that there are fewer positive ions
number of processes extending from the sitting on the inner face of the neuron’s
cell body. plasma membrane than there are on its
 The neuron is a multipolar neuron. outer face.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

87
 Action Potential Initiation and
Generation
 This inward rush of sodium ions
changes the polarity of the neuron’s
 Until repolarization occurs, a neuron
membrane at that site, an event called
cannot conduct another impulse.
depolarization.
After repolarization occurs, the initial
concentrations of the sodium and
potassium ions inside and outside the
neuron are restored by activation of the
sodium-potassium pump.

 The inside is now more positive, and the

outside is less positive, a local electrical
situation called a graded potential.
 If the stimulus is strong enough and the
sodium influx is great enough, the local
depolarization (graded potential)
activates the neuron to initiate and  This pump uses ATP (cellular energy) to
transmit a long-distance signal called an pump excess sodium ions out of the cell
action potential, also called a nerve and to bring potassium ions back into it.
impulse in neurons.  This faster type of electrical impulse
propagation is called saltatory
conduction (saltare = to dance or leap).

Homeostatic Imbalance of Impulse

Conduction
 Sedatives and anesthetics block
nerve impulses by altering membrane
permeability to ions, mainly sodium ions.
 Cold and continuous pressure hinder
 The nerve impulse is an all-or-none
impulse conduction because they interrupt
response, like firing a gun. It is either
blood circulation (and hence the delivery
propagated (conducted, or sent) over the
of oxygen and nutrients) to the neurons.
entire axon, or it doesn’t happen at all.
Transmission of the Signal at
Synapses
 When the action potential reaches an
axon terminal, the electrical change opens
calcium channels.

 This outflow of positive ions from the

cell restores the electrical conditions at
the membrane to the polarized, or resting,
state, an event called repolarization.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

88
 stimulated by a neurotransmitter, which is
a chemical.

Physiology: Reflexes
 Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to stimuli.
 Reflexes occur over neural pathways
called reflex arcs and involve both CNS
and PNS structures.
 Two types of reflexes are somatic or
 Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny autonomic reflexes.
vesicles containing the neurotransmitter  Somatic reflexes include all reflexes
chemical to fuse with the axonal that stimulate the skeletal muscles.
membrane and pore-like openings form, Example, when you quickly pull your hand
releasing the transmitter. away from a hot object.
 The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse  Autonomic reflexes regulate the
across the synapse and bind to receptors activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and
on the membrane of the next neuron. glands. Autonomic reflexes regulate such
body functions as digestion, elimination,
blood pressure, and sweating.
 All reflex arcs have a minimum of five
elements:

 If enough neurotransmitter is released,  sensory receptor (which reacts to

the whole series of events described will a stimulus)
occur, leading to generation of a graded  effector organ (the muscle or
potential, and eventually a nerve impulse gland eventually stimulated)
in the neuron beyond the synapse.  sensory neurons
 motor neurons
 integration center (synapse or
interneurons between the sensory
and motor neurons represents the
central element).
 The simple patellar, or knee-jerk,
reflex is an example of a two-neuron
reflex arc, the simplest type in humans.
 The patellar reflex is the quadriceps
The electrical changes prompted by
muscle attached to the hit tendon is
neurotransmitter binding are very brief
stretched. It is usually tested during a
because the neurotransmitter is quickly
physical exam.
removed from the synapse, either by
diffusion away, by reuptake into the axon
terminal, or by enzymatic breakdown.
 Notice that the transmission of an
impulse is an electrochemical event.
Transmission down the length of the
neuron’s membrane is basically
electrical, but the next neuron is

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

89
  The entire surface of the cerebral
 The flexor, or withdrawal, reflex, is a hemispheres exhibits elevated ridges of
three-neuron reflex arc in which the limb is tissue called gyri, separated by shallow
withdrawn from a painful stimulus. grooves called sulci.
Less numerous are the deeper grooves
called fissures, which separate large
regions of the brain.

 The three-neuron reflex arc consists

of five elements—receptor, sensory
neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and
effector.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 During embryonic development, the
CNS first appears as a simple tube, the
neural tube.
 By the fourth week, the anterior end of  The cerebral hemispheres are
the neural tube begins to expand, and separated by a single deep fissure, the
brain formation begins. longitudinal fissure.
 The central canal of the neural tube, Other fissures or sulci divide each
which is continuous between the brain and cerebral hemisphere into a number of
spinal cord, becomes enlarged in four lobes.
regions of the brain to form chambers
called ventricles.

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

 Four major regions—cerebral
hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem,
and cerebellum.

Cerebral Hemispheres
 Cerebrum are the most superior part
of the brain and together are a good deal
larger than the other three brain regions
combined.  Each cerebral hemisphere has three
basic regions:
 a superficial cortex of gray matter,
which looks gray in fresh brain
tissue
 an internal area of white matter

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

90
  basal nuclei, islands of gray  Spatial map is called the sensory
matter situated deep within the homunculus used to show how much
white matter. tissue in the primary somatic sensory area
is devoted to various sensory functions.
Cerebral Cortex
 Functions of neurons of the cerebral
cortex are:
 Speech
 Memory
 logical and emotional response
 consciousness
 interpretation of sensation
 voluntary movement

 Most sensory receptors— the lips and

fingertips.
 The sensory pathways are crossed
pathways—meaning that the left side of
the primary somatic sensory area receives
impulses from the right side of the body,
and vice versa.
 The visual area is located in the
posterior part of the occipital lobe.
The auditory area is in the temporal
lobe bordering the lateral sulcus.
The olfactory area is found deep inside
the temporal lobe.
 Primary motor area, which allows us
to consciously move our skeletal muscles,
is anterior to the central sulcus in the
frontal lobe.
 The axons of these motor neurons form
the major voluntary motor tract—the
corticospinal or pyramidal tract.
 The body map on the motor cortex is
called the motor homunculus.
 Broca’s area is a cortical area that is
very involved in our ability to speak and is
found at the base of the precentral
gyrus (the gyrus anterior to the central
sulcus).
 Anterior association area is the area
involved in higher intellectual reasoning
and socially acceptable behavior are
believed to be in the anterior part of the
frontal lobes.
 The primary somatic sensory area is  Posterior association area plays a
located in the parietal lobe posterior to the role in recognizing patterns and faces, and
central sulcus. It allows you to recognize blending several different inputs into an
pain, coldness, or a light touch. understanding of the whole situation.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

91
 Speech area is located at the junction aphasia, expressive aphasia
of the temporal, parietal, and occipital ) – 3rd frontal convolution
lobes. It allows you to sound out words.
 The frontal lobes house areas PARIETAL LOBE (BRODMANN’S
involved with language comprehension AREA)
(word meanings). a. Area Aka: post-central gyrus
 The cell bodies of neurons involved in 3,1,2 Fxn: localization and
the cerebral hemisphere functions named (primary sensory perception – Pain
above are found only in the outermost sensory and temperature
gray matter of the cerebrum, the area) Lesion:
cerebral cortex. Hemianesthesia
BRODMANN’S AREAS b. Area 5, 7  Aka: sensory
(secondary association area.
sensory/ Fxn: interprets
somesthetic sensation perceived by
area) area 3,1,2 except for pain
and temp.
Sensations:
 Stereognosis:
palpatory sense
 Kinesthesia:
movement sense
 Proprioception:
position sense
FRONTAL LOBE (BRODMANN’S  Graphesthesia:
AREA) ability to identify
a. Area 4 Aka: Precentral gyrus what is written/
(primary Resp. for the execution traced on the skin
motor of the motor fxn on the C/L c. Area 39  Fxn: naming, reading,
area ) of the body. (Angular writing, mathematical
Lesion: Flaccidity Gyrus ) ability, R and L
b. Area 6 Aka : secondary motor orientation
(Premotor area, motor association Lesion : Anomia,
area ) area Gertsmann Syndrome
Fxns: motor planning, d. Area 40 Fxn: tactile perception,
initiation of mov’t. (Supramarg language perception.
coordination inal Gyrus ) Lesion: tactile agnosia,
Lesion: Tremor, ideomotor apraxia.
incoordination, spasticity – e. Area 43  fxn: taste area
C/L (Gustatory Lesion : Ageusia
c. Area 8: For conjugate eye mov’t area)
Frontal Lesion: frontal gaze
eye field pattern OCCIPITAL LOBE (BRODMANN’S
d. Area 9,  Fxn: “seat of AREA)
10, 11, 12 intelligence”, personality & A. Area 17 Aka: Striate Cortex
(Prefront behavior. (Primary Fxn: Vision
al areas) Lesion: changes in Visual area) Lesion: C/L
personality and behavior homonymous
e. Area  Associated with praxis of hemianopsia, Cortical
44, 45 speech Blindness – Bilateral lesion
(Broca’s Motor speech area B. Area 18,  Aka: Visual association
Area ) Lesion: Broca’s aphasia ( 19 area/ parastriate cortex.
anterior aphasia, motor (Secondary Interprets images
aphasia, non-fluent Visual perceived by brodmanns
Area ) area 17

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

92
 Lesion:
 18, 19 : visual
agnosia
 18 : color agnosia,
dyschromatopsia,
alexia without
agraphia

TEMPORAL LOBE (BRODMANN’S

AREA)
a. Area 41,  Aka: Heschl’s gyrus
42 Hearing sensation
( Primary Lesion:
auditory  Unilateral: C/L
area ) deafness
 Bilateral : cortical
deafness / pure
word deafness
b. Area 22  R 22 – Auditory White Matter Nerve Matters
– loc: post. Association Area Commissu  Connects the
surface of  Interprets sound ral Fibers corresponding regions of
the sup. other than the 2 cerebral
temporal language hemispheres.
gyrus  Lesion : auditory  Connects the R and L
agnosia Cerebral hemispheres
 L 22 – Wernicke’s (CORPUS CALLOSUM).
Area  Lesions may result
 Interprets problem with bimanual task
language imitation, ideational
 Wernickes aphasia apraxia.
(sensory aphasia, Associatio Connects various cortical
fluent aphasia, n Fibers region within the same
receptive aphasia ) hemisphere.
Projection Connects cerebral cortex
Cerebral White Matter Fibers with the lower portion of
 The deeper cerebral white matter is the brain and spinal cord.
composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses
to, from, or within the cortex. Types:
 Corpus callosum, connects the Corticopetal – towards
cerebral hemispheres. Corticofugal – away from
Corticospinal tracts,
Spinothalamic tract.

Basal Nuclei
 There are several “islands” of gray
matter, called the basal nuclei, or basal
ganglia, buried deep within the white
matter of the cerebral hemispheres.
It helps regulate voluntary motor
activities by modifying instructions
(particularly in relation to starting or
stopping movement) sent to the skeletal
muscles by the primary motor cortex.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

93
A tight band of projection fibers, called
the internal capsule, passes between
the thalamus and the basal nuclei.

Limbic System
Hippocamp Short term memory > long
us term memory.
Amygdala Considered to be involved
Diencephalon primarily in fear and other
 Diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop emotions related to
the brain stem and is enclosed by the aversive (unpleasant)
cerebral hemispheres. stimuli.
 The major structures of the Cingulate Responsible for focusing
diencephalon are the thalamus, Gyrus attention on emotionally
hypothalamus, and epithalamus. significant events, and for
 Thalamus, which encloses the shallow associating memories to
third ventricle of the brain, is a relay smells and to pain.
station for sensory impulses passing
Hypothala One of the busiest parts of
upward to the sensory cortex. It gives
mus the brain, and is mainly
crude awareness of pain.
concerned with
homeostasis.

It regulates the pituitary gland (an

endocrine organ) and produces two
hormones of its own.
The pituitary gland hangs from the
anterior floor of the hypothalamus by a
slender stalk.
 Mammillary bodies, reflex centers
involved in olfaction (the sense of smell),
bulge from the floor of the hypothalamus
posterior to the pituitary gland.
 Epithalamus forms the roof of the third
ventricle. Important parts of the
 Hypothalamus plays a role in the
epithalamus are the pineal gland (part of
regulation of body temperature, water
the endocrine system) and the choroid
balance, and metabolism.
plexus of the third ventricle.
It is also the center for many drives and
The choroid plexuses, knots of
emotions, and as such it is an important
capillaries within each ventricle, form the
part of the so-called limbic system, or
cerebrospinal fluid.
“emotional visceral brain.”
Brain Stem
 Brain stem is about the size of a
thumb in diameter and approximately 3
inches (approximately 7.5 cm) long.
 Its structures are the mid-brain, pons,
and medulla oblongata.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

94
 control, sleep and wake cycles,
alertness, and temperature
regulation.
Pons
 serve an especially critical role in
generating the respiratory rhythm of
breathing.
Active functioning of the pons may also
be fundamental to rapid eye movement
(REM) sleep.
 Pons is the rounded structure that
protrudes just below the midbrain.
Pons means “bridge,” and this area of
the brain stem is mostly fiber tracts.

Medulla Oblongata
 It is essential for regulating your
cardiovascular and respiratory
systems.
 It merges into the spinal cord below
without any obvious change in structure.
Medulla is an important fiber tract area.
It is the area where the important
pyramidal tracts cross over to the opposite
side.
Brain Development
It contains many nuclei that regulate
vital visceral activities.
It contains centers that control heart
rate, blood pressure, breathing,
swallowing, and vomiting, among others.
 Fourth ventricle lies posterior to the
pons and medulla and anterior to the
cerebellum.

Reticular Formation
 Extending the entire length of the brain
stem is a diffuse mass of gray matter, the
Mid-brain
reticular formation.
 Mid-brain is a relatively small part of
 The neurons of the reticular formation
the brain stem.
are involved in motor control of the
 The cerebral aqueduct, a tiny canal
visceral organs.
that travels through the midbrain,
 Reticular activating system (RAS),
connects the third ventricle of the
plays a role in consciousness and the
diencephalon to the fourth ventricle below.
awake/sleep cycle.
 Midbrain is composed primarily of two
bulging fiber tracts, the cerebral
peduncles, which convey ascending and
descending impulses.
Dorsally located are four rounded
protrusions called the corpora
quadrigemina.
These two are reflex centers involved
with vision and hearing.
 The midbrain (mesencephalon) is
associated with vision, hearing, motor

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

95
It also acts as a filter for the flood of
sensory inputs that streams up the spinal
cord and brain stem daily.

Cerebellum

 “little brain”
 Cauliflower-like cerebellum
(neocerebellum) projects dorsally from
under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
 It has two hemispheres and a
convoluted surface.
The cerebellum also has an outer cortex  Dura mater, meaning “tough or hard
made up of gray matter and an inner mother,” is a double-layered membrane
region of white matter. where it surrounds the brain.
It provides the precise timing for skeletal  Meningeal layer, forms the outermost
muscle activity and controls our balance covering of the brain and continues as the
and equilibrium. dura mater of the spinal cord.
 Cerebellum sends messages to initiate  The falx cerebri and the tentorium
the appropriate corrective measures. cerebelli, separate the cerebellum from
 This part of the brain is responsible for the cerebrum.
coordinating voluntary movements. It is  Middle meningeal layer is the web-like
also responsible for a number of functions arachnoid mater.
including motor skills such as balance,  Its threadlike extensions span the
coordination, and posture. subarachnoid space to attach it to the
innermost membrane, the pia mater.
Homeostatic Imbalance of Cerebellum  Subarachnoid space is filled with
 If the cerebellum is damaged (for cerebrospinal fluid.
example, by a blow to the head, a tumor,  Specialized projections of the arachnoid
or a stroke), movements become clumsy membrane, arachnoid villi, protrude
and disorganized—a condition called through the dura mater.
ataxia. The cerebrospinal fluid is absorbed into
the venous blood in the dural sinuses
through the arachnoid villi.

Protection of the Central Nervous Homeostatic Imbalance of Meninges

System  Meningitis, an inflammation of the
Meninges meninges, is a serious threat to the brain
because bacterial or viral meningitis may
spread into the nervous tissue of the CNS.
 Brain inflammation is called
encephalitis.
 Meningitis is usually diagnosed by
taking a sample of cerebrospinal fluid from
the subarachnoid space.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

96
 increases in size. This is possible in an
infant because the skull bones have not
Cerebrospinal Fluid yet fused.
CSF is a watery “broth” similar in its
makeup to blood plasma, from which it
forms.
It contains less protein and more vitamin
C.
 Formed from blood by the choroid
plexuses.
Choroid plexuses are clusters of
capillaries hanging from the “roof” in each
The Blood-Brain Barrier
of the brain’s ventricles.
 Neurons are kept separated from blood-
It protects the fragile nervous tissue
borne substances by the blood-brain
from blows and other trauma.
barrier, composed of the least permeable
capillaries in the whole body.
 Only water, glucose, and essential
amino acids pass easily through the walls
of these capillaries.
 Metabolic wastes, such as urea, toxins,
proteins, and most drugs, are prevented
from entering the brain tissue.
 Blood-brain barrier is virtually useless
against fats, respiratory gases, and other
fat-soluble molecules, which is why blood-
borne alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics
can affect the brain.

BRAIN DYSFUNCTIONS
Homeostatic Imbalance
Traumatic Brain Injuries
 Concussion occurs when brain injury is
 It circulates from the two lateral slight. The victim may be dizzy, “see
ventricles (in the cerebral hemispheres) stars,” or lose consciousness briefly, but
into the third ventricle (in the typically little permanent brain damage
diencephalon) and then through the occurs.
cerebral aqueduct of the midbrain into the  Brain contusion is the result of
fourth ventricle dorsal to the pons and marked tissue destruction. It results in a
medulla oblongata. coma lasting from hours to a lifetime due
 The CSF sample for testing is obtained to injury to the reticular activating system.
by a procedure called a lumbar (spinal)  Death may result from intracranial
tap. hemorrhage or cerebral edema (swelling
 Because the withdrawal of fluid for of the brain due to inflammatory response
testing decreases CSF fluid pressure, the to injury).
patient must remain in a horizontal
position (lying down) for 6 to 12 hours Cerebrovascular Accident
after the procedure to prevent an  Commonly called strokes.
agonizingly painful “spinal headache.”  CVAs occur when blood circulation to a
brain area is blocked, as by a blood clot or
Homeostatic Imbalance of CSF a ruptured blood vessel, and vital brain
 Hydrocephalus, literally, “water on the tissue dies.
brain.”  Aphasias are a common result of
Hydrocephalus in a newborn baby damage to the left cerebral hemisphere,
causes the head to enlarge as the brain where the language areas are located.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

97
 Most common type of aphasia is motor Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and
aphasia, which involves damage to Spinal Roots
Broca’s area and a loss of ability to  Gray matter of the spinal cord looks like
speak, and sensory aphasia, in which a a butterfly or the letter H in cross section.
person loses the ability to understand
written or spoken language.
 Temporary brain ischemia, or restriction
of blood flow, is called a transient
ischemic attack (TIA).
 TIA last from 5 to 50 minutes and are
characterized by symptoms such as
numbness, temporary paralysis, and
impaired speech.

SPINAL CHORD
 The pathway for messages sent by the
brain to the body and from the body to the  The gray matter surrounds the central
brain. canal of the cord, which contains CSF are
 Is a glistening white continuation of the the dorsal, or posterior, horns and
brain stem. ventral, or anterior, horns.
It provides a two-way conduction  The cell bodies of the sensory neurons,
pathway to and from the brain, and it is a whose fibers enter the cord by the dorsal
major reflex center (spinal reflexes are root, are found in an enlarged area called
completed at this level). the dorsal root ganglion.
 The ventral horns of the gray matter
contain cell bodies of motor neurons of the
somatic (voluntary) nervous system, which
send their axons out the ventral root of
the cord.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Damage to the ventral root results in a
flaccid paralysis.
 The spinal cord is cushioned and  In flaccid paralysis, nerve impulses do
protected by meninges. not reach the muscles affected; thus, no
 Meningeal sac inferior to that point voluntary movement of those muscles is
provides a nearly ideal spot for removing possible.
CSF for testing. The muscles begin to atrophy because
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the they are no longer stimulated.
cord and exit from the vertebral column.
The collection of spinal nerves at the White Matter of the Spinal Cord
inferior end of the vertebral canal is called  White matter of the spinal cord is
the cauda equine. composed of myelinated fiber tracts.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

98
  Nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers
found outside the CNS.
 Within a nerve, neuron fibers, or
 Because of the irregular shape of gray processes, are wrapped in protective
matter, the white matter on each side of connective tissue coverings.
the cord is divided into three regions—the Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate
dorsal, lateral, and ventral columns. connective tissue sheath, an
 Tracts conducting sensory impulses to endoneurium.
the brain are sensory, or afferent,  Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser
tracts. connective tissue wrapping, the
Those carrying impulses from the brain perineurium, to form fiber bundles, or
to skeletal muscles are motor, or fascicles.
efferent, tracts.  All the fascicles are bound together by a
tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, to
form the cordlike nerve.
 Nerves carrying both sensory and motor
Homeostatic Imbalance fibers are called mixed nerves; all spinal
 If the spinal cord is transected (cut nerves are mixed nerves.
crosswise) or crushed, spastic paralysis Nerves that carry impulses toward the
results. CNS only are called sensory, or afferent,
 If the spinal cord injury occurs high in nerves.
the cord, so that all four limbs are Those that carry only motor fibers are
affected, the individual is a quadriplegic. motor, or efferent, nerves.
If only the legs are paralyzed, the
individual is a paraplegic.
CRANIAL NERVE
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM  12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) serve the head and neck.
consists of nerves and scattered groups of  Most cranial nerves are mixed nerves.
neuronal cell bodies (ganglia) found  The optic, olfactory, and
outside the CNS. vestibulocochlear nerves, are purely
We have already considered one type of sensory in function.
ganglion—the dorsal root ganglion of the  The older name for the
spinal cord. vestibulocochlear nerve is acoustic
nerve, a name that reveals its role in
Structure of the Nerve hearing but not in equilibrium.

NOTE:

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

99
 The first letter of the cranial nerve to be
remembered: “Oh, oh, oh, to touch and
feel very good velvet, ah.”

Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are
formed by the combination of the ventral
and dorsal roots of the spinal cord.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
 Each spinal nerve divides into dorsal
and ventral rami.
 Rami, like the spinal nerves, contain
both motor and sensory fibers.
 Damage to a spinal nerve or either of
its rami results both in loss of sensation
and in flaccid paralysis of the area of the
body served. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The smaller dorsal rami serve the skin  Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is
and muscles of the posterior body trunk. also called involuntary nervous
The ventral rami of spinal nerves T1 system, is the motor subdivision of the
through T12 form the intercostal nerves, PNS that controls body activities
which supply the muscles between the automatically.
ribs and the skin and muscles of the Composed of a group of neurons that
anterior and lateral trunk. regulate cardiac muscle (the heart),
The ventral rami of all other spinal smooth muscles (found in the walls of the
nerves form complex networks of nerves visceral organs and blood vessels), and
called plexuses, which serve the motor glands.
and sensory needs of the limbs.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
  Autonomic nervous system has two
arms, the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic.
 Sympathetic division mobilizes the
body during extreme situations (such as
fear, exercise, or rage)
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous  Parasympathetic division allows us
Systems Compared to “unwind” and conserve energy.
Somatic Autonomic Nervous
Nervous Systems Anatomy of the Parasympathetic
System Division
 the cell bodies  Has a chain of two  Preganglionic neurons of the
of the motor motor neurons: parasympathetic division are located in
neurons are  Preganglionic brain nuclei of several cranial nerves—III,
inside the CNS, neuron, is in the VII, IX, and X and in the S2 through S4
and their axons brain or spinal levels of the spinal cord.
(in spinal nerves) cord.  Parasympathetic division is also called
extend all the  Its axon, the the craniosacral division.
way to the preganglionic  There they synapse with the ganglionic
skeletal muscles axon, leaves the motor neuron in a terminal ganglion.
they serve. CNS to synapse From the terminal ganglion, the
with the second postganglionic axon extends a short
motor neuron in distance to the organ it serves.
a ganglion  In the pelvic cavity, the preganglionic
outside the CNS. axons synapse with the second motor
 The axon of this neurons in terminal ganglia.
ganglionic
neuron, the Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
postganglionic  Sympathetic division is also called the
axon, then thoracolumbar division because its
extends to the preganglionic neurons are in the gray
organ it serves. matter of the spinal cord from T1 through
L2.
 The preganglionic axons leave the cord
in the ventral root, enter the spinal nerve,
and then pass through a ramus
communicans, or small communicating
branch, to enter a sympathetic trunk
ganglion.
 After it reaches the ganglion, the axon
may synapse with the second (ganglionic)

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
neuron in the sympathetic chain at the blood glucose levels; dilates the
same level or a different level, and the bronchioles of the lungs.
postganglionic axon then reenters the  Examples are dilation of blood vessels
spinal nerve to travel to the skin. in skeletal muscles (so that we can run
Or the preganglionic axon may pass faster or fight better) and withdrawal of
through the ganglion without synapsing blood from the digestive organs (so that
and form part of the splanchnic nerves. the bulk of the blood can be used to serve
the heart, brain, and skeletal muscles).
 The effects of sympathetic nervous
system activation continue for several
minutes until its hormones are destroyed
by the liver.
 Sympathetic division generates a
head of steam that enables the body to
cope rapidly and vigorously with situations
that threaten homeostasis.
Its function is to provide the best
conditions for responding to some threat,
whether the best response is to run, to see
better, or to think more clearly.

 The splanchnic nerves travel to the

viscera to synapse with the ganglionic
neuron, found in a collateral ganglion
anterior to the vertebral column.
 The postganglionic axon then leaves
the collateral ganglion and travels to serve
a nearby visceral organ.

Autonomic Functioning
 When both divisions serve the same
organ, they cause antagonistic effects,
Parasympathetic Division
mainly because their postganglionic axons
 The parasympathetic division is most
release different neurotransmitters.
active when the body is at rest and not
The parasympathetic fibers, called
threatened in any way.
cholinergic fibers, release acetylcholine.
 “resting-and-digesting” system, is
The sympathetic postganglionic fibers,
chiefly concerned with promoting normal
called adrenergic fibers, release
digestion, with elimination of feces and
norepinephrine.
urine, and with conserving body energy,
The preganglionic axons of both
particularly by decreasing demands on the
divisions release acetylcholine.
cardiovascular system.
 Blood pressure and heart and
Sympathetic Division
respiratory rates are being regulated at
 “fight-or-flight” system
low normal levels.
 Signs of sympathetic nervous system
 The digestive tract is actively digesting
activity are:
food.
 pounding heart
The skin is warm (indicating that there is
 rapid, deep breathing
no need to divert blood to skeletal muscles
 cold, sweaty skin
or vital organs).
 prickly scalp
The eye pupils are constricted to protect
 dilated eye pupils
the retinas from excessive damaging light,
 The sympathetic nervous system
and the lenses of the eyes are “set” for
increases heart rate, blood pressure, and
close vision.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
It is the “housekeeping” system of the reason is that the sympathetic nervous
body. system is not able to react quickly enough
 Roles of the two ANS divisions is to to counteract the pull of gravity by
think of the parasympathetic division activating the vasoconstrictor fibers, and
as the D (digestion, defecation, and blood pools in the feet.
diuresis [urination]) division and the Orthostatic hypotension can be
sympathetic division as the E (exercise, prevented to some degree if the person
excitement, emergency, and changes position slowly.
embarrassment) division.  Arteriosclerosis (decreased elasticity
of the arteries) and high blood pressure
result in a decreasing supply of oxygen to
the brain neurons.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Temporary lack of oxygen may lead to
cerebral palsy.
 Cerebral palsy is a neuromuscular
disability in which the voluntary muscles
are poorly controlled and spastic because
of brain damage.
 Anencephaly is a failure of the
cerebrum to develop, resulting in a child
who cannot hear, see, or process sensory
inputs and spina bifida.
Spina bifida results when the vertebrae
form incompletely (typically in the
lumbosacral region).
 The child is unable to control the bowels
or bladder, and the lower limbs are
paralyzed.

SPECIAL SENSES
 Special senses—smell, taste, sight,
hearing and receptors (are housed in the
ear, along with the organ of hearing).
Developmental Aspects of the
Nervous System
Anatomy of the Eye
 Nervous system forms during the first
 The adult eye is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in
month of embryonic development,
diameter.
maternal infection early in pregnancy can
 Accessory structures of the eye
have extremely harmful effects on the
include the extrinsic eye muscles, eyelids,
fetal nervous system.
conjunctiva, and lacrimal apparatus.
 Nervous tissue has the highest
 Anteriorly the eyes are protected by the
metabolic rate in the body, lack of oxygen
eyelids, which meet at the medial and
for even a few minutes leads to death of
lateral corners of the eye, the medial and
neurons.
lateral commissure (canthus).
 Radiation and various drugs (alcohol,
opiates, cocaine, and others) can also be
very damaging if administered during
early fetal development.
 Orthostatic hypotension, is a type of
low blood pressure resulting from changes
in body position as described.
Example is when older people stand up
quickly after sitting or lying down, they
often become lightheaded or faint. The

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
 The space between the eyelids in an
 Lacrimal apparatus consists of the
open eye is called the palpebral fissure.
lacrimal gland and a number of ducts that
Projecting from the border of each eyelid
drain the lacrimal secretions into the nasal
are the eyelashes.
cavity.
Modified sebaceous glands associated
The lacrimal glands are located above
with the eyelid edges are the tarsal
the lateral end of each eye. They
glands.
continually release a dilute salt solution
These glands produce an oily secretion
(tears) onto the anterior surface of the
that lubricates the eye.
eyeball through several small ducts.
Ciliary glands, modified sweat
 The tears flush across the eyeball into
glands, lie between the eyelashes (cilium
the lacrimal canaliculi medially, then into
= eyelash).
the lacrimal sac, and finally into the
nasolacrimal duct, which empties into the
nasal cavity.
Lacrimal secretion also contains
mucus, antibodies, and lysozyme, an
enzyme that destroys bacteria. It cleanses
and protects the eye surface as it
moistens and lubricates it.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Because the nasal cavity mucosa is
 Conjunctiva, lines the eyelids and continuous with that of the lacrimal duct
covers part of the outer surface of the system, a cold or nasal inflammation
eyeball. often causes the lacrimal mucosa to
 It secretes mucus, which helps to become inflamed and swell. This impairs
lubricate the eyeball and keep it moist. the drainage of tears from the eye surface,
causing “watery” eyes.
Homeostatic Imbalance
 Inflammation of the conjunctiva, called Internal Structures: The Eye Ball
conjunctivitis, results in reddened, Six extrinsic, or external, eye muscles
irritated eyes.
Pinkeye, its infectious form caused by
bacteria or viruses, is highly contagious.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
  Two smooth muscles of choroid is
ciliary body and iris.
 Ciliary body, to which the lens is
attached by a suspensory ligament
called the ciliary zonule.
 Iris has a rounded opening, the
pupil, through which light passes.
And its fibers acts like the
diaphragm of a camera. It regulates
the amount of light entering the eye
so that we can see as clearly as
possible in the available light.
 Bright light, the pupil constricts.
 Dark light, the pupil enlarge.

Sensory Layer
 Innermost sensory layer of the eye
is the delicate two-layered retina,
which extends anteriorly only to the
ciliary body.
 Outer pigmented layer of the
 Eye itself, commonly called the retina is composed of pigmented
eyeball. cells that absorb light and prevent
 Its wall is composed of three layers, and light from scattering inside the eye.
its interior is filled with fluids called They also act as phagocytes to
humors that help to maintain its shape. remove dead or damaged receptor
The lens, the main focusing apparatus cells and store vitamin A needed for
of the eye is supported upright within the vision.
eye cavity, dividing it into two chambers.  Transparent inner neural layer
of the retina contains millions of
receptor cells, the rods and cones,
Layers Forming the Wall of the Eyeball which are called photoreceptors
Fibrous Layer because they respond to light.
 Outermost layer  Electrical signals pass from the
 consists of the protective sclera and photoreceptors via a two neuron
the transparent cornea. chain—bipolar cells and then
 Sclera, thick, glistening white ganglion cells—before leaving the
connective tissue, is seen anteriorly retina via the optic nerve as nerve
as the “white of the eye.” impulses that are transmitted to the
 Cornea is the “window” which light optic cortex. The result is vision.
enters the eye.
 The cornea is well supplied with
nerve endings (mostly pain fibers).
 Since cornea has no blood vessels,
it is the only one tissue that can be
transplanted from one person to
another.

Vascular Layer
 Middle layer of the eyeball.
 Choroid is most posterior and a
blood-rich nutritive tunic that
contains a dark pigment (prevents
light from scattering inside the eye).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
  One type responds most vigorously to
blue light, another to green light.
The third cone variety responds to a
range including both green and red
wavelengths of light. This is the only
cone population to respond to red light at
all, so these are called the “red cones.”
 Impulses received at the same time
from more than one type of cone by the
visual cortex are interpreted as
intermediate colors.
Example, simultaneous impulses from
 blue and red color receptors are seen as
Photoreceptor cells are
purple or violet tones.
distributed over the entire retina,
except where the optic nerve
Homeostatic Imbalance
(composed of ganglion cell axons)
leaves the eyeball; this site is called  Lack of all three cone types results in
the optic disc, or blind spot. total color blindness, whereas lack of
one cone type leads to partial color
blindness.
Hemeostatic Imbalance
Most common is the lack of red or
 Anything that interferes with rod
green receptors, which leads to two
function hinders our ability to see at
varieties of red-green color blindness.
night, a condition called night
 The genes regulating color vision are
blindness.
on the X (female) sex chromosome,
Night blindness dangerously impairs
color blindness is a sex-linked condition.
the ability to drive safely at night.
It occurs almost exclusively in males.
Its most common cause is prolonged
vitamin A deficiency, which eventually
Lens
results in deterioration of much of the
 Lens is a flexible biconvex crystal-like
neural retina.
structure. The lens is held upright in the
Vitamin A is one of the building blocks
eye by a suspensory ligament, the ciliary
of the pigments the photoreceptor cells
zonule, attached to the ciliary body.
need to respond to light.

Cones are discriminatory receptors that

allow us to see the details of our world in
color under bright light conditions. They
are densest in the center of the retina and
decrease in number toward the retinal
edge.
Lateral to each blind spot is the fovea
centralis (area of greatest visual acuity,
or point of sharpest vision), a tiny pit that
contains only cones. Homeostatic Imbalance
 Cataracts, which result from this
process, cause vision to become hazy
and distorted, and they eventually
cause blindness in the affected eye.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
 delicate retina and optic nerve.
The resulting condition, glaucoma
(vision going gray).
 Signs include seeing halos around
lights, headaches, and blurred vision.
Tonometer is used to measure the
intraocular pressure.
 Glaucoma is commonly treated with
eyedrops that increase the rate of
aqueous humor drainage.
 Other risk factors for forming
Laser or surgical enlargement of the
cataracts include diabetes mellitus,
drainage channel can also be used.
frequent exposure to intense sunlight,
 The ophthalmoscope is an instrument
and heavy smoking.
that illuminates the interior of the eyeball,
Current treatment of cataracts is
allowing the retina, optic disc, and internal
either surgical removal of the lens and
blood vessels at the fundus, or posterior
replacement with a lens implant or
wall of the eye, to be viewed and
special cataract glasses.
examined.
 An examination can detect certain
 Lens divides the eye into two segments:
pathological conditions, such as diabetes,
 Anterior (aqueous) segment
arteriosclerosis, and degeneration of the
- Anterior to the lens, contains a
optic nerve and retina.
clear watery fluid called aqueous
humor.
- Aqueous humor is similar to blood
plasma and is continually secreted
by a special area of the choroid.
- It helps maintain intraocular
pressure, or the pressure inside the
eye.
- It also provides nutrients for the
avascular lens and cornea.
- Aqueous humor is reabsorbed
into the venous blood through the
scleral venous sinus, or canal of
Schlemm, which is located at the
junction of the sclera and cornea. Physiology of Vision
 Posterior (vitreous) segment  When light passes from one substance
- Posterior to the lens, is filled with a to another substance that has a different
gel-like substance called either density, its speed changes and its rays are
vitreous humor or the vitreous bent, or refracted.
body.  The greater the lens convexity, or
- It helps prevent the eyeball from bulge, the more it bends the light.
collapsing inward by reinforcing it The flatter the lens, the less it bends the
internally. light.
- It helps maintain intraocular  The resting eye is “set” for distant
pressure, or the pressure inside the vision.
eye. In general, light from a distant source
(over 20 feet away) approaches the eye as
Homeostatic Imbalance parallel rays, and the lens does not need
 If drainage of aqueous humor is to change shape to focus properly on the
blocked, fluid backs up like a clogged retina.
sink.
Pressure within the eye may increase
to dangerous levels and compress the

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
 Light from a close object tends to
scatter and to diverge, or spread out, and  Binocular vision, literally “two-eyed
the lens must bulge more to make close vision,” provides for depth perception, also
vision possible (Figure 8.9b). called “three dimensional” vision, as our
 This ability of the eye to focus visual cortex fuses the two slightly
specifically for close objects (those less different images delivered by the two
than 20 feet away) is called eyes.
accommodation.
The image formed on the retina as a Homeostatic Imbalance
result of the light-bending activity of the  Hemianopia is the loss of the same
lens is a real image—that is, it is side of the visual field of both eyes,
reversed from left to right, upside down which results from damage to the visual
(inverted), and smaller than the object. cortex on one side only (as occurs in
some CVAs).
The person would not be able to see
things past the middle of his or her
visual field on either the right or left
side, depending on the site of the CVA.

EYE REFLEXES
 The internal muscles (ciliary body,
Visual Fields and Visual Pathways which alters lens curvature, and the radial
 Axons carrying impulses from the and circular muscles of the iris, which
retina are bundled together at the control pupil size) are controlled by the
posterior aspect of the eyeball and issue autonomic nervous system.
from the back of the eye as the optic  The external muscles are the rectus
nerve. and oblique muscles attached to the
At the optic chiasma the fibers from eyeball exterior. It controls eye
the medial side of each eye cross over to movements and make it possible to follow
the opposite side of the brain. moving objects. They are also responsible
The fiber tracts that result are the optic for convergence, which is the reflexive
tracts. movement of the eyes medially when we
Each optic tract contains fibers from the view close objects. The extrinsic muscles
lateral side of the eye on the same side are controlled by somatic fibers of cranial
and the medial side of the opposite eye. nerves III, IV, and VI.
The optic tract fibers synapse with  When the eyes are suddenly exposed to
neurons in the thalamus, whose axons bright light, the pupils immediately
form the optic radiation, which runs to constrict; this is the photopupillary
the occipital lobe of the brain. reflex which prevents excessively bright
There they synapse with the cortical light from damaging the delicate
cells, and visual interpretation, or seeing, photoreceptors.
occurs.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

10
The pupils also constrict reflexively Earwax provides a sticky trap for
when we view close objects; this foreign bodies and repels insects.
accommodation pupillary reflex provides  Sound waves entering the auditory
for more acute vision. canal eventually hit the tympanic
membrane, or eardrum, and cause it to
The Ear: Hearing and Balance vibrate.
 Fluids must be stirred to stimulate the
receptors of the ear: sound vibrations Middle Ear
move fluid to stimulate hearing receptors,  Middle ear, or tympanic cavity, is a
whereas gross movements of the head small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within
disturb fluids surrounding the balance the temporal bone.
organs. It is flanked laterally by the eardrum and
Receptors that respond to such medially by a bony wall with two openings,
physical forces are called the oval window and the inferior,
mechanoreceptors. membrane covered round window.
The pharyngotympanic tube, or
ANATOMY OF THE EAR auditory tube, runs obliquely downward
 The ear is divided into three major to link the middle ear cavity with the
areas: the external, or outer, ear; the throat, and the mucosae lining the two
middle ear; and the internal, or inner, ear. regions are continuous.
The external and middle ear  Pharyngotympanic tube is flattened
structures are involved with hearing only. and closed, but swallowing or yawning can
The internal ear functions in both open it briefly to equalize the pressure in
equilibrium and hearing. the middle ear cavity with the external, or
atmospheric, pressure.
This is important function because when
the pressures are unequal, the eardrum
bulges inward or outward, causing hearing
difficulty (voices may sound far away) and
sometimes earaches.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Inflammation of the middle ear, otitis
media
, is a fairly common result of a sore
throat, especially in children, whose
pharyngotympanic tubes run more
horizontally.
In otitis media, the eardrum bulges
and often becomes inflamed.
External (Outer) Ear
 Outer ear is composed of the auricle  The tympanic cavity is spanned by
and the external acoustic meatus. the three smallest bones in the body, the
The auricle, or pinna, is what most ossicles, which transmit the vibratory
people call the “ear”—the shell-shaped motion of the eardrum to the fluids of the
structure surrounding the auditory canal inner ear.
opening. These bones, named for their shape, are
 External acoustic meatus (or the hammer, or malleus; the anvil, or
auditory canal) is a short, narrow chamber incus; and the stirrup, or stapes.
(about 1 inch long by ¼ inch wide) carved  When the eardrum moves, the hammer
into the temporal bone of the skull. moves with it and transfers the vibration
In its skin-lined walls are the to the anvil.
ceruminous glands, which secrete waxy The anvil, in turn, passes the vibration
yellow cerumen or earwax. on to the stirrup, which presses on the
oval window of the inner ear.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
The movement at the oval window sets
the fluids of the inner ear into motion,
eventually exciting the hearing receptors.

Internal (Inner) Ear

 Internal ear is a maze of bony chambers
called the bony, or osseous, labyrinth
(“maze”), located deep within the
temporal bone behind the eye socket.
 The three subdivisions of the bony
labyrinth are the spiraling, peasized
cochlea (“snail”), the vestibule, and the
semicircular canals.
 The vestibule is situated between the
semicircular canals and the cochlea.
 The bony labyrinth is filled with a
plasma-like fluid called perilymph.
Suspended in the perilymph is a
membranous labyrinth, a system of
membrane sacs that more or less follows
the shape of the bony labyrinth.
The membranous labyrinth itself
contains a thicker fluid called endolymph.

Equilibrium
 The equilibrium receptors of the inner
ear, collectively called the vestibular
apparatus.
It can be divided into two functional  The maculae report on changes in the
arms—one arm responsible for monitoring position of the head in space with respect
static equilibrium, and the other to the pull of gravity when the body is not
involved with dynamic equilibrium. moving. They help us keep our head erect.
 Each macula is a patch of receptor
Static Equilibrium (hair) cells with their “hairs” embedded in
 Within the membrane sacs of the the otolithic membrane, a jellylike mass
vestibule are receptors called maculae studded with otoliths, tiny stones made
that are essential to our sense of static of calcium salts.
equilibrium.  As the head moves, the otoliths roll in
response to changes in the pull of gravity.
This movement creates a pull on the gel,
which in turn slides like a greased plate
over the hair cells, bending their hairs.
This event activates the hair cells, which
send impulses along the vestibular nerve
(a division of cranial nerve VIII) to the
cerebellum of the brain, informing it of the
position of the head in space.

Dynamic Equilibrium
 Dynamic equilibrium receptors,
found in the semicircular canals, respond
to angular or rotatory movements of the
head rather than to straight-line
movements.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
 The semicircular canals are oriented in
the three planes of space.
Thus, regardless of which plane you
move in, there will be receptors to detect
the movement.
Within the ampulla, a swollen region at
the base of each membranous
semicircular canal, is a receptor region
called a crista ampullaris, or simply
crista, which consists of a tuft of hair cells
covered with a gelatinous cap called the
cupula.

The chambers (scalae) above and below

the cochlear duct contain perilymph.
Sound waves that reach the cochlea
through vibrations of the eardrum,
ossicles, and oval window set the cochlear
fluids into motion.

 When your head moves in an arc-like or

angular direction, the endolymph in the
canal lags behind.
Then, as the cupula drags against the
stationary endolymph, the cupula bends— As the sound waves are transmitted by
like a swinging door—with the body’s the ossicles from the eardrum to the oval
motion. window, their force (amplitude) is
 This stimulates the hair cells, and increased by the lever activity of the
impulses are transmitted up the vestibular ossicles.
nerve to the cerebellum. Bending the The total force exerted on the much
cupula in the opposite direction reduces larger eardrum reaches the tiny oval
impulse generation. window, which in turn sets the fluids of the
inner ear into motion, and these pressure
Hearing waves set up vibrations in the basilar
Within the cochlear duct, the membrane.
endolymph-containing membranous The receptor cells, positioned on the
labyrinth of the cochlea is the spiral basilar membrane in the spiral organ of
organ of Corti, which contains the Corti, are stimulated when their “hairs”
hearing receptors, or hair cells. are bent or tweaked by the movement of
the gel-like tectorial membrane that lies
over them.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
 frequencies. The higher notes—20,000
Hertz (Hz)—are detected by shorter, stiffer
hair cells along the base of the basilar
membrane.

Once stimulated, the hair cells transmit

impulses along the cochlear nerve (a
division of cranial nerve VIII—the
vestibulocochlear nerve) to the auditory
cortex in the temporal lobe, where
interpretation of the sound, or hearing,
occurs.
High pitched sounds disturb the
shorter, stiffer fibers of the basilar Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits
membrane and stimulate receptor cells Homeostatic Imbalance
close to the oval window.  Deafness is defined as hearing loss
Low-pitched sounds affect longer, of any degree—from a slight loss to a
more floppy fibers and activate specific total inability to hear sound.
hair cells further along the cochlea.  Two kinds of deafness:
 Conduction
 Sensorineural
Conduction
Deafness results when something
interferes with the conduction of sound
vibrations to the fluids of the inner ear.
Like buildup of earwax may be the
cause. Other causes of conduction
deafness include fusion of the ossicles
(a problem called otosclerosis), a
ruptured eardrum, and otitis media.
 deafness results from mechanical
factors.

Sensorineural
Deafness occurs when there is
Activation of the cochlear hair cells. degeneration or damage to the receptor
(a) The cochlea is drawn as though it were cells in the spiral organ of Corti, to the
uncoiled to make the events of sound cochlear nerve, or to neurons of the
transmission occurring there easier to auditory cortex.
follow. Sound waves of low frequency Results from extended listening to
below the level of hearing travel entirely excessively loud sounds.
around the cochlear duct without exciting Sensorineural deafness is a problem
hair cells. But sounds of higher frequency of nervous system structures.
penetrate through the cochlear duct and
basilar membrane to reach the scala Equilibrium problems
tympani. This causes the basilar  Nausea
membrane to vibrate maximally in certain  Dizziness
areas in response to certain frequencies of  Problems in maintaining balance
sound, stimulating particular hair cells and  Jerky or rolling eye movements.
sensory neurons. The differential  Serious pathology of the inner ear is
stimulation of hair cells is perceived in the Ménière’s syndrome.
brain as sound of a certain pitch. Suspected causes are arteriosclerosis,
(b) The length and stiffness of the fibers degeneration of cranial nerve VIII, and
spanning the basilar membrane tune increased pressure of the inner ear
specific regions to vibrate at specific fluids.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
In Ménière’s syndrome, progressive pick up the scent of another perfume on
deafness occurs. someone else.
Affected individuals become
nauseated and often have howling or Homeostatic Imbalance
ringing sounds in their ears and vertigo  Anosmias or olfactory disorders is
(a sensation of spinning) that is so the loss of chemical senses have.
severe that they cannot stand up It results from head injuries, the
without extreme discomfort. aftereffects of nasal cavity inflammation
(due to a cold, an allergy, or smoking),
or aging.

Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste
 The receptors for taste and olfaction are Taste comes from the Latin word
classified as chemoreceptors because taxare, which means “to touch, estimate,
they respond to chemicals in solution. or judge.”
 Taste buds, or specific receptors for
Olfactory Receptors and Sense of the sense of taste, are widely scattered in
Smell the oral cavity. And it is mostly located in
 Olfactory receptors occupy a postage the tongue (10,000 of it).
stamp–sized area in the roof of each nasal  Dorsal tongue surface is covered with
cavity. small peg-like projections, or papillae.
The taste buds are found on the sides of
the large round vallate or circumvallate
papillae and on the tops of the more
numerous fungiform papillae.

 Olfactory receptor cells are neurons

equipped with olfactory hairs, long cilia
that protrude from the nasal epithelium
and are continuously bathed by a layer of
mucus secreted by underlying glands.
When the olfactory receptors located on
the cilia are stimulated by chemicals
dissolved in the mucus, they transmit
impulses along the olfactory filaments,
which are bundled axons of olfactory  The specific cells that respond to
neurons that collectively make up the chemicals dissolved in the saliva are
olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I). epithelial cells called gustatory cells.
The olfactory nerve conducts the Their long microvilli—the gustatory
impulses to the olfactory cortex of the hairs—protrude through the taste pore,
brain and then the odor is interpreted. and when they are stimulated, they
The olfactory pathways are closely depolarize and impulses are transmitted to
tied into the limbic system (emotional- the brain.
visceral part of the brain). Three cranial nerves—VII, IX, and X—
 Olfactory receptors are exquisitely carry taste impulses from the various taste
sensitive. buds to the gustatory cortex.
 Olfactory neurons tend to adapt rather The facial nerve (VII) serves the
quickly when they are exposed to an anterior part of the tongue.
unchanging stimulus, in this case, an The glossopharyngeal and vagus—
odor. Example, woman stops smelling her serve the other taste bud–containing
own perfume after a while but will quickly areas.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
 that eye to become functionally blind.
Five Basic Taste Sensations  Maternal infections, particularly
 Sweet receptors respond to rubella (German measles), that occur
substances such as sugars, during early pregnancy may lead to
saccharine, some amino acids, and congenital blindness or cataracts.
some lead salts (such as those If the mother has a type of sexually
found in lead paint). transmitted infection called gonorrhea,
 Sour receptors respond to the baby’s eyes will be infected by the
hydrogen ions (H+), or the acidity bacteria during delivery.
of the solution. In the resulting conjunctivitis,
 Bitter receptors to alkaloids. specifically called ophthalmia
 Salty receptors to metal ions in neonatorum, the baby’s eyelids
solution. become red and swollen, and pus is
 Umami (“delicious”), a taste produced.
discovered by the Japanese, is All newborn babies’ eyes require to be
elicited by the amino acid routinely treated with silver nitrate or
glutamate, which appears to be antibiotics shortly after birth.
responsible for the “beef taste” of
steak and the flavor of  At birth, the eyeballs are foreshortened,
monosodium glutamate, a food and all babies are hyperopic (farsighted)
additive. and sees only in gray tones.
 The tip of the tongue was believed to Since lacrimal glands is not fully
be most sensitive to sweet and salty developed, 2 weeks after birth, the baby is
substances. tearless for this period.
Its sides to sour, the back of the  By 5 months, the infant is able to focus
tongue to bitter, and the pharynx to on articles within easy reach and to follow
umami. moving objects, but visual acuity is still
 Umami guides the intake of proteins, poor. Its vision is 20/200.
and because many natural poisons and  5 years old, color vision is well
spoiled foods are bitter, our dislike for developed, visual acuity has improved to
bitterness is protective. about 20/30, depth perception is present,
providing a readiness to begin reading.
By school age, the earlier hyperopia has
Homeostatic Imbalance usually been replaced by emmetropia.
 Strabismus, which is commonly This condition continues until about age
called “crossed eyes,” results from 40, when presbyopia begins to set in.
unequal pulls by the external eye Presbyopia ( “old vision”) results from
muscles that prevent the baby from decreasing lens elasticity that
coordinating movement of the two eyes. accompanies aging. And it is
farsightedness.
Changes of sight due to aging:
 Lacrimal glands become less
active, which results to eye
dryness and more vulnerable to
bacterial infection and irritation.
 Lens loses its crystal clarity
 Exercises are used to strengthen the and becomes discolored. As a
weaker eye muscles, and/or the result, it begins to scatter light,
stronger eye may be covered with an causing a glare that is distressing
eye patch to force the weaker muscles when the person drives at night.
to become stronger.  The dilator muscles of the iris
Surgery is used to correct the become less efficient; thus, the
condition because if it is allowed to pupils are always somewhat
persist, the brain may stop recognizing constricted.
signals from the deviating eye, causing

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
  Older people are susceptible to  The precise changes that follow
certain conditions that may result hormone binding depend on the specific
in blindness, such as glaucoma, hormone and the target cell type, but
cataracts, arteriosclerosis, and typically one or more of the following
diabetes. occurs:
 By the age of 3 or 4 months, the infant  Changes in plasma membrane
is able to localize sounds. permeability or electrical state.
 Ear inflammations (otitis) resulting  Synthesis of proteins or certain
from bacterial infections or allergies. regulatory molecules (such as
 By the sixties, however, a gradual enzymes) in the cell.
deterioration and atrophy of the spiral  Activation or inactivation of
organ of Corti begins and leads to a loss in enzymes.
the ability to hear high tones and speech  Stimulation of mitosis.
sounds. This condition, presbycusis, is a  Promotion of secretory activity.
type of sensorineural deafness.
 The ear ossicles fuse (otosclerosis), Direct Gene Activation
which compounds the hearing problem by  Two mechanisms by which hormones
interfering with sound conduction to the trigger changes in cells:
inner ear.  Steroid hormone action
 Non-steroid hormone action
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Steroid hormones (and, strangely,
The Chemistry of Hormones thyroid hormone) use the mechanism of
 Hormones are chemical substances direct gene activation.
that are secreted by endocrine cells into
the extracellular fluids and regulate the
metabolic activity of other cells in the
body.
All of them can be classified chemically
as either amino acid–based molecules
(including proteins, peptides, and amines)
or steroids.
 Steroid hormones (made from
cholesterol) include the sex hormones
made by the gonads (ovaries and testes)
and the hormones produced by the 1. Because they are lipid-soluble
adrenal cortex. molecules, the steroid hormones
can diffuse through the plasma
Hormone Action membranes of their target cells.
A given hormone affects only certain 2. Once inside, the steroid hormone
tissue cells or organs, referred to as its enters the nucleus and;
target cells or target organs. 3. Binds to a specific hormone
 For a target cell to respond to a receptor there.
hormone, specific protein receptors to 4. The hormone-receptor complex
which that hormone can attach must be then binds to specific sites on the
present on the cell’s plasma membrane or cell’s DNA.
in its interior (like the relationship of 5. Activating certain genes to
enzyme and substrate). transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA).
 The term hormone comes from a 6. The mRNA then is translated in the
Greek word meaning “to arouse.” cytoplasm, resulting in the
 They “arouse,” or bring about their synthesis of new proteins.
effects on the body’s cells primarily by
altering cellular activity (by increasing or Second-Messenger System
decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual,  Water-soluble, non-steroid hormones—
metabolic process rather than by protein and peptide hormones—are unable
stimulating performance of a new one). to enter the target cells.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
Instead, they bind to hormone receptors
situated on the target cell’s plasma
membrane and utilize a second-
messenger system.

1. The hormone (first messenger) Hormonal Stimuli

binds to the membrane receptor.  Endocrine organs are prodded into
2. The activated receptor sets off a action by other hormones.
series of reactions (a cascade) that  For example, hormones of the
activates an enzyme. hypothalamus stimulate the
3. The enzyme, in turn, catalyzes anterior pituitary gland to secrete
reactions that produce second its hormones, and many anterior
messenger molecules (in this case, pituitary hormones stimulate other
cyclic AMP, also known as cAMP or endocrine organs to release their
cyclic adenine monophosphate); hormones into the blood.
4. That oversee additional  As the hormones produced by the
intracellular changes that promote final target glands increase in the
the typical response of the target blood, they “feed back” to inhibit
cell to the hormone. the release of anterior pituitary
 The same hormone may have a variety hormones and thus their own
of possible second messengers (including release.
cyclic guanosine monophosphate, or  Hormone release promoted by this
cGMP and calcium ions). mechanism tends to be rhythmic,
with hormone blood levels rising
Control of Hormone Release and falling again and again.
Endocrine Gland Stimuli
 The stimuli that activate the endocrine Humoral Stimuli
organs fall into three major categories—  Changing blood levels of certain
hormonal, humoral, and neural. ions and nutrients may also
 Negative feedback mechanisms are stimulate hormone release.
the chief means of regulating blood levels  Term humoral refers to the ancient
of nearly all hormones. use of the word humor to indicate
the various body fluids (blood, bile).
 For example, decreasing blood
calcium levels prompt the release of
parathyroid hormone (PTH) by cells
of the parathyroid glands. Because
PTH acts by several routes to
reverse that decline, blood Ca2+
levels soon rise, ending the stimulus
for PTH release.
 Hormones released in response to
humoral stimuli include calcitonin,
released by the thyroid gland, and
insulin, produced by the pancreas.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
  Endocrine glands (rich blood supply)
Neural Stimuli are ductless glands that produce
 Nerve fibers stimulate hormone hormones that they release into the blood
release, and the target cells are said or lymph.
to respond to neural stimuli.  Exocrine glands release their products
 Example is sympathetic nervous at the body’s surface or into body cavities
system stimulation of the adrenal through ducts.
medulla to release norepinephrine
and epinephrine during periods of Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
stress.  Pituitary gland is pea size.
It hangs by a stalk from the inferior
The Major Endocrine Organs surface of the hypothalamus of the brain,
 The major endocrine organs of the body where it is snugly surrounded by the sella
include: turcica of the sphenoid bone. Has two
 Pituitary functional lobes—the anterior pituitary
 Thyroid (glandular tissue) and the posterior
 Parathyroid pituitary (nervous tissue).
 Adrenal  Anterior pituitary gland controls the
 Pineal glands activity of so many other endocrine glands
 Thymus (master endocrine gland).
 Pancreas Anterior pituitary is just powerful
 Gonads (ovaries and testes) because the release of each of its
hormones is controlled by releasing
hormones and inhibiting hormones
produced by the hypothalamus.
 The hypothalamus liberates these
regulatory hormones into the blood of the
portal circulation, which connects the
blood supply of the hypothalamus with
that of the anterior pituitary.
 Hypothalamus also makes two
additional hormones, oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone, which are
transported along the axons of the
hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to the
posterior pituitary for storage.

 The hypothalamus (part of the

nervous system) is also recognized as a
major endocrine organ because it
produces several hormones.
 Endocrine function that is hormone-
producing glands are:
 Anterior pituitary
 Thyroid
 Adrenals
 Parathyroids
 Both endocrine and exocrine
Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic
functions:
Hormones
 Pancreas
 Gonads

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
 Posterior pituitary is not an
endocrine gland because it does not make
the peptide hormones it releases.
 It simply acts as a storage area for
hormones made by hypothalamic neurons.
 Oxytocin is released in significant
amounts only during childbirth and in
nursing women.
It stimulates powerful contractions of
the uterine muscle during labor, during
sexual relations, and during breastfeeding.
It also causes milk ejection (the let-down
reflex) in a nursing woman.
 Oxytocics (drugs) are used to induce
labor or to hasten labor that is progressing
normally but at a slow. It is also used to  Two of the six anterior pituitary
stop postpartum bleeding (by causing hormones in the figure—growth
constriction of the ruptured blood vessels hormone and prolactin—exert their
at the placental site) and to stimulate the major effects on non-endocrine targets.
milk ejection reflex. Tropic Hormones are:
 The second hormone released by the  Thyrotropic hormone
posterior pituitary is antidiuretic  Adrenocorticotropic hormone
hormone (ADH).  Follicle stimulating hormone
Diuresis is urine production.  Luteinizing hormone
An antidiuretic is a chemical that inhibits  Tropic hormones stimulate their
or prevents urine production. target organs, which are also endocrine
ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb glands, to secrete their hormones, which
more water from the forming urine; as a in turn exert their effects on other body
result, urine volume decreases, and blood organs and tissues.
volume increases.  All anterior pituitary hormones are:
ADH also increases blood pressure by  Proteins (or peptides)
causing constriction of the arterioles  Act through second messenger
(small arteries). For this reason, it is systems.
sometimes referred to as vasopressin.  Regulated by hormonal stimuli and,
 Drinking alcoholic beverages inhibits in most cases, negative
ADH secretion and results in output of feedback.
large amounts of urine.  Growth hormone (GH) is a general
metabolic hormone.
Homeostatic Imbalance Its major effects are directed to the
 Diabetes insipidus is the growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
hyposecretion of ADH leads to a of the body.
condition of excessive urine output. It plays an important role in determining
 People with this problem are final body size.
continually thirsty and drink huge GH is a protein-sparing and anabolic
amounts of water. hormone that causes the building of amino
acids into proteins and stimulates most
Anterior Pituitary Hormones target cells to grow in size and divide.
At the same time, it causes fats to be
broken down and used for energy while it
spares glucose, helping to maintain blood
sugar homeostasis.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Hyposecretion of GH during childhood
leads to pituitary dwarfism (max.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

11
height is 4 feet). and testes).
 Hypersecretion during childhood Follicle- In Women
results in gigantism (8-9 feet). stimulating  stimulates follicle
 If hypersecretion occurs after long- hormone development in the
bone growth has ended, acromegaly (FSH) ovaries.
results. As the follicles
 The facial bones, particularly the mature, they produce
lower jaw and the bony ridges estrogen, and eggs
underlying the eyebrows, enlarge are readied for
tremendously, as do the feet and hands. ovulation.
Thickening of soft tissues leads to
coarse or malformed facial features. In Men
 Hypersecretion by endocrine  FSH stimulates
organs (the pituitary and the other sperm development
endocrine organs) result from tumors by the testes.
of the affected gland. Luteinizing In Women
(LH)  triggers ovulation of
Advantage of Growth Hormone an egg from the ovary
 Increase the performance. and causes the
 Increase the muscle mass of the ruptured follicle to
heart. produce progesterone
 Decreases blood cholesterol. and some estrogen.
 Boosts the immune system.
 Improves a person’s psychological In Men
outlook. LH stimulates
 Reverse some effects of aging. testosterone
production by the
Hormone interstitial cells of the
Name Description testes.
Prolactin  is a protein
(PRL) hormone structurally Homeostatic Imbalance
similar to growth  Hyposecretion of FSH or LH leads to
hormone. sterility in both males and females.
Known target in  Some drugs used to promote fertility
humans is the breast stimulate the release of the
(pro = for; lact = gonadotropic hormones, and multiple
milk). births (indicating multiple ovulations at
After childbirth, it the same time rather than the usual
stimulates and single ovulation each month) are fairly
maintains milk common after their use.
production by the
mother’s breasts. THYROID GLAND
Adrenocorticot regulates the Thyroid gland is a hormone-producing
ropic hormone endocrine activity of gland.
(ACTH) the cortex portion of  Thyroid gland imbalances that lead to
the adrenal gland. excessive weight gain or loss.
Thyrotropic  Also called thyroid  It is located at the base of the throat,
hormone (TH) stimulating just inferior to the Adam’s apple, where it
hormone (TSH), is easily palpated during a physical
It influences the examination.
growth and activity of It is a fairly large gland consisting of two
the thyroid gland. lobes joined by a central mass, or
Gonadotropic  regulate the isthmus.
hormones hormonal activity of
the gonads (ovaries

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
  TSH “calls” for thyroxine, and the
thyroid gland enlarges, but without
iodine the thyroid makes only the
peptide part of the molecule, which is
 Thyroid gland makes two hormones: nonfunctional and fails to provide
 Thyroid hormone
negative feedback to inhibit TSH
 Calcitonin (produced by the release.
parafollicular cells).
 Hyposecretion of thyroxine may
 Thyroid gland is composed of hollow indicate problems other than iodine
structures called follicles, which store a
deficiency, such as lack of stimulation
sticky colloidal material. by TSH and if it occurs in early
Thyroid hormone is derived from this
childhood, the result is cretinism.
colloid.  Cretinism results in dwarfism in
 Thyroid hormone, often referred to as
which adult body proportions remain
the body’s major metabolic hormone, childlike.
is actually two active iodine-containing
 If the hyposecretion is discovered
hormones: early, hormone replacement will
 Thyroxine or T4- is the major
prevent mental impairment and other
hormone secreted by the thyroid signs and symptoms of the deficiency.
follicles.
 Triiodothyronine or T3- is formed Signs and symptoms:
at the target tissues by conversion
 Head and trunk are about 1½
of thyroxine to triiodothyronine.
times.
 Thyroid hormone controls the rate at
 Intellectually impaired
which glucose is “burned,” or oxidized,  Hair is scanty
and converted to body heat and chemical
 Skin is dry
energy.  Hypothyroidism occurring in adults
 Thyroid hormone is also important for
results in myxedema.
normal tissue growth and development, Oral thyroxine is prescribed to treat
especially in the reproductive and nervous
this condition.
systems.
Iodine is the element necessary in the
Signs and Symptoms:
diet for proper thyroid function.  Physical and mental sluggishness
 Puffiness of the face
Homeostatic Imbalance  Fatigue
 Without iodine, functional thyroid  Poor muscle tone
hormones cannot be made.  Low body temperature (the
 Goiter is an enlargement of the person is always cold)
thyroid gland that results when the diet  Obesity
is deficient in iodine.  Dry skin
 Hyperthyroidism generally results
from a tumor of the thyroid gland.
Extreme overproduction of thyroxine
results in a high basal metabolic rate,
intolerance of heat, rapid heartbeat,

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
weight loss, nervous and agitated
behavior, and a general inability to
relax.
Graves’ disease is one form of
hyperthyroidism.
 The thyroid gland enlarges and the
eyes may bulge, or protrude anteriorly
(a condition called exophthalmos).

 Hyperthyroidism may be treated

surgically by removal of part of the
thyroid (and/or a tumor if present) or
chemically with thyroid-blocking drugs
or radioactive iodine, which destroy  Skeleton is the major PTH target, PTH
some of the thyroid cells. also stimulates the kidneys and intestine
 The second important hormone product to absorb more calcium (from urinary
of the thyroid gland, calcitonin. filtrate and foodstuffs, respectively).
It decreases blood calcium levels by
causing calcium to be deposited in the Homeostatic Imbalance
bones.  If blood calcium levels fall too low,
It acts antagonistically to parathyroid neurons become extremely irritable and
hormone, the hormone produced by the overactive.
parathyroid glands. They deliver impulses to the muscles
 Thyroxine is made and stored in so rapidly that the muscles go into
follicles before it is released to the blood. uncontrollable spasms (tetany), which
Calcitonin is made by the so-called may be fatal.
parafollicular cells found in the connective  Severe hyperparathyroidism
tissue between the follicles. causes massive bone destruction—an X-
 It is released directly to the blood in ray examination of the bones shows
response to increasing levels of blood large punched-out holes in the bony
calcium. matrix.
The bones become very fragile, and
Parathyroid Gland spontaneous fractures begin to occur.
 Parathyroid glands are tiny masses of
glandular tissue most often found on the Adrenal Gland
posterior surface of the thyroid gland.  The two bean-shaped adrenal glands
It secretes parathyroid hormone curve over the top of the kidneys.
(PTH), or parathormone, which is the  It has glandular (cortex) and neural
most important regulator of calcium ion tissue (medulla) parts.
(Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood. The central medulla region is enclosed
 When blood calcium levels drop below a by the adrenal cortex, which contains
certain level, the parathyroids release three separate layers of cells.
PTH, which stimulates bone destruction
cells (osteoclasts) to break down bone
matrix and release calcium into the blood.
 PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone (that
is, it acts to increase blood levels of
calcium).
Calcitonin is a hypocalcemic hormone.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
 Include cortisone and cortisol.

Glucocorticoids
It promote normal cell
metabolism and help the body to
resist long-term stressors, primarily
by increasing blood glucose levels.
 When blood levels of
glucocorticoids are high, fats and
even proteins are broken down by
body cells and converted to
glucose, which is released to the
blood.
For this reason, glucocorticoids
are said to be hyperglycemic
hormones.
 It control the more unpleasant
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex effects of inflammation by
 Adrenal cortex produces three major decreasing edema, and they reduce
groups of steroid hormones, which are pain by inhibiting some pain-
collectively called corticosteroids. causing molecules called
Steroid Hormones prostaglandins.
 Mainly aldosterone, are produced  Because of their anti-
by the outermost adrenal cortex inflammatory properties,
cell layer. glucocorticoids are often
 It is important in regulating the prescribed as drugs to suppress
mineral (or salt) content of the inflammation for patients with
blood, particularly the rheumatoid arthritis.
concentrations of sodium and Glucocorticoids are released
potassium ions. from the adrenal cortex in response
 Their target is the kidney tubules to rising blood levels of ACTH.
that selectively reabsorb the  Glucocorticoids operate primarily
minerals or allow them to be during the resistance stage of the
flushed out of the body in urine. stress response.
When blood levels of aldosterone  The bulk of the sex hormones
Sex
Mineralocorticoids

rise, the kidney tubule cells produced by the innermost cortex

reabsorb increasing amounts of layer are androgens (male sex
sodium ions and secrete more hormones), but some estrogens
potassium ions into the urine. (female sex hormones) are also
When sodium is reabsorbed, formed.
water follows.
It helps regulate both water and Homeostatic Imbalance
electrolyte balance in body fluids.  Hyposecretion of all the adrenal
 Renin, an enzyme produced by cortex hormones leads to Addison’s
the kidneys when blood pressure disease, characterized by a peculiar
drops, also causes the release of bronze tone of the skin.
aldosterone by triggering a series
of reactions that form angiotensin
II, a potent stimulator of
aldosterone release.
A hormone released by the heart,
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), Because aldosterone levels are low,
prevents aldosterone release, its sodium and water are lost from the
goal being to reduce blood volume body, which leads to problems with
and blood pressure. electrolyte and water balance which
causes the muscles to become weak,
and shock is a possibility.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
  Sympathetic neurons also release
Signs and Symptoms of Addison’s norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter, the
disease result from: adrenal medulla is often thought of as a
 Deficient levels of “misplaced sympathetic nervous system
glucocorticoids, such as ganglion”.
hypoglycemia.  When you are threatened physically or
 Lessened ability to cope with emotionally, your sympathetic nervous
stress (burnout). system brings about the “fight-or-flight”
 Suppression of the immune response to help you cope with the
system (and thereby increased stressful situation.
susceptibility to infection). One of the organs it stimulates is the
 Hypersecretion problems may result adrenal medulla, which literally pumps its
from an ACTH-releasing tumor of the hormones into the bloodstream to
pituitary or from adrenal cortical enhance and prolong the effects of the
tumors. neurotransmitters of the sympathetic
Hyperactivity of the outermost cortical nervous system.
area results in hyperaldosteronism.  Catecholamines increase heart rate,
 Excessive water and sodium are blood pressure, and blood glucose levels
retained, leading to high blood pressure and dilate the small passageways of the
and edema. lungs.
Potassium is lost to such an extent These events result in more oxygen and
that the activity of the heart and glucose in the blood and a faster
nervous system may be disrupted. circulation of blood to the body organs
 When the tumor is in the middle (most importantly, to the brain, muscles,
cortical area or the client has been and heart).
receiving pharmacological doses
(amounts higher than those released in
the body) of glucocorticoids to
counteract inflammatory disease,
Cushing’s syndrome occurs.
Excessive glucocorticoids result in a
swollen “moon face” and the
appearance of a “buffalo hump” of fat
on the upper back.
Other common and undesirable
effects include high blood pressure,
hyperglycemia (steroid diabetes),
weakening of the bones (as protein is
withdrawn to be converted to glucose),
and severe depression of the
immune system.
 Hypersecretion of the sex hormones
 Catecholamines of the adrenal
leads to masculinization, regardless of
medulla prepare the body to cope with a
sex.
brief or short-term stressful situation and
cause the so-called alarm stage of the
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
stress response.
 Adrenal medulla develops from a knot
of nervous tissue.
Homeostatic Imbalance
When the medulla is stimulated by
sympathetic nervous system neurons, its  Hypersecretion of catecholamines
cells release two similar hormones, leads to symptoms typical of excessive
epinephrine, also called adrenaline, and sympathetic nervous system activity—a
norepinephrine (noradrenaline). rapidly beating heart, high blood
These hormones are called pressure, and a tendency to perspire
catecholamines. and be very irritable.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
Surgical removal of the even proteins are broken down and used
catecholamine-secreting cells corrects to meet the energy requirements of the
this condition. body.
Loss of body proteins leads to a
Pancreatic Islets decreased ability to fight infections.
 Pancreas, located close to the stomach  When large amounts of fats (instead
in the abdominal cavity and is a mixed of sugars) are used for energy, the
gland. blood becomes very acidic (acidosis) as
Pancreatic islets, also called the islets ketones (intermediate products of fat
of Langerhans is the best-hidden breakdown) appear in the blood.
endocrine glands in the body.  Acidosis is referred to as ketosis.
 These hormone-producing tissue are  Three cardinal signs of diabetes
scattered among the enzyme-producing mellitus are:
acinar tissue of the pancreas.  Polyuria—excessive urination to
The exocrine (enzyme-producing) part flush out the glucose and
of the pancreas acts as part of the ketones.
digestive system.  Polydipsia—excessive thirst
 Two important hormones produced by resulting from water loss.
the islet cells are insulin and glucagon.  Polyphagia—hunger due to
 Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting inability to use sugars and the
insulin and glucagon appropriately loss of fat and proteins from the
during fed and fasting states. High levels body.
of glucose in the blood stimulate the  Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is insulin
release of insulin from the beta cells of resistance.
the islets.  Glucagon acts as an antagonist of
insulin; that is, it helps to regulate blood
glucose levels but in a way opposite that
of insulin.
Its release by the alpha cells of the
islets is stimulated by low blood levels of
glucose.
Its action is basically hyperglycemic.
Its primary target organ is the liver,
Insulin increases their ability to which it stimulates to break down stored
transport glucose across their plasma glycogen to glucose and to release the
membranes. glucose into the blood.
Once inside the cells, glucose is
oxidized for energy or converted to
glycogen or fat for storage.
Insulin also speeds up these activities.
And its affect is hypoglycemic.
 Insulin is the only hormone that
decreases blood glucose levels.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Without insulin, blood levels of
glucose (which normally range from 80
to 120 mg/100 ml of blood) rise to
dramatically high levels.
 Diabetes mellitus, which literally
means that something sweet (mel =
honey) is passing through or siphoning
(diabetes = Greek “siphon”) from the
body.
 Cells cannot use glucose, fats and

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
  Female and male gonads produce sex
cells (an exocrine function).
They also produce sex hormones that
are identical to those produced by adrenal
cortex cells.

Hormones of the Ovaries

 Female gonads, or ovaries, are
paired, almond-sized organs located in the
pelvic cavity.
Besides producing female sex cells,
ovaries produce two groups of steroid
hormones, estrogens and
progesterone.
 Estrogens are responsible for the
development of sex characteristics in
women (primarily growth and maturation
of the reproductive organs) and the
appearance of secondary sex
characteristics (hair in the pubic and
axillary regions) at puberty.
Acting with progesterone, estrogens
promote breast development and cyclic
Pineal Gland
changes in the uterine lining (the
 Pineal gland is a small, cone-shaped
menstrual cycle).
gland that hangs from the roof of the third
 Progesterone, during pregnancy, it
ventricle of the brain.
quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an
 Only the hormone melatonin appears
implanted embryo will not be aborted and
to be secreted.
helps prepare breast tissue for lactation.
 Melatonin is a “sleep trigger” that
plays an important role in establishing the
Hormones of the Testes
body’s day-night cycle.
 Paired oval testes of the male are
 In some animals, melatonin also helps
suspended in a the scrotum, outside the
regulate mating behavior and rhythms.
pelvic cavity.
In humans, it is believed to coordinate
 Sperm, the testes also produce male
the hormones of fertility and to inhibit the
sex hormones, or androgens
reproductive system (especially the
(testosterone).
ovaries of females) until adult body size
 Testosterone promotes the growth
has been reached.
and maturation of the reproductive system
organs to prepare the young man for
Thymus
reproduction.
 Thymus is located in the upper thorax,
It also causes the male’s secondary sex
posterior to the sternum.
characteristics (growth of facial hair,
Large in infants and children, it
development of heavy bones and muscles,
decreases in size throughout adulthood.
and lowering of the voice) to appear and
By old age, it is composed mostly of
stimulates the male sex drive.
fibrous connective tissue and fat.
 Testosterone is necessary for
Thymus produces a hormone called
continuous production of sperm.
thymosin and others that appear to be
 Testosterone production is specifically
essential for normal development of a
stimulated by LH (luteinizing hormone).
special group of white blood cells (T
lymphocytes, or T cells) and the immune
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues
response.
and Organs
Gonads

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
 Placenta
 Placenta is a remarkable organ formed
temporarily in the uterus of pregnant
women.
Nutrition-delivery systems for the fetus.
It also produces several protein and
steroid hormones that help to maintain the
pregnancy and pave the way for delivery
of the baby.
 During very early pregnancy, a
hormone called human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the
developing embryo and then by the fetal
part of the placenta.
Similar to LH (luteinizing hormone), hCG
stimulates the ovaries to continue
producing estrogen and progesterone so

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
that the lining of the uterus is not
sloughed off in menses.
 In the third month, the placenta
assumes the job of producing estrogen
and progesterone, and the ovaries become
inactive for the rest of the pregnancy.
The high estrogen and progesterone
blood levels maintain the lining of the
uterus (thus, the pregnancy) and prepare
the breasts for producing milk.
Human placental lactogen (hPL)
works cooperatively with estrogen and
progesterone in preparing the breasts for
lactation.
Relaxin, another placental hormone,
causes the mother’s pelvic ligaments and
the pubic symphysis to relax and become
more flexible, which eases birth passage.

Developmental Aspects of the

Endocrine System
 Pituitary gland is derived from
epithelium of the oral cavity and a neural
tissue projection of the hypothalamus.
Pineal gland is entirely neural tissue.
 The efficiency of the ovaries begins to  Reddish mass at the bottom of the tube
decline, causing menopause. A woman’s is erythrocytes or red blood cells, the
reproductive organs begin to atrophy, and formed elements that function in oxygen
the ability to bear children ends. transport.
The thin, whitish layer called the buffy
coat at the junction between the
erythrocytes and the plasma.
BLOOD  Platelets, cell fragments that help stop
Components bleeding.
 The formed elements, are suspended in Erythrocytes normally account for
a nonliving fluid matrix called plasma. about 45 percent of the total volume of a
 If a sample of blood is spun in a blood sample, a percentage known as the
centrifuge, the formed elements, being hematocrit (“blood fraction”).
heavier, are packed down by centrifugal  White blood cells and platelets
force, and the plasma rises to the top. contribute less than 1 percent.
Plasma makes up most of the remaining
55 percent of whole blood.

Physical Characteristic and Volume

 Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid with a
characteristic metallic taste.
 The color of blood varies from scarlet
(oxygen-rich) to a dull red (oxygen-poor).
 Blood is heavier than water and about
five times thicker.
 Blood is slightly alkaline, with a pH
between 7.35 and 7.45.
Lts temperature (38°C, or 100.4°F) is
always slightly higher than body
temperature.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
Blood accounts for approximately 8  Red blood cells (RBCs), function
percent of body weight, and its volume in primarily to ferry oxygen in blood to all
healthy men is 5 to 6 liters, or about 6 cells of the body.
quarts.  They are anucleate (they lack a
nucleus).
Plasma  Contain very few organelles.
 Plasma is 90 percent water, is the  Hemoglobin (Hb), an iron-bearing
liquid part of the blood. protein, transports the bulk of the oxygen
 Dissolved substances in plasma include that is carried in the blood and it also
nutrients, salts (electrolytes), respiratory binds with a small amount of carbon
gases, hormones, plasma proteins, and dioxide.
various wastes and products of cell  They do not use up any of the oxygen
metabolism. they are transporting, because they lack
 Plasma proteins are the most mitochondria and make ATP by anaerobic
abundant solutes in plasma. Example is mechanisms, that’s why they are very
Albumin. efficient oxygen transporters.
Most plasma proteins are made by the  Erythrocytes are small, flexible cells
liver. shaped like biconcave discs—flattened
 Albumin acts as a carrier to shuttle discs with depressed centers on both
certain molecules through the circulation, sides.
is an important blood buffer, and
contributes to the osmotic pressure of
blood, which acts to keep water in the
bloodstream.
 Clotting proteins help stem blood loss
when a blood vessel is injured, and
antibodies help protect the body from
pathogens.
 Respiratory system and the kidneys
are called into action to restore it to its
normal if the blood starts to become acidic  RBCs outnumber white blood cells by
or too basic, slightly alkaline pH range of about 1,000 to 1 and are the major factor
7.35 to 7.45. contributing to blood viscosity.
 Plasma helps to distribute body heat, a  There are normally about 5 million cells
by-product of cellular metabolism, evenly per cubic millimeter of blood (very tiny
throughout the body. drop of blood).
 When the number of RBC/mm3
increases, blood viscosity increases.
Formed Elements  The more hemoglobin molecules the
RBCs contain, the more oxygen they will
be able to carry.
 Measuring the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood is to determine how
much hemoglobin it contains.
 A single RBC contains about 250
million hemoglobin molecules.
 Normal blood contains 12–18 grams
(g) of hemoglobin per 100 milliliters (ml)
of blood.
The hemoglobin content is slightly
higher in men (13–18 g/ml) than in women
(12–16 g/ml).

Homeostatic Imbalance
Erythrocytes  Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

12
carrying ability of the blood.
 Anemia may be the result of a lower-
than-normal number of RBCs or
abnormal or deficient hemoglobin
content in the RBCs.
 Sickle cell anemia (SCA), the
abnormal hemoglobin formed becomes
spiky and sharp when the RBCs unload
oxygen molecules or when the oxygen
content of the blood is lower than
normal, as during vigorous exercise,
anxiety, or other stressful situations.

Leukocytes
 Leukocytes, or white blood cells
(WBCs), are far less numerous than red
blood cells, they are crucial to body
defense against disease.
 There are 4,800 to 10,800 WBC/mm3,
 The stiff, deformed (crescent-shaped) and they account for less than 1 percent
erythrocytes rupture easily and dam up of total blood volume. They contain
in small blood vessels. nuclei and the usual organelles.
These events interfere with oxygen  They helps defend the body against
delivery (leaving victims gasping for air) damage by bacteria, viruses, parasites,
and cause extreme pain. and tumor cells.
 Only individuals carrying two copies They are able to slip into and out of the
of the defective gene have sickle cell blood vessels—a process called
anemia. diapedesis (leaping across).
Those carrying just one sickling gene  WBCs can locate areas of tissue
have sickle cell trait (SCT). damage and infection in the body by
 Abnormal increase in the number of responding to certain chemicals that
erythrocytes is polycythemia. diffuse from the damaged cells, this
Polycythemia may result from bone capability is called positive chemotaxis.
marrow cancer (polycythemia vera).  Once they have “caught the scent,” the
 Secondary Polycythemia is a WBCs move through the tissue spaces by
normal physiologic (homeostatic) amoeboid motion (they form flowing
response to living at high altitudes, cytoplasmic extensions that help move
where the air is thinner and less oxygen them along).
is available. By following the diffusion gradient, they
 Excessive numbers of RBCs is pinpoint areas of tissue damage and rally
increased blood viscosity, which causes round in large numbers to destroy
blood to flow sluggishly in the body and microorganisms and dispose of dead cells.
impairs circulation.  A total WBC count above 11,000
cells/mm3 is referred to as leukocytosis.
 Leukocytosis generally indicates that
a bacterial or viral infection is stewing in
the body.
 Leukopenia (opposite), is an
abnormally low WBC count which is
caused by certain drugs, such as
corticosteroids and anticancer agents.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
 Homeostatic Imbalance Agranulocytes
 Leukemia, literally “white blood,”  Lack visible cytoplasmic granules.
the bone marrow becomes cancerous, Their nuclei are closer to the norm—
and huge numbers of WBCs are turned that is, they are spherical, oval, or
out rapidly. kidney-shaped.
The agranulocytes include
lymphocytes and monocytes.
Lymphocytes
WBCs are classified into two major  Large, dark purple nucleus.
groups— granulocytes and  Play an important role in the immune
agranulocytes: response lymphatic tissues.
Granulocytes Second most numerous leukocytes in
 Are granule containing WBCs. the blood.
They have lobed nuclei, which Monocytes
typically consist of several rounded  largest of the WBCs.
nuclear areas connected by thin strands  More abundant cytoplasm.
of nuclear material. Distinctive U- or kidney-shaped
Stained with Wright’s stain. nucleus.
 Granulocytes include the  When they migrate into the tissues,
neutrophils, eosinophils, and they change into macrophages with
basophils. huge appetites.
Neutrophils Macrophages are important in
 Most numerous of the WBCs. fighting chronic infections, such as
They have a multi-lobed nucleus and tuberculosis.
very fine granules that respond to both
acidic and basic stains. NOTE:
 They are avid phagocytes at sites of From most to least WBCs: Never let
acute infection. monkeys eat bananas (neutrophils,
They are particularly partial to lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils,
bacteria and fungi, which they kill basophils).
during a respiratory burst that deluges
the phagocytized invaders with a potent Platelets
brew of oxidizing substances.  Fragments of bizarre multinucleate cells
Eosinophils called megakaryocytes, which pinch off
 Blue-red nucleus that resembles an thousands of anucleate platelet “pieces”
old-fashioned telephone receiver and that quickly seal themselves off from the
sport coarse, lysosome-like, brick-red surrounding fluids.
cytoplasmic granules. It appears as darkly staining, irregularly
Their number increases rapidly during shaped bodies.
infections by parasitic worms  Normal platelet count in blood
(flatworms, tapeworms, etc.) ingested in (300,000 cells per mm3).
food (raw fish) or entering via the skin. They are needed for the clotting
 They gather around (on the prey) and process that occurs in plasma when blood
release enzymes from their cytoplasmic vessels are ruptured or broken.
granules onto the parasite’s surface,
digesting it away.
Basophils
 Rarest of the WBCs
Have large histamine-containing
granules that stain dark blue.
Histamine is an inflammatory
chemical that makes blood vessels leaky
and attracts other WBCs to the inflamed
site.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
  Fall apart in 100 to 120 days.
 Their remains are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen, liver, and other
body tissues.
 Iron is bound to protein as ferritin, and
the balance of the heme group is
degraded to bilirubin, which is then
secreted into the intestine by liver cells.
There it becomes a brown pigment
called stercobilin that leaves the body in
feces.
 Globin is broken down to amino acids,
which are released to the circulation.

 Lost cells are replaced by the division

of hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow.
The developing RBCs divide and then
begin synthesizing huge amounts of
hemoglobin.
 When enough hemoglobin has been
accumulated, the nucleus and most
organelles are ejected, and the cell
collapses inward which result the young
RBC, called a reticulocyte because it
still contains some rough endoplasmic
Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell Formation) reticulum (ER).
 Occurs in red bone marrow, or myeloid Reticulocytes enter the bloodstream
tissue. and transports oxygen.
 All the formed elements arise from a Within 2 days of release, they have
common type of stem cell, the ejected the remaining ER and have
hemocytoblast (“blood cell former”), become fully functioning erythrocytes.
which resides in the red bone marrow. The entire developmental process
 The hemocytoblast forms two types of from hemocytoblast to mature RBC
descendants: takes 3 to 5 days.
 Lymphoid stem cell, which  The rate of erythrocyte production is
produces lymphocytes. controlled by a hormone called
 Myeloid stem cell, which can erythropoietin.
produce all other classes of formed  Kidneys play the major role in
elements. producing this hormone.
 When blood levels of oxygen begin to
decline, the kidneys will release
erythropoietin.
Erythropoietin targets the bone
marrow, prodding it into “high gear” to
turn out more RBCs.

Formation of Red Blood Cells

 RBCs (anucleate) are unable to
synthesize proteins, grow, or divide.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
  It consists of the heart, which is a
muscular pumping device, and a closed
system of vessels called arteries, veins,
Formation of White Blood Cells and and capillaries.
Platelets  Heart is enclosed by a double-walled
Its formation is stimulated with sac called the pericardium.
hormones.  Fibrous pericardium helps protect the
 These colony stimulating factors heart and anchors it to surrounding
(CSFs) and interleukins not only prompt structures, such as the diaphragm and
red bone marrow to turn out leukocytes, sternum.
but also marshal up an army of WBCs to Deep to the fibrous pericardium is the
ward off attacks by enhancing the ability slippery, two-layer serous pericardium.
of mature leukocytes to protect the body. Its parietal layer lines the interior of
 They are released in response to the fibrous pericardium.
inflammatory chemicals and certain  The superior aspect of the heart this
bacteria or their toxins. parietal layer attaches to the large arteries
 Hormone thrombopoietin accelerates leaving the heart and then makes a U-turn
the production of platelets from and continues inferiorly over the heart
megakaryocytes. surface as the visceral layer, or
 Bone marrow biopsy is when there is epicardium.
bone marrow problems or diseases Serous fluid is produced by the serous
condition and a special needle is used to pericardial membranes which allows the
withdraw a small sample of red marrow heart to beat easily.
from one of the flat bones.
Homeostatic Imbalance
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM  Inflammation of the pericardium,
Anatomy Of The Heart pericarditis, often results in a decrease
in the already small amount of serous
fluid.

 Heart walls are composed of three

layers:
 outer epicardium (the visceral
pericardium)
 myocardium
 inner most endocardium
 Pericardium- fibrous sac that encloses
the heart
 Fibrous- anchors the heart in the
mediastinum.
 Serous - inner portion, contains
the pericardial fluid.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
  INTERATRIAL SEPTUM -remnant
of foramen ovale.
 INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM
-thicker than the atrial septum.
 These chambers are lined with
endocardium, which helps blood flow
smoothly through the heart.
Superior atria are primarily receiving
chambers.
 Inferior, thick-walled ventricles are
 Myocardium consists of thick bundles the discharging chambers, or actual
of cardiac muscle twisted and whorled into pumps of the heart.
ring-like arrangements.  Right ventricle forms most of the
 It is a layer that actually contracts. heart’s anterior surface; the left ventricle
Its cells exhibit both desmosomes, forms its apex.
which help to bind the mobile cardiac cells  Septum that divides the heart
together, and gap junctions, which allow longitudinally is referred to as either the
ions to flow from cell to cell carrying a interventricular septum or the
wave of excitement across the heart. interatrial septum.
It is reinforced internally by a dense, Pulmonary Circulation
fibrous connective tissue network called  carry blood to the lungs for gas
the “skeleton of the heart”. exchange and then return it to the
 Endocardium is a thin, glistening sheet heart.
of endothelium that lines the heart Right side works as the pulmonary
chambers. circuit pump.
It is continuous with the linings of the It receives relatively oxygen-poor
blood vessels leaving and entering the blood from the veins of the body
heart. through the large superior and inferior
venae cavae and pumps it out through
the pulmonary trunk.
The pulmonary trunk splits into the
right and left pulmonary arteries, which
carry blood to the lungs, where oxygen
is picked up and carbon dioxide is
unloaded.
Oxygen-rich blood drains from the
lungs and is returned to the left side of
the heart through the four pulmonary
veins.

Chambers and Associated Great

Vessels
 Heart has four hollow chambers:
 2 ATRIA- receiving chambers
 2 VENTRICLES - pumping
chambers -LV pumps towards the
aorta.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
  Mitral valve: located between the
left atrium and the left ventricle.
 Aortic valve: located between the
left ventricle and the aorta.
Atrioventricular valves
located between the atrial and
ventricular chambers on each side and it
prevents backflow into the atria when the
ventricles contract.
 The left AV valve—the bicuspid, or
mitral, valve consists of two flaps, or
cusps, of endocardium.
The right AV valve, the tricuspid valve,
has three flaps.
Tiny white cords, the chordae
tendineae (“tendinous cords”) anchor the
flaps to the walls of the ventricles.
When the heart is relaxed and blood is
Systemic Circulation passively filling its chambers, the AV valve
from the left side of the heart through flaps hang limply into the ventricles.
the body tissues and back to the right
side of the heart. NOTE:
 It supplies oxygen- and nutrient-rich AV valves are open during heart
blood to all body organs. relaxation and closed when the ventricles
Blood returned to the left side of the are contracting.
heart is pumped out of the heart into
the aorta.
Oxygen-poor blood circulates from the
tissues back to the right atrium via the
systemic veins, which finally empty their
cargo into either the superior or inferior
vena cava.
Left ventricle is the systemic pump
that pumps blood over a much longer
pathway.
 Its walls are thicker than those of the
right ventricle and it is a much more
powerful pump.

Semilunar valves
Known as pulmonary and aortic
semilunar valves.
 Each semilunar valve has three leaflets.
 When the ventricles are contracting
and forcing blood out of the heart, the
leaflets are forced open and flattened
against the walls of the arteries by the
Heart Valves tremendous force of rushing blood.
Heart has 4 valves. When the ventricles relax, the blood
 Tricuspid valve: located between begins to flow backward toward the heart,
the right atrium and the right and the leaflets fill with blood, closing the
ventricle. valves which prevents arterial blood from
 Pulmonary valve: located reentering the heart.
between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery. NOTE:

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
Semilunar valves are closed during  Myocardium is deprived of oxygen
heart relaxation and are forced open when often result in crushing chest pain called
the ventricles contract. angina pectoris.
 If angina is prolonged the oxygen-
deprived heart cells may die, forming an
area called an infarct.
The resulting myocardial infarction
is commonly called a “heart attack,” a
“coronary,” or simply an “MI.”

Physiology of the Heart

Intrinsic Conduction System of the
Heart
 Cardiac muscle cells can and do
contract spontaneously and
independently.
 Atrial cells beat about 60 times per
Homeostatic Imbalance minute.
 Incompetent valve forces the heart Ventricular cells contract more slowly
to pump and repump the same blood (20–40 times per minute).
because the valve does not close  Two systems act to regulate heart
properly and blood backflows. activity:
Valvular stenosis, the valve flaps  Autonomic nervous system,
become stiff, often because of repeated which act like brakes and gas
bacterial infection of the endocardium pedals to decrease or increase the
(endocarditis). heart rate depending on which
division is activated.
 Intrinsic conduction system, or
nodal system, that is built into the
heart tissue and sets its basic
Cardiac Circulation rhythm.
 The functional blood supply that
oxygenates and nourishes the heart is
provided by the right and left coronary
arteries.
 Coronary arteries branch from the
base of the aorta and encircle the heart in
the coronary sulcus (atrioventricular
groove) at the junction of the atria and
ventricles.
 The coronary arteries and their major
branches (the anterior interventricular
and circumflex arteries on the left, and
the posterior interventricular and Intrinsic conduction system
marginal arteries on the right) are
compressed when the ventricles are
contracting and fill when the heart is
relaxed.
The myocardium is drained by several
cardiac veins, which empty into an
enlarged vessel on the posterior of the
heart called the coronary sinus.
The coronary sinus empties into the
right atrium.
Homeostatic Imbalance

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
 blood supply to the heart muscle, may
lead to fibrillation—a rapid,
uncoordinated shuddering of the heart
muscle.
 Fibrillation makes the heart totally
useless as a pump and is a major cause
of death from heart attacks in adults.
 Tachycardia is a rapid heart rate
(over 100 beats per minute).
Bradycardia is a heart rate that is
substantially slower than normal (less
than 60 beats per minute).

Cardiac Cycle and Heart Sounds

 Systole and diastole mean heart
contraction and relaxation.
 Cardiac cycle refers to the events of
one complete heartbeat, during which
both atria and ventricles contract and then
relax.
The average heart beats approximately
75 times per minute, so the length of the
cardiac cycle is normally about 0.8
second.

 This system causes heart muscle

depolarization from the atria to the
ventricles.
It enforces a contraction rate of
approximately 75 beats per minute on the
heart.
 Important parts of the intrinsic
conduction system is a crescent-shaped
node of tissue called the sinoatrial (SA) Heart Sounds
node, located in the right atrium. S1 closure of AV valves
SA node is often called the pacemaker ventricular systole (LUBB)
of the heart. S2 rapid, high pitch
The atrioventricular (AV) node at the closure of SL valves
junction of the atria and ventricles. Most ventricular diastole
common site for heart block. S3  rapid filling of ventricles
The atrioventricular (AV) bundle ventricular gallop
(bundle of His) and the right and left early diastole
bundle branches located in the S4 atrial kick
interventricular septum. atrial gallop (MI, Chronic
Purkinje fibers, which spread within Hypertension)
the muscle of the ventricle walls. And the late diastole
largest pacemaker.
Mid-to-late diastole
Homeostatic Imbalance  Heart in complete relaxation.
 Damage to the SA node results in a  Pressure in the heart is low.
slower heart rate.  Blood is flowing passively into and
 Ischemia, or lack of an adequate through the atria into the ventricles

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
 from the pulmonary and systemic  Ejection of blood
circulations.  AFTER LOAD- amount of force
 Semilunar valves are closed. that the ventricles must
 AV valves are open. overcome to eject blood
 Then the atria contract and force  RV- 8 mmHg LV- 80 mmHg
the blood remaining in their Period of Isovolumentric
chambers into the ventricles. Relaxation
 Decrease in pressure

Ventricular systole Homeostatic Imbalance

 Shortly after, ventricular  Abnormal or unusual heart sounds
contraction (systole) begins. are called heart murmurs.
 Pressure within the ventricles  If it strikes obstructions, its flow
increases rapidly, closing the AV becomes turbulent and generates
valves and preventing backflow sounds, such as heart murmurs, that
into the atria. can be heard with a stethoscope.
 When the intraventricular pressure  Common in young children (and some
is higher than the pressure in the elderly people) with perfectly healthy
large arteries leaving the heart, the hearts.
semilunar valves are forced open,  However, murmurs in patients who
and blood rushes through them out do not fall into either of these groups
of the ventricles. most often indicate valve problems.
 During ventricular systole, the atria
are relaxed, and their chambers are HEMODYNAMICS
again filling with blood. is the study of blood flow.
Early diastole It focuses on how the heart distributes
 At the end of systole, the ventricles or pumps blood throughout the body
relax. STROKE 70 ML (amount of blood
 Semilunar valves snap shut VOLUME flow every beat)
(preventing backflow into the  EDV - ESV (End Diastolic
ventricles). Volume - End Systolic
 Ventricles are completely closed Volume)
chambers. 120 ml - 50 ml = 70 ML
 Intraventricular pressure drops. CARDIAC 4-6 L/min (amount of
 When it drops below the pressure OUTPUT blood ejected/min)
in the atria (which has been SV x HR
increasing as blood has been filling PULSE  40 mmHg
their chambers), the AV valves are PRESSUR (Systole- Diastole)
forced open, and the ventricles E Increase (aortic stiffness)
again begin to refill rapidly with Decrease (hypovolemic
blood, completing the cycle. shock)
Period of rapid filling (AV valves MEAN  70-110 mmHg
open, SL valves close) ARTERIAL
 1st 3rd- 75% of the blood goes to PRESSUR MAP =
the ventricles (passive) E
 Middle 3rd- continuous blood EJECTION > 55%
flow FRACTIO SV / EDV
 Last 3rd- 25% blood (atrial kick) N if low > left ventricular
Period of Isovolumentric impairment
Contraction (AV and SL valves are
close)
Cardiac Output
 No change in volume
 Cardiac output (CO) is the amount of
 Increase in ventricular pressure
blood pumped out by each side of the
Period of Ejection (SL valves are
heart (actually each ventricle) in 1 minute.
open, AV valves are close)

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
Product of the heart rate (HR) and the  Stroke volume of healthy people are
stroke volume (SV). constant.
 Stroke volume is the volume of blood But when blood volume drops suddenly
pumped out by a ventricle with each or when the heart has been seriously
heartbeat. It increases as the force of weakened, stroke volume declines, and
ventricular contraction increases. cardiac output is maintained by a faster
 If we use the normal resting values for heartbeat.
heart rate (75 beats per minute) and  Most important external influence on
stroke volume (70 ml per beat), the heart rate is the activity of the autonomic
average adult cardiac output can be easily nervous system.
figured: Heart rate is also modified by several
chemicals, hormones, and ions.
CO = HR (75 beats/min) × SV (70 ml/beat)
CO = 5250 ml/min = 5.25 L/min Neural (ANS) controls
 During times of physical or emotional
 Normal adult blood volume is about stress, the nerves of the sympathetic
6,000 ml. division of the autonomic nervous system
Cardiac output rises when the stroke more strongly stimulate the SA and AV
volume is increased or the heart beats nodes and the cardiac muscle itself which
faster or both; it drops when either or both result rapid heart beating. For example is
of these factors decrease. when you are frightened or has had to run
to catch a bus.
Regulation of Stroke Volume  Parasympathetic nerves, primarily
 According to Starling’s law of the the vagus nerves, slow and steady the
heart, the critical factor controlling stroke heart, giving it more time to rest during
volume is how much the cardiac muscle noncrisis times. In patients with
cells are stretched just before they congestive heart failure, the heart pumps
contract. weakly.
The more they are stretched, the  For those patients, the drug digitalis is
stronger the contraction. routinely prescribed. It enhances
 The important factor stretching the contractile force and stroke volume of the
heart muscle is venous return, the heart, resulting in greater cardiac output.
amount of blood entering the heart and
distending its ventricles. Hormones and ions
 Increases the volume or speed of  Epinephrine, which mimics the effect
venous return also increases stroke of the sympathetic nerves and is released
volume and force of contraction. in response to sympathetic nerve
stimulation, and thyroxine both increase
heart rate.
 Electrolyte imbalances pose a real
threat to the heart.
 For example, reduced levels of ionic
calcium in the blood depress the heart,
whereas excessive blood calcium causes
such prolonged contractions that the heart
may stop entirely.

Physical factors
 Age, gender, exercise, and body
temperature, influence heart rate.
Resting heart rate is fastest in the fetus
 Exercise speeds venous return because (140–160 beats per minute) and decreases
it results in increased heart rate and force. throughout life.

Factors Modifying Basic Heart Rate

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

13
 The average heart rate is faster in  As the heart beats, it propels blood into
females (72–80 beats per minute) than in the large arteries leaving the heart.
males (64–72 beats per minute). Blood then moves into successively
 Heat increases heart rate by smaller and smaller arteries and then into
boosting the metabolic rate of heart cells. the arterioles, which feed the capillary
 Cold decreases heart rate. beds in the tissues.
 Exercise acts through nervous system Capillary beds are drained by
controls (sympathetic division) to increase venules, which in turn empty into veins
heart rate (and also, through the action of that finally empty into the great veins
the muscular pump, to increase stroke (venae cavae) entering the heart.
volume). Arteries carry blood away from the
heart.
Homeostatic Imbalance Veins drains the tissues and return the
 When the pumping efficiency of the blood to the heart.
heart is depressed so that circulation is NOTE:
inadequate to meet tissue needs, Arteries carries oxygenated blood
congestive heart failure (CHF) (light red), while veins carry
occurs. deoxygenated blood (dark red).
 Congestive heart failure is usually The difference of its color is due to the
a progressive condition that reflects shape of RBC when oxygen binds to
weakening of the heart by coronary haemoglobin in the blood cell
atherosclerosis (build-up of plaque), (oxygenated) versus does not bind to it
persistent high blood pressure, or (deoxygenated).
multiple myocardial infarctions (leading  We routinely depict arteries in red and
to repair with non-contracting scar veins in blue because, red indicates
tissue). oxygen-rich blood, the normal status of
 If the left heart fails, pulmonary blood in most of the body’s arteries, and
congestion occurs. The right side of blue indicates relatively oxygen-depleted,
the heart continues to propel blood to carbon dioxide–rich blood, the normal
the lungs, but the left side is unable to status of blood in most of the veins.
eject the returning blood into the But it is not the same on lungs, because
systemic circulation. oxygen-poor blood is carried in the
 As blood vessels within the lungs pulmonary artery, while oxygen-rich blood
become swollen with blood, the is transported back to the heart in
pressure within them increases, and pulmonary veins.
fluid leaks from the circulation into the
lung tissue, causing pulmonary Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels
edema. Tunics
 If the right side of the heart fails,
peripheral congestion occurs as
blood backs up in the systemic
circulation.
 Edema is most noticeable in the
distal parts of the body: The feet,
ankles, and fingers become swollen and
puffy.

BLOOD VESSELS
 Blood circulates inside the blood
vessels, which form a closed transport
system, the so-called vascular system.
 In 17th century, William Harvey, an
English physician, proved that blood move
in circles.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 Arteries must be able to expand as
blood is forced into them and then recoil
passively as the blood flows off into the
circulation during diastole.
Their walls must be strong and
stretchy enough to take these
continuous changes in pressure.
Veins
 Far from the heart in the circulatory
pathway.
 Have thinner walls.
Blood pressure is low.
Veins are modified to ensure that the
amount of blood returning to the heart
(venous return) equals the amount
being pumped out of the heart (cardiac
output) at any time since their blood
pressure is low and the blood returning
is against the gravity.
Lumens of veins is larger than the
arteries.
Have a thinner tunica media but a
thicker tunica externa.
 The walls of blood vessels have three
The larger veins have valves that
layers:
prevent backflow of blood.
 Tunica intima, which lines the
Skeletal muscle activity also
lumen, or interior, of the vessels, is
enhances venous return.
a thin layer of endothelium
As the muscles surrounding the veins
(squamous epithelial cells) resting
contract and relax, the blood is
on a basement membrane. Its cells
squeezed, or “milked,” through the
fit closely together and form a slick
veins toward the heart.
surface that decreases friction as
Capillaries
blood flows through the vessel
lumen. Transparent walls are only one cell
 Tunica media is the bulky middle layer thick—just the tunica intima.
layer. It is mostly smooth muscle The tiny capillaries tend to form
and elastic fibers. Some of the interweaving networks called capillary
larger arteries have elastic beds.
laminae, sheets of elastic tissue, in The flow of blood from an arteriole to
addition to the scattered elastic a venule through a capillary bed is
fibers. called microcirculation. A capillary
 Tunica externa is the outermost bed consists of two types of vessels:
tunic which composed largely of  Vascular shunt, a vessel that
fibrous connective tissue, and its directly connects the arteriole
function is basically to support and and venule at opposite ends of
protect the vessels. the bed.
 True capillaries, the actual
exchange vessels.
Structural Differences in Arteries,
Veins, and Capillaries
Arteries
 Closer to the pumping action of the
heart.
 Walls of arteries are thicker.
 Arterial tunica media tends to be
much heavier.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 circulation.
A common consequence of
thrombophlebitis is clot detachment
and pulmonary embolism, which is a
life-threatening condition.

Blood Supply of the Heart

True capillaries number 10 to 100 Major Arteries of the Systemic

per capillary bed. Circulation
They spring from the terminal Aorta is the largest artery of the body.
arteriole and empty directly into the It decreases only slightly in diameter as
post-capillary venule. it runs to its terminus.
A cuff of smooth muscle fibers, called The aorta springs upward from the left
a precapillary sphincter, surrounds ventricle of the heart as the ascending
the root of each true capillary and acts aorta, arches to the left as the aortic
as a valve to regulate the flow of blood arch, and then plunges downward through
into the capillary. the thorax, following the spine (thoracic
Blood flowing through a terminal aorta) finally to pass through the
arteriole may take one of two routes: diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity,
through the true capillaries or through where it becomes the abdominal aorta.
the shunt.
When the precapillary sphincters
are relaxed (open), blood flows through
the true capillaries and takes part in
exchanges with tissue cells.
When the sphincters are contracted
(closed), blood flows through the shunts
and bypasses the tissue cells in that
region.

Homeostatic Imbalance
Varicose veins are common in
people who stand for long periods of
time.
The common factors are the pooling of
blood in the feet and legs and inefficient
venous return resulting from inactivity
or pressure on the veins.
The overworked valves give way, and
the veins become twisted and dilated.
A serious complication of varicose
veins is thrombophlebitis,
inflammation of a vein that results when
a clot forms in a vessel with poor

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
  Intercostal arteries (10 pairs) supply
the muscles of the thorax wall.
Other branches of the thoracic aorta
supply the lungs (bronchial arteries), the
esophagus (esophageal arteries), and the
diaphragm (phrenic arteries).

Arterial Branches of the Abdominal

Aorta
 Celiac trunk is the first branch of the
abdominal aorta.
 It is a single vessel that has three
branches:
 L. gastric artery, which supplies
the stomach.
 Splenic artery, which supplies the
spleen.
 Common hepatic artery, which
supplies the liver.
 Superior mesenteric artery supplies
most of the small intestine and the first
half of the large intestine, or colon.
The renal (R. and L.) arteries serve
the kidneys.
 Gonadal (R. and L.) arteries supply
the gonads. They are called the ovarian
arteries in females (serving the ovaries)
and the testicular arteries in males
Arterial Branches of the Ascending
(serving the testes).
Aorta
 Lumbar arteries are several pairs of
Only branches of the ascending aorta
arteries serving the heavy muscles of the
are the right (R.) and left (L.) coronary
abdomen and trunk walls.
arteries, which serve the heart.
 Inferior mesenteric artery is a small,
Arterial Branches of the Aortic Arch
unpaired artery supplying the second half
Brachiocephalic trunk (the first
of the large intestine.
branch off the aortic arch) splits into the R.
 Common iliac (R. and L.) arteries are
common carotid artery and R. subclavian
the final branches of the abdominal aorta.
artery.
Each divides into an:
L. common carotid artery is the
 Internal iliac artery, which
second branch off the aortic arch. It
supplies the pelvic organs (bladder,
divides, forming the L. internal carotid,
rectum, and so on).
which serves the brain, and the L. external
 External iliac artery, which
carotid, which serves the skin and muscles
enters the thigh, where it becomes
of the head and neck.
the femoral artery.
L. subclavian artery (third branch of
 Femoral artery and its branch:
the aortic arch), gives off an important
 Deep artery of the thigh, serve
branch— the vertebral artery, which
the thigh.
serves part of the brain. In the axilla, the
 At the knee, the femoral artery
subclavian artery becomes the axillary
becomes the popliteal artery,
artery and then continues into the arm as
which then splits into the anterior
the brachial artery, which supplies the
and posterior tibial arteries, which
arm. At the elbow, the brachial artery
supply the leg and foot.
splits to form the radial and ulnar
 The anterior tibial artery terminates in
arteries, which serve the forearm.
the dorsalis pedis artery, which via the
Arterial Branches of the Thoracic
Aorta

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
arcuate artery supplies the dorsum of  Anterior and posterior tibial veins
the foot. and the fibular vein drain the leg (calf
and foot). The posterior tibial vein
Major Veins of the Systemic becomes the popliteal vein at the knee
Circulation and then the femoral vein in the thigh.
 Veins are more superficial and easily The femoral vein becomes the external
seen and palpated. iliac vein as it enters the pelvis.
Veins converge on the venae cavae,  Great saphenous veins (longest
which enter the right atrium of the heart. veins) receive the superficial drainage of
Veins draining the head and arms empty the leg. They begin at the dorsal venous
into the superior vena cava, and those arch in the foot and travel up the medial
draining the lower body empty into the aspect of the leg to empty into the femoral
inferior vena cava. vein in the thigh.
 Each common iliac (R. and L.) vein is
Veins Draining into the Superior Vena formed by the union of the external iliac
Cava vein and the internal iliac vein (which
 Radial and ulnar veins are deep veins drains the pelvis) on its own side. The
draining the forearm. They unite to form common iliac veins join to form the inferior
the deep brachial vein, which drains the vena cava, which then ascends superiorly
arm and empties into the axillary vein in in the abdominal cavity.
the axillary region. The R. gonadal vein drains the right
 Cephalic vein provides for the ovary in females and the right testicle in
superficial drainage of the lateral aspect of males. (The L. gonadal vein empties into
the arm and empties into the axillary vein. the left renal vein superiorly.)
Basilic vein is a superficial vein that  Renal (R. and L.) veins drain the
drains the medial aspect of the arm and kidneys.
empties into the brachial vein proximally. The hepatic portal vein is a single vein
The basilic and cephalic veins are joined at that drains the digestive tract organs and
the anterior aspect of the elbow by the carries this blood through the liver before
median cubital vein. it enters the systemic circulation.
 Subclavian vein receives venous The hepatic (R. and L.) veins drain
blood from the arm through the axillary the liver.
vein and from the skin and muscles of the
head through the external jugular vein. Arterial Supply of the Brain and the
Vertebral vein drains the posterior part Circle of Willis
of the head. A lack of blood (even few mins) can
The internal jugular vein drains the cause the brain cells to die.
dural sinuses of the brain.  Brain is supplied by two pairs of
 Brachiocephalic (R. and L.) veins are arteries, the internal carotid arteries and
large veins that receive venous drainage the vertebral arteries.
from the subclavian, vertebral, and
internal jugular veins on their respective
sides. It joins to form the superior vena
cava, which enters the heart.
 Azygos vein is a single vein that drains
the thorax and enters the superior vena
cava just before it joins the heart.

Veins Draining into the Inferior Vena

Cava
 Inferior vena cava, which is much
longer than the superior vena cava,
returns blood to the heart from all body
regions below the diaphragm.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 Hepatic Portal Circulation

Internal Carotid Arteries

It branches of the common carotid
arteries, run through the neck and enter
the skull through the temporal bone.
Once inside the cranium, each divides
into the anterior and middle cerebral
arteries, which supply most of the
cerebrum.
Its veins drain the digestive organs,
Vertebral Arteries spleen, and pancreas and deliver this
 Paired vertebral arteries pass upward blood to the liver through the hepatic
from the subclavian arteries at the base of portal vein.
the neck.  When you have just eaten, the hepatic
Within the skull, the vertebral arteries portal blood contains large amounts of
join to form the single basilar artery nutrients.
which serves the brain stem and Liver is a key body organ involved in
cerebellum as it travels upward. maintaining the proper glucose, fat, and
At the base of the cerebrum, the basilar protein concentrations in the blood, this
artery divides to form the posterior system “takes a detour” to ensure that
cerebral arteries, which supply the the liver processes these substances
posterior part of the cerebrum. before they enter the systemic circulation.
 The anterior and posterior blood  Liver is drained by the hepatic veins
supplies of the brain are united by small that enter the inferior vena cava.
communicating arterial branches.  Major vessels composing the hepatic
The result is a complete circle of portal circulation are:
connecting blood vessels called either the  Inferior mesenteric veins
cerebral arterial circle or the circle of - Draining the terminal part of
Willis. the large intestine, drains
 Cerebral arterial circle protects the into the splenic vein,
brain by providing more than one route for which itself drains the
blood to reach brain tissue in case of a clot spleen, pancreas, and the
or impaired blood flow anywhere in the left side of the stomach.
system.  Superior mesenteric veins
- Splenic vein and superior
mesenteric vein drains the
small intestine and the first
part of the colon join to form
the hepatic portal vein.
 Splenic vein
 Left gastric vein

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 - Which drains the right side  Blood that does manage to enter the
of the stomach, drains right ventricle is pumped out the
directly into the hepatic pulmonary trunk, where it meets a second
portal vein. shunt, the ductus arteriosus, a short
vessel that connects the aorta and the
Fetal Circulation pulmonary trunk.
 Gas exchanges occur through the  Because the collapsed lungs are a high-
placenta because lungs and digestive pressure area, blood tends to enter the
system are not yet functioning in a fetus. systemic circulation through the ductus
 Nutrients and oxygen move from the arteriosus.
mother’s blood into the fetal blood, and The aorta carries blood to the tissues of
fetal wastes move in the opposite the fetal body and ultimately back to the
direction. placenta through the umbilical arteries.
 The umbilical cord contains three blood Foramen ovale closes at birth.
vessels: Its remnant, the fossa ovalis, is visible
 One large umbilical vein that in the right atrium.
carries blood rich in nutrients and Ductus arteriosus collapses and is
oxygen to the fetus. converted to the fibrous ligamentum
 Two smaller umbilical arteries arteriosum.
that carry carbon dioxide and  As blood stops flowing through the
debris-laden blood from the fetus umbilical vessels, they become
to the placenta. obliterated, and the circulatory pattern
converts to that of an adult.

PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
 Person’s circulatory system can be
obtained by taking arterial pulse and
blood pressure measurements or vital
signs.
Arterial Pulse
 Normally the pulse rate (pressure
surges per minute) equals the heart rate
(beats per minute).
The pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per
minute in a healthy resting person.
 Radial artery surfaces at the wrist (the
radial pulse) is routinely used to take a
pulse measurement.

 Blood flows superiorly toward the heart

of the fetus, most of it bypasses the
immature liver through the ductus
venosus and enters the inferior vena
cava, which carries the blood to the right
atrium of the heart.
 Some of the blood entering the right
atrium is shunted directly into the left  These same points are compressed to
atrium through the foramen ovale. stop blood flow into distal tissues during

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
significant blood loss or hemorrhage, they Diastolic pressure, the pressure when
are also called pressure points. the ventricles are relaxing.
 Palpate each of the pulse points by  Blood pressures are reported in
using your first 2 or 3 fingers. millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
 Do not use your thumb for Higher systolic pressure written first—
palpation since it has its own pulse. 120/80 (120 over 80) translates to a
 Compress the artery firmly. systolic pressure of 120 mm Hg and a
diastolic pressure of 80 mm Hg.
Blood Pressure  Systemic arterial blood pressure is
 Blood pressure is the pressure the measured indirectly by the auscultatory
blood exerts against the inner walls of the method.
blood vessels, and it is the force that This procedure is used to measure blood
keeps blood circulating continuously even pressure in the brachial artery of the arm.
between heartbeats.

Blood Pressure Gradient

 When the ventricles contract, they force
blood into large, thick-walled elastic
arteries close to the heart that expand as
the blood is pushed into them.
 High pressure in these arteries forces
the blood to continuously move into areas
where the pressure is lower.
The pressure is highest in the large
arteries and continues to drop throughout
the systemic and pulmonary pathways,
reaching either zero or negative pressure
at the venae cavae.

Effects of Various Factors on Blood

Pressure
 Arterial blood pressure (BP) is
directly related to cardiac output (CO;
the amount of blood pumped out of the
left ventricle per minute) and peripheral
resistance (PR).
Equation: BP = CO × PR
 Peripheral resistance is the amount
 Continuous blood flow absolutely of friction the blood encounters as it flows
depends on the stretchiness of the larger through the blood vessels.
arteries and their ability to recoil and keep Factors increase peripheral resistance
exerting pressure on the blood as it flows are constriction, or narrowing, of blood
off into the circulation. vessels, especially arterioles.
 Arteriosclerosis is also called  Increased blood volume or
“hardening of the arteries”. increased blood viscosity (thickness)
also raises peripheral resistance.
Measuring Blood Pressure  Factors can alter blood pressure—age,
 Systolic pressure, the pressure in the weight, time of day, exercise, body
arteries at the peak of ventricular position, emotional state, and various
contraction. drugs.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 Neural factors: the autonomic Because the source of this water is the
nervous system. bloodstream, blood volume decreases,
 Parasympathetic division of the which in turn decreases blood pressure.
autonomic nervous system has little or no When arterial blood pressure falls, the
effect on blood pressure. kidneys retain body water, increasing
 Major action of the sympathetic blood volume, and blood pressure rises.
nerves on the vascular system is to cause  When arterial blood pressure is low,
vasoconstriction, or narrowing of the blood certain kidney cells release the enzyme
vessels, which increases the blood renin into the blood.
pressure (See figure below). Renin triggers a series of chemical
 For example, when we stand up reactions that result in the formation of
suddenly after lying down, the effect of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor
gravity causes blood to pool in the vessels chemical.
of the legs and feet, and blood pressure Angiotensin also stimulates the
drops. This activates pressoreceptors, adrenal cortex to release aldosterone, a
also called baroreceptors, in the large hormone that enhances sodium ion
arteries of the neck and chest. They send reabsorption by the kidneys.
off warning signals that result in reflexive As sodium moves into the blood, water
vasoconstriction, increasing blood follows and blood volume and blood
pressure back to homeostatic levels. pressure both rise.

Temperature
 Cold has a vasoconstricting effect (cold
compresses prevents swelling of a bruised
area).
 Heat has a vasodilating effect (warm
compresses are used to speed the
circulation into an inflamed area).

Chemicals
Epinephrine increases both heart rate
and blood pressure.
 Nicotine increases blood pressure by
causing vasoconstriction.
Both alcohol and histamine cause
 When blood volume suddenly vasodilation and decrease blood pressure.
decreases, as in hemorrhage, blood
pressure drops, and the heart begins to Diet
beat more rapidly as it tries to Diet low in salt, saturated fats, and
compensate. However, because blood cholesterol helps to prevent hypertension,
loss reduces venous return, the heart also or high blood pressure.
beats weakly and inefficiently. In such
cases, the sympathetic nervous system Variations in Blood Pressure
causes vasoconstriction to increase the  In normal adults at rest, systolic blood
blood pressure so that venous return pressure varies between 110 and 140
increases and circulation can continue. mm Hg, and diastolic pressure between
70 and 80 mm Hg.
Renal factors: the kidneys  Blood pressure varies with age, weight,
 Kidneys play a major role in regulating race, mood, physical activity, and posture.
arterial blood pressure by altering blood  Hypotension, or low blood pressure, is
volume. generally considered to be a systolic blood
As blood pressure (and/ or blood pressure below 100 mm Hg.
volume) increases beyond normal, the
kidneys allow more water to leave the
body in the urine. Homeostatic Imbalance

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 Elderly people may experience 2. Diffusion through intercellular
temporary low blood pressure and clefts.
dizziness when they rise suddenly from - Limited passage of fluid and
a reclining or sitting position—a small solutes is allowed by
condition called orthostatic intercellular clefts. Most of
hypotension. our capillaries have
 Acute hypotension is one of the most intercellular clefts (except
important warnings of circulatory shock, a for brain capillaries).
condition in which the blood vessels are 3.Diffusion through pores.
inadequately filled and blood cannot - Very free passage of small
circulate normally. solutes and fluids is allowed
 Hypertension, or high blood by fenestrated (oval pore)
pressure, is elevated arterial pressure of capillaries and they are
140/90 or higher. found where absorption is a
priority (intestinal capillaries
Capillary Exchange of Gases and or capillaries serving
Nutrients endocrine glands) or where
filtration occurs (the
kidney).
4.Transport via vesicles.
- Certain lipid-insoluble
substances may enter or
leave the blood and/ or pass
through the plasma
membranes of endothelial
cells within vesicles by
endocytosis or exocytosis.
 Protein molecules (in plasma or
interstitial fluid) and blood cells are
unable to pass by one of these routes are
prevented from leaving (or entering) the
capillaries.
 The substances to be exchanged diffuse
Fluid Movements at Capillary Beds
through an intervening space between
 Some capillaries are leaky, and bulk
cells filled with interstitial fluid (tissue
fluid flows occur across their plasma
fluid).
membranes because of their intercellular
 Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
clefts and fenestrations.
and move into the tissue cells, and carbon
 Blood pressure tends to force fluid (and
dioxide and other wastes exit the tissue
solutes) out of the capillaries, and
cells and enter the blood.
osmotic pressure tends to draw fluid
 Substances entering or leaving the
into them because blood has a higher
blood may take one of four routes across
solute concentration (due to its plasma
the plasma membranes of the single layer
proteins) than does interstitial fluid.
of endothelial cells forming the capillary
 Whether fluid moves out of or into a
wall.
capillary depends on the difference
between the two pressures. As a rule,
1.Direct diffusion through membrane.
blood pressure is higher than osmotic
- As with all cells, substances
pressure at the arterial end of the capillary
can diffuse directly through
bed, and lower than osmotic pressure at
(cross) their plasma
the venous end.
membranes if the
Fluid moves out of the capillaries at the
substances are lipid-soluble
beginning of the bed and is reclaimed at
(like the respiratory gases
the opposite (venule) end.
oxygen and carbon dioxide).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

14
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The lymphatic vessels transport back
to the blood fluids that have escaped from
the blood vascular system.
 It consists lymphatic vessels and
various lymphoid tissues and organs.

Lymphatic Vessels
 The leaked fluid, as well as any plasma
proteins that escape from the blood, must
be carried back to the blood if the vascular
Developmental Aspects of the
system is to have sufficient blood volume
Cardiovascular System
to operate properly.
The heart begins as a tubelike structure
 If it does not, fluid accumulates in the
that is beating and pumping blood by the
tissues, producing edema that will impairs
fourth week of embryonic development.
the ability of tissue cells to make
Congenital heart defects account for half
exchanges with the interstitial fluid and
of all infant deaths resulting from
ultimately the blood.
congenital problems. Arteriosclerosis
 The function of the lymphatic vessels
is an expected consequence of aging.
is to form an elaborate drainage system
Gradual loss of elasticity in the arteries
that picks up this excess tissue fluid, now
leads to hypertension and hypertensive
called lymph (lymph = clear water), and
heart disease, and clogging of the vessels
returns it to the blood.
with fatty substances leads to coronary
artery disease and stroke. Cardiovascular
disease is an important cause of death in
individuals over age 65.
Modifications in diet (decreased fats,
cholesterol, and salt), stopping smoking,
and regular aerobic exercise may help to
reverse the atherosclerotic process and
prolong life.

ECG STRIP

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
Lymphatic vessels, also called  Both ducts empty the lymph into the
lymphatics, form a one-way system, and subclavian vein.
lymph flows only toward the heart.  Lymphatic system is a low-pressure,
The microscopic, blind-ended lymph pumpless system.
capillaries weave between the tissue Lymph is transported by the same
cells and blood capillaries in the loose mechanisms that aid return of venous
connective tissues of the body and absorb blood—the milking action of the skeletal
the leaked fluid. muscles and pressure changes in the
thorax during breathing.

Lymph Nodes
 Lymph nodes in particular help protect
the body by removing foreign material
such as bacteria and tumor cells from the
lymphatic stream and by producing
lymphocytes that function in the immune
response.
 Lymph is filtered through the thousands
of lymph nodes.
 Proteins, and even larger particles such  Within the lymph nodes are
as cell debris, bacteria, and viruses, are macrophages, which engulf and destroy
prevented from entering blood bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
capillaries, but they enter the substances in the lymph before it is
lymphatic capillaries easily, particularly returned to the blood.
in inflamed areas. Bacteria, viruses and Collections of lymphocyte are also
cancer cells can travel throughout the strategically located in the lymph nodes
body. and respond to foreign substances in the
The function of lymph is that it takes lymphatic stream.
“detours” through the lymph nodes, where The swollen glands during an active
it is cleansed of debris and “examined” by infection are nodes of the lymphatic
cells of the immune system system that results from the trapping
 Lymph is transported from the lymph function of the nodes.
capillaries through successively larger  Lymph nodes are kidney-shaped, less
lymphatic vessels, referred to as than 1inch long, and “buried” in the
lymphatic collecting vessels. connective tissue that surrounds them.
 Right lymphatic duct drains the  Each node is surrounded by a fibrous
lymph from the right arm and the right capsule from which strands called
side of the head and thorax. trabeculae.
The large thoracic duct receives lymph
from the rest of the body.

Lymphocytes arise from the red bone

marrow but then migrate to the lymph
nodes and other lymphoid organs.
 The outer part of the node, its cortex,
contains collections of lymphocytes called

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
follicles, many of which have dark- Organs Description
staining centers called germinal centers. Spleen  Soft, blood-rich organ that
 The centers enlarge when specific filters blood.
lymphocytes (the B cells) are generating Located in the left side of
daughter cells called plasma cells, which the abdominal cavity, just
release antibodies. beneath the diaphragm, and
The rest of the cortical cells are curls around the
lymphocytes “in transit,” the so-called T anterolateral aspect of the
cells that circulate continuously between stomach.
the blood, lymph nodes, and lymphatic  It filters and cleanses
stream, performing their surveillance role. blood of bacteria, viruses,
Phagocytic macrophages are located in and other debris.
the central medulla of the lymph node. It provides a site for
 Lymph enters the convex side of a lymphocyte proliferation and
lymph node through afferent lymphatic immune surveillance.
vessels. It destroys worn-out red
It then flows through a number of blood cells and return
sinuses that meander through the lymph some of their breakdown
node and finally exits from the node at its products to the liver.
indented region, the hilum, via efferent  Other functions:
lymphatic vessels.  Storing platelets
 Acting as a blood
Homeostatic Imbalance reservoir
 Lymph nodes help rid the body of  In the fetus, the spleen is
infectious agents and cancer cells. an important
 Lymph nodes can also become hematopoietic (blood cell–
secondary cancer sites, particularly forming) site.
in cancers that use lymphatic vessels to Adult spleen only
spread throughout the body. produces lymphocytes.
 Cancer-infiltrated lymph nodes are Thymus  Functions at peak levels
swollen but not painful. only during youth, is a
lymphoid mass found low in
Other Lymphoid Organs the throat overlying the
 Lymphoid organs are: heart.
 Lymph Nodes  It produces hormone
 Spleen thymosin and others, that
 Thymus function in the programming
 Tonsils of certain lymphocytes so
 Peyer’s patches they can carry out their
 Appendix of the intestine protective roles in the body.

Tonsils  are small masses of
lymphoid tissue that ring the
pharynx, where they are
found in the mucosa.
They trap and remove any
bacteria or other foreign
pathogens entering the
throat.
 They become congested
with bacteria and become
red, swollen, and sore, a
condition called tonsillitis.
Peyer’s  Resemble tonsils
patches It is found in the wall of the

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
 distal part of the small  Lymphoid organs and blood vessels
intestine. are involved with the immune response.
 Its macrophages and the  Immune system is a functional system
appendix captures and rather than an organ system with a variety
destroy bacteria that is of molecules and trillions of immune cells
present in intestine thereby that inhabit lymphoid tissues and organs
preventing them from and circulate in body fluids.
penetrating the intestinal  Important of the immune cells are
wall. lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and
 Peyer’s patches, macrophages.
appendix, and the tonsils
are part of the collection of
small lymphoid tissues NOTE:
referred to as mucosa- Macrophages actually play an
associated lymphoid important role in both systems.
tissue (MALT).
 MALT acts as a sentinel to  The immune system does this both
protect the upper respiratory directly, by cell attack, and indirectly, by
and digestive tracts from the releasing mobilizing chemicals and
never-ending attacks of protective antibody molecules.
foreign matter entering Resistance to disease is called
those cavities. immunity (immun = free).

Body Defenses Innate Body Defenses

 Body’s defenders against these tiny but  The term innate or nonspecific body
mighty enemies are two systems, called defense refers to the mechanical barriers
the innate and the adaptive defense that cover body surfaces and to the cells
systems. and chemicals that act on the initial
 Together they make up the immune battlefronts to protect the body from
system. invading pathogens (harmful or disease-
causing microorganisms).
Category
and Protective mechanism
associate
d
elements
Surface membrane barriers—first
line of defense
Intact skin Forms mechanical barrier
Innate Defense System (epidermis that prevents entry of
 also called the non-specific defense ) pathogens and other
system. harmful substances into
They responds immediately to protect body.
the body from all foreign substances. Acid Skin secretions make
They reduces the workload of the mantle epidermal surface acidic,
second protective arm, the adaptive which inhibits bacterial
defense system, by preventing entry and growth; sebum also
spread of microorganisms throughout the contains bacteria-killing
body. chemicals.
Keratin Provides resistance against
Adaptive Defense System acids, alkalis, and bacterial
 also called specific defense system. enzymes.
They mounts the attack against Intact Form mechanical barrier
particular foreign substances. mucous that prevents entry of
membran pathogens.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
 es infected cells that protect
Mucus Traps microorganisms in uninfected tissue cells from
respiratory and digestive viral takeover; mobilize
tracts. immune system.
Nasal Filter and trap Fluids with Normally acid pH inhibits
hairs microorganisms in nasal acid pH bacterial growth; urine
passages. cleanses the lower urinary
Cilia Propel debris-laden mucus tract as it flushes from the
away from lower body.
respiratory passages. Fever Systemic response
Gastric Contains concentrated triggered by pyrogens;
juice hydrochloric acid and high body temperature
protein-digesting enzymes inhibits multiplication of
that destroy pathogens in bacteria and enhances
stomach. body repair processes.
Acid Inhibits growth of bacteria
mantle of and fungi in female Surface Membrane Barriers
vagina reproductive tract.  Skin and mucous membranes is the
Lacrimal Continuously lubricate and body’s first line of defense against the
secretion cleanse eyes (tears) and invasion of disease-causing
(tears); oral cavity (saliva); contain microorganisms is the.
saliva lysozyme, an enzyme that Mucous membranes produce a variety of
destroys microorganisms. protective secretions:
Cellular and chemical defenses—  The acidic pH of skin secretions
second line of defense and usually of urine (pH of 3 to 5)
Phagocyte Engulf and destroy inhibits bacterial growth, and
s pathogens that breach sebum contains chemicals that are
surface membrane toxic to bacteria. Vaginal secretions
barriers; macrophages also of adult females are also very
contribute to immune acidic.
response.  The stomach mucosa secretes
Natural Promote cell lysis by direct hydrochloric acid and protein-
killer cells cell attack against virus- digesting enzymes. Both kill
infected or cancerous body pathogens.
cells; do not depend on  Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain
specific antigen lysozyme, an enzyme that
recognition. destroys bacteria.
Inflammat Prevents spread of  Sticky mucus traps many
ory injurious agents to microorganisms that enter
response adjacent tissues, disposes digestive and respiratory
of pathogens and dead passageways.
tissue cells, and promotes  Mucus-coated hairs inside the nasal
tissue repair; releases cavity trap inhaled particles, and the
chemical mediators that respiratory tract mucosa is ciliated.
attract phagocytes (and Cilia sweep dust- and bacteria-laden
immune cells) to the area. mucus superiorly toward the mouth,
Antimicrobial chemicals preventing it from entering the lungs.
Compleme Group of plasma proteins The warm, moist environment
nt that lyses microorganisms, provides an ideal site for bacterial growth.
enhances phagocytosis by
opsonization, and Internal Defense: Cell and Chemicals
intensifies inflammatory  The body uses numerous cells and
response. chemicals as the second line of
defense.
Interferons Proteins released by virus-

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
The defense rely on phagocytes and
natural killer cells, on the
inflammatory response, and on a
variety of chemical substances that kill
pathogens and help repair tissue.
Fever is also considered to be a non-
specific protective response.

Natural Killer Cells

 Natural killer (NK) cells roam the
body in blood and lymph.
 They are a unique group of aggressive
lymphocytes that can lyse and kill cancer
cells, virus-infected body cells, and some
other non-specific targets well before the
adaptive arm of the immune system is
enlisted in the fight.
 They can act spontaneously against any
such target by recognizing certain sugars
on the “intruder’s” surface as well as its
lack of certain “self” cell surface
molecules (not picky on their target).
 NK cells are not phagocytic.  Inflammatory process begins with a
They attack the target cell’s membrane chemical “alarm.”
and release lytic chemicals called When cells are injured, they release
perforins. inflammatory chemicals, including
NK cells also release powerful histamine and kinins that:
inflammatory chemicals.  That cause blood vessels in the
involved area to dilate and
Inflammatory Response capillaries to become leaky.
 Inflammatory response is a  Activate pain receptors.
nonspecific response that is triggered  Attract phagocytes and white blood
whenever body tissues are injured. cells to the area (This is called
 It occurs in response to physical Chemotaxis because the cells are
trauma, intense heat, and irritating following a chemical gradient.)
chemicals, as well as to infection by  Dilation of the blood vessels increases
viruses and bacteria. the blood flow to the area, accounting for
 Four most common indicators, or the redness and heat observed.
cardinal signs, of an acute inflammation  Increased permeability of the capillaries
are allows plasma to leak from the blood into
 Redness, the tissue spaces, causing local edema
 Heat (inflamm = set on fire) (swelling) that also activates pain
 Swelling receptors in the area.
 Pain  The inflammatory response prevents
the spread of damaging agents to nearby
tissues, disposes of cell debris and
pathogens, and sets the stage for repair.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
 Both protective antibodies and T cells (T
lymphocytes) invade the area to act
specifically and directly against the
damaging agents.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Pus is a mixture of dead or dying
neutrophils, broken-down tissue cells,
and living and dead pathogens.
 If the inflammatory mechanism fails
to fully clear the area of debris, the sac
of pus may become walled off, forming
an abscess.
 Once the inflammatory process has
begun:
 Neutrophils, responding to a
gradient of diffusing inflammatory
chemicals, enter the blood from the
bone marrow and roll along the
blood vessel walls following the
“scent.”
 At the point where the chemical
signal is the strongest, they flatten Phagocytes
out and squeeze through the  Phagocyte, such as a macrophage or
capillary walls, a process called neutrophil, engulfs a foreign particle
diapedesis. much the way an amoeba ingests a food
 Still drawn by the gradient of particle.
inflammatory chemicals, the  Flowing cytoplasmic extensions bind to
neutrophils gather in the precise the particle and then pull it inside,
site of tissue injury (a process enclosing it in a vacuole.
called positive chemotaxis), and The vacuole is then fused with the
within an hour after injury has enzymatic contents of a lysosome, and
occurred, they are busily devouring its contents are broken down, or digested.
any foreign material present.
 Monocytes follow the neutrophils into
the inflamed area. They are fairly poor
phagocytes, but they become
macrophages with insatiable appetites
within 12 hours after entering.
 Macrophages are the central actors in
the final disposal of cell debris as the
inflammation subsides.
 Clotting proteins, leaked into the area
from the blood, are activated and begin to
wall off the damaged area with fibrin to Antimicrobial Proteins
prevent the spread of pathogens or  The most important antimicrobial
harmful agents to neighboring tissues. proteins are complement proteins and
Fibrin mesh also forms a scaffolding for interferon.
permanent repair.
 If the damaged area contains Complement
pathogens that have previously invaded  The term complement refers to a
the body, the third line of defense also group of at least 20 plasma proteins that
comes into play—the adaptive response circulate in the blood in an inactive state.
mediated by lymphocytes.  When complement becomes attached,
or fixed, to foreign cells (bacteria, fungi, or

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
mismatched red blood cells), it is activated  Body temperature is regulated by a
and becomes a major factor in the fight part of the hypothalamus, commonly
against the foreign cells. referred to as the body’s “thermostat.”
 Complement fixation occurs when  Normally the thermostat is set at
complement proteins bind to certain approximately 37°C (98.6°F), but it can be
sugars or proteins (such as antibodies) on reset upward in response to pyrogens,
the foreign cell’s surface. chemicals secreted by white blood cells
 One result of complement fixation is the and macrophages exposed to foreign cells
formation of membrane attack or substances in the body.
complexes (MAC) that produce lesions,  High fevers are dangerous because
complete with holes, in the foreign cell’s excess heat “scrambles” enzymes and
surface. other body proteins.
But mild or moderate fever seems to
benefit the body.
Bacteria require large amounts of iron
and zinc to multiply, but during a fever the
liver and spleen gather up these nutrients,
making them less available. Fever also
increases the metabolic rate of tissue
cells in general, speeding up repair
processes.

Adaptive Body Defenses

 Immune response is the immune
system’s response to a threat and also
provides protection that is carefully
 These lesions allow water to rush into targeted against specific antigens.
the cell, causing it to burst.  Third line of defense is a functional
 Some of the molecules released during system that recognizes foreign molecules
the activation process are vasodilators, (antigens) and acts to inactivate or
and some are chemotaxis chemicals destroy them.
that attract neutrophils and macrophages  When it fails, malfunctions, or is
into the region. disabled, some of the most devastating
 Still others cause the cell membranes of diseases such as cancer, rheumatoid
the foreign cells to become sticky so they arthritis, and AIDS may result.
are easier to phagocytize; this effect is  Immunology, the study of immunity.
called opsonization.  Once someone had suffered through a
certain infectious disease, that person was
Interferon unlikely to have the same disease again
 Virus-infected cells in an infected (this basis was revealed in the late 1800s
person can do little to save themselves, by ancient Greeks).
they help defend cells that have not yet This happens because our blood have
been infected by secreting small proteins antigen that will protect us from future
called interferons. attacks by the same pathogen.
 Interferon molecules diffuse to  It was demonstrated that if antibody-
nearby cells and bind to their membrane containing serum from the surviving
receptors. animals (immune serum) was injected into
This binding stimulates the synthesis of animals that had not been exposed to the
proteins that “interfere” with the ability of pathogen, those animals would also be
viruses to multiply within these still- protected.
healthy cells. These landmark experiments revealed
three important aspects of the adaptive
Fever defense:
It is a systemic response to invading  It is antigen specific—it
microorganisms. recognizes and acts against

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
 particular pathogens or foreign people.
substances.
 It is systemic—immunity is not Cells of the Adaptive Defense
restricted to the initial infection System: An Overview
site.  Crucial cells of the adaptive system
 It has “memory”—it recognizes are lymphocytes and antigen–
and mounts even stronger attacks presenting cells (APCs).
on previously encountered  Lymphocytes exist in two major
pathogens. “flavors”
 In the mid1900s, it was discovered that  B lymphocytes, or B cells,
injection of serum containing antibodies produce antibodies and oversee
did not always protect a recipient from humoral immunity.
diseases, however, injection of the  T lymphocytes, or T cells, are
donor’s lymphocytes did provide non-antibody producing
immunity. lymphocytes that constitute the
 Humoral immunity, also called cell mediated arm of the
antibody-mediated immunity, is adaptive defense system.
provided by antibodies present in the  APCs do not respond to specific
body’s “humors,” or fluids. antigens but instead play an essential
When lymphocytes themselves defend role in helping the lymphocytes that do.
the body, the immunity is called either
cellular immunity or cell-mediated Lymphocytes
immunity because the protective factor is  Lymphocytes originate from
living cells. hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow.
 The lymphocytes act against such  Lymphocyte matures into a B cell or a
targets either directly, by lysing the T cell depends on where in the body it
foreign cells, or indirectly, by releasing becomes immunocompetent, that is,
chemicals that enhance the inflammatory capable of responding to a specific
response or activate other immune cells. antigen by binding to it with antigen-
specific receptors that appear on the
ANTIGENS lymphocyte’s surface.
Antigen (Ag) is any substance capable
of mobilizing our immune system and
provoking an immune response.
 Proteins are the strongest antigens.
Pollen grains and microorganisms
such as bacteria, fungi, and virus particles
are antigenic because their surfaces bear
such foreign molecules.
 Own cells are richly studded with a
variety of protein molecules (self-
antigens).
 The troublesome small molecule is  T cells arise from lymphocytes that
called a hapten (to grasp), or migrate to the thymus.
incomplete antigen.  They undergo a maturation
 Chemicals that act as haptens are process of 2 to 3 days, directed by
found in poison ivy, animal dander, and thymic hormones (thymosin and
even in some detergents, hair dyes, others).
cosmetics.  The immature lymphocytes divide
rapidly and their numbers increase
Homeostatic Imbalance enormously, but only those maturing T
 Drug hapten’s provoking an immune cells with the sharpest ability to identify
response involves the binding of foreign antigens survive.
penicillin to blood proteins, which  Lymphocytes capable of binding
causes a penicillin reaction in some strongly with self-antigens (and of

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
acting against body cells) are vigorously  Dendritic cells are at the body’s
weeded out and destroyed. frontiers, best situated to act as mobile
 Development of self-tolerance for sentinels.
the body’s own cells is an essential part Macrophages are widely distributed
of a lymphocyte’s “education.” throughout the lymphoid organs and
 B cells develop immunocompetence connective tissues, where they act as
in bone marrow. phagocytes in the innate defense
 Once a lymphocyte is system.
immunocompetent, it will be able to  When they present antigens,
react to one distinct antigen and one dendritic cells and macrophages
only, because all the antigen receptors activate T cells.
on its external surface are the same. Activated T cells, release chemicals
 Lymphocytes become that prod macrophages to become
immunocompetent before meeting the activated macrophages, true “killers”
antigens they may later attack. that are insatiable phagocytes and
secrete bactericidal chemicals.
NOTE:  Macrophages tend to remain fixed in
 It is our genes, not antigens, that the lymphoid organs (as if waiting for
determine what specific foreign antigens to come to them), but
substances our immune system will be lymphocytes, especially T cells, circulate
able to recognize and resist. continuously through the body.

 After they become

immunocompetent, both T cells and B
cells migrate to the lymph nodes and
spleen (and loose connective tissues),
where their encounters with antigens  There is a third delivery system—
will occur. migration of dendritic cells to secondary
Then, when the lymphoctyes bind with lymphoid organs.
recognized antigens, they complete  Dendritic cells are very efficient
their differentiation into fully mature T antigen catchers.
cells and B cells. Once they have engulfed antigens by
phagocytosis, they enter nearby
lymphatics to get to the lymphoid organ
where they will present the antigens to
T cells.
 Dendritic cells are a key link
between innate and adaptive immunity.
They initiate adaptive immune
responses particularly tailored to the
type of pathogen that they have
encountered.
Antigen-Presenting Cells
Its role is to engulf antigens and then  Adaptive immune system is a two-
present fragments of them, like signal fisted defensive system, with a humoral
flags, on their own surfaces where they arm and a cellular arm, that uses
can be recognized by T cells. lymphocytes, APCs, and specific molecules
 They present antigens to the cells to identify and destroy all substances both
that will actually deal with the antigens. living and nonliving that are in the body
The major types of cells acting as but are not recognized as self.
APCs are:  The immune system’s ability to respond
 Dendritic cells ( also called to such threats depends on the ability of
Langerhans cells) its cells:
 Macrophages
 B lymphocytes.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

15
  To recognize foreign substances  Antibody levels in the blood during this
(antigens) in the body by binding to primary response peak about 10 days
them. after the response begins and then slowly
 To communicate with one another decline.
so that the system as a whole
mounts a response specific to
those antigens.

Humoral (Antibody- Mediated)

Immune Response
 B lymphocyte is stimulated to complete
its development (into a fully mature B cell)
when antigens bind to its surface
receptors.  B cell clone members that do not
This binding event sensitizes, or become plasma cells become long-lived
activates, the lymphocyte to “switch on” memory cells capable of responding to
and undergo clonal selection. the same antigen.
 The lymphocyte begins to grow and  Memory cells are responsible for the
then multiplies rapidly to form an army of immunological memory.
cells all exactly like itself and bearing the  Secondary humoral responses, are
same antigen-specific receptors. produced much faster, are more
prolonged, and are more effective than the
events of the primary response because
all the preparations for this attack have
already been made.

Active and Passive Humoral Immunity

 The resulting family of identical cells Active Immunity

descended from the same ancestor cell is  When your B cells encounter antigens
called a clone. and produce antibodies against them, you
Clone formation is the primary are exhibiting active immunity.
humoral response to that antigen. Active immunity is:
 Most of the B cell clone members, or  Naturally acquired during
descendants, become plasma cells. bacterial and viral infections,
 These antibody-producing “factories” during which we may develop the
producing the same highly specific signs and symptoms of the disease
antibodies at an unbelievable rate of and suffer a little (or a lot).
about 2000 antibody molecules per  Artificially acquired when we
second (but it lasts only 4 or 5 days; then receive vaccines.
the plasma cells begin to die).  Vaccines contain pathogens that are
 B cells themselves produce only very dead or attenuated (living, but extremely
small amounts of antibodies. weakened).

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 Two benefits from vaccines:  also referred to as immunoglobulins
 They spare us most of the signs (Igs).
and symptoms of the disease. They constitute the gamma globulin part
 Weakened antigens are still able to of blood proteins.
stimulate antibody production and  Soluble proteins secreted by
promote immunological memory. activated B cells or by their plasma-cell
 Booster shots intensify the immune offspring in response to an antigen.
response at later meetings with the same They are capable of binding specifically
antigen. with that antigen.
 Antibodies are formed in response to a
Passive Immunity huge number of different antigens.
 Antibodies are obtained from the
serum of an immune human or animal Basic Antibody Structure
donor.
 B cells are not challenged by the
antigen, immunological memory does not
occur, and the temporary protection
provided by the “borrowed antibodies”
ends when they naturally degrade in the
body.
 Passive immunity is conferred  Consisting of four amino acid
naturally on a fetus when the mother’s (polypeptide) chains linked together by
antibodies cross the placenta and enter disulfide (sulfur-to-sulfur) bonds.
the fetal circulation, and after birth during Two of the four chain are heavy chains
breastfeeding. (400 amino acid each).
 Passive immunity is artificially The other two chains are light chain (half
conferred when a person receives immune as long as heavy chains).
serum or gamma globulin. When these chains are combines
Gamma globulin is commonly together, it is described as being T- or Y-
administered after exposure to hepatitis. shaped.
 Other immune sera are used to treat  Each chain has a variable (V) region
poisonous snake bites (an antivenom), (antigen-binding site that differs in
botulism, rabies, and tetanus (an different antibodies) and a constant (C)
antitoxin) because these diseases will kill region (essentially identical in different
a person before active immunity can be antibodies of the same class).
established.  Constant regions that form the
 Antibodies are prepared commercially “stem” of an antibody can be compared to
for use in research, in clinical testing for the handle of a key.
diagnostic purposes, and in treating  Its common functions:
certain cancers.  They determine the type of
 Monoclonal antibodies used for such antibody formed (antibody class).
purposes are descendants of a single cell  How the antibody class will carry
and are pure antibody preparations that out its immune roles in the body.
exhibit specificity for one, and only one,  Cell types or chemicals with which
antigen. the antibody can bind.
Their use are:
 Used in delivering cancer-fighting Antibody Classes
drugs to cancerous tissue. Class Location Biological
 Used for early cancer diagnosis and function
to track the extent of cancers IgD Virtually Believed to be cell
hidden deep within the body. always surface receptor of
 Used for diagnosing pregnancy, attached to B immunocompetent
hepatitis, and rabies. cell. B cell; important
in activation of B
Antibodies cell.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 IgM Attached to B When bound to B
cell; free in cell membrane,
plasma serves as antigen
receptor; first Ig
class released to
plasma by plasma
cells during
primary response;
potent
agglutinating
agent; fixes
complement.
IgG Most Main antibody of
abundant both primary and
antibody in secondary Antibodies inactivate antigens by
plasma; responses; crosses complement fixation, neutralization,
represents placenta and agglutination, and precipitation.
75–85% of provides passive Compleme  is the chief antibody
circulating immunity to fetus; nt ammunition used against
antibodies. fixes complement. cellular antigens, such as
IgA Some Bathes and bacteria or mismatched
(monomer) in protects mucosal red blood cells.
plasma; dimer surfaces from It is fixed (activated)
in secretions attachment of during innate defenses.
such as saliva, pathogens. It is also activated very
tears, efficiently when it binds to
intestinal antibodies attached to
juice, and cellular targets.
milk. This triggers events
IgE Secreted by Binds to mast cells (described earlier) that
plasma cells and basophils, and result in lysis of the foreign
in skin, triggers release of cell and release of
mucosae of histamine and molecules that
gastrointestin other chemicals tremendously enhance the
al and that mediate inflammatory process.
respiratory inflammation and Neutralizat  Occurs when antibodies
tracts, and certain allergic ion bind to specific sites on
tonsils. responses. bacterial exotoxins (toxic
Antibodies IgD, IgG, and IgE have the chemicals secreted by
same basic Y-shaped structure. bacteria) or on viruses that
IgA antibodies occur in both monomer can cause cell injury.
and dimer forms. They block the harmful
IgM antibodies are called pentamers effects of the exotoxin or
(penta = five). virus.
IgA dimer, sometimes called secretory  They can bind to more
IgA, is found mainly in mucus and other than one antigen at a
secretions that bathe body surfaces. time; consequently,
It plays a major role in preventing antigen-antibody
pathogens from gaining entry into the complexes can be cross-
body. linked into large lattices.
IgE antibodies are the “troublemaker” Agglutinati It is the process causes
antibodies involved in allergies. on clumping of the foreign
cells when the cross-
Antibody Function linking involves cell-bound
antigens.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
  Occurs when perforins and granzymes from its
mismatched blood is granules.
transfused (the foreign red The perforins enter the foreign cell’s
blood cells are clumped) plasma membrane (delivering the so-
and is the basis of tests called lethal hit).
used for blood typing.  Pores appear in the target cell’s
Precipitatio  When the cross-linking membrane, allowing the granzymes
n process involves soluble (protein-digesting enzymes) to enter and
antigenic molecules, the kill the foreign cell.
resulting antigen-antibody The cytotoxic T cell then detaches and
complexes are so large seeks other foreign prey to attack.
that they become
insoluble and settle out of
solution.

Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune

Response
 Immunocompetent T cells are
activated to form a clone by binding with a
“recognized” antigen.
 T cells are not able to bind with free
antigens.
 The antigens must be “presented” by
a macrophage and a double recognition
 Helper T cells are the T cells that act
must occur.
as the “directors” or “managers” of the
 APC engulfs an antigen.
immune system.
 Once activated, they circulate through
the body, recruiting other cells to fight the
invaders.
 The helper T cells also release a
variety of cytokine chemicals that act
indirectly to rid the body of antigens by:
 Stimulating cytotoxic T cells and B
cells to grow and divide.
 Attracting other types of protective
white blood cells, such as
neutrophils, into the area.
 Enhancing the ability of
macrophages to engulf and destroy
microorganisms.
 Antigen binding alone is not enough to  Regulatory T cells, formerly called
sensitize T cells. suppressor T cells, releases chemicals
They must be “spoon-fed” the antigens that suppress the activity of both T and B
by APCs, and something like a “double cells.
handshake” must occur. Regulatory T cells are vital for winding
 Antigen presentation is essential for down and finally stopping the immune
activation and clonal selection of the T response after an antigen has been
cells. successfully inactivated or destroyed.
 Cytotoxic (killer T cells) cells that This helps prevent uncontrolled or
specialize in killing virus infected, cancer, unnecessary immune system activity.
or foreign graft cells.
 One way a cytotoxic T cell accomplishes
this is by binding tightly to a foreign cell
and releasing toxic chemicals called

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 immune response (primary
response); may exist in the body for
years thereafter, enabling it to
respond quickly and efficiently to
subsequent infections or meetings
with the same antigen.
Antigen Any of several cell types
- (macrophage, dendritic cell, B cell)
presenti that engulfs and digests antigens
ng cell that it encounters and presents
(APC) parts of them on its plasma
membrane for recognition by T cells
bearing receptors for the same
antigen; this function, antigen
presentation, is essential for normal
cell-mediated responses.
Macrophages and dendritic cells also
release chemicals (cytokines) that
activate many other immune cells.
Element Function in the immune
response Molecules
Cells Protein produced by a B cell or its
(immunoglobulin)
B cell Lymphocyte that resides in the plasma cell offspring and released
lymph nodes, spleen, or other into the body fluids (blood, lymph,
Antibody

lymphoid tissues, where it is saliva, mucus, etc.), where it

induced to replicate by antigen- attaches to antigens, causing
binding and helper T cell neutralization, precipitation, or
interactions; its progeny (clone agglutination, which “marks” the
members) form plasma cells and antigens for destruction by
memory cells. phagocytes or complement.
Plasma Antibody-producing “machine”; Cytokines Chemicals released by
cell produces huge numbers of the same sensitized T cells,
antibody (immunoglobulin); macrophages, and certain
represents further specialization of B other cells:
cell clone descendants.  Migration
Helper A T cell that binds with a specific inhibiting factor
T cell antigen presented by an APC; it (MIF)—”inhibits”
stimulates the production of other macrophage
immune cells (cytotoxic T cells and migration and keeps
B cells) to help fight the invader; them in the local
acts both directly and indirectly by area.
releasing cytokines.  Interleukin 2—
Cytotoxi Also called a killer T cell; activity stimulates T cells
c T cell enhanced by helper T cells; its and B cells to
specialty is killing virus-invaded proliferate; activates
body cells, as well as body cells that NK cells.
have become cancerous; involved in  Helper factors—
graft rejection. enhance antibody
Regulat Slows or stops the activity of B and formation by plasma
ory T T cells once the infection (or attack cells.
cell by foreign cells) has been  Suppressor factors
conquered. Thought to be important —suppress antibody
in preventing autoimmune diseases. formation or T cell–
Memory Descendant of an activated B cell or mediated immune
cell T cell; generated during the initial responses

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 (interleukin-10 3. Allografts are tissue grafts taken
transforming growth from a person other than an
factor, and others). identical twin.
 Chemotactic 4. Xenografts are tissue grafts
factors—attract harvested from a different animal
leukocytes species, such as transplanting a
(neutrophils, baboon heart into a human being.
eosinophils, and  Autografts and isografts are ideal
basophils) into donor organs or tissues and are just about
inflamed area. always successful given an adequate
 Gamma interferon blood supply and no infection.
—secreted by  After surgery, to prevent rejection, the
lymphocytes; helps patient receives immunosuppressive
make tissue cells therapy, including one or more of the
resistant to viral following: corticosteroids to suppress
infection; activates inflammation, antiproliferative drugs,
macrophages and NK radiation (X-ray) therapy, and
cells; enhances immunosuppressor drugs.
maturation of  The major problem with
cytotoxic T cells. immunosuppressive therapy is that
 Perforin, while the immune system is suppressed, it
granzymes—cell cannot protect the body against other
toxins released by foreign agents which cause explosive
cytotoxic T cells. bacterial and viral infection and will cause
Tumor Like perforin, causes cell of death in these patients.
necrosis killing; attracts
factor granulocytes; activates T Disorders in Immunity
(TNF) cells and macrophages. Autoimmune Diseases
Compleme Group of bloodborne  The immune system loses its ability to
nt proteins activated after distinguish friend from foe, that is, to
binding to antibody-covered tolerate self-antigens while still
antigens; when activated, recognizing and attacking foreign
complement causes lysis of antigens.
the microorganism and When this happens, the body produces
enhances inflammatory antibodies (auto-antibodies) and
response. sensitized T cells that attack and damage
Antigen Substance capable of its own tissues.
provoking an immune This phenomenon is called
response; typically a large, autoimmune disease, because it is a
complex molecule not person’s own immune system that
normally present in the produces the disorder.
body. Autoimmune Description
disease
Rheumatoid It systematically
arthritis (RA) destroys joints.
Myasthenia Impairs
Organs Transplant and Rejection gravis communication
 Four major types of grafts: between nerves and
1. Autografts are tissue grafts skeletal muscles.
transplanted from one site to Multiple Destroys the white
another in the same person. sclerosis (MS) matter (myelin
2. Isografts are tissue grafts donated sheaths) of the brain
by a genetically identical person, and spinal cord.
the only example being an identical Graves’ Thyroid gland
twin. disease produces excessive

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 amounts of thyroxine.
Type 1 Destroys pancreatic
diabetes beta cells, resulting in
mellitus deficient production of
insulin.
Systemic lupus A systemic disease
erythematosus that occurs mainly in
(SLE) young women and
particularly affects the
kidneys, heart, lungs,
and skin.
Glomeruloneph Severe impairment of
ritis kidney function.
 One of the following may trigger it:
 New self-antigens appear. As a
result of gene mutations that
change the structure of self-
proteins or as a result of alterations  This type of response, also called acute
in self-proteins by hapten hypersensitivity, is triggered by the
attachment or by bacterial or viral release of a flood of histamine when IgE
damage. antibodies bind to mast cells.
 Foreign antigens resemble self-  Histamine causes small blood vessels
antigens. in the area to become dilated and leaky
and is largely to blame for the best
Allergies recognized symptoms of allergy: a runny
 Allergies, or hypersensitivities, are nose, watery eyes, and itching,
abnormally vigorous immune responses in reddened skin (hives).
which the immune system causes tissue  When the allergen is inhaled, symptoms
damage as it fights off a perceived of asthma appear because smooth
“threat” that would otherwise be harmless muscle in the walls of the bronchioles
to the body. contracts, constricting the passages and
 Term allergen (allo = altered; erg = restricting air flow.
reaction) is used to distinguish this type of Over-the-counter (OTC) anti-allergy
antigen from those producing essentially drugs contain antihistamines that
normal responses. counteract these effects.
 Common type of allergies is immediate  Acute allergic response known as
hypersensitivity. anaphylactic shock is rare and it occurs
when the allergen directly enters the
blood and circulates rapidly through the
body.
 Delayed hypersensitivities,
mediated mainly by a special subgroup of
helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, and
macrophages and it takes 1 to 3 days to
appear.
 The chemicals mediating these
reactions are cytokines released by the
activated T cells.
 Examples of delayed hypersensitivity
reactions are those classed as allergic
contact dermatitis, which follow skin
contact with poison ivy, some heavy
metals (lead, mercury, and others), and
certain cosmetic and deodorant chemicals.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 Mantoux and tine tests, skin tests for  Cardiovascular system organs
detection of tuberculosis, depend on transport respiratory gases between the
delayed hypersensitivity reactions. lungs and the tissue cells.
When the tubercle antigens are injected
just under (or scratched into) the skin, a Functional Anatomy of Respiratory
small, hard lesion forms if the person has System
been sensitized to the antigen.

Immunodeficiencies
 Immunodeficiencies include both
congenital and acquired conditions in
which the production or function of
immune cells or complement is abnormal.
 Most devastating congenital condition is
severe combined immunodeficiency
disease (SCID), in which there is a
marked deficit of both B and T cells.
 T cells are absolutely required for
normal operation of both arms of the
adaptive response.
 Bone marrow transplants and umbilical
cord blood, which provide normal
lymphocyte stem cells, have helped some
SCID victims.  Organs of the respiratory system
 Acquired immune deficiency which contain alveoli, or terminal air sacs
syndrome (AIDS) cripples the immune include:
system by interfering with the activity of  Nose
helper T cells.  Pharynx,
 Larynx
Developmental Aspects Of The  Trachea
Lymphatic System And Body Defenses  Bronchi and their smaller branches
Lymphatic vessels form by budding off  Lungs
veins. The thymus and the spleen are the  Gas exchanges with the blood happen
first lymphoid organs to appear in the only in the alveoli.
embryo. Other lymphoid organs remain
relatively undeveloped until after birth.
The immune response develops around
the time of birth.
The ability of immunocompetent cells to
recognize foreign antigens is genetically
determined. Stress appears to interfere
with normal immune response.
Efficiency of immune response wanes in
old age, and infections, cancer,
immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
diseases become more prevalent.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Cardiovascular and respiratory
systems share responsibility for supplying
the body with oxygen and disposing of
carbon dioxide.
 Respiratory system organs oversee
the gas exchanges that occur between the NOSE
blood and the external environment.  Externally visible.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
 During breathing, air enters the nose problems with oral cavity functions such
by passing through the nostrils, or as chewing and speaking.
nares.  Rhinitis is the inflammation of the
The interior of the nose consists of the nasal mucosa caused by cold viruses
nasal cavity, divided by a midline and various allergens.
nasal septum.  Sinusitis, or sinus inflammation can
 Olfactory receptors for the sense of change the voice quality.
smell are located in the mucosa in the
slit-like superior part of the nasal cavity,
just beneath the ethmoid bone.
 Rest of the mucosa lining the nasal
cavity, called the respiratory mucosa
that warms the air as it flows past.
The sticky mucus produced by this
mucosa’s glands moistens the air and
traps incoming bacteria and other
foreign debris, and lysozyme enzymes
in the mucus destroy bacteria
chemically.
 Ciliated cells of the nasal mucosa
moves the sheet of contaminated Pharynx
mucus posteriorly toward the throat Commonly called throat.
(pharynx), where it is swallowed and It is a muscular passageway about 13
digested by stomach juices. cm (5 inches) long and resembles a red
 Cilia become sluggish during garden hose.
extreme cold.  Serves as a common passageway for
 Three mucosa-covered projections in food and air.
the lateral walls of the nasal cavity is It is continuous with the nasal cavity
called conchae. anteriorly via the posterior nasal
 Conchae greatly increase the aperture.
surface area of the mucosa exposed to  Air enters the superior portion, the
the air and it also increase the air nasopharynx, from the nasal cavity
turbulence in the nasal cavity. and then descends through the
 Nasal cavity is separated from the oropharynx and laryngopharynx to
oral cavity below by a partition, the enter the larynx below.
palate. Food also travel from mouth to
 Hard palate (anterior) is supported oropharynx to laryngopharynx, but
by bone. instead of entering the larynx, food is
 Soft palate (posterior) is directed into the esophagus
unsupported. posteriorly.
 Nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring  Pharyngotympanic tubes, which
of paranasal sinuses located in the drain the middle ear, open into the
frontal, sphenoidal, ethmoid, and nasopharynx.
maxillary bones. Since this two are continuous, ear
 Sinuses lighten the skull, and they infections such as otitis media will also
act as resonance chambers for speech have sore throat and other pharyngeal
and produce mucus, which drains into infections.
the nasal cavities.  Tonsils are also found in the
 Nasolacrimal ducts drain tears from pharynx.
the eyes. Pharyngeal tonsil, often called
adenoid, is located high in the
Homeostatic Imbalance nasopharynx.
 Cleft palate (failure of the bones  Palatine tonsils are in the
forming the palate to fuse medially) oropharynx at the end of the soft palate,
results in breathing difficulty as well as as are the lingual tonsils, which lie at

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
the base of the tongue. Trachea
Tonsils protects the body from Also called windpipe.
infection. Air travels to trachea from the larynx
to the level of 5th thoracic vertebra (mid-
Homeostatic Imbalance chest).
 Tonsillitis happened if the  Trachea is fairly rigid because its
pharyngeal tonsil becomes inflamed and walls are reinforced with C-shaped
swollen, it obstructs the nasopharynx rings of hyaline cartilage.
and forces the person to breathe  Open parts of the rings abut the
through the mouth. esophagus and allow it to expand
In mouth breathing, air is not properly anteriorly when we swallow a large
moistened, warmed, or filtered before piece of food.
reaching the lungs.  Solid portions support the trachea
walls and keep it patent, or open, in
Larynx spite of the pressure changes that occur
Also called voice box. during breathing.
It routes air and food into the proper Trachealis muscle abuts the
channels and plays a role in speech. esophagus and completes the wall of
 Inferior to the pharynx. the trachea posteriorly.
 Formed by eight rigid hyaline  Trachea is lined with a ciliated
cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of mucosa.
elastic cartilage, the epiglottis. Cilia beat continuously and in a
 Thyroid cartilage (largest cartilage) direction opposite to that of the
which protrudes anteriorly and is incoming air.
commonly called the Adam’s apple.  They propel mucus, loaded with dust
 Epiglottis protects the superior particles and other debris, away from
opening of the larynx and referred to as the lungs to the throat, where it can be
the “guardian of the airways”. swallowed or spat out.
 Epiglottis does not restrict the
passage of air into the lower respiratory Homeostatic Imbalance
passages.  Heimlich maneuver, a procedure in
 If anything other than air enters the which the air in a person’s own lungs is
larynx, a cough reflex is triggered to used to “pop out,” or expel, an
expel the substance and prevent it from obstructing piece of food, has saved
continuing into the lungs. many people from becoming victims of
 Part of the mucous membrane of the such “café coronaries” or tracheal
larynx forms a pair of folds, called the obstruction.
vocal folds, or true vocal cords,
which vibrate with expelled air. Main Bronchi
 Vocal folds allows us to speak.  Right and left main (primary)
The slit-like passageway between bronchi are formed by the division of
them are called the glottis. the trachea.
 Right main bronchus is wider,
shorter, and straighter than the left and
common site for an inhaled foreign
object to become lodged.
 Air that reaches the bronchi, it is
warm, cleansed of most impurities, and
humid.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

16
  Branching and re-branching of the
respiratory passageways within the
lungs is referred to as the bronchial, or
respiratory, tree.
 Terminal bronchioles lead into
respiratory zone structures, even
smaller conduits that eventually
terminate in alveoli, or air sacs.
 Respiratory zone, which includes
the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, is the
only site of gas exchange.
 All other respiratory passages are
conducting zone structures that
Lungs serve as conduits to and from the
It is large organ and occupy the entire respiratory zone.
thoracic cavity except the  Lungs are mostly air spaces and 2½
mediastinum which houses the heart pounds, and they are soft and
(in its inferior pericardial cavity region), spongy.
the great blood vessels, bronchi, The balance of the lung tissue, its
esophagus, and other organs. stroma, is mainly elastic connective
 Apex is narrow superior portion of tissue that allows the lungs to recoil
each lungs and just deep to the clavicle. passively as we exhale.
Base is the broad lung area resting on
the diaphragm. The Respiratory Membrane
The left lung has two lobes, and  Walls of the alveoli are composed of
the right lung has three. squamous epithelial cells.
 Surface of each lung is covered with a Alveolar pores connect neighboring air
visceral serosa called the pulmonary, sacs and provide alternative routes for air
or visceral, pleura. to reach alveoli whose feeder bronchioles
Walls of the thoracic cavity are lined have been clogged by mucus or otherwise
by the parietal pleura. blocked.
 Pleural membranes produce pleural  Alveolar and capillary walls, their
fluid that allows the lungs to glide fused basement membranes, and
easily over the thorax wall during occasional elastic fibers construct the
breathing movements. respiratory membrane (air-blood
 After entering the lungs, the main barrier), which has gas (air) flowing past
bronchi subdivide bronchioles. on one side and blood flowing past on the
other.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
  Internal respiration. Gas
exchanges are occurring between
the blood and cells inside the body.
Systemic capillaries, gas exchanges
must be made between the blood and
tissue cells.
The first two process are the
responsibilities of respiratory system but
all four are important for gas exchange.
 Cellular respiration is the actual use
of oxygen and production of carbon
 Gas exchanges occur by simple dioxide by tissue cells.
diffusion through the respiratory  It is the cornerstone of all energy-
membrane. producing chemical reactions in the
 Total gas exchange surface provided body and it occurs in all body cells.
by the alveolar walls of a healthy man is
50 to 70 square meters, or Mechanics of Breathing
approximately 40 times greater than the  Breathing is also called pulmonary
surface area of his skin. ventilation.
 Final line of defense for the respiratory  It is a mechanical process that depends
system is in the alveoli. on volume changes occurring in the
 Alveolar macrophages, also called thoracic cavity.
“dust cells,” wander in and out of the RULE:
alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon Volume changes lead to pressure
particles, and other debris. changes, which lead to the flow of gases
 Cuboidal cells produce a lipid (fat) to equalize the pressure.
molecule called surfactant, which coats Inspiration, when air is flowing into the
the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces and is lungs.
very important in lung function. Expiration, when air is leaving the
lungs.
Respiratory Physiology
 Major function of the respiratory system Inspiration
is to supply the body with oxygen and to  When the inspiratory muscles, the
dispose of carbon dioxide. diaphragm and external intercostals,
To do this, at least four distinct events, contract, the size of the thoracic cavity
collectively called respiration, must occur: increases.
 Pulmonary ventilation. Its
process is breathing. Air must
move into and out of the lungs so
that the gases in the air sacs
(alveoli) of the lungs are
continuously refreshed.
 External respiration. Gas
exchange (made between the
blood and the body exterior)
(oxygen loading and carbon dioxide
unloading) between the pulmonary
blood and alveoli must take place.
 Respiratory gas transport.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide must
be transported to and from the
lungs and tissue cells of the body
via the bloodstream.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
 intrapulmonary pressure rises to a point
higher than atmospheric pressure and this
causes the gases to flow out to equalize
the pressure inside and outside the lungs.
 Expiration becomes an active
process if the respiratory passageways
are narrowed by spasms of the bronchioles
(as in asthma) or clogged with mucus or
fluid.
 In such cases of forced expiration,
the internal intercostal muscles are
activated to help depress the rib cage, and
the abdominal muscles contract and help
 As intrapulmonary volume (the to force air from the lungs by squeezing
volume within the lungs) increases, the the abdominal organs upward against the
gases within the lungs spread out to fill diaphragm.
the larger space.  Intrapleural pressure, is always
The resulting decrease in the gas negative, and this is the major factor
pressure in the lungs produces a partial preventing collapse of the lungs.
vacuum (pressure less than atmospheric
pressure), which sucks air into the lungs. Homeostatic Imbalance
 During atelectasis , or lung collapse,
the lung is useless for ventilation.
It occurs when air enters the pleural
space through a chest wound, but it
may also result from a rupture of the
visceral pleura, which allows air to enter
the pleural space from the respiratory
tract.
 Pneumothorax is the presence of air
in the intrapleural space, which disrupts
the fluid bond between the pleurae.
 It will be reversed by drawing air out
of the intrapleural space with chest
tubes, which allows the lung to reinflate
and resume its normal function.

 Air continues to move into the lungs Respiratory Volume and Capacities
until the intrapulmonary pressure equals  Factors affect respiratory capacity are
atmospheric pressure. This series of the person’s size, sex, age, and physical
events is called inspiration (inhalation). condition.
 Tidal volume (TV) is a normal quiet
Expiration breathing moves approximately 500 ml of
 Expiration (exhalation) is a passive air (about a pint) into and out of the lungs
process that depends more on the natural with each breath.
elasticity of the lungs than on muscle  Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) is
contraction. the amount of air that can be taken in
 As the inspiratory muscles relax and forcibly over the tidal volume and its
resume their initial resting length, the rib normal volume is 3,100 ml.
cage descends and the lungs recoil and  Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) is
both the thoracic and intrapulmonary the amount of air that can be forcibly
volumes decrease. exhaled after a tidal expiration and is
 As the intrapulmonary volume approximately 1,200 ml.
decreases, the gases inside the lungs are  Residual Volume, 1,200 ml of air still
forced more closely together, and the remains in the lungs even after strenuous

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
exhalation and it cannot be voluntarily superiorly from lungs against
expelled. glottis. Then, the glottis opens
 It allows gas exchange to go on suddenly, and a blast of air
continuously even between breaths and rushes upward. Coughs act to
helps to keep the alveoli open (inflated). clear the lower respiratory
 Vital capacity (VC) is the total amount passageways.
of exchangeable air (around 4,800 ml in Sneeze Similar to a cough, except that
healthy young men and 3,100 ml in expelled air is directed through
healthy young women). nasal cavities instead of
It is the sum of the TV + IRV + ERV. through oral cavity. The uvula,
a tag of tissue hanging from
Respiratory Volumes of Male the soft palate, becomes
depressed and closes oral
cavity off from pharynx, routing
the air through nasal cavities.
Sneezes clear upper
respiratory passages.
Crying Inspiration followed by release
of air in a number of short
expirations. Primarily an
emotionally induced
mechanism.
 Dead space volume is the air that
enters the respiratory tract remains in the Laughin Same as crying in terms of the
conducting zone passageways and never g air movements produced. Also
reaches the alveoli. an emotionally induced
 During a normal tidal breath, it amounts response.
to about 150 ml. Hiccups Sudden inspirations resulting
 350 ml volume of air that actually from spasms of diaphragm;
reaches the respiratory zone and initiated by irritation of
contributes to gas exchange. diaphragm or phrenic nerves,
Respiratory capacities are measured which serve diaphragm. The
with a spirometer. sound occurs when inspired air
Spirometer testing is useful for hits vocal folds of closed
evaluating losses in respiratory glottis.
functioning and in following the course of Yawn Very deep inspiration, taken
some respiratory diseases. with jaws wide open; ventilates
In pneumonia, the inspiration is all alveoli (this is not the case
obstructed and the IRV and VC decrease. in normal quiet breathing).
In emphysema, where expiration is
hampered, the ERV is much lower than Respiratory Sounds
normal, and the residual volume is higher. Bronchial sounds are produced by air
rushing through the large respiratory
Non-respiratory Air Movement passageways (trachea and bronchi).
Coughs and sneezes clear the air Vesicular breathing sounds occur as
passages of debris or collected mucus. air fills the alveoli. Its sounds are soft
Laughing and crying reflect our murmurs that resemble a muffled breeze.
emotions.
These non-respiratory air Homeostatic Imbalance
movements are a result of reflex activity, Diseased respiratory tissue, mucus, or
but some may be produced voluntarily. pus can produce abnormal sounds such
Movem Mechanism and result as crackle (a bubbling sound),
ent wheezing (a whistling sound), and
Cough Taking a deep breath, closing rales.
glottis, and forcing air Rales are abnormal bronchial sounds
produced by the presence of mucus or

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
exudate in the lung passages or by and be flushed out of the lungs during
thickening of the bronchial walls. expiration.
Blood draining from the lungs into the
External Respiration, Gas Transport, pulmonary veins is rich in oxygen and poor
and Internal Respiration in carbon dioxide, and it is ready to be
External respiration is the actual pumped to the systemic circulation.
exchange of gases between the alveoli
and the blood (pulmonary gas exchange). Gas Transport in the Blood
Internal respiration is the gas Oxygen attaches to hemoglobin
exchange process that occurs between the molecules inside the RBCs to form
systemic capillaries and the tissue cells. oxyhemoglobin.
Gas exchanges are made according to
the laws of diffusion; that is, movement
occurs toward the area of lower
concentration of the diffusing substance.

Small amount of oxygen is carried

dissolved in the plasma.
Most carbon dioxide is transported in
plasma as the bicarbonate ion (HCO3
−), which plays a very important role in
the blood buffer system.
Carbon dioxide carried inside the RBCs
binds to hemoglobin at a different site
from oxygen.
Carbon Dioxide must first be released
from its bicarbonate ion form before it can
External Respiration diffuse out of the blood into the alveoli.
During external respiration, dark red For this to occur, bicarbonate ions
blood flowing through the pulmonary must enter the red blood cells where they
circuit is transformed into the scarlet river combine with hydrogen ions (H+) to form
that is returned to the heart for carbonic acid (H2CO3).
distribution to the systemic circuit. Carbonic acid quickly splits to form
The color change is due to oxygen water and carbon dioxide, and carbon
pickup by hemoglobin in the lungs, carbon dioxide then diffuses from the blood and
dioxide is being unloaded from the blood enters the alveoli.
equally fast.
As tissue cells remove oxygen from the Homeostatic Imbalance
blood in the systemic circulation, they Inadequate oxygen delivery to body
release carbon dioxide into the blood. tissues is called hypoxia.
Because the concentration of carbon In fair-skinned people, their skin and
dioxide is much higher in the pulmonary mucosae take on a bluish cast (become
capillaries than it is in the alveolar air, it cyanotic).
will move from the blood into the alveoli Hypoxia may be the result of anemia,
pulmonary disease, or impaired or

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
blocked blood circulation.
Carbon monoxide poisoning
represents a unique type of hypoxia.
It is the leading cause of death from
fire.
The skin becomes cherry red (the
color of the hemoglobin-CO complex).

Internal Respiration
It is the exchange of gases that takes
place between the blood and the tissue
cells.
Oxygen is unloaded and carbon dioxide
is loaded into the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffusing out of tissue
cells enters the blood.
In the blood, it combines with water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which quickly  Medulla, which sets the basic rhythm
releases the bicarbonate ions. of breathing, contains a pacemaker, or
Conversion of carbon dioxide to self-exciting inspiratory center, called the
bicarbonate ions actually occurs inside ventral respiratory group, or VRG.
the RBCs, where a special enzyme  The medulla also contains a center
(carbonic anhydrase) is available to speed that modifies the activity of the
up this reaction. pacemaker in a rhythmic way.
Bicarbonate ions diffuse out into Impulses going back and forth between
plasma, where they are transported and the medulla centers maintain a rate of 12
oxygen is released from hemoglobin, and to 15 respirations/minute.
the oxygen diffuses quickly out of the This normal respiratory rate is referred
blood to enter the tissue cells. to as eupnea.
As a result of these exchanges, venous Pons centers appear to smooth out the
blood in the systemic circulation is much basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration
poorer in oxygen and richer in carbon set by the medulla.
dioxide than blood leaving the lungs.  Bronchioles and alveoli have stretch
receptors that respond to extreme
Control of Respiration overinflation (which might damage the
Neural Regulation: Setting the Basic lungs) by initiating protective reflexes.
Rhythm  During exercise, we breathe more
 Activity of the respiratory muscles, the vigorously and deeply because the brain
diaphragm and external intercostals, is centers send more impulses to the
regulated by nerve impulses transmitted respiratory muscles.
to them from the brain by the phrenic This respiratory pattern is called
and intercostal nerves. hyperpnea.
Neural centers that control respiratory
rhythm and depth are located mainly in Homeostatic Imbalance
the medulla and pons.  If the medullary centers are
completely suppressed (as with an
overdose of sleeping pills, morphine, or
alcohol), respiration stops completely,
and death occurs.

Non-neural Factors Influencing

Respiratory Rate and Depth
 Physical Factors- such as talking,
coughing, and exercising can
modify both the rate and depth of

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
 breathing. Increased body  Hypoventilation or hyperventilation
temperature causes an increase in can dramatically change the amount of
the rate of breathing. carbonic acid in the blood.
 Volition (Conscious Control).  Carbonic acid increases dramatically
 Emotional Factors. It results from during hypoventilation.
reflexes initiated by emotional Carbonic acid decreases substantially
stimuli acting through centers in during hyperventilation.
the hypothalamus.  The buffering ability of the blood is
 Chemical Factors. likely to be overwhelmed; the result is
- Increased levels of carbon acidosis or alkalosis.
dioxide and decreased blood
pH are the most important Homeostatic Imbalance
stimuli leading to an  Hyperventilation, often brought on by
increase in the rate and anxiety attacks, frequently leads to brief
depth of breathing. periods of apnea, cessation of
- Changes in carbon dioxide breathing, until the carbon dioxide
concentrations in the blood builds up in the blood again.
seem to act directly on the  If breathing stops for an extended
medulla centers by time, cyanosis may occur as a result of
influencing the pH of insufficient oxygen in the blood.
cerebrospinal fluid. Hyperventilating person can be
- Changes in oxygen prevented by breathing into a paper
concentration in the blood bag.
are detected by peripheral Because exhaled air contains more
chemoreceptor regions in carbon dioxide than atmospheric air, it
the aorta and in the fork of upsets the normal diffusion gradient
the common carotid artery. that causes carbon dioxide to be
unloaded from the blood and leave the
body.
Homeostatic Imbalance As a result, carbon dioxide (and thus
 In people who retain carbon dioxide, carbonic acid) levels begin to rise in the
such as people with emphysema, blood, ending alkalosis.
chronic bronchitis, or other chronic lung
diseases, the brain no longer recognizes Respiratory Disorders
increased levels of carbon dioxide as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
important. Disease (COPD)
In such cases, dropping oxygen levels  Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
become the respiratory stimulus. emphysema.
 These diseases have certain features in
 Hyperventilation is deep and rapid common:
breathing caused by carbon dioxide or  Patients almost always have
other sources of acids begin to accumulate a history of smoking.
in blood and blood pH starts to drop.  Dyspnea, difficult or
 Hyperventilation blows off more labored breathing, often
carbon dioxide and decreases the amount referred to as “air hunger,”
of carbonic acid, which returns blood pH to occurs and becomes
the normal range. progressively more severe.
 Hypoventilation is when blood starts  Coughing and frequent
to become slightly alkaline, or basic, pulmonary infections are
breathing slows and becomes more common.
shallow.  Hypoxic, retain carbon
Slower breathing allows carbon dioxide dioxide and have respiratory
to accumulate in the blood and brings acidosis, and ultimately
blood pH back into normal range. develop respiratory failure.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
 lymphocyte-like cells that originate
in the main bronchi and grow
aggressively in small grapelike
clusters within the mediastinum, a
site from which metastasis is
especially rapid.
 Treatment for lung cancer is complete
removal of the diseased lung lobes in an
attempt to halt metastasis.

Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory

System
 Premature infants have problems
keeping their lungs inflated because of
 Chronic bronchitis, the mucosa of the lack of surfactant in their alveoli.
lower respiratory passages becomes (Surfactant is formed late in pregnancy.
severely inflamed and produces excessive The most important birth defects of the
amounts of mucus. respiratory system are cleft palate and
 Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and cystic fibrosis.
gas exchange and dramatically increases The lungs continue to mature until
the risk of lung infections, including young adulthood.
pneumonias. During youth and middle age, most
Chronic bronchitis patients are respiratory system problems are a result
sometimes called “blue bloaters” of external factors, such as infections and
because hypoxia and carbon dioxide substances that physically block
retention occur early in the disease and respiratory passageways.
cyanosis is common. In old age, the thorax becomes more
 Emphysema, the alveoli enlarge as the rigid and lungs become less elastic,
walls of adjacent chambers break through, leading to decreased vital capacity.
and chronic inflammation promotes Protective mechanisms of the respiratory
fibrosis of the lungs. system become less effective in elderly
 Emphysema sufferers are sometimes persons, predisposing them to more
referred to as “pink puffers.” respiratory tract infections.

Lung Cancer DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Common cause of lung cancer is ANATOMY
smoking.
 Nasal hairs, sticky mucus, and the
action of cilia do a fine job of protecting
the lungs from irritants but because of
smoking they will stop functioning.
 Three most common types of lung
cancer are:
 Squamous cell carcinoma (25–
30 percent of cases), which arises
in the epithelium of the larger
bronchi and tends to form masses
that hollow out and bleed.
 Adenocarcinoma (40 percent),
which originates as solitary nodules
in peripheral lung areas and
develops from bronchial glands and
alveolar cells.
 Small cell carcinoma (about 20
percent), which contains

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
 Two main groups: of the mouth and limits its posterior
 Alimentary canal - performs the movements.
whole menu of digestive functions  Posterior end of the oral cavity are
(ingests, digests, absorbs, and paired masses of lymphatic tissue, the
defecates) as it propels the palatine tonsils.
foodstuffs along its tract. The lingual tonsil covers the base of
 Accessory digestive organs - the tongue just beyond.
(teeth, tongue, and several large  Papillae containing taste buds, or taste
digestive glands) assist the process receptors, are found on the tongue
of digestive breakdown in various surface.
ways.

Organs of the Alimentary Canal

 Alimentary canal, also called the Homeostatic Imbalance
gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is a  Children born with an extremely short
continuous, coiled, hollow muscular tube lingual frenulum are often referred to as
that winds through the ventral body cavity “tongue-tied” because movement of
from stomach to anus. the tongue is restricted, leading to
Its organs are the mouth, pharynx, distorted speech.
esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
and large intestine. Pharynx
 From the mouth, food passes posteriorly
Mouth into the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx.
Both are common passageways for food,
fluids, and air.
 Pharynx is subdivided:
 Nasopharynx, part of the
respiratory passageway.
 Oropharynx, posterior to the oral
cavity.
 Laryngopharynx, which is
continuous with the esophagus
below.
 Propelling mechanism, called
Food enters through the mouth. peristalsis.
 Lips (labia) protect its anterior opening.
Cheeks form its lateral walls. Esophagus
Hard palate forms its anterior roof.  Also called gullet.
Soft palate forms its posterior roof. It runs from the pharynx through the
 Uvula is a fleshy fingerlike projection diaphragm to the stomach.
of the soft palate, which extends inferiorly 25 cm (10 inches) long
from the posterior edge of the soft palate. A passageway that conducts food (by
The space between the lips and cheeks peristalsis) to the stomach.
externally and the teeth and gums  Four basic tissue layers:
internally is the vestibule.
The area contained by the teeth is the
oral cavity proper.
 Tongue occupies the floor of the mouth
and it has several bony attachments—the
hyoid bone and the styloid processes
of the skull.
 Lingual frenulum, a fold of mucous
membrane, secures the tongue to the floor

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
 submucosal nerve plexus and the
myenteric nerve plexus.
 They help regulate the mobility and
secretory activity of GI tract organs.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Peritonitis is the infection of
peritoneum.
 The peritoneal membranes tend to
stick together around the infection site.

Stomach

Mucosa  innermost layer

moist membrane that lines
the cavity, or lumen, of the
organ.
consists primarily of a
surface epithelium, plus a
small amount of connective
tissue (lamina propria) and
a scanty smooth muscle
layer.
Sub-  found just beneath the
mucosa mucosa.
It is a soft connective
tissue layer containing blood
vessels, nerve endings,
mucosa associated lymphoid
tissue, and lymphatic
vessels.
Muscula  is a muscle layer typically
ris made up of an inner
externa circular layer and an outer
longitudinal layer of
smooth muscle cells.  C-shaped stomach is on the left side of
Serosa  Outermost layer of the the abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the
wall. It consists of a single liver and diaphragm.
layer of flat, serous fluid– Regions of the stomach:
producing cells, the visceral  Cardial region, or cardia,
peritoneum. surrounds the cardioesophageal
Visceral peritoneum is sphincter, through which food
continuous with the slick, enters the stomach from the
slippery parietal esophagus.
peritoneum, which lines  Fundus is the expanded part of
the abdominopelvic cavity the stomach lateral to the cardial
by way of a membrane region.
extension, the mesentery.  Body is the mid-portion, and as it
 Alimentary canal wall contains two narrows inferiorly, it becomes the
important intrinsic nerve plexuses—the pyloric antrum.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

17
  Funnel-shaped pylorus, the  Most digestive activity occurs in the
terminal part of the stomach. It is pyloric region of the stomach.
continuous with the small intestine After food has been processed in the
through the pyloric sphincter, or stomach, it resembles heavy cream and is
valve. called chyme.
 Stomach varies from 15 to 25 cm (6 to Chyme enters the small intestine
10 inches) in length. through the pyloric sphincter.
Can hold about 4 liters (1 gallon) of food.
Its mucosa is thrown into large folds Small Intestine
called rugae.  Small intestine is the body’s major
 Convex lateral surface of the digestive organ.
stomach is the greater curvature.  It is a muscular tube extending from the
Concave medial surface is the lesser pyloric sphincter to the large intestine.
curvature.  It is the longest section of the
 Lesser omentum, a double layer of alimentary tube, with an average length
peritoneum, extends from the liver to the of 2 to 4 m (7 to 13 feet) in a living
lesser curvature. person.
Greater omentum, drapes downward  Small intestine hangs in sausage-like
and covers the abdominal organs like a coils in the abdominal cavity, suspended
lacy apron before attaching to the from the posterior abdominal wall by the
posterior body wall. fan-shaped mesentery.
It riddled with fat, which helps to  Large intestine encircles and frames it
insulate, cushion, and protect the in the abdominal cavity.
abdominal organs.
It also has large collections of lymphoid
follicles containing macrophages and
defensive cells of the immune system.
Stomach acts as a temporary “storage
tank” for food as well as a site for food
breakdown.
Its walls obliquely arranged layer in the
muscularis externa which allows to
churn, mix, and pummel the food.
 Chemical breakdown of proteins
begins in the stomach.
 Stomach is a simple columnar  Small intestine has three subdivisions:
epithelium composed entirely of mucous  Duodenum
cells that produce a protective layer of  Jejunum
bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus that clings  Ileum
to the stomach mucosa and protects the  Ileum meets the large intestine at the
stomach wall from being damaged by acid ileocecal valve, which joins the large and
and digested by enzymes. small intestines.
 Smooth lining is dotted with millions of  Chemical digestion in the small
deep gastric pits, which lead into intestine.
gastric glands that secrete the solution  Pyloric sphincter (“gate keeper”)
called gastric juice. controls food movement into the small
 Mucous neck cells produce a thin intestine from the stomach and prevents
acidic mucus that is quite different from the small intestine from being
that secreted by the mucous cells of the overwhelmed.
mucosa. Bile (formed by the liver) also enters
Entero-endocrine cells, produce local the duodenum through the bile duct in the
hormones, such as gastrin, that are same area.
important to the digestive activities of the
stomach.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
 Main pancreatic and bile ducts join at
the duodenum to form the flask-like
hepatopancreatic ampulla (the “liver-
Peyer’s patches is a local collections
pancreatic enlargement.”
of lymphatic tissue that is found in the
 Food absorption occurs in the small
submucosa increase in number toward the
intestine.
end of the small intestine.
 Its wall has three structures that
increase the absorptive surface
Large Intestine
tremendously—microvilli, villi, and
 Larger in diameter than the small
circular folds.
intestine but shorter in length.
 Microvilli are tiny projections of the
 1.5 m (5 feet) long.
plasma membrane of the mucosa cells
that give the cell surface a fuzzy
appearance, sometimes referred to as the
brush border.
 Villi are fingerlike projections of the
mucosa that give it a velvety appearance
and feel, much like the soft nap of a towel.
Within each villus is a rich capillary bed
and a modified lymphatic capillary called a
lacteal.
 Circular folds, also called plicae
circulares, are deep folds of both mucosa
and submucosa layers and they do not
disappear when food fills the small
intestine.
 Major functions:
 To dry out the indigestible food
residue by absorbing water.
 To eliminate these residues from
the body as feces.
 It frames the small intestine on three
sides and has these subdivisions: cecum,
appendix, colon, rectum, and anal
canal.
 Cecum is the first part of the large
intestine.
Appendix is an ideal location for
bacteria to accumulate and multiply.
 Inflammation of the appendix,
appendicitis.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
 Ascending colon travels up the right
side of the abdominal cavity and makes a
turn, the right colic flexure, to travel
across the abdominal cavity as the
transverse colon.
 It then turns again at the left colic
flexure, and continues down the left side
as the descending colon, to enter the
pelvis, where it becomes the S-shaped
sigmoid colon.
 Anal canal ends at the anus, which
opens to the exterior.
Anal canal has an external voluntary
sphincter (the external anal sphincter)
composed of skeletal muscle and an
internal involuntary sphincter (internal
anal sphincter) formed by smooth
muscle.
 No villi are present in the large
intestine, but there are tremendous  By the age of 21, two sets of teeth have
numbers of goblet cells in its mucosa been formed.
that produce alkaline (bicarbonate-rich)  First set is the deciduous teeth, also
mucus. called baby teeth or milk teeth.
 Muscularis externa is reduced to  Second set of teeth, the deeper
three bands of muscle called teniae coli permanent teeth, enlarge and develop,
(“ribbons of the colon”). the roots of the milk teeth are reabsorbed,
Theses muscle bands usually display and between the ages of 6 and 12 years
some degree of tone (are partially they loosen and fall out.
contracted), they cause the wall to pucker Third molars also called wisdom teeth,
into small pocket-like sacs called haustra. emerge later, between the ages of 17 and
25.
 32 permanent teeth in a full set.

Accessory Digestive Organs Homeostatic Imbalance

Teeth  When teeth remain embedded in the
 We masticate, or chew by using our jawbone, they are said to be impacted.
jaw. Impacted teeth exert pressure and
cause a good deal of pain and must be
removed surgically.
Wisdom teeth are the most commonly
impacted.

Chisel-shaped incisors are adapted for

cutting.
Fanglike canines (eyeteeth) are for
tearing or piercing.
Premolars (bicuspids) and molars
have broad crowns with rounded cusps
(tips) and are best suited for grinding.
 Two major regions of tooth are the
crown and the root.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
 into the floor of the mouth through tiny
ducts.
The product of the salivary glands,
saliva, is a mixture of mucus and serous
fluids.
 Mucus moistens and helps to bind food
together into a mass called a bolus, which
makes chewing and swallowing easier.
The clear serous portion contains an
enzyme, salivary amylase, in a
bicarbonate-rich (alkaline) juice that
begins the process of starch digestion in
the mouth.
 Saliva also contains substances such
as lysozyme and antibodies (IgA) that
 Enamel-covered crown is the exposed inhibit bacteria and saliva dissolves food
part of the tooth above the gingiva, or chemicals.
gum.
Enamel, a ceramic-like substance as Pancreas
thick as a dime, directly bears the force of It is a soft, pink, triangular gland that
chewing. extends across the abdomen from the
It is the hardest substance in the body spleen to the duodenum.
and is fairly brittle because it is heavily  It lies posterior to the parietal
mineralized with calcium salts. peritoneum; hence its location is referred
Embedded in the jawbone is the root; to as retroperitoneal.
the root and crown are connected by the  Pancreas produces enzymes that break
tooth region called the neck. down all categories of digestible foods.
Outer surface of the root is covered by a  Pancreatic enzymes are secreted into
substance called cement, which attaches the duodenum in an alkaline fluid that
the tooth to the periodontal membrane neutralizes the acidic chyme coming in
(ligament). from the stomach.
 Dentin, a bonelike material, underlies Pancreas produces the hormones
the enamel and forms the bulk of the insulin and glucagon.
tooth.
It surrounds a central pulp cavity, which Liver and Gallbladder
contains a number of structures Liver is the largest gland in the body.
(connective tissue, blood vessels, and  Located under the diaphragm.
nerve fibers) collectively called pulp. The liver has four lobes the falciform
 Pulp supplies nutrients to the tooth ligament.
tissues and provides for tooth sensations.  Its digestive function is to produce
Where the pulp cavity extends into the bile.
root, it becomes the root canal, which Bile leaves the liver through the
provides a route for blood vessels, nerves, common hepatic duct and enters the
and other pulp structures to enter the pulp duodenum through the bile duct.
cavity of the tooth.  Bile is a yellow-to-green, watery
solution containing bile salts, bile
Salivary Glands pigments (chiefly bilirubin, a breakdown
 Three pairs of salivary glands empty product of hemoglobin), cholesterol,
their secretions into the mouth. phospholipids, and a variety of
The large parotid glands lie anterior to electrolytes.
the ears. Only the bile salts (derived from
Mumps, a common childhood disease, cholesterol) and phospholipids aid the
is an inflammation of the parotid glands. digestive process.
 Submandibular glands and the small  Bile does not contain enzymes, but its
sublingual glands empty their secretions bile salts emulsify fats by physically

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
breaking large fat globules into smaller
ones.
 Gallbladder is a small, thin-walled
green sac that snuggles in a shallow fossa
in the inferior surface of the liver.
 When food digestion is not occurring,
bile backs up the cystic duct and enters
the gallbladder to be stored.
While in the gallbladder, bile is
concentrated by the removal of water.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 If bile is stored in the gallbladder for
too long or too much water is removed,
the cholesterol it contains may
crystallize, forming gallstones.
 As the bile pigments circulate through
the body, the tissues become yellow, or
jaundiced.
Blockage of the ducts is just one
cause of jaundice.
 Hepatitis is an inflammation of the
liver. It is due to viral infection resulting
from drinking contaminated water or Essential activities of the GI tract
transmitted in blood via transfusion or Ingestion Food must be placed into
contaminated needles. the mouth before it can be
Cirrhosis, a chronic inflammatory acted on.
condition in which the liver is severely Propulsio Foods must be propelled
damaged and becomes hard and n from one organ to the next.
fibrous. Swallowing is one
example of food movement
Gastrointestinal Processes and that depends largely on the
Control propulsive process called
peristalsis.
Peristalsis is involuntary
and involves alternating
waves of contraction and
relaxation of the muscles in
the organ wall.
Segmentation may help
to propel foodstuffs through
the small intestine but it is
mechanical digestion
than of propulsion.
Food  Mechanical breakdown
breakdo prepares food for further
wn: degradation by enzymes by
Mechanic physically fragmenting the
al foods into smaller particles.
breakdow Example of mechanical
n breakdown:
 Mixing of food in the
mouth by the
tongue.
 Churning of food in

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
 the stomach. chemoreceptors that is located in the
 Segmentation in the walls of the alimentary canal organs.
small intestine.  When these receptors are activated,
Food It is the sequence of steps they trigger reflexes that activate or
breakdo in which large food inhibit:
wn: molecules are chemically  The glands that secrete digestive
Digestion broken down to their juices into the lumen or hormones
building blocks by enzymes into the blood.
(protein molecules that act  The smooth muscles of the
as catalysts). muscularis that mix and propel the
Absorptio  It is the transport of the foods along the tract.
n end products from the
lumen of the GI tract to the
blood or lymph.
 For absorption to occur,
the digested foods must
first enter the mucosal cells
by active or passive
transport processes.
Small intestine is the
major absorptive site.
Defecatio It is the elimination of
n indigestible residues from
the GI tract via the anus in
the form of feces.

 The building blocks, or units, of

carbohydrate foods are
monosaccharides, or simple sugars.
 Glucose is the “sugar”.
Fructose is the most abundant sugar in
fruits.
Galactose is found in milk.
 The only carbohydrates that our
digestive system digests, or breaks down
to simple sugars, are sucrose (table
sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose
(malt sugar), and starch.
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are
referred to as disaccharides.
 Starch is a polysaccharide.
 Proteins are digested to their building Activities occurring in the Mouth,
blocks, which are amino acids. Pharynx, and Esophagus
Products of protein digestion are Food Ingestion and Breakdown
polypeptides and peptides.  First the food is physically broken down
 When lipids (fats) are digested, they into smaller particles by chewing.
yield two different types of building blocks As the food is mixed with saliva, salivary
—fatty acids and an alcohol called amylase begins the digestion of starch,
glycerol. chemically breaking it down into maltose.
 Digestive activity is mostly controlled  No food absorption occurs in the mouth.
by reflexes via the parasympathetic  Pharynx and esophagus have no
division of the autonomic nervous digestive function.
system.
Sensors involved are Food Propulsion—Swallowing and
mechanoreceptors and Peristalsis

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
 Deglutition, or swallowing, is a  2 to 3 liters of gastric juice are
complex process that involves the produced every day.
coordinated activity of several structures  Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach
(tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and contents very acid.
esophagus).  Both hydrochloric acid and the
 It has two major phases. protein-digesting enzymes have the
 The first phase, the voluntary ability to digest the stomach itself, causing
buccal phase, occurs in the ulcers.
mouth. Once the food has been The stomach is safe if we have enough
chewed and well mixed with saliva, mucus.
the bolus (food mass) is forced into Extremely acidic environment that
the pharynx by the tongue. As food hydrochloric acid provides is necessary,
enters the pharynx, it passes out of because it activates pepsinogen to
our control and into the realm of pepsin, the active protein-digesting
reflex activity. enzyme.
 The second phase, the involuntary  Rennin, the second protein-digesting
pharyngeal esophageal phase, enzyme produced by the stomach, works
transports food through the primarily on milk protein and converts it to
pharynx and esophagus. The a substance that looks like sour milk.
parasympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system controls Homeostatic Imbalance
this phase.  Heartburn results because of the
cardioesophageal sphincter fails to close
tightly and gastric juice backs up into
the esophagus, which has little mucus
protection.
And it will lead to inflammation of
esophagus (esophagitis) if
uncorrected.
 Hiatal hernia is an abnormality in
which the superior part of the stomach
protrudes slightly above the diaphragm.

Food Propulsion

Activities of the Stomach

Food Breakdown
 Secretion of gastric juice is regulated
by both neural and hormonal factors.
 The sight, smell, and taste of food
stimulate parasympathetic nervous
system reflexes, which increase the  The pylorus of the stomach, which
secretion of gastric juice by the stomach holds about 30 ml of chyme, acts like a
glands. meter that allows only liquids and very
 The presence of food and a rising pH in small particles to pass through the pyloric
the stomach stimulate the stomach cells sphincter.
to release the hormone gastrin.  Because the pyloric sphincter barely
Gastrin prods the stomach glands to opens, each contraction of the stomach
produce protein-digesting enzymes muscle squirts 3 ml or less of chyme into
(pepsinogens), mucus, and hydrochloric the small intestine.
acid.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
The contraction also closes the valve, so
the rest (about 27 ml) is propelled
backward into the stomach for more
mixing, a process called retropulsion.
 When the duodenum is filled with
chyme and its wall is stretched, a nervous
reflex, the enterogastric reflex, occurs.
This reflex slows the emptying of the
stomach by inhibiting the vagus nerves
and tightening the pyloric sphincter, thus
allowing time for intestinal processing to
catch up.
 4 hours for the stomach to empty if the
person eats balanced meal and 6 hours or
more if the meal has a high fat content. Secretin causes the liver to increase its
output of bile.
Homeostatic Imbalance Cholecystokinin causes the gallbladder
Bacterial food poisoning, may to contract and release stored bile into the
activate the emetic center in the brain bile duct so that bile and pancreatic juice
(medulla). enter the small intestine together.
Emetic center, in turn, causes Bile emulsify, or break down, large fat
vomiting (emesis). globules into tiny ones, providing a much
 Vomiting is essentially a reverse greater surface area for the pancreatic
peristalsis occurring in the stomach, lipases to work on and it is also necessary
accompanied by contraction of the for absorption of fats (and the fat-soluble
abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, vitamins [K, D, E, and A]) from the
which increases the pressure on the intestinal tract.
abdominal organs.
Enzymes that Pancreatic juice
Activities of the Small Intestine contains
Food Breakdown and Absorption Pancreatic Complete the
 Brush border enzymes which is Amylase digestion of starch.
located in the microvilli of the small Trypsin, Protein digestion
intestine cells, breaks down double sugars Chymotrypsin,
into simple sugars and complete protein and
digestion. Carboxypeptida
 Intestinal juice is enzyme poor. se
 Foods entering the small intestine are Lipases Fat digestion
literally deluged with enzyme-rich Nucleases Digest nucleic acids
pancreatic juice.
 Pancreatic juice contains a rich supply
Homeostatic Imbalance
of bicarbonate, which makes it very basic
Pancreatitis is an inflammation of
(about pH 8).
the pancreas that results from activation
The release of pancreatic juice into the
of pancreatic enzymes in the pancreatic
duodenum is stimulated by both the
duct.
vagus nerves and local hormones.
This can lead to nutritional
Mucosa cells produce secretin and
deficiencies, because pancreatic
cholecystokinin (CCK), that influence the
enzymes are essential for digestion in
release of pancreatic juice and bile.
the small intestine.
Both hormones work together to
If either bile or pancreatic juice is
stimulate the pancreas to release its
absent, essentially no fat digestion or
enzyme- and bicarbonate-rich product.
absorption goes on, and fatty, bulky
stools are the result.
In such cases, blood-clotting problems

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
also occur because the liver needs enough water to allow their smooth
vitamin K to make prothrombin, one of passage.
the clotting factors.
Propulsion of the Residue and
Absorption of water and of the end Defecation
products of digestion occurs in small Haustral contractions, slow
intestine. segmenting movements lasting about 1
Water, indigestible food materials (plant minute that occur every 30 minutes or so.
fibers such as cellulose), and large Mass movements are long, slow-
amounts of bacteria are the remaining moving but powerful contractile waves
substances left in the end of ileum that move over large areas of the colon
and enters the large intestine through the three or four times daily and force the
ileocecal valve. contents toward the rectum.
It occur during or just after eating, when
food begins to fill the stomach and small
intestine.
Bulk, or fiber, in the diet increases the
strength of colon contractions and softens
the stool, allowing the colon to act as a
well-oiled machine.

Homeostatic Imbalance
Diverticulitis, a condition in which
the diverticula become inflamed, can be
life-threatening if ruptures occur.

When feces are forced into it by mass

movements and its wall is stretched, the
defecation reflex is initiated.
Food Propulsion Defecation reflex is a spinal (sacral
Peristalsis is the major means of region) reflex that causes the walls of the
propelling food through the digestive tract. sigmoid colon and the rectum to contract
It involves waves of contraction that and the anal sphincters to relax.
move along the length of the intestine,
followed by waves of relaxation. Homeostatic Imbalance
Rhythmic segmental movements Diarrhea, result from any condition
produce local constrictions of the intestine that rushes food residue through the
that mix the chyme with the digestive large intestine before that organ has
juices, and help to propel food through the had sufficient time to absorb the water.
intestine. It may result in dehydration and
electrolyte imbalance.
Activities of Large Intestine Constipation results because food
Food Breakdown and Absorption residue remains in the large intestine for
This colon has no digestive enzymes. extended periods, too much water is
Bacteria in its lumen metabolize some of absorbed, and the stool becomes hard
the remaining nutrients, releasing gases and difficult to pass.
(methane and hydrogen sulfide) that It may result from lack of fiber in the
contribute to the odor of feces. diet, poor bowel habits (“failing to heed
500 ml of gas (flatus) is produced each the call”), and laxative abuse.
day.
Bacteria residing in the large intestine Nutrition and Metabolism
also make some vitamins (vitamin K and B Foods are oxidized and transformed into
vitamins). adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the
Feces, contain undigested food chemical energy form needed by body
residues, mucus, bacteria, and just cells to drive their many activities.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
The energy value of foods is measured place setting rather than as segments of a
in units called kilocalories (kcal), or pyramid.
Calories. Issued by the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Nutrition
 Nutrient is a substance in food that is
used by the body to promote normal
growth, maintenance, and repair.
 Major nutrients are carbohydrates,
lipids,
proteins and water.
 Minor nutrients are vitamins and
minerals.

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

Carbohydr Sugar and starches are
ate derived from plants except
milk sugar (lactose).
 Sugars come mainly
from fruits, sugar cane, and
milk.
Polysaccharide starch
is found in grains, legumes,
and root vegetables.
 Polysaccharide
cellulose (vegetables), is
not digested by humans,
but it provides roughage,
or fiber, which increases
the bulk of the stool and
aids defecation.
Lipids Lipids are triglycerides
(neutral fats).
 Unsaturated fats are
present in seeds, nuts, and
most vegetable oils.
Major sources of
cholesterol are egg yolk,
meats, and milk products.
Proteins  Animal products
 The Healthy Eating Pyramid of contain the highest-quality
Walter Willett in 1992, uses the traditional proteins.
orientation of food groups; emphasizes  Eggs, milk, fish, and
eating whole-grain foods and lots of fruits most meat proteins are
and vegetables; and recommends complete proteins that
substituting plant oils for animal fats and meet all of the body’s
restricting red meat, sweets, and starchy amino acid requirements
foods. for tissue maintenance and
MyPlate (2011), shows food categories growth.
in healthy proportions in sections of a

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

18
 carbohydrate digestion and the major fuel
used for making ATP.
 Carbon atoms released leave the cells
as carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen
atoms removed (which contain energy-rich
electrons) are eventually combined with
oxygen to form water.

Our body cannot make

this essential amino acids.
Vitamins  Vitamins are organic  These oxygen-using events are referred
nutrients of various forms to collectively as cellular respiration.
that the body requires in Three main metabolic pathways involved
small amounts. in cellular respiration are glycolysis, the
 Vitamins A, C, and E Krebs cycle, and the electron transport
appear to have anticancer chain.
effects.
 Broccoli, cabbage, and
brussels sprouts (all good
sources of vitamins A and
C) appear to reduce
cancer risk.
 Most vitamins function
as coenzymes, they act
with an enzyme to
accomplish a particular
type of catalysis.
Minerals Minerals are calcium,
phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, sodium, chloride,
and magnesium.
 Mineral-rich foods are
 Oxidation via the removal of hydrogen
vegetables, legumes, milk,
atoms (which are temporarily passed to
and some meats.
vitamin-containing coenzymes) is a major
role of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
Metabolism
 Glycolysis, which takes place in the
 Metabolism is a broad term referring
cytosol, also energizes each glucose
to all chemical reactions that are
molecule so that it can be split into two
necessary to maintain life. It involves
pyruvic acid molecules and yield a small
catabolism, the breakdown of substances
amount of ATP in the process.
to simpler substances. During catabolism,
 Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria
bond energy of foods is released and
and produces virtually all the carbon
captured to make ATP, the energy-rich
dioxide that results during cell respiration.
molecule used to energize all cellular
It yields a small amount of ATP by
activities, including catabolic reactions.
transferring high-energy phosphate groups
Anabolism, the building of larger
directly from phosphorylated substances
molecules or structures from smaller ones.
to ADP, a process called substrate-level
phosphorylation. Free oxygen is not
Carbohydrate Metabolism
involved.
Cells of the body use carbohydrates as
Electron transport chain is where the
their preferred fuel to produce cellular
action is for ATP production.
energy (ATP).
 Glucose, also known as blood sugar,
is the major breakdown product of

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
 release the rest to the blood in the form of
relatively small fat-breakdown products.
 Fats are used to form myelin sheaths
of neurons and fatty cushions around
body organs.
 For fat products to be used for ATP
synthesis, they must first be broken down
to acetic acid.
Acetic acid is then completely oxidized,
and carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are
formed.
 If acetoacetic acid and acetone begin to
Hydrogens are delivered by the accumulate in the blood, acidosis or
coenzymes to the protein carriers of the ketoacidosis will occur.
electron transport chain, which form part Breath takes on a fruity odor as acetone
of the mitochondrial cristae membrane. diffuses from the lungs.
Hydrogen atoms are split into hydrogen  Ketoacidosis is a common
ions (H+) and electrons (e−). consequence of “no-carbohydrate” diets,
Electrons “fall down an energy hill” uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, and
going from each carrier to a carrier of starvation in which the body is forced to
lower energy. rely almost totally on fats to fuel its
They give off their “load” of energy in a energy needs.
series of steps in small enough amounts to  Excess fats are stored in fat depots such
enable the cell to attach phosphate to ADP as the hips, abdomen, breasts, and
and make ATP. subcutaneous tissues.
Free oxygen is reduced (the electrons
and hydrogen ions are united with
molecular oxygen), forming water and a
large amount of ATP. Protein Metabolism
This more complicated process of ATP  Proteins make up the bulk of cellular
formation is called oxidative structures, and they are carefully
phosphorylation. conserved by body cells.
 If there are excessively high levels of Ingested proteins are broken down to
glucose in the blood, some of the excess amino acids.
is stored liver and muscle cells as  The cells remove amino acids from the
glycogen or converted to fat. blood and use them to build proteins, both
 When blood glucose levels are too for their own use (enzymes, membranes,
low , the liver breaks down stored mitotic spindle proteins, muscle proteins)
glycogen and releases glucose to the and for export (mucus, hormones, and
blood for cellular use. others).
 Cells cannot build their proteins unless
all the needed amino acids, which number
around 20, are present.
 Amino acids are used to make ATP
only when proteins are overabundant
and/or when carbohydrates and fats are
not available.
To oxidize amino acids for energy, their
Fat Metabolism amine groups are removed as ammonia,
Liver handles most lipid, or fat, and the rest of the molecule enters the
metabolism. Krebs cycle pathway.
Liver cells use some fats to make ATP Ammonia is toxic to body cells, the liver
for their own use; use some to synthesize comes to the rescue by combining the
lipoproteins, thromboplastin (a clotting ammonia with carbon dioxide to form
protein), and cholesterol; and then urea.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
Urea, which is not harmful to the body
cells, is then flushed from the body in
urine.

The Central Role of the Liver in

Metabolism
 Liver cells detoxify drugs and alcohol,
degrade hormones, and make many
substances vital to the body as a whole
(cholesterol, blood proteins such as
albumin and clotting proteins, and
lipoproteins).
Hepatic portal circulation, brings
nutrient-rich blood draining from the
digestive viscera directly to the liver.
Liver is the body’s major metabolic Fats and fatty acids picked up by the
organ. liver cells are oxidized for energy (to make
Liver cells remove amino acids, fatty ATP) for use by the liver cells themselves.
acids, and glucose from the blood. The rest are broken down to simpler
substances such as acetic acid and
General Metabolic Functions acetoacetic acid.
Liver helps to maintain blood glucose  Liver also makes cholesterol and
levels within normal range (around 100 secretes cholesterol’s breakdown products
mg glucose/100 ml of blood). in bile.
Glucose molecules are removed in the  Blood proteins made by the liver are
blood and combined to form glycogen built from the amino acids its cells pick up
and then stored in liver. from the blood.
 This process is glycogenesis, literally,  Albumin, the most abundant protein in
“glycogen formation”. blood, holds fluids in the bloodstream.
If the glucose levels drop, the liver cells Insufficient albumin is present in
break down the stored glycogen by a blood can cause edema.
process called glycogenolysis, which
means “glycogen splitting.” Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport
Liver can also make glucose from fats Cholesterol is not used as an energy
and proteins and this process is fuel.
gluconeogenesis, which means  It serves as the structural basis of
“formation of new sugar”. steroid hormones and vitamin D, and is a
Hormones such as thyroxine, insulin, major building block of plasma
and glucagon are important in controlling membranes.
the blood sugar levels and in the handling  Cholesterol is lost from the body when it
of glucose in all body cells. is broken down and secreted in bile salts.
Cholesterol play in fat and cholesterol
transport.
Lipoproteins is a proteins made by the
liver and known by the buzzwords HDLs
and LDLs.
 Fatty acids, fats, and cholesterol are
insoluble in water, so they cannot circulate
freely in the bloodstream, so they are
transported bound to the lipoproteins.
 Low-density lipoproteins (LDL),
transport cholesterol and other lipids to
body cells.
 If large amounts of LDLs are circulating,
fatty substances will be deposited on the

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
arterial walls, initiating atherosclerosis
and can be tagged as bad cholesterol.
High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are
lipoprotein that transport cholesterol from
the tissue cells (or arteries) to the liver for
disposal in bile.
It is a good cholesterol because
cholesterol are broken down and
eliminated from the body.

Body Energy Balance Amount of thyroxine produced by the

 Energy intake is the energy liberated thyroid gland is probably the most
during food oxidation—that is, during the important factor in determining a person’s
reactions of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, BMR; hence, thyroxine has been dubbed
and the electron transport chain. the “metabolic hormone.”
 The more thyroxine produced, the
Energy intake = total energy output higher the oxygen consumption and ATP
(heat + work + use, and the higher the metabolic rate.
energy storage)
 Energy output includes the energy we Homeostatic Imbalance
immediately lose as heat (about 60  Hyperthyroidism causes a host of
percent of the total), plus that used to do effects due to the excessive metabolic
work (driven by ATP), plus energy that is rate it produces.
stored in the form of fat or glycogen. The body catabolizes stored fats and
Energy storage is important only tissue proteins, and despite increased
during periods of growth and during net hunger and food intake, the person
fat deposit. often loses weight.
Bones weaken and body muscles,
Metabolic Rate and Body Heat including the heart, atrophy.
Production Hypothyroidism results in slowed
 Energy value of foods is measured in a metabolism, obesity, and diminished
unit called the kilocalorie (kcals). thought processes.
Carbohydrates and proteins each yield 4
kcal/gram, and fats yield 9 kcal/gram Total Metabolic Rate
when they are broken down for energy  Total metabolic rate (TMR) refers to
production. the total amount of kilocalories the body
must consume to fuel all ongoing
Basal Metabolic Rate activities.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the Muscular work can increase the TMR.
amount of heat produced by the body per  When the total number of kilocalories
unit of time when it is under basal consumed is equal to the TMR,
conditions—that is, at rest. homeostasis is maintained, and our weight
Average 70-kg (154-pound) adult has a remains constant.
BMR of about 60 to 72 kcal/hour.
Factors influence BMR is surface area Body Temperature Regulation
and gender and age.  Body temperature reflects the balance
between heat production and heat loss.
The body’s thermostat is in the
hypothalamus of the brain.
 Through autonomic nervous system
pathways, the hypothalamus
continuously regulates body temperature
around a set point of 35.6° to 37.8°C

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
(96° to 100°F) by initiating heat-loss or Homeostatic Imbalance
heat-promoting mechanisms.  Extremely low body temperature
resulting from prolonged exposure to
cold is hypothermia.
Individual’s vital signs (respiratory
rate, blood pressure, heart rate)
decrease.
The person becomes drowsy and
oddly comfortable, even though
previously he or she felt extremely cold.

Heat-Loss Mechanisms
Heat loss occurs through the skin via
radiation or evaporation.
 When body temperature increases
above what is desirable, the blood vessels
serving the skin dilate and capillary beds
in the skin become flushed with warm
blood.
If the external environment is as hot as
or hotter than the body, heat cannot be
lost by radiation.
The only means of getting rid of excess
heat is by the evaporation of perspiration
off the skin surface.

Homeostatic Imbalance
Heat-Promoting Mechanisms Hyperthermia, or elevated body
Body must produce more heat when temperature.
temperature is low to maintain normal  Positive feedback cycle occurs:
body temperature.  Soaring body temperature
If the temperature of circulating blood increases the metabolic rate,
falls, body heat must be conserved and which in turn increases heat
more heat generated to restore normal production.
body (blood) temperature.  Skin becomes hot and dry; and,
Short-term means of accomplishing this as the temperature continues to
are vasoconstriction of blood vessels of spiral upward.
the skin and shivering.  Permanent brain damage or
heat stroke.
Homeostatic Imbalance Heat exhaustion is the term used to
Frostbite is caused by extended describe the heat-associated collapse of
restriction of blood delivery to the skin, an individual during or following
the skin cells, chilled by internal ice vigorous physical activity.
crystals and deprived of oxygen and It results from excessive loss of body
nutrients, begin to die. fluids (dehydration) and is evidenced by
low blood pressure, a rapid heartbeat,
 Shivering happens when the core body and cool, clammy skin.
temperature drops to the point beyond
which simple constriction of skin  Fever is controlled hyperthermia.
capillaries can handle the situation.  Macrophages, white blood cells, and
It is effective in increasing the body injured tissue cells release chemical
temperature because skeletal muscle substances called pyrogens that act
activity produces large amounts of heat. directly on the hypothalamus, causing its
thermostat to be set to a higher
temperature.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
After thermostat resetting, heat- increasing frequency in an aging
promoting mechanisms are initiated. population.
Shivering begins to generate heat
(Chills).
 Fever, by increasing the metabolic
rate, helps speed the various healing
processes, and it also appears to inhibit
bacterial growth. TH URINARY SYSTEM
 Kidneys has a major responsibility for
Homeostatic Imbalance eliminating nitrogenous (nitrogen-
Cleft palate/cleft lip defect is more containing) wastes, toxins, and drugs from
serious because the child is unable to the body.
suck properly. It also regulate the blood’s volume and
 Tracheoesophageal fistula, there chemical makeup to maintain the proper
is a connection between the esophagus balance between water and salts and
and the trachea. The esophagus often between acids and bases.
(but not always) ends in a blind sac and  The kidneys have other regulatory
does not connect to the stomach. The functions:
baby chokes, drools, and becomes  By producing the enzyme renin,
cyanotic during feedings because food they help regulate blood pressure.
is entering the respiratory passageways.  Their hormone erythropoietin
Cystic fibrosis (CF) affects the lungs, stimulates red blood cell production
but it also significantly impairs the in bone marrow.
activity of the pancreas. Huge amounts  Kidney cells convert vitamin D to
of mucus are produced, which block the its active form.
passages of involved organs which Urinary system—the paired ureters
prevents pancreatic fluid from reaching and the single urinary bladder and urethra
the small intestine. As a result, fats and provide temporary storage reservoirs for
fat-soluble vitamins are not digested or urine or serve as transportation channels
absorbed, and bulky, fat-laden stools to carry it from one body region to
results. another.
 Phenylketonuria (PKU) involves an
inability of tissue cells to use
phenylalanine, an amino acid present in
all protein foods. In such cases, brain
damage and retardation occur.
 Developing infant receives all its
nutrients through the placenta.
 Rooting reflex helps the infant find
the nipple (mother’s or bottle).
Sucking reflex helps him or her to hold
on to the nipple and swallow.
 Various inflammatory conditions plague
the digestive system throughout life.
Appendicitis is common in adolescents,  Male showing the relationship of the
gastroenteritis and food poisoning can kidneys to the 12th rib pair.
occur at any time (given the proper
irritating factors), ulcers and gallbladder
problems increase in middle age. Obesity
and diabetes mellitus are bothersome
during later middle age.
Efficiency of all digestive system
processes decreases in the elderly.
Gastrointestinal cancers, such as
stomach and colon cancer, appear with

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
 kidney and adrenal gland to surrounding
structures.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Ptosis creates problems if the
ureters, which drain urine from the
kidneys, become kinked. It happens
because the kidneys may drop to a
lower position because of then amount
of fatty tissue dwindles.
Hydronephrosis occurs when urine
KIDNEY
that can no longer pass through the
Location and Structure
ureters backs up and exerts pressure on
Dark red organs with a kidney-bean
the kidney tissue.
shape lie against the dorsal body wall in a
retroperitoneal position (beneath the
Renal cortex, outer region, which is
parietal peritoneum) in the superior
light in color.
lumbar region.
Renal medulla, deep to the cortex is a
Kidneys extend from the T12 to the L3
darker reddish-brown area.
vertebra.
 Renal, or medullary, pyramids is a
 Adult kidney is about 12 cm (5 inches)
triangular regions with a striped
long, 6 cm (2.5 inches) wide, and 3 cm (1
appearance.
inch) thick, about the size of a large bar of
 Pyramids are separated by extensions
soap.
of cortex-like tissue, the renal columns.
 It is convex laterally and has a medial
 Lateral to the hilum is a flat, funnel-
indentation called the renal hilum.
shaped tube, the renal pelvis.
Calyces collect urine, which
continuously drains from the tips of the
pyramids into the renal pelvis.
 Urine then flows from the pelvis into
the ureter, which transports it to the
bladder for temporary storage.

Blood Supply
Kidneys cleanse the blood and they
have rich blood supply.
Arterial supply of each kidney is the
renal artery.
 Venous blood draining from the
kidney flows through veins that trace the
Pathway of Renal Blood Vessels pathway of the arterial supply but in a
reverse direction—cortical radiate veins
to arcuate veins to interlobar veins to
the renal vein, which emerges from the
kidney hilum and empties into the inferior
vena cava.

Nephrons
 Transparent fibrous capsule encloses  They are the structural and functional
each kidney and gives a fresh kidney a units of the kidneys and are responsible
glistening appearance. for forming urine.
Perirenal fat capsule, surrounds each  Collecting ducts collects fluid from
kidney and cushions it against blows. several nephrons and conveys it to the
Renal fascia, an outer layer of dense renal pelvis.
fibrous connective tissue, anchors the

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
 - It is both fed and drained by
arterioles.
- Afferent arteriole is the “feeder
vessel,”.
- Efferent arteriole receives the
blood that has passed through the
glomerulus.
- Specialized for filtration.
- High-pressure glomerulus.
 Peritubular capillary bed.
- Arises from the efferent arteriole
that drains the glomerulus.
- Low-pressure
- For absorption
- Ideal position to receive solutes
and water from the tubule cells.
- It drains into interlobar veins
leaving the cortex.

Urine Formation
 Urine formation is a result of three
 Each nephron consists of two main
processes— glomerular filtration,
structures: a renal corpuscle and a
tubular reabsorption, and tubular
renal tubule.
secretion.
 Each renal corpuscle consists of a
glomerulus, which is a knot of capillaries,
and a cup-shaped hollow structure.
This portion of the renal corpuscle is
called the glomerular capsule, or
Bowman’s capsule.
 Podocytes have long branching
processes called foot processes.
Filtration slits or openings, exist
between their extensions, the podocytes
form a porous, or “holey,” membrane
around the glomerulus.
Renal tubule, which makes up the rest
of the nephron, is about 3 cm long.
 These different regions of the tubule
have specific names; in order from the
glomerular capsule, they are the
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), the
nephron loop, or loop of Henle, and the
distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
 Most nephrons are called cortical
nephrons because they are located
almost entirely within the cortex.
Nephrons are called juxtamedullary Glomerular Filtration
nephrons because they are situated close  Glomerular filtration is a
to the cortex-medulla junction, and their nonselective, passive process in which
nephron loops dip deep into the medulla. fluid passes from the blood into the
Collecting ducts deliver the final urine glomerular capsule part of the renal
product into the calyces and renal pelvis. tubule.
 Each and every nephron is associated Fluid is called filtrate, and it is
with two capillary bed: essentially blood plasma without blood
 Glomerulus proteins.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
If arterial blood pressure drops too low,  Creatinine, associated with
filtrate formation stops. creatine metabolism in muscle
tissue.
Homeostatic Imbalance These substances are high
Abnormally low urinary output is concentrations in urine because tubular
called oliguria if it is between 100 and cells have few membrane carriers to
400 ml/day. reabsorbed this substances that’s why
It indicates that glomerular blood they tend to remain in filtration.
pressure is too low to cause filtration.  Reabsorption occurs in the proximal
Anuria if it is less than 100 ml/day. convoluted tubules.
It result from transfusion reactions
and acute inflammation or from crush Tubular Secretion
injuries of the kidneys. It is tubular reabsorption in reverse.
Hydrogen and potassium ions (H+ and
Tubular Reabsorption K+) and creatinine, are move from the
 Tubular reabsorption begins as soon blood of the peritubular capillaries into the
as the filtrate enters the proximal filtration to be eliminated in urine.
convoluted tubule. It gets rid of substances not already in
the filtrate, such as certain drugs, excess
potassium, or as an additional means for
controlling blood pH.

Characteristics of Urine
Kidneys filter some 150 to 180 liters of
blood plasma through their glomeruli into
the tubules.
Within 24 hours, only about 1.0 to 1.8
liters of urine are produced.
 Urine and filtrate are different.
Filtrate lost most of its water and just
about all of its nutrients and necessary
ions when it reaches the collecting ducts.
Urine (will remains), contains
nitrogenous wastes and unneeded
substances.
Tubule cells are “transporters,”. They Urine is clear and pale to deep
transport needed substances from the yellow.
filtrate into the extracellular space, from The normal yellow color is due to
which they are absorbed into peritubular urochrome, a pigment that results from
capillary blood. the body’s destruction of hemoglobin.
Reabsorption depends on active More solutes are in the urine, the
transport processes. deeper yellow its color.
 Needed substances (for example,  Dilute urine is a pale, straw color.
glucose and amino acids) are removed If it is sterile, and slightly aromatic, it
from the filtrate. is ammonia odor caused by the action of
 Nitrogenous waste products are bacteria on the urine solutes.
poorly reabsorbed, if at all. These include Urine pH is slightly acid (pH 6).
the following:  Acid-ash foods such as proteins like
 Urea, formed by the liver as an eggs and cheese, and wheat products
end product of protein breakdown causes urine to become acidic.
when amino acids are used to Alkaline-ash diet like vegetarian diet
produce energy. (also bacterial infection) causes the
 Uric acid, released when nucleic urine to become alkaline.
acids are metabolized. Urine is more dense than water and it
is measured by its specific gravity.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
Specific gravity of pure water is 1.0. kidney stones,
Specific gravity of urine usually infection)
ranges from 1.001 to 1.035. Hemoglo Hemoglobin Various:
 Urine is dilute that is, it has a low bin uria Transfusion
specific gravity. reaction,
 Conditions that produce urine with a hemolytic
high specific gravity include: anemia
 Inadequate fluid intake Bile Bilirubinuria Liver disease
 Fever pigment (hepatitis)
 Kidney inflammation called
pyelonephritis URETERS
 Solutes normally found in urine Ureters are two slender tubes each 25
include: to 30 cm (10 to 12 inches) long and 6
 Sodium mm (¼ inch) in diameter.
 Potassium ions Ureters are passageways that carry
 Urea urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
 Uric acid It plays an active role in urine transport.
 Creatinine  Smooth muscle layers in their walls
 Ammonia contract to propel urine into the bladder
 Bicarbonate ions by peristalsis.
Deseases can change the composition of
urine.
 Substances not normally found in
urine are:
 Glucose
 Blood proteins
 Red blood cells
 Hemoglobin
 White blood cells (pus)
 Bile
Abnormal Urinary Constituents
Substan Name of Causes
ce condition
Glucose Glycosuria Non- Homeostatic Imbalance
pathological:  When urine becomes extremely
Excessive intake concentrated, solutes such as uric acid
of sugary foods salts form crystals that precipitate in the
Pathological: renal pelvis.
Diabetes These crystals are called renal
mellitus calculi, or kidney stones.
Proteins Proteinuria Non-
pathological: Urinary Bladder
Physical  It is a smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
exertion, that stores urine temporarily.
pregnancy Located retroperitoneally in the pelvis
Pathological: just posterior to the pubic symphysis.
Glomerulonephri Two ureter openings, ureteral orifices.
tis, hypertension Single opening of the urethra, the
Pus Pyuria Urinary tract internal urethral orifice.
(WBCs infection Trigone (outlined by these three
and openings) is important because infections
bacteria) tend to persist in this region.
RBCs Hematuria Bleeding in the Prostate gland (part of the male
urinary tract reproductive system) surrounds the neck
(due to trauma,

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

19
of the bladder where it empties into the opening, lies anteriorly to the vaginal
urethra. opening.
Bladder wall contains three layers of Its urinary function is to conduct urine
smooth muscle, the detrusor muscle, and from the bladder to the body exterior.
its mucosa is a special type of epithelium,
transitional epithelium. Homeostatic Imbalance
 When the bladder is empty, it is Urethritis is an inflammation of the
collapsed, 5 to 7.5 cm long at most, and urethra.
its walls are thick and thrown into folds. It can easily ascend the tract to cause
As urine accumulates, the bladder bladder inflammation (cystitis) or even
expands and rises superiorly in the kidney inflammation (pyelonephritis,
abdominal cavity. or pyelitis).
 Symptoms of urinary tract
infection include:
 Dysuria (painful urination)
 Urinary urgency and frequency
 Fever
 Cloudy or blood-tinged urine.

Micturition
 Micturition, or voiding, is the act of
emptying the bladder.
Internal urethral sphincter and the
external urethral sphincter—control
the flow of urine from the bladder.
 Moderately full bladder is about 12.5 Bladder continues to collect urine until
cm (5 inches) long and holds about 500 about 200 ml have accumulated.
ml (1 pint) of urine.  At about this point, stretching of the
Urine is formed in kidneys but it is bladder wall activates stretch receptors.
stored in bladder. Impulses transmitted to the sacral region
of the spinal cord and then back to the
Urethra bladder via the pelvic splanchnic nerves
It carries urine by peristalsis from the cause the bladder to go into reflex
bladder to the outside of the body. contractions and stored urine is forced
Internal urethral sphincter past the internal urethral sphincter into
(involuntary) that keeps the urethra closed the upper part of the urethra. Then this is
when urine is not being passed. the time when we feel to urinate.
External urethral sphincter Since lower external sphincter is skeletal
(voluntary), is formed by skeletal muscle muscle and is voluntarily controlled, we
as the urethra passes through the pelvic can postpone our voiding temporarily.
floor.  After 200 to 300 ml more have been
 In men, the urethra is approximately 20 collected, the micturition reflex occurs
cm (8 inches) long and has three named again.
regions: the prostatic, membranous,
and spongy urethrae. Homeostatic Imbalance
Functions of urethra in males:  Incontinence occurs when we are
 It carries urine out of the body. unable to voluntarily control the
 It provides the passageway through external sphincter.
which sperm is ejected from the It is normal in children 2 years old or
body. younger, because they have not yet
In males, urethra is part of both the gained control over their voluntary
urinary and reproductive systems. sphincter.
 In women, the urethra is about 3 to 4 It is usually a result of emotional
cm long, and its external orifice, or problems, pressure (as in pregnancy), or
nervous system problems (stroke or

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
spinal cord injury).
 Urinary retention is the opposite of
incontinence.
It is a condition in which the bladder is
unable to expel its contained urine.
 It often occurs after surgery in which
general anesthesia has been given.
Another cause of urinary retention
is hyperplasia or enlargement of
prostate gland in older men.
 Catheter must be inserted through
the urethra to drain the urine and
prevent bladder trauma from excessive
stretching. Two-thirds of intracellular fluid (ICF), is
contained within the living cells.
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Extracellular fluid (ECF), includes all
Balance body fluids located outside the cells. It
 Blood composition depends on three includes:
major factors:  Blood plasma
 Diet  Interstitial (or tissue) fluid
 Cellular metabolism  Cerebrospinal and serous fluids
 Urine output  Humors of the eye
Kidneys have four major roles to  Lymph
play, which help keep the blood Plasma serves as the “highway” that
composition relatively constant: links the external and internal
 Excretion of nitrogen-containing environments.
wastes.
 Maintaining water balance of the
blood.
 Maintaining electrolyte balance of
the blood.
 Ensuring proper blood pH.

Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments

 50% of water in women and about 60%
of water in men.
Babies have 75% water.
Water is the universal body solvent.

 Exchanges occur almost continuously in

the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and
Fluid compartments
kidneys.

The Link between Water and Salt

Water accounts for the entire volume of
body fluids.
Body fluids, especially electrolytes such
as sodium, potassium, and calcium
ions, are also important to overall body
homeostasis.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
 Less fluid leaves the blood stream, less
saliva is produced.
Regulation of Water Intake and Water vaporizes out of the lungs
Output (insensible water loss), some is lost in
Most water intake results from fluids and perspiration, and some leaves the body in
foods we ingest. the stool.
 10% is produced during cellular If large amounts of water are lost in
metabolism. other ways, the kidneys compensate by
putting out less urine to conserve body
water.
When water intake is excessive, the
kidneys excrete generous amounts of
urine.
Kidneys is the major factor regulating
the electrolyte composition of body fluids.
 Reabsorption of water and electrolytes
by the kidneys is regulated primarily by
hormones.
When blood volume drops, arterial blood
pressure drops, which in turn decreases
Thirst mechanism is the driving force the amount of filtrate formed by the
for water intake. kidneys.
An increase in plasma solute content of Hypothalamic osmoreceptors react
only 2 to 3 percent excites highly sensitive to the change in blood composition by
cells in the hypothalamus called becoming more active.
osmoreceptors, which in turn activate  The result is that nerve impulses are
the hypothalamic thirst center. sent to the posterior pituitary, which then
releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

 ADH travels in the blood to its main

Mouth also becomes dry because the target, the kidney’s collecting ducts,
salivary glands obtain the water they where it causes the duct cells to reabsorb
require from the blood. more water.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
 As more water is returned to the NOTE:
bloodstream, blood volume and blood  Water follows salt.
pressure increase to normal levels, and
only a small amount of very concentrated Aldosterone is produced by the
urine is formed. adrenal cortex.
Rising potassium levels or falling sodium
Homeostatic Imbalance levels in the ECF directly stimulate the
Diabetes insipidus happen if ADH is adrenal cells to release aldosterone.
not released. Huge amount of urine will The trigger for aldosterone release is the
be eliminated from the body that will renin-angiotensin mechanism
cause severe dehydration and mediated by the juxtaglomerular (JG)
electrolyte imbalances. apparatus of the renal tubules.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus consists
of a complex of modified smooth muscle
Electrolyte Balance cells (JG cells) in the afferent arteriole plus
 Electrolytes are charged particles some modified epithelial cells forming part
(ions) that conduct an electrical current in of the distal convoluted tubule.
an aqueous solution.  If the cells of the JG apparatus are
Small changes in the solute stimulated by low blood pressure, they
(electrolyte) concentrations in the respond by releasing the enzyme renin
various fluid compartments cause water to into the blood.
move from one compartment to another.
This can alters blood volume, blood NOTE:
pressure, and can severely impair the Rennin, an enzyme secreted by
activity of irritable cells like nerve and stomach glands.
muscle cells. Renin is an enzyme secreted by the
Aldosterone helps to regulate blood juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney.
composition and blood volume by acting  Renin catalyzes the series of reactions
on the kidney. that produce angiotensin II.
It is the major factor regulating sodium Angiotensin II cause vasoconstriction
ion content of the ECF and in the process in blood vessels and to promote
helps regulate the concentration of other aldosterone release in adrenal cortical
ions (Cl−, K+, and Mg2+ [magnesium]). cells which increase blood volume and
 Sodium ion (Na+) is the electrolyte blood pressure.
most responsible for osmotic water Renin-angiotensin mechanism is
flows. extremely important for regulating blood
Too little sodium is in the blood, the pressure.
blood becomes too dilute. Pressure drop also excites
 80% of the sodium in the filtrate is baroreceptors in the larger blood
reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted vessels.
tubules of the kidneys. Baroreceptors alert sympathetic
 If aldosterone concentrations are nervous system centers of the brain to
high, the remaining sodium ions are cause vasoconstriction (via release of
actively reabsorbed in the distal epinephrine and norepinephrine), which
convoluted tubules and the collecting increases the peripheral resistance.
ducts.
For each sodium ion reabsorbed, a Homeostatic Imbalance
chloride ion follows and a potassium ion is  People with Addison’s disease
secreted into the filtrate. (hypoaldosteronism) have polyuria
If sodium content of the blood increases, (excrete large volumes of urine) and
potassium concentration decreases. lose tremendous amounts of salt and
Aldosterone increase water water to urine.
reabsorption.
As sodium is reclaimed, water follows it Maintaining Acid-Base Balance of
passively back into the blood. Blood

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
Blood pH must be maintained between pH range which allows them to play a very
7.35 and 7.45. important role in the chemical buffer
 pH of arterial blood rises above 7.45, a systems.
person is said to have alkalosis. Bases are proton or hydrogen ion
If arterial pH is below 7.35, it is acceptors.
acidosis. Strong bases such as hydroxides
7.35 pH represents a higher-than- dissociate easily in water and quickly tie
optimal hydrogen ion concentration for the up H+.
functioning of most body cells. Weak bases such as bicarbonate ion
Arterial pH between 7.35 and 7.0 is (HCO3 −) and ammonia (NH3) are slower
called physiological acidosis. to accept H+.
Carbon dioxide, which is released As pH drops, the weak bases become
during energy production, forms carbonic “stronger” and begin to tie up more
acid. hydrogen ions.
Kidney maintains the acid-base balance Weak bases is valuable members of
of the blood. the chemical buffer systems like weak
acids.
Blood Buffers Major chemical buffer systems of the
 Chemical buffers are systems of one body:
or two molecules that act to prevent  Bicarbonate
dramatic changes in hydrogen ion (H+)  Phosphate
concentration when acids or bases are  Protein buffer systems
added. They helps to maintain the pH in one or
 They do this by binding to hydrogen more of the fluid compartments.
ions whenever the pH drops and by
releasing hydrogen ions when the pH Bicarbonate Buffer System
rises.  It prevents changes in blood pH.
Chemical buffers act as the first line of It is a mixture of carbonic acid (H2CO3)
defense in resisting pH changes. and its salt, sodium bicarbonate
How a chemical buffer system works? (NaHCO3).
 Acids are proton (H+) donors, and the  Carbonic acid is a weak acid, so it
acidity of a solution reflects only the free does not dissociate much in neutral or
hydrogen ions. acidic solutions.
 Strong acids dissociate completely When a strong acid, such as
and liberate all their H+ in water. hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added, most of
Weak acids such as carbonic acid the carbonic acid remains intact.
dissociate only partially and so have a Bicarbonate ions (HCO3 −) of the salt
much slighter effect on a solution’s pH. act as bases to tie up the H+ released by
the stronger acid, forming more carbonic
acid:

 Because the strong acid is (effectively)

changed to a weak one, it lowers the pH of
the solution only very slightly.
If a strong base such as sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is added to a solution
containing the bicarbonate buffer system,
NaHCO3 will not dissociate further under
such alkaline conditions.
If carbonic acid will be forced to
Weak acids are very effective at dissociate further by the presence of the
preventing pH changes because they strong base—releasing more H+ to bind
are forced to dissociate and release more with the OH− released by NaOH.
H+ when the pH rises over the desirable

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
 have many blister-like sacs (cysts)
containing urine.
Cysts interfere with renal function by
Net result is replacement of a strong
obstructing but initially not stopping
base by a weak one, so that the pH of the
urine drainage.
solution rises very little.
Hypospadias is a condition found in
male babies only. It occurs when the
Respiratory System Controls
urethral orifice is located on the ventral
Respiratory system eliminates carbon
surface of the penis.
dioxide from the blood while it “loads”
oxygen into the blood.
 When carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the
Newborn baby voids from 5 to 40
blood from the tissue cells, most of it
times per day, depending on fluid intake.
enters the red blood cells, where it is
By 2 months of age, the infant is voiding
converted to bicarbonate ion (HCO3 −) for
approximately 400 ml/day.
transport in the plasma.
Adult urine output is about 1500
ml/day.
 During childhood and through late
middle age, most urinary system problems
When CO2 accumulates in the blood or are infectious, or inflammatory.
more H+ is released to the blood by Escherichia coli bacteria are normal
metabolic processes, the residents of the digestive tract and
chemoreceptors in the respiratory generally cause no problems there, but
control centers of the brain are activated. they act as pathogens (disease-causers)
 As a result, breathing rate and depth in the sterile environment of the urinary
increase, and the excess H+ is “blown off” tract and account for 80 percent of urinary
as more CO2 is removed from the blood. tract infections.

Renal Mechanisms Homeostatic Imbalance

Kidneys can rid the body of other acids  Childhood streptococcal
generated during metabolism. infections are strep throat and scarlet
It regulate blood levels of alkaline fever.
substances. Untreated childhood strep infections is
It is the most potent of the mechanisms glomerulonephritis, in which the
for regulating blood pH by: glomerular filters become clogged with
 Excreting bicarbonate ions; and antigen-antibody complexes resulting
 Conserving (reabsorbing) or from the strep infection.
generating new bicarbonate ions.
 Renal mechanisms undertake these Elderly individuals experience urgency
adjustments: (a feeling that it is necessary to void) and
 As blood pH rises, bicarbonate ions frequency (frequent voiding of small
are excreted and hydrogen ions are amounts of urine).
retained by the tubule cells. Nocturia, the need to get up during the
 When blood pH falls, bicarbonate is night to urinate.
reabsorbed and hydrogen ions are Urinary retention result of
secreted. hypertrophy of the prostate gland in
 Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0. males.

Developmental Aspects of Urinary

System REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Homeostatic Imbalance Gonads, or primary sex organs, are the
 Adult polycystic kidney disease is testes in men.
a degenerative condition that appears Ovaries in women.
to run in families. Gonads produce sex cells, or gametes,
 One or both kidneys enlarge and and secrete sex hormones.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
The remaining reproductive system  Sperm travel through the rete testis to
structures are accessory reproductive enter the first part of the duct system, the
organs. epididymis.
The purpose of both reproductive Interstitial cells, produce androgens
system is to produce offspring. —the most important of which is
Role of the man is to manufacture male testosterone.
gametes called sperm and deliver them
to the woman’s reproductive tract. Duct System
Woman produces female gametes,  The accessory organs forming the male
called ova, or eggs. duct system, which transports sperm from
the body, are the epididymis, ductus
deferens, and urethra.

Anatomy of Male Reproductive Epididymis

System Cup-shaped epididymis is a highly
Primary reproductive organs of the male coiled tube about 6 m (20 feet) long.
are the paired testes, or male gonads. It is the first part of the male duct
Both have an exocrine (sperm system and provides a temporary storage
producing) function and an endocrine site for the immature sperm that enter it
(testosterone producing) function. from the testis.
Accessory reproductive structures are
ducts or glands that aid in the delivery of Ductus Deferens
sperm to the body exterior or to the Also called vas deferens.
female reproductive tract.  It is enclosed, along with blood vessels
and nerves, in a connective tissue sheath
TESTES called the spermatic cord.
Its function is to propel live sperm from
their storage sites, the epididymis and
distal part of the ductus deferens, into the
urethra.
Ejaculation, the thick layers of smooth
muscle in its walls create peristaltic waves
that rapidly squeeze the sperm forward.
Vasectomy is birth control for men.
 Man is sterile after this procedure, but
because testosterone is still produced, he
retains his sex drive and secondary sex
characteristics.

 4 cm (1½ inches) long and 2.5 cm (1

inch) wide.
Fibrous connective tissue capsule, the
tunica albuginea (white coat) surrounds
each testis.
Seminiferous tubules, the actual
“sperm-forming factories”.
 Seminiferous tubules of each lobe
empty sperm into another set of tubules,
the rete testis, located at one side of the
testis.

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
 Sperm and seminal fluid enter the
urethra together during ejaculation.

Prostate
Prostate is a single doughnut-shaped
gland about the size of a peach pit.
 Prostate gland secretion is a milky
fluid that plays a role in activating
sperm.

Homeostatic Imbalance
Prostate has a reputation as a health
destroyer.
 Hypertrophy of the gland, an
increase in its size independent of the
body’s growth.
It makes urination difficult and
enhances the risk of bladder infections
(cystitis) and kidney damage.
Urethra  Prostatitis, inflammation of the
Extends from the base of the urinary prostate.
bladder to the tip of the penis, is the Prostatic cancer is the third most
terminal part of the male duct system. prevalent cancer in men. It is a slow-
Three named regions: growing, hidden condition, but it can
 Prostatic urethra, surrounded by also be a swift and deadly killer.
the prostate gland.
 Intermediate part (or Bulbo-urethral Glands
membranous urethra), spanning It is tiny, pea-sized glands inferior to the
the distance from the prostatic prostate gland.
urethra to the penis.  They produce a thick, clear mucus that
 Spongy (penile) urethra, running drains into the penile urethra.
within the length of the penis and  This secretion is the first to pass down
opening to the body exterior via the urethra.
the external urethral orifice.  It cleanses the urethra of traces of
Male urethra carries both urine and acidic urine prior to ejaculation, and it
sperm to the body exterior. serves as a lubricant during sexual
intercourse.
Accessory Glands and Semen
 These glands produce the bulk of Semen
semen , the sperm-containing fluid that is It is a milky white, somewhat sticky
propelled out of the male’s reproductive mixture of sperm and accessory gland
tract during ejaculation. secretions.
Liquid portion acts as a transport
medium for nutrients and chemicals that
protect the sperm and aid their
Seminal Glands movement.
Also called seminal vesicles, are Mature sperm cells are streamlined
located at the base of the bladder. cellular “missiles” containing little
Produce about 60 percent of seminal cytoplasm or stored nutrients.
fluid, the fluid volume of semen. Its fructose provides essentially all of
 Their thick, yellowish secretion is rich in their energy fuel.
sugar (fructose), vitamin C,  Sperm are very sluggish under acidic
prostaglandins, and other substances, conditions (below pH 6).
which nourish and activate the sperm Alkalinity of semen (pH 7.2–7.6) helps
passing through the tract. neutralize the acidic environment (pH 3.5–

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
4) of the female’s vagina, protecting the Spermatogenesis
delicate sperm. Sperm are formed in the seminiferous
 Semen also contains antibiotic tubules of the testis.
chemicals that destroy certain bacteria, Process is begun by primitive stem cells
the hormone relaxin, certain enzymes called spermatogonia, found in the outer
that enhance sperm motility. edge, or periphery, of each tubule.
 Semen also dilutes sperm, without
such dilution, sperm motility is severely
impaired.
Only 2 to 5 ml (about a teaspoonful) of
semen propelled out of the male duct
system during ejaculation.
Between 50 and 150 million sperm in
each milliliter.

Homeostatic Imbalance
 Male infertility may be caused by
obstructions of the duct system,
hormonal imbalances, environmental
estrogens, pesticides, excessive alcohol,
and many other factors.

External Genitalia
Male external genitalia include the
scrotum and the penis.
Scrotum
It is a divided sac of skin with sparse
hairs that hangs outside the abdominal
cavity, between the legs and at the root of
the penis.
It hangs loosely from its attachments,
providing the testes with a temperature
that is below body temperature.
It provides a temperature about 3°C Spermatogonia go through rapid
(5.4°F) lower, is necessary for the mitotic divisions to build up the stem cell
production of healthy sperm. line.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is
Penis secreted in increasing amounts by the
It delivers sperm into the female anterior pituitary gland.
reproductive tract. Each division of a spermatogonium
Consists of a shaft, which ends in an produces one stem cell, called a type A
enlarged tip, the glans penis. daughter cell, and another cell, called a
Its foreskin is surgically removed shortly type B daughter cell.
after birth, by a procedure called Type A cell remains at the tubule
circumcision. periphery to maintain the stem cell
Erectile tissue, a spongy tissue that population.
fills with blood during sexual excitement Type B cell gets pushed toward the
that causes the penis to enlarge and tubule lumen, where it becomes a primary
become rigid. spermatocyte, destined to undergo
This event, called erection, helps the meiosis and form four sperm.
penis serve as a penetrating organ to  Meiosis is a special type of nuclear
deliver the semen into the female’s division that occurs for the most part only
reproductive tract. in the gonads.
Consists of two successive divisions.
Male Reproductive Functions

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
Four daughter cells, or four metabolism and a means of propelling
gametes. itself.
 In spermatogenesis, the gametes are  It is a prime example of the fit between
called spermatids. form and function.
Spermatids have only half as much  Sperm “pack” light.
genetic material as other body cells. The sperm head contains compacted
In humans, this is 23 chromosomes DNA and nucleus of the spermatid.
(rather than the usual 46).  Anterior to the nucleus is the helmet-
When the sperm and the egg (which also like acrosome, which is produced by the
has 23 chromosomes) unite, forming the Golgi apparatus and is similar to a large
fertilized egg, or zygote, the normal 2n lysosome.
number of 46 chromosomes.  When a sperm unite with an egg, the
acrosomal membrane breaks down and
releases enzymes that help the sperm
penetrate through the capsule of follicle
cells that surround the egg.
Filaments, which form the long tail,
arise from centrioles in the mid-piece.
 Mitochondria wrapped tightly around
these filaments provide the ATP.
Formation of a primary spermatocyte to
release of immature sperm in the tubule
lumen takes 64 to 72 days.
Sperm in the lumen are still unable to
“swim” and are incapable of fertilizing an
egg.
They are moved by peristalsis through
the tubules of the testes into the
As meiosis occurs, the dividing cells are epididymis.
pushed toward the lumen of the tubule.
Spermatids, produced by meiosis, are Homeostatic Imbalance
not functional sperm. Penicillin and tetracycline may
Last stage of sperm development, called suppress sperm formation.
spermiogenesis, all the excess Radiation, lead, certain pesticides,
cytoplasm is sloughed off, and what marijuana, tobacco, and excessive
remains is compacted into the three alcohol can cause production of
regions of the mature sperm—the head, abnormal sperm
midpiece, and tail.
Testosterone Production
Interstitial cells produce testosterone,
hormonal product of the testes.
Seminiferous tubules are being prodded
by FSH to produce sperm.
Interstitial cells are being activated by
luteinizing hormone (LH), which is also
released by the anterior pituitary gland.

Mature sperm is a greatly streamlined

cell equipped with a high rate of

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

20
 decrease in his sex drive.
Sterility also occurs because
testosterone is necessary for the final
stages of sperm production.

Anatomy of Female Reproductive

System
Ovaries are the primary female
reproductive organs.
Ovaries produce both an exocrine
product (eggs, or ova) and endocrine
products (estrogens and progesterone).

OVARIES

Rising blood level of testosterone

stimulates the adolescent growth spurt,
prompts his reproductive organs to
develop to their adult size, underlies the
sex drive, and causes the secondary Its tiny saclike structures called ovarian
male sex characteristics to appear. follicles.
 Secondary sex characteristics are  Each follicle consists of oocyte
features induced in non-reproductive (immature egg), surrounded by one or
organs by sex hormones. more layers of follicle cells.
Male secondary sex characteristics  As a developing egg within a follicle
include the following: begins to ripen or mature, the follicle
 Deepening of the voice as the enlarges and develops a fluid-filled central
larynx enlarges. region called antrum.
 Increased hair growth all over the Vesicular follicle or Graafian follicle,
body. is mature, and the developing egg is ready
 Enlargement of skeletal muscles. to be ejected from the ovary, an event
 Increased heaviness of the skeleton called ovulation.
due to bone growth and increase in  After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is
density. transformed into a very different-looking
Testosterone is referred to as the structure called a corpus luteum.
“masculinizing” hormone.  Ovulation occurs every 28 days.
Ovaries are secured to the lateral walls
Homeostatic Imbalance of the pelvis by the suspensory
Sexual infantilism occurs if ligaments.
testosterone is not produced that will Flank the uterus laterally and anchor to
results his other reproductive organs it medially by the ovarian ligaments.
remain child-like. Enclosed and held in place by a fold of
 Castration of the adult male (or the peritoneum, the broad ligament.
inability of his interstitial cells to
produce testosterone) results in a Duct System
decrease in the size and function of his
reproductive organs, as well as a

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

21
Uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
form the duct system of the female
reproductive tract.

Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes

It forms the initial part of the duct
system.
 They receive the ovulated oocyte
and provide a site of fertilization.
Uterine tubes is about 10 cm (4
inches) long each. And enclosed and
supported by the broad ligament.
No actual contact between the uterine
tubes and the ovaries.
 The distal end of each uterine tube
expands as the funnel-shaped
infundibulum, which has fingerlike
projections called fimbriae.
Oocyte is carried toward the uterus by a
combination of peristalsis and the
rhythmic beating of cilia.
Journey to the uterus takes 3 to 4 days
and the oocyte is viable for up to 24
hours after ovulation, the usual site of
fertilization is the uterine tube.
 To reach the oocyte, the sperm must
swim upward through the vagina and
uterus to reach the uterine tubes. Body is referred as the major portion of
the uterus.
Homeostatic Imbalance  The inner layer or mucosa of uterus is
the endometrium.
 Gonorrhea and other sexually
Young embryo by the time it reaches the
transmitted bacteria sometimes infect
uterus burrows into the endometrium (in a
the peritoneal cavity in this way,
process called implantation).
causing an extremely severe
 When a woman is not pregnant, the
inflammation called pelvic
endometrial lining sloughs off periodically,
inflammatory disease (PID).
usually about every 28 days, in response
 PID can cause scarring and closure of
to changes in the levels of ovarian
the narrow uterine tubes, which is one
hormones in the blood.
of the major causes of female infertility.
This process is called menstruation or
menses.
Uterus
Uterus (womb), located in the pelvis
Homeostatic Imbalance
between the urinary bladder and rectum,
is a hollow organ.  Cancer of the cervix is common
It receives, retain, and nourish a among women between the ages of 30
fertilized egg. and 50.
It is suspended in the pelvis by the Risk factors include frequent cervical
broad ligament and anchored anteriorly inflammation, sexually transmitted
and posteriorly by the round and diseases, multiple pregnancies, and
uterosacral ligaments. many sexual partners.
 Pap smear is the single most
important diagnostic test for detecting
this slow-growing cancer.
Sexually transmitted human
papillomavirus (HPV), the cause of

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

21
most cervical cancer. pubic symphysis. And covered with pubic
 Gardasil, a three-dose vaccine that hair.
provides protection from HPV-induced Elongated hair-covered skin folds, the
cervical cancer, is a recent addition to labia majora, which enclose two delicate,
the official childhood immunization hair-free folds, the labia minora.
schedule. Labia majora enclose a region called
Myometrium, composed of interlacing the vestibule, which contains the
bundles of smooth muscle, is the bulky external openings of the urethra.
middle layer of the uterus. Pair of mucus producing glands is the
It plays an active role during the delivery greater vestibular glands and their
of a baby. secretion lubricates the distal end of the
Outermost serous layer of the uterus is vagina during intercourse.
the perimetrium, or the visceral Clitoris, a small, protruding structure
peritoneum. that corresponds to the male penis.
It is hooded by a prepuce and is
Vagina composed of sensitive erectile tissue that
Vagina is a thin-walled tube 8 to 10 cm becomes swollen with blood during sexual
(3 to 4 inches) long. excitement.
 It lies between the bladder and rectum Perineum is the diamond-shaped
and extends from the cervix to the body region between the anterior end of the
exterior. labial folds, the anus posteriorly, and the
Often called the birth canal, the vagina ischial tuberosities.
provides a passageway for the delivery of
an infant and for the menstrual flow to Female Reproductive Functions and
leave the body. Cycle
It is the female organ of copulation. The period in which a woman’s
Distal end of the vagina is partially reproductive capability gradually declines
closed by a thin fold of the mucosa called and then finally ends is called
the hymen. menopause.
Hymen is very vascular and tends to
bleed when it is ruptured during the first Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
sexual intercourse.

External Genitalia and Female

Perineum

External genitalia is located external

to the vagina.
Also called the vulva, include the mons
pubis, labia, clitoris, urethral and vaginal
orifices, and greater vestibular glands.
Mons pubis (“mountain on the pubis”)  Meiosis also occurs in ovaries.
is a fatty, rounded area overlying the Oogonia, the female stem cells,
multiply rapidly and then their daughter

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

21
cells, primary oocytes, push into the deteriorates without ever completing
ovary connective tissue to form the meiosis to form a functional egg.
primary follicles. Meiosis in males results in four
Anterior pituitary gland release follicle- functional sperm.
stimulating hormone (FSH), which Meiosis in females yields only one
stimulates a small number of primary functional ovum and three tiny polar
follicles. bodies.
Cyclic changes that occur monthly in the Polar bodies have no cytoplasm.
ovary constitute the ovarian cycle. Sperm are tiny and equipped with tails
 300,000 oocytes remain at puberty. for locomotion. And have little nutrient-
 As a follicle prodded by FSH grows containing cytoplasm.
larger, it accumulates fluid in the central Egg is a large, non-motile cell, well
chamber called the antrum. stocked with nutrient reserves that nourish
The primary oocyte it contains replicates the developing embryo until it can take up
its chromosomes and begins meiosis. residence in the uterus.
First meiotic division produces two cells.
Larger cell is a secondary oocyte. Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
Very tiny cell is a polar body. Events of the uterine, or menstrual,
 By the time a follicle has ripened to the cycle are the cyclic changes that the
mature (vesicular follicle) stage, it endometrium, or mucosa of the uterus.
contains a secondary oocyte. Cyclic production of estrogens and
 Follicle development to this stage takes progesterone by the ovaries is regulated
about 14 days, and ovulation occurs at by the anterior pituitary gonadotropic
just about that time in response to the hormones, FSH and LH.
burst-like release of a second anterior Both female cycles are about 28 days
pituitary hormone, luteinizing hormone long (a period commonly called a lunar
(LH). month).
Ovulated secondary oocyte is still Ovulation occurs about day 14.
surrounded by its follicle-cell capsule, now
called the corona radiate.

Mittelschmerz (German for “middle

pain”), is a twinge of abdominal pain in the
lower abdomen when ovulation occurs.
And it is caused by the intense stretching
of the ovarian wall during ovulation.
 LH also causes the ruptured follicle to
change into a very different glandular
structure, the corpus luteum.
 If the ovulated secondary oocyte is
penetrated by a sperm, it undergoes the
second meiotic division that produces
another polar body and the ovum.
If the secondary oocyte is not
penetrated by a sperm, it simply

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

21
 produces a hormone very similar to LH
that causes the corpus luteum to
continue producing its hormones.

If fertilization does not occur, the

corpus luteum begins to degenerate
toward the end of this period as LH blood
levels decline.

Three stages of the menstrual cycle

Days 1–5: Menstrual phase
Superficial functional layer of the thick
endometrial lining of the uterus is
sloughing off (detaching) from the
uterine wall.
Bleeding for 3 to 5 days.
Detached tissues and blood pass
through the vagina as the menstrual
flow.
Average blood loss during this period
is 50 to 150 ml.
 By day 5, growing ovarian follicles are
beginning to produce more estrogen.
Days 6–14: Proliferative phase
Stimulated by rising estrogen levels
produced by the growing follicles of the
ovaries.
Basal layer of the endometrium
regenerates the functional layer, glands
form in it, and the endometrial blood
supply increases.
Endometrium becomes velvety,
thick, and well vascularized.
Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the
end of this stage, in response to the
sudden surge of LH in the blood.

Days 15–28: Secretory phase.

Rising levels of progesterone
production by the corpus luteum of the
ovary act on the estrogen-primed
endometrium and increase its blood
supply even more.
Progesterone also causes the
endometrial glands to grow and begin
secreting nutrients into the uterine
cavity.
If fertilization does occur, the embryo

COMENDADOR, KIM MAE

21