INDEX

TOPICS

 Certificates………………………………………………………………………………………
 Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………........

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction of the project …………………………………………………………………………………

1.2 Project overview……………………………………………………………………………………………...

1.3 Thesis…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction to embedded systems…………………………………………………………………………

2.2 Need of embedded systems…………………………………………………………………………………...

2.3 Explanation of embedded systems…………………………………………………………………………...

2.4 Applications of embedded systems…………………………………………………………………………

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction with block diagram……………………………………………………………………………

3.2 Micro controller……………………………………………………………………………………………..

3.3 Regulated power supply……………………………………………………………………………………

3.4 LED………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3.5 Battery…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3.6 DC motor……....………………………………………………………………………………………….....

3.7 Bluetooth…….…...………………………………………………………………………………………

3.8 Wind turbine…………………………………………………………………………………………………

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 5: ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

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CHAPTER 6: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:

The project aims Due to depleting fossil fuel and its detrimental effect on the
environment alternative energy source is a mandate. The wind and wind turbine energy resources are
prospective options. As conventional sources are insufficient in meeting the load demands, the other
forms of energy sources can compensate for the difference. The air quality of cities is mainly affected
by vehicle emissions. Among the renewable energy sources harnessing wind energy with wind
turbines appears to be the most promising source of renewable energy. Wind energy conversion
systems are used to capture the energy available in the wind to convert into electrical energy. The
wind turbine photovoltaic system and wind systems have been promoted around the world on a
comparatively larger scale. These independent systems cannot provide a continuous source of energy,
as they are seasonal. For example, a wind turbine photovoltaic energy system cannot provide reliable
power during non-sunny days. The wind system cannot satisfy constant load demands due to
significant fluctuations in the magnitude of wind speeds from hour to hour throughout the year.
Therefore, energy storage systems will be required for each of these systems in order to satisfy the
power demands. Usually, the storage system is expensive and the size has to be reduced to a minimum
possible for the renewable energy system to be cost effective. The power generated from both wind
and wind turbine components is stored in a battery bank. A hybrid renewable energy system utilizes
two or more energy production methods, usually wind turbine and wind power. The other advantage
of wind turbine/wind hybrid system is that when wind turbine and wind power production is used
together, the reliability of the system is enhanced. Additionally, the size of battery storage can be
reduced slightly as there is less reliance on one method of power production. Often, when there is no
sun, there is plenty of wind. The conventional electric car finds the difficulty of charging it after few
kilometers but the wind and wind turbine powered car help to eliminate this drawback as this car has
the facility to be charged on board due to the wind and wind turbine energy. Here power is generated
from wind turbines and the wind turbine and is directed to the battery for the charging. The battery is
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recharged on board and the vehicle doesn’t need to be standby for charging
Objectives of the project:
• To utilize renewable energy sources.
• To get maximum power from the sunlight.
• To eliminate environmental pollution by using natural energy source.
• To Work efficiently under different working conditions.

1.2 Project Overview:

An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a

dedicated task. Some of the main devices used in embedded products are Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they
simply accept the inputs, process it and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts
the data as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various devices, controls the data
and thus finally gives the result.
The project “Wind energy robot” using Microcontroller is an exclusive project that
can control wind according to the instructions given by the above said microcontroller.

1.3 Thesis Overview:

The thesis explains the implementation of “Wind energy robot” using

microcontroller. The organization of the thesis is explained here with:

Chapter 1 Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the project. In the project
overview a brief introduction of Microcontroller based wind turbibe its applications are discussed.

Chapter 2 Presents the topic embedded systems. It explains the about what is embedded systems,
need for embedded systems, explanation of it along with its applications.

Chapter 3 Presents the hardware description. It deals with the block diagram of the project and
explains the purpose of each block. In the same chapter the explanation of microcontroller, power
supplies, DC motor, wind turbine, DC motor, and Bluetooth are considered.

Chapter 4 Presents the software description. It explains the implementation of the project using
Compiler software.
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Chapter 5 Presents the project Circuit diagram.

Chapter 6 Presents the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the project.

Chapter 7 Presents the results, conclusion and future scope of the project.

CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Embedded Systems:

An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated

functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a
personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs.
Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.

Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are
typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however,
is being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very powerful processors. For
example, air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded, even though they involve
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mainframe computers and dedicated regional and national networks between airports and radar sites.
(Each radar probably includes one or more embedded systems of its own.)

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can
optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance.
Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and
MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems
controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to
very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most systems have
some element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld computers share some
elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power
them, but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Moreover,
even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature generally need to support
software updates. On a continuum from "general purpose" to "embedded", large application systems
will have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is "designed to perform one or
a few dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call "embedded". A modern example of
embedded system is shown in fig: 2.1.

Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

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 Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory (7).Embedded
systems programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways, programming for an
embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is usually
chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an extra dollar a unit in order to make
things easier to program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in
comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory, while
at the same time battling a need for efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a list of
issues specific to the embedded field.

2.1.1 History:

In the earliest years of computers in the 1930–40s, computers were sometimes

dedicated to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for most kinds of tasks performed by
embedded computers of today. Over time however, the concept of programmable controllers evolved
from traditional electromechanical sequencers, via solid state devices, to the use of computer
technology.

One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance
Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's
inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project as it
employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size and weight. An
early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for
the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built from transistor logic and had a hard disk for
main memory. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a
new computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.

2.1.2 Tools:

Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There's also a

large number of embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set rules, and the
UNIX world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are more expensive. It
also means that they're lowering featured, and less developed. On a major embedded project, at some
point you will almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.

Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general programs on
your embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your program
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difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part. However, if you stop
on a breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware (such as a motor), permanent
equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded programming quickly become
masters at using serial IO channels and error message style debugging.

2.1.3 Resources:

To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors that can do
the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. When dealing with
large data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC programming can hurt you.
Luckily, this won't happen too often- use reasonably efficient algorithms to start, and optimize only
when necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work well, due to the same reason debuggers don't
work well.
Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded systems usually
have the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be memory efficient
(unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for memory, rather than the
reverse). It also means you can't afford to leak memory. Embedded applications generally use
deterministic memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and "malloc" functions, so that leaks
can be found and eliminated more easily. Other resources programmers expect may not even exist.
For example, most embedded processors do not have hardware FPUs (Floating-Point Processing
Unit). These resources either need to be emulated in software, or avoided altogether.

2.1.4 Real Time Issues:

Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to respond to them
in real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or even damage hardware such
as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources available. Almost all embedded
systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks over others, and to be able to put off/skip low priority
tasks such as UI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.

2.2 Need For Embedded Systems:

The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day new products
are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in novel ways. In recent years,
hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much cheaper. So
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when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and write your own
custom software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks costs
far more time and money. Many embedded computers even come with extensive libraries, so that
"writing your own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From an implementation viewpoint,
there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded system. Embedded systems are often
required to provide Real-Time response. The main elements that make embedded systems unique are
its reliability and ease in debugging.

2.2.1 Debugging:

Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the facilities

available. From simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the following areas:
 Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded operating
system (e.g. Forth and Basic)
 External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using either a
monitor in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which even works for
heterogeneous multi core systems.
 An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor via a
JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be controlled
externally, but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in the processor.
 An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent, providing full
control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
 A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of it to
be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal PC.
 Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run software
through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The
view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code.

Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements, the

debugging strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software(and microprocessor) centric
embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the processing is
performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-processor). An increasing number of embedded systems
today use more than one single processor core. A common problem with multi-core development is

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the proper synchronization of software execution. In such a case, the embedded system design may
wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the processor cores, which requires very low-
level debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for instance.

2.2.2 Reliability:

Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for
years without errors and in some cases recover by themselves if an error occurs. Therefore the
software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and
unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.
Specific reliability issues may include:
 The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair. Examples
include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole systems, and
automobiles.
 The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less tolerable. Often
backup s is selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft navigation, reactor control
systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals, engines on single-engine
aircraft.
 The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone switches, factory
controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making, automated sales and
service.

A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from errors—

both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:
 Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the watchdog
 Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to
 software "limp modes" that provide partial function
 Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture[6] ensures a highly secure &
reliable system environment
 An Embedded Hypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem
component, so that a compromised software component cannot interfere with other
subsystems, or privileged-level system software. This encapsulation keeps faults from

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 propagating from one subsystem to another, improving reliability. This may also allow a
subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on fault detection.
 Immunity Aware Programming

2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:

2.3.1 Software Architecture:

There are several different types of software architecture in common use.

 Simple Control Loop:

In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines, each of which
manages a part of the hardware or software.

 Interrupt Controlled System:

Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt controlled. This means that tasks
performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. An interrupt could be generated
for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller receiving a byte. These
kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency and the event handlers are short and
simple.

Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task is not
very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a queue
structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop.
This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.

 Cooperative Multitasking:

A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop

scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each
task gets its own environment to “run” in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called
“pause”, “wait”, “yield”, “nop” (stands for no operation), etc.The advantages and disadvantages are
very similar to the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply writing a new
task, or adding to the queue-interpreter.

 Primitive Multitasking:
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 In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads
based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally
considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is required, it
introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in
parallel.

As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger systems
using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data must be
controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores or a non-blocking
synchronization scheme.

Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a real-time

operating system, allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather
than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot afford the
overhead associated with a generic real time system, due to limitations regarding memory size,
performance, and/or battery life.

 Microkernels And Exokernels:

A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is that
the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution.
User mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc.

In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask communication
is fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls.
The hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and extensible by application
programmers. Based on performance, functionality, requirement the embedded systems are divided
into three categories:

2.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:

These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from transducers or
commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process them and produces desired
output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving output is done in standalone mode.
Such embedded systems comes under stand alone embedded systems

Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..

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2.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:

Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation in a specific
time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There are two types of real-time
embedded systems.

 Hard Real-time embedded systems:

These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if the tasking is
not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the entire equipment.

Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If this valve is
not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we use
embedded systems for doing automatic operations.

 Soft Real Time embedded systems:

Eg: Consider a TV remote control system, if the remote control takes a few milliseconds delay it will
not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. These systems which will not cause damage when
they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes under soft real-time embedded systems.

2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded

systems.

Eg:

 Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used to
spread communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another computer
with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.

 Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.

Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person and sends to
the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting message with
image on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock just by clicking the
mouse. Fig: 2.2 show the network communications in embedded systems.

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 Fig 2.2: Network communication embedded systems

2.3.5 Different types of processing units:

The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following microprocessor,
microcontroller, digital signal processing.

 Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main advantage of
microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial communication interfaces, analog
to digital converters etc.., all these are built on a single chip. The numbers of external
components that are connected to it are very less according to the application.

 Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major applications
with a number of tasking requirements. But the microprocessor requires many external
components like memory, serial communication, hard disk, input output ports etc.., so the
power consumption is also very high when compared to microcontrollers.

 Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly involved with
processing of signals

2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

2.4.1 Consumer applications:

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 At home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave oven,
remote control, vcd players, dvd players, camera etc….

Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

2.4.2 Office automation:

We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…

Fig2.4: Fax machine Fig2.5: Printing machine

2.4.3. Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control. In industries
we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like monitoring temperature,
pressure, humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and basing on these monitored levels we do control other
devices, we can send information to a centralized monitoring station.

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 Fig2.6: Robot

In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use robots which
are programmed to do a specific operation.

2.4.5 Computer networking:

Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..

Fig2.7: Computer networking

2.4.6 Tele communications:

Cell phones, web cameras etc.

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 Fig2.8: Cell Phone Fig2.9: Web camera

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction:

In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 3.1:

FIG 3.1: Block diagram of Wind energy robot

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The main blocks of this project are:
1. Regulated Power Supply.
2. Wind turbine.
3. Battery.
4. Microcontroller.
5. DC motor.
6. Bluetooth

3.2 Micro controller:

3.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

3.3.1 Introduction:

Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical
or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The
term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely
to others.

A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or

secondary sources of energy such as

 Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic devices.
Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the devices they
supply, such as computers and household electronics.
 Batteries.

 Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.

 Wind power.

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 Generators or alternators.

3.3.2 Block Diagram:

Fig 3.3.2 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led connected as
load is shown in fig: 3.3.3.

Fig 3.3.3 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection

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 The components mainly used in above figure are

 230V AC MAINS
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
 CAPACITOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
 RESISTOR
 LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is called
transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.

Transformers:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A varying current in the first
or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to
the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape as a bar magnet.

If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If the current
is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.

If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or in, the
moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is induced in the
second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a second. This is called
MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the transformer.

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 The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.

Fig 3.3.4: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.

For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary will have half
the primary voltage.

Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500 turns, then
the turn’s ratio is 10:1.

If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10 smaller = 24
volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the primary must equal the power taken
by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected across a 24 volt secondary, then the
primary must supply 24 watts.

To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are wound on a
metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into this core, the
core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets insulated from each other.
Transformers to work at higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.

Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly changing current
and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady field and there would be no
induction.

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 Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and secondary. This is
to prevent some types of interference being fed from the equipment down into the mains supply, or in
the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE MATCHING.

We can use the transformers as step up or step down.

Step Up transformer:

In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less compared to secondary
winding. Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it releases more
voltage at the output side.

Step down transformer:

Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the
secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it accepts
less number of flux, and releases less amount of voltage.

Battery power supply:

A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional line-
operated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability. A battery consists of multiple
electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.5 shows Hi-Watt 9V battery

Fig 3.3.5: Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell battery. Dry-cell
batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate alternately
until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have one of the

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following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-zinc battery, the
zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide is reduced at the
carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of approximately 1.5 V.

The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is rechargeable; it consists of
lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this type of
battery has a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series). During discharge, the
lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is converted to water. When the battery is
charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide A nickel-cadmium battery has
become more popular in recent years. This battery cell is completely sealed and rechargeable. The
electrolyte is not involved in the electrode reaction, making the voltage constant over the span of the
batteries long service life. During the charging process, nickel oxide is oxidized to its higher oxidation
state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium batteries have many benefits. They can be
stored both charged and uncharged. They have a long service life, high current availabilities, constant
voltage, and the ability to be recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.

Fig 3.3.6: Pencil Battery of 1.5V

Rectification:

The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is called

as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.

Rectifiers:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power

22
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state diodes, vacuum tube
diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.

A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as
an inverter.

When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive
portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely one
of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost all
rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to
DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers,
vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used.

Bridge full wave rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig: 3.3.7, which converts an ac voltage to dc
voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the
figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of
the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half
cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Input Output

23
 Fig 3.3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:

Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our project
we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown in fig: 3.3.8.

Features:

 Good for automation insertion

 Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak

 Ideal for printed circuit board

 Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded

 Glass passivated device

 Polarity symbols molded on body

 Mounting position: Any

 Weight: 1.0 gram

24
 Fig 3.3.8: DB107

Filtration:

The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using filters
is called as filtration.

Filters:

Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing functions,

specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones.

Introduction to Capacitors:

The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and one

which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (static voltage)
across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not
connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material called the Dielectric.
When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with electrons giving
one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative charge this flow of
electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across
the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is
said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below. The construction of capacitor and an electrolytic
capacitor are shown in figures 3.3.9 and 3.3.10 respectively.

25
Fig 3.3.9:Construction Of a Capacitor Fig 3.3.10:Electrolytic Capaticor

Units of Capacitance:

Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

Operation of Capacitor:

Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a storage

tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an electronic capacitor
works.

First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is used to
connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to flow.

26
 If the current flow is alternating between zero and a maximum,
our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the current waves to pass
through.

However, if there is a steady current, only the initial short burst

will flow until the "floating ball valve" closes and stops further
flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to pass through because the ball
valve doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current quickly
fills the tank so that all flow stops.

A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge) it will not pass
d.c.

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the effect is to

"smooth out ripples". Any ripples, waves or pulses of current are
passed to ground while d.c. Flows smoothly.

27
Regulation:

The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is called as

regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator (also called a ‘regulator’) with only three terminals appears to be a
simple device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage
into a constant ‘regulated’ output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety of outputs like
5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input.
For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is used. Using a pair of ‘voltage-
divider’ resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator circuit.

It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a 12V
regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand over-
current draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off before
any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input.
Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11 shows voltage regulator.

Fig 3.3.11: Voltage Regulator

Resistors:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

28
 Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the
maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is
determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to
dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components.
Basic unit is ohms.

Theory of operation:

Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

V = IR

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Power dissipation:

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated using the following:

29
Fig 3.3.12: Resistor Fig 3.3.13: Color Bands In Resistor

3.4. LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LED’s are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LED’s emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. The
internal structure and parts of a led are shown in figures 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 respectively.

Fig 3.4.1: Inside a LED Fig 3.4.2: Parts of a LED

Working:
30
 The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light bulb.
Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting semiconductor material is
what determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the semiconductor diode.

When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection. LED’s present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more
expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in
applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting
(particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LED’s has allowed new text and
video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced
communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig: 3.4.3.

Fig 3.4.3: Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

 High-levels of brightness and intensity

 High-efficiency

31
  Low-voltage and current requirements

 Low radiated heat

 High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)

 No UV Rays

 Long source life

 Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects.

 Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human
visual system.

3.5 12V RECHARGABLE BATTERY AND CHARGING CIRCUIT

Rechargeable battery:

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery. It

comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy accumulator. It is known as a
secondary cell because its electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries
come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to
stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of chemicals are commonly

32
used, including: lead–acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-
ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than disposable
batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types.
Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost but can be recharged very cheaply and used many
times.

Charging and discharging:

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative
material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external
circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in
lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical
reaction, as in lead–acid cells.

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using
AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet.
Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source. The
negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source and the
positive terminal of the voltage source with the positive terminal of the battery. Further, the voltage
output of the source must be higher than that of the battery, but not much higher: the greater the
difference between the power source and the battery's voltage capacity, the faster the charging
process, but also the greater the risk of overcharging and damaging the battery.

33
Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without
voltage- or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or
more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending
on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple
ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to
stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often
incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating.

Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current.
The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For
example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical charging and
discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical
cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell
components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at
which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and
discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable
terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate.
Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated
time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge.

Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid.

Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC; this is volts per cell, and refers to
the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. (This is typically in reference to 12-volt lead-
acid batteries.) For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC
requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.

34
 Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops
with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than
alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.

Damage during storage in fully discharged state:

If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal
effect mentioned above. It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell
reversal--either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to
dissipate its charge over time.

Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may
occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the sulfation
that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods. For this reason it is
often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge
level by periodically recharging it. Since damage may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the
optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.

35
 change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will
tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle.

Charge Mode:

Constant voltage charge (constant voltage and constant resistance charge) is recommended.
Charging current is limited, so be sure to charge via a charge-limiting resistor.
The specified charge voltage must also be observed.
* If you are considering adopting constant current and constant voltage charge mode, contact SII.

Charge Voltage Range:

Observe the specified charging voltage range.

* Charging at a voltage higher than the upper limit may degrade the electrical characteristics or lead to
leakage or bursting.
* Charging at a voltage lower than the lower limit significantly reduces discharge capacity.

Charging circuit example:

36
 Explaining of the Circuit:

First of all the circuit is well separated is two sections the power supply on the left (green line) with
the battery pack and the outline with the purple line

37
 We take the transformer (220V Europe make the calculations over Atlantic reader) and we connect it
in a formation of diodes called bridge. This circuit is what a first year student learns and remembers it for
ever. Its the simplest circuit to achieve best results, cheap and realible.Ok, if u like to transform from AC to AC
again then the circuit remains the same u change the diodes of type 4402, 4403, 4002, of course the
transformer and the appropriate relay working in AC. The capacitor of 1000uF value is a filter and a choke to
elevate the power. Connect the diodes to the capacitor and then this one at the line of the relay. Then the +
pole of the device gets to the switch of the relay. At the + pole of the device we attach a diode or a BY251 and
a resistor 33Ohm of 5 Watts (we prefer 5watts so the resistor isn't get hot when it works and cools down
faster)
You will not need any PCB. Take a protorype or better a perforated card and just place the materials and do
the connections. No particular attention needed (of course take all the precautions when using high voltage
such as 220VDC are able to fry you in seconds and send next to your anchestors for ever) from the + and - we
will take line and we will drive it to 2 RCA female (chassis) The one male RCA connected here goes to the
charge the battery and the other goes at the device where we will place a fake battery.

How long time does it take to recharge a rechargeable battery:

Formula for calculating batteries charging time:

hr = mAh / mA
“hours” equal “battery size in milliamp ere-hour” divided by “charger output power in mill amperes”.
(Need more information? The charge formula is explained in details with examples further below.).

38
Charging rechargeable batteries:

Type into the calculator your rechargeable battery’s capacity number, normally can be red on
the battery body e.g. 1700 mAh ( milli-ampere-hours ). Then select the battery type/size in the left
column ( NiMH – NiCd – AAA – AA – C – D – 9V ( 9 volt )) and in the right side select a current
output ( electric power output ) of your charger in mA ( milli-amperes ).

Type in a capacity number of one battery only without changing outcome as per hours/mA a
1-4 batteries can be charged.

You can select and use a specific / special battery sizes at the bottom of the field and then set a
different current output from a battery charger, if needed, by choosing the 1mA current and
multiplying the outcome backwards – dividing in fact by the existing current value at which your
charging equipment operates.

Re-charging 9 volt rechargeable batteries:

Time control for charging of common 9V rechargeable batteries ( NiCd and NiMH 9 V
batteries.) The timer takes longer because these can only be charged at much lower current rate of
0.1C or 1/10C (mAhr/10 = charging time in hours) of their mAh capacity value. Usually between 30
mA to 100 mA depending on the 9V battery capacity in mAh this is still great to put up with
considering that the 9 volts non rechargeable batteries cost arm and leg, but they don’t have to.

Common abbreviations – symbols – prefix:

 nickel-metal hydride ( cell ) – NiMH

 nickel-cadmium battery ( cells ) – NiCd

39
  9 volts battery – 9V – 9 V

 mill ampere hour – milliamp hour – mAh – mAhr – mAhrs

 mill ampere – mA ( 1/1000 of ampere | 1 A = 1000 mA )

 ampere – A ( electric charge amount measure )

 battery current or capacity – C

 hour – h – hr

 hours – hrs

How do I calculate charging time for rechargeable battery manually?

Formula for manual calculation for battery recharging processes

AAA – AA – C – D sizes rechargeable batteries:
hours ( charging time ) equals to 12 x Ahr = hrs OR 12/1000 x mAh = hrs
( 12/1000 x mAh = hours of charging )
Example calculations with this manual formula; calculate charging time length for 2400 mAh NiMH
AA size 1.2v rechargeable batteries with 100 mA charger and secondly with a 3.5 times more
powerful 350 mA current output power charger:

100mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 2400 = 28.8 (hrs)
It requires 28.8 hours ( 28 hours and 48 minutes ) to charge or recharge aa size 2400mAh batteries
with charger that has 100mA current output.

350mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 2400 = 28.8
28.8 : 3.5 = 8.2 (hrs)

It takes 8.2 hours ( 8 hours and 12 minutes ) time to charge or recharge 2400mAh batteries with

40
charger that has 350mA current output. Here is a second example of how long to charge batteries but
this time for charging 1800 mAh 1.2 volt NiMH aa type rechargeable batteries and with the same
current chargers:

100mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 1800 = 21.6 (hrs)

It takes 21.6 hours ( 21 hours and 36 minutes ) to charge or recharge aa size 1800mAh batteries with
charger that has 100mA current output.

350mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 1800 = 21.6
21.6 : 3.5 = 6.2 (hrs)
In total 6.2 hours ( 6 hours and 12 minutes ) is needed to charge or recharge 1800mAh batteries with
charger that has 350mA current output power.

9v (9 volt) rechargeable batteries:

hours equal to battery mAhr/10 ( mAh/10 = hrs )

Basics:

Battery charging time = capacity of the battery / charging current power output of the charger. hr =
mAh / mA.

Usage and applications:

Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light
vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and
uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles
are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and increase lifetime.

Traditional rechargeable batteries have to be charged before their first use; newer low self-
discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically charged at the factory
to about 70% of their rated capacity before shipping.
41
 Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they store
electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing power
generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries during
periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high electrical demand,
load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost
of generators over more hours of operation.

The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S. demand for
rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for non rechargeable.

Industrial Battery Charger Project Kit:

The assignment is intended for charging battery(s) by DC from AC supply of power. DC
power supplied for a battery’s charger is a derivative from a thyristor controlled rectifier mechanism.
AC supply of power is useful to a link rectifier consisting of diodes and a TRIAC achieving preferred
power from the micro controller...

24V to 36V Battery Charger Circuit:

This 24V to 36V linear battery charger is long overdue. While this is an old circuit technique,
it is optimized for charging higher voltage lead-acid battery packs, and could be used on other types of
batteries as well. By proper transformer selection, it can be optimized for either 24 or 36V. Note that
actual float charge...

42
Reverse Polarity Protection Battery Charger:
This reverse polarity protection NiCd battery charger can charge up to 7 NiCd batteries
connected in series. This number can be increased if the power supply is increased with 1.65V for
each supplementary battery. If T2 is mounted on a proper heat sink, the input voltage can be increased
at a maximum of 25V.

Charging Circuit:

From the above circuit diagram, we can see that the 18v AC is being converted to 18V pulsating DC
which is in turn converted to smooth DC with the help of the Capacitor. This 18V Smooth DC is
converted to 12V DC by the Voltage Regulator 7812. At the output of the regulator, we get some
spikes which are not desirable. These spikes are removed with the help of another capacitor used. We
can get 12V Steady DC at the output terminal which can be indicated if the LED glows.

43
3.6 D.C. Motor:

A dc motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically

through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process,
producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by
an alternator, generator or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice
versa. The input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).

Fig 3.19: DC Motor

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and the stationary part
that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary part is also called the stator. Figure
shows a picture of a typical DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a DC armature, and Fig shows a
picture of a typical stator. From the picture you can see the armature is made of coils of wire wrapped
around the core, and the core has an extended shaft that rotates on bearings. You should also notice
that the ends of each coil of wire on the armature are terminated at one end of the armature. The
termination points are called the commutator, and this is where the brushes make electrical contact to
bring electrical current from the stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.

Operation:
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very similarly to the
simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter. Figure 12-9 shows an electrical diagram of a simple
DC motor. Notice that the DC voltage is applied directly to the field winding and the brushes. The
armature and the field are both shown as a coil of wire. In later diagrams, a field resistor will be added
in series with the field to control the motor speed.

When voltage is applied to the motor, current begins to flow through the field coil from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a strong magnetic field in the field winding. Current

44
also begins to flow through the brushes into a commutator segment and then through an armature coil.
The current continues to flow through the coil back to the brush that is attached to other end of the
coil and returns to the DC power source. The current flowing in the armature coil sets up a strong
magnetic field in the armature.

Fig 3.20: Simple electrical diagram of DC motor

Fig 3.21: Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to rotate.
This occurs by the unlike magnetic poles attracting each other and the like magnetic poles repelling
each other. As the armature begins to rotate, the commutator segments will also begin to move under
the brushes. As an individual commutator segment moves under the brush connected to positive
voltage, it will become positive, and when it moves under a brush connected to negative voltage it
will become negative. In this way, the commutator segments continually change polarity from
positive to negative. Since the commutator segments are connected to the ends of the wires that make
up the field winding in the armature, it causes the magnetic field in the armature to change polarity
continually from north pole to south pole. The commutator segments and brushes are aligned in such a
way that the switch in polarity of the armature coincides with the location of the armature's magnetic
field and the field winding's magnetic field. The switching action is timed so that the armature will not
lock up magnetically with the field. Instead the magnetic fields tend to build on each other and
45
provide additional torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in the armature and the
field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's speed will begin to drop to zero. If
voltage is applied to the motor again, the magnetic fields will strengthen and the armature will begin
to rotate again.

Types of DC motors:

1. DC Shunt Motor,

2. DC Series Motor,

3. DC Long Shunt Motor (Compound)

4. DC Short Shunt Motor (Compound)

The rotational energy that you get from any motor is usually the battle between two magnetic fields
chasing each other. The DC motor has magnetic poles and an armature, to which DC electricity is fed,
The Magnetic Poles are electromagnets, and when they are energized, they produce a strong magnetic
field around them, and the armature which is given power with a commutator, constantly repels the
poles, and therefore rotates.

1. The DC Shunt Motor:

In a 2 pole DC Motor, the armature will have two separate sets of windings, connected to a
commutator at the end of the shaft that are in constant touch with carbon brushes. The brushes are
static, and the commutator rotate and as the portions of the commutator touching the respective
positive or negative polarity brush will energize the respective part of the armature with the respective
polarity. It is usually arranged in such a way that the armature and the poles are always repelling.

The general idea of a DC Motor is, the stronger the Field Current, the stronger the magnetic field, and
faster the rotation of the armature. When the armature revolves between the poles, the magnetic field

46
of the poles induce power in the armature conductors, and some electricity is generated in the
armature, which is called back emf, and it acts as a resistance for the armature. Generally an armature
has resistance of less than 1 Ohm, and powering it with heavy voltages of Direct Current could result
in immediate short circuits. This back emf helps us there.

When an armature is loaded on a DC Shunt Motor, the speed naturally reduces, and therefore the back
emf reduces, which allows more armatures current to flow. This results in more armature field, and
therefore it results in torque.

Fig: Diagram of DC shunt motor

When a DC Shunt Motor is overloaded, if the armature becomes too slow, the reduction of the back
emf could cause the motor to burn due to heavy current flow thru the armature.

The poles and armature are excited separately, and parallel, therefore it is called a Shunt Motor.

2. The DC Series Motor:

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor

A DC Series Motor has its field coil in series with the armature. Therefore any amount of power
drawn by the armature will be passed thru the field. As a result you cannot start a Series DC Motor
without any load attached to it. It will either run uncontrollably in full speed, or it will stop.
47
Fig: Diagram of DC series motor graph representation

When the load is increased then its efficiency increases with respect to the load applied. So these are
on Electric Trains and elevators.

3. DC Compound Motor:

A compound of Series and Shunt excitation for the fields is done in a Compound DC Motor. This
gives the best of both series and shunt motors. Better torque as in a series motor, while the possibility
to start the motor with no load.

48
Fig: Diagram of DC compound motor

Above is the diagram of a long shunt motor, while in a short shunt, the shunt coil will be connected
after the serial coil.

A Compound motor can be run as a shunt motor without connecting the serial coil at all but not vice
versa.

DC Motor Driver:

The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both
devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping
motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a
Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1
and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When an enable input is high, the
associated drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs.

49
 When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the
high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge)
reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external high-speed output
clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from
VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The L293and L293D are
characterized for operation from 0°C to 70°C.

Fig 3.22: L293D IC

Pin Diagram of L293D motor driver:

Fig 3.23: L293D pin diagram

50
 Fig 3.24: Internal structure of L293D.

Features of L293D:

 600mA Output current capability per channel

 1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel
 Enable facility
 Over temperature protection
 Logical “0”input voltage up to 1.5 v
 High noise immunity
 Internal clamp diodes

Applications of DC Motors:

1. Electric Train: A kind of DC motor called the DC Series Motor is used in Electric Trains. The DC
Series Motors have the property to deliver more power when they are loaded more. So the more the
people get on a train, the more powerful the train becomes.

51
2. Elevators: The best bidirectional motors are DC motors. They are used in elevators. Compound DC
Motors are used for this application.

3. PC Fans, CD ROM Drives, and Hard Drives: All these things need motors, very miniature motors,
with great precision. AC motors can never imagine any application in these places.

4. Starter Motors in Automobiles: An automobile battery supplies DC, so a DC motor is best suited
here. Also, you cannot start an engine with a small sized AC motor,

5. Electrical Machines Lab in Colleges.

DC motor Driver With relays:

If you connect up these relay circuits, remember to put a diode across the coil of the relay.
This will keep the spike voltage (back EMF), coming out of the coil of the relay, from getting into the
MCU and damaging it. The anode, which is the arrow side of the diode, should connect to ground.
The bar, which is the Cathode side of the diode, should connect to the coil where the MCU connects
to the relay.

If you connect this circuit to a small hobby motor you can control the motor with a processor
(MCU, etc.) Applying a logical one, (+12 Volts in our example) to point A causes the motor to turn
forward. Applying a logical zero, (ground) causes the motor to stop turning (to coast and stop).

52
 Hook the motor up in this fashion and the circuit turns the motor in reverse when you apply a
logical one (+12Volts) to point B. Apply a logical zero, which is usually a ground, causes the motor to
stop spinning.

If you hook up these circuits you can only get the motor to stop or turn in one direction, forward
for the first circuit or reverse for the second circuit.
You can also pulse the motor control line, (A or B) on and off. This powers the motor in short burst
and gets varying degrees of torque, which usually translates into variable motor speed.But if you want
to be able to control the motor in both forward and reverse with a processor, you will need more
circuitry. You will need an H-Bridge. Notice the "H"-looking configuration in the next graphic.
Relays configured in this fashion make an H-Bridge. The "high side drivers" are the relays that
control the positive voltage to the motor. This is called sourcing current.

The "low side drivers" are the relays that control the negative voltage to sink current to the
motor. "Sinking current" is the term for connecting the circuit to the negative side of the power
supply, which is usually ground.

So, you turn on the upper left and lower right circuits, and power flows through the motor forward,
i.e.: 1 to A, 0 to B, 0 to C, and 1 to D.

53
Then for reverse you turn on the upper right and lower left circuits and power flows through the motor
in reverse, i.e.: 0 to A, 1 to B, 1 to C, and 0 to D.

You should be careful not to turn on both circuits on one side and the other, or you have a
direct short which will destroy your circuit; Example: A and C or B and D both high (logical 1).

With transistors:

We can better control our motor by using transistors or Field Effect Transistors (FETs).Most of
what we have discussed about the relays H-Bridge is true of these circuits. You don't need diodes that
54
were across the relay coils now. You should use diodes across your transistors though. See the
following diagram showing how they are connected.

These solid state circuits provide power and ground connections to the motor, as did the relay
circuits. The high side drivers need to be current "sources" which is what PNP transistors and P-
channel FETs are good at. The low side drivers need to be current "sinks" which is what NPN
transistors and N-channel FETs are good at.

If you turn on the two upper circuits, the motor resists turning, so you effectively have a
breaking mechanism. The same is true if you turn on both of the lower circuits. This is because the
motor is a generator and when it turns it generates a voltage. If the terminals of the motor are
connected (shorted), then the voltage generated counteracts the motors freedom to turn. It is as if you
are applying a similar but opposite voltage to the one generated by the motor being turned. Vis-ã-vis,
it acts like a brake.

To be nice to your transistors, you should add diodes to catch the back voltage that is generated
by the motor's coil when the power is switched on and off. This fly back voltage can be many times
higher than the supply voltage! If you don't use diodes, you could burn out your transistors.

55
Transistors, being a semiconductor device, will have some resistance, which causes them to get hot
when conducting much current. This is called not being able to sink or source very much power, i.e.:
Not able to provide much current from ground or from plus voltage.

Mosfets are much more efficient, they can provide much more current and not get as hot.
They usually have the flyback diodes built in so you don't need the diodes anymore. This helps guard
against flyback voltage frying your MCU.

To use Mosfets in an H-Bridge, you need P-Channel Mosfets on top because they can "source" power,
and N-Channel Mosfets on the bottom because then can "sink" power. N-Channel Mosfets are much
cheaper than P-Channel Mosfets, but N-Channel Mosfets used to source power require about 7 volts
more than the supply voltage, to turn on. As a result, some people manage to use N-Channel Mosfets,
on top of the H-Bridge, by using cleaver circuits to overcome the breakdown voltage.

It is important that the four quadrants of the H-Bridge circuits be turned on and off properly.
When there is a path between the positive and ground side of the H-Bridge, other than through the
motor, a condition exists called "shoot through". This is basically a direct short of the power supply
and can cause semiconductors to become ballistic, in circuits with large currents flowing. There are
H-bridge chips available that are much easier, and safer, to use than designing your own H-Bridge
circuit.

H-Bridge Devices

The L293 has 2 H-Bridges, can provide about 1amp to each and occasional peak loads to 2 amps.
Motors typically controlled with this controller are near the size of a 35 mm film plastic canister.

The L298 has 2 h-bridges on board, can handle 1amp and peak current draws to about 3amps. You
often see motors between the size a of 35 mm film plastic canister and a coke can, driven by this type
H-Bridge. The LMD18200 has one h-bridge on board, can handle about 2 or 3 amps and can handle a
56
peak of about 6 amps. This H-Bridge chip can usually handle an average motor about the size of a
coke. There are several more commercially designed H-Bridge chips as well.

Schematic diagram:

Features:

• Delivers up to 5 A continuous 6 A peak current

• Optimized for DC motor management applications

• Operates at supply voltages up to 40 V

• Very low RDS ON

; typ. 200 mΩ @ 25 °C per switch

• Output full short circuit protected

• Overtemperature protection with hysteresis

and diagnosis
57
• Short circuit and open load diagnosis

With open drain error flag

• Undervoltage lockout

• CMOS/TTL compatible inputs with hysteresis

• No crossover current

• Internal freewheeling diodes

• Wide temperature range; − 40 °C < Tj< 150 °C

3.7 BLUE TOOTH Module:

‘Bluetooth’, the short-range radio link technology designed to "connect" an array of devices
including mobile phones, PC’s, and PDA’s, and the strategic decisions that Motorola should make in
incorporating this nascent technology into its product portfolio. The purpose of this paper will be to
provide a high-level overview of the technology to the head of Motorola's Communications
Enterprise, and prepare this corporate officer to be strategically and functionally conversant in the
technology with subordinates that have direct responsibility for integrating Bluetooth into Motorola's
product lines. The first sections of the paper detail the background of the Bluetooth technology and its
associated Special-Interest Group, or SIG, (a conglomeration of firms that has sought to reduce
market uncertainty, thereby expediting the diffusion of Bluetooth devices). Bluetooth’s perceived
strengths over other wireless connectivity technologies are also discussed and some macro-level
threats that may impede Bluetooth diffusion are outlined. The remainder of the paper details potential
Bluetooth markets (in terms of consumer and corporate applications) and examines Motorola's current
Bluetooth product offerings (a cell phone battery and computer PCMCIA card each enabled with a
Bluetooth chip). Finally, the paper provides guidance for Motorola's Bluetooth application
development strategies regarding the applications outlined in the SIG's specifications, namely
emphasizing those applications that leverage existing complementary assets, and those that are critical
to Bluetooth adoption regardless of prior expertise.

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using
short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and mobile
devices, and building personal area networks (PANs). Invented by telecom vendorEricsson in 1994 it
58
was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect several
devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special
Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 20,000 member companies in the areas of
telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. [5] Bluetooth was standardized
as IEEE 802.15.1, but the standard is no longer maintained. The SIG oversees the development of the
specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks. To be marketed as a
Bluetooth device, it must be qualified to standards defined by the SIG. A network of patents is
required to implement the technology, which is licensed only for that qualifying device.
Communication and connection
A master Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet
(an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach this
maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master (for
example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone will necessarily begin as master, as initiator of
the connection; but may subsequently prefer to be slave).
The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form
a scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the master role in one piconet and the slave
role in another.
At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device (except for
the little-used broadcast mode. The master chooses which slave device to address; typically, it
switches rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the master that
chooses which slave to address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot,
being a master is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven slaves is possible; being
a slave of more than one master is difficult. The specification is vague as to required behavior in
scatternets. Many USB Bluetooth adapters or "dongles" are available, some of which also include
an IrDAadapter
Specifications and features
The Bluetooth specification was developed as a cable replacement, initiated by Nils Rydbeck
in 1994, first specification written by Tord Wingren and developed by Jaap Haartsen and Sven
Mattisson, who were working for Ericsson in Lund, Sweden. The specification is based on frequency-
hopping spread spectrum technology.
The specifications were formalized by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The SIG was
formally announced on 20 May 1998. Today it has a membership of over 20,000 companies

59
worldwide.[36] It was established by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Toshiba and Nokia, and later joined by
many other companies.
All versions of the Bluetooth standards are designed for downward compatibility. That lets the latest
standard cover all older versions.
The Bluetooth Core Specification Working Group (CSWG) produces mainly 4 kinds of specifications
 The Bluetooth Core Specification, release cycle is typically a few years in between
 Core Specification Addendum (CSA), release cycle can be as tight as a few times per year
 Core Specification Supplements (CSS), can be released very quickly
 Errata
Bluetooth v1.0 and v1.0B[
Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulty making their products
interoperable. Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also included mandatory Bluetooth hardware device address
(BD_ADDR) transmission in the Connecting process (rendering anonymity impossible at the protocol
level), which was a major setback for certain services planned for use in Bluetooth environments.
Bluetooth v1.1
 Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2002[37]
 Many errors found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed.
 Added possibility of non-encrypted channels.
 Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI).
Bluetooth v1.2
Major enhancements include the following:
 Faster Connection and Discovery
 Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH), which improves resistance to radio
frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.
 Higher transmission speeds in practice, up to 721 kbit/s,[38] than in v1.1.
 Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by
allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to provide
better concurrent data transfer.
 Host Controller Interface (HCI) operation with three-wire UART.
 Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2005[39]
 Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes for L2CAP.

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Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR
This version of the Bluetooth Core Specification was released in 2004. The main difference is the
introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The nominal rate of EDR is
about 3 Mbit/s, although the practical data transfer rate is 2.1 Mbit/s. EDR uses a combination
of GFSK and Phase Shift Keying modulation (PSK) with two variants, π/4-DQPSKand 8DPSK.
[40]
EDR can provide a lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.
The specification is published as "Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR" which implies that EDR is an optional
feature. Aside from EDR, there are other minor improvements to the 2.0 specification, and products
may claim compliance to "Bluetooth v2.0" without supporting the higher data rate. At least one
commercial device states "Bluetooth v2.0 without EDR" on its data sheet.
Bluetooth v2.1 + EDR
Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 + EDR was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 26 July 2007.
The headline feature of 2.1 is secure simple pairing (SSP): this improves the pairing experience for
Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. See the section on Pairing below
for more details
2.1 allows various other improvements, including "Extended inquiry response" (EIR), which provides
more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection;
and sniff subrating, which reduces the power consumption in low-power mode.
Bluetooth v3.0 + HS
Version 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specification were adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 21 April
2009. Bluetooth 3.0+HS provide theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s, though not over
the Bluetooth link itself. Instead, the Bluetooth link is used for negotiation and establishment, and the
high data rate traffic is carried over a collocated 802.11 link.
The main new feature is AMP (Alternative MAC/PHY), the addition of 802.11 as a high speed
transport. The High-Speed part of the specification is not mandatory, and hence only devices sporting
the "+HS" will actually support the Bluetooth over 802.11 high-speed data transfer. A Bluetooth 3.0
device without the "+HS" suffix will not support High Speed, and needs to only support a feature
introduced in Core Specification Version 3.0 or earlier Core Specification Addendum 1.

Uses

Class Max. permitted power Typ. range[14]

61
 (mW) (dBm) (m)

1 100 20 ~100

2 2.5 4 ~10

3 1 0 ~1

Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low-power

consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Because the
devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of sight
of each other, however a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.[5]Range is power-class-dependent,
but effective ranges vary in practice; see the table on the right.
Version Data rate Max. application throughput

1.2 1 Mbit/s >80 kbit/s

2.0 + EDR 3 Mbit/s >80 kbit/s

3.0 + HS 24 Mbit/s See Version 3.0 + HS

4.0 24 Mbit/s See Version 4.0 LE

The effective range varies due to propagation conditions, material coverage, production sample
variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are in indoor
conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections will cause the range
to be far lower than the specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth
applications are battery powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range whether the other end
of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower powered device tends to set the range limit. In
some cases the effective range of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 devices is connecting
to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical Class 2
device. Mostly however the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting
two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the
typical 100m, depending on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow

62
open field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal
emission limits.
While the Bluetooth Core Specification does mandate minimal for range, the range of the technology
is application-specific and not limited. Manufacturers may tune their implementations to the range
needed for individual use cases.

Bluetooth protocol stack

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Bluetooth is defined as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable replacement
protocols, telephony control protocols, and adopted protocols. Mandatory protocols for all Bluetooth
stacks are: LMP, L2CAP and SDP. In addition, devices that communicate with Bluetooth almost
universally can use these protocols: HCI and RFCOMM.

List of applications
 Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands free head set.
This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.
 Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible
car stereo system.
 Wireless control of and communication with tablets and speakers such as iPad and Android
devices.
63
 Wireless Bluetooth headset and Intercom. Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called "a
Bluetooth".
 Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.
 Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the
mouse, keyboard and printer.
 Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices
with OBEX.
 Replacement of previous wired RS-232 serial communications in test equipment, GPS
receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.
 For controls where infrared was often used.
 For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-free
connection desired.
 Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other,
discoverable, Bluetooth devices.
 Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.
 Three seventh and eighth generation game consoles, Nintendo's Wii and Sony'sPlayStation 3,
use Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers.
 Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as
a wireless modem.
 Short range transmission of health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phone, set-top
box or dedicated tele health devices.
 Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby mobile phone.
 Real-time location systems (RTLS), are used to track and identify the location of objects in
real-time using “Nodes” or “tags” attached to, or embedded in the objects tracked, and “Readers” that
receive and process the wireless signals from these tags to determine their locations.[25]
 Personal security application on mobile phones for prevention of theft or loss of items. The
protected item has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in constant communication with the phone.
If the connection is broken (the marker is out of range of the phone) then an alarm is raised. This can
also be used as a man overboard alarm. A product using this technology has been available since
2009.[26]
 Calgary, Alberta, Canada's Roads Traffic division uses data collected from travelers' Bluetooth
devices to predict travel times and road congestion for motorists.[27]
 Wireless transmission of audio, (a more reliable alternative to FM transmitters)
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3.5.1 History

Bluetooth is a worldwide initiative spearheaded by some of the leading powerhouses in the

electronics industry, chiefly Ericsson, Intel, IBM, Nokia, and Toshiba. Following initial development
by Ericsson, these firms started the Bluetooth special-interest group in 1998 with the intent of
developing a worldwide technology for wireless communication among diverse devices. Bluetooth
enables wireless data and voice communication via a short-range radio to provide a low-cost solution
for wireless information exchange. Targeted electronic devices include handsets, notebooks, PCs, and
personal digital assistants for the first wave. For instance, this technology could enable Palm Pilots to
synchronize with each other, PCs, or with a mobile phone. This effort to provide a wide range of
wireless data and voice communication to disparate devices may have a significant impact on the way
people synchronize and share data, in that the time and ease of communicating improves radically. To
date, no other effort has been so comprehensive, incorporating potentially dozens of devices with
eclectic user groups (most notably the home and business user). Given an increasing desire amongst
consumer and commercial users for mobility and connectivity, Bluetooth proponents expect that the
demand for Bluetooth technology will lead to its rapid adoption. Dataquest estimates that two-thirds
of all new mobile phone handsets will utilize Bluetooth by 2004. That amounts to more than 570
million phones, as compared to less than 1% this year, or 1.2 million phones (See Exhibit 1). Most
believe that the growth and ultimate success of Bluetooth, much like fax machines and email, will be
dependent on Metcalfe’s Law, which states that the value of a system increases proportionately to the
number of nodes in that system.

The Bluetooth SIG started out with a better strategy than many other technology innovators. It
marketed the Bluetooth concept and membership heavily, accentuating the potential of the technology
to hardware and software developers and manufacturers. Unlike some earlier groups, this SIG
encouraged broad membership, as it charges no fees to join—no royalties, guarantees, or promises.
This open standard has enabled the original five-member group to reach more than 2,108 members to
date; there is massive momentum behind this initiative. More striking, the SIG has focused on a
global roadmap from the onset, supporting country-specific local laws and restrictions, thus lowering
hurdles at the point of initialization. The members of the SIG clearly understand that Bluetooth will
create a "Mix and Match" market, and have worked to unite a broad range of manufacturers under one
standard and minimize the uncertainty for manufacturers and consumers. From G. Moore's "Chasm"
perspective, the users are any firms that can utilize the technology, and SIG has attained critical mass
amongst these “users.” The manufacturer is the critical component of the adoption cycle, rather than
65
the consumer, because the benefits of the Bluetooth technology are dependent on the availability of a
complementary variety of Bluetooth enabled devices. Accordingly, the support from a wide
assortment of device manufacturers is essential to ensure widespread customer adoption.
Consequently, the SIG has dramatically shortened the product adoption cycle and created market
momentum that will surmount the chasm between early and mainstream markets.

Bluetooth itself is a low-power, short-range radio that will operate on average from 10 meters
to 100 meters. These radios are built on silicon using the most common chip fabrication technology, a
CMOS (complimentary metal oxide silicon) process, although some will be built on silicon-
germanium wafers. The module, which essentially is a commodity radio, also includes a baseband
hardware link controller, a link management interface, and software applications to run the module.
The Bluetooth SIG expects the modules will cost $25-$30 each through the end of 2000. Thereafter,
the price is expected to decrease as the volumes increase, possibly to as low as $5-$10 per module.

3.5.2 Advantages

Bluetooth has the potential to improve personal communications (consumer and corporate)
and productivity by creating personal networks between all of a user's electronic devices. It operates
in the unlicensed, internationally available 2.45GHz band and is a much more robust technology than
other wireless technologies used for similar applications, most notably infrared-- which requires a line
of sight link between communicating devices. Bluetooth’s multidirectional capability makes the
technology adaptable to a multitude of applications. Additionally, Bluetooth can enable up to eight
devices at one time, forming a ‘piconet’, communicating amongst themselves (See Exhibit 2).

Additionally, Bluetooth-enabled devices have greater computing power devoted to

communications compared to previous generations of devices, allowing for the power to translate
between internal languages of all sorts of devices thought to be previously incompatible. As an
example, a Bluetooth-enabled portable CD player would be able to play with Bluetooth-enabled
speakers in the absence of headphones. Accordingly, as that example shows, Bluetooth’s most
important hurdle is adoption, which is a function of the demonstrated benefit being offered by a
sufficient number of enabled devices.

3.5.3 Disadvantages

First and foremost, for Bluetooth to become widely adopted, the incremental costs for enabling
Bluetooth technology need to decline significantly. As mentioned, Bluetooth’s success is network

66
constrained - if it is not widely adopted, its usefulness and capabilities are limited, much like
applications like ICQ. Unlike ICQ, the cost for manufacturers to incorporate Bluetooth chipsets into
devices and the subsequent costs to consumers are presently quite high--at its current cost levels,
wide-scale adoption is not likely. While prices are anticipated to drop to the $5 per device level,
industry analysts believe that the $1 price point is needed for the technology to become truly
ubiquitous (i.e. in a variety of CE products, not simply limited to cell phones and PDAs).

In the software and hardware industries, certain companies have been known to take open,
clearly defined standards, and modify them slightly, and then claim that the modified standard was
proprietary. In this way, standards have fragmented and products that should be compatible have not
been. New applications have also failed to be correctly aligned with the traditional and ‘revised’
standards, leading to compatibility and design confusion concerns. A positive for the Bluetooth
platform is its capability to support the robust, versatile TCP/IP platform.

Bluetooth is currently operating in an unlicensed spectrum- 2.45 GHz. This is potentially a

problem if other technologies using the spectrum will interfere with Bluetooth devices. While
2.45GHz is not presently heavily congested, neither were phone lines in 1993 with data transmission.
The point is that growth can be explosive with technologies that grow geometrically. Bluetooth’s 79-
channel architecture helps to curb cross-interference problems, as each time it transmits a packet of
information, it hops to a new frequency. Any problem transmissions are re-transmitted on new
frequencies. Nonetheless, despite the unique technology, the possibility for problems exists.

It should be noted that this paper will not attempt to address the threats that extend somewhat
beyond Motorola's operational parameters (in the sense that Motorola cannot dictate the usage
parameters of unlicensed spectrum, nor control the development activities of independent business
entities). The paper assumes that most companies will adhere to the SIG specifications and that the
Bluetooth architecture will withstand bandwidth congestion; it then focuses on the potential markets
and immediate development strategies that Motorola should undertake to effectively incorporate
Bluetooth into the company's product portfolio and speed Bluetooth on its way to widespread
adoption.

3.5.4 Applications

According to Stephens, Inc., given Bluetooth’s status as an embryonic technology, the market
for Bluetooth-enabled devices has been characterized as “very much in its infancy stage.”

67
Nonetheless, there are numerous applications that Bluetooth enables in the marketplace. The
following delineates the potential markets for the Bluetooth under two broad categories, Consumer
and Corporate.

Consumer Market:

The SIG is initially launching Bluetooth as a cable replacement technology that is easy to use
and highly mobile. Accordingly, the most viable market will be the consumer market, which can be
divided into two separate areas: (i) Domestic applications (ii) Personal communications.

Domestic applications: encompass wireless connectivity for devices within the home environment
such as home entertainment equipment. This could be as simple as replacing infrared remote controls
for televisions and hi-fis with a Bluetooth device that obviates the need for line of sight
communication. Another example is a Bluetooth enabled DVD player that will automatically connect
itself to the TV, VCR, speakers et al without coaxial cables. The potential utilization of Bluetooth
includes the eventual wireless control of a multitude of domestic devices from lighting to security
systems.

Personal communications: covers applications that enhance the way individuals address their
communications needs. Per the Ovum report, the salient Bluetooth application can be effectively
described as “hidden computing”. This encompasses three elements: (i) Automatic file synchronizer:
Bluetooth permits users to automatically synchronize elements of their desktops, laptops, PDAs and
cellular phones. This includes automatic updating of the address book and calendars with changes in
one device automatically changed on another once the two come within range of each other. (ii)
Briefcase trick: a Bluetooth connection permits access to e-mail without taking the laptop out of its
case. When the laptop receives an e-mail, it will alert the user via their cellular phone. The user can
then browse all incoming e-mails via the cellular phone. (iii) Forbidden message: this allows an e-
mail composed on a laptop to be automatically sent to the user's cellular phone when the latter is
switched on. This is particularly useful for business travelers who cannot send e-mails while on a
plane - cellular phones must be switched off. This feature can also be utilized in other places where
mobile phones are not permitted, such as hospitals.

Corporate Market:

68
 Some of the applications enumerated for the consumer market are also applicable to the
corporate world, especially automatic file synchronization. The following are other viable corporate
areas for Bluetooth:

 Wireless Office Infrastructure: using Bluetooth to connect all desktop devices wirelessly. The
mouse, keyboard and desktop monitor can all be connected to the PC without wires, allowing
greater flexibility. This can also eliminate the need for connecting the PC to the printer and the
LAN
 “Dockers:” is a mobility version of corporate communications, where employees bring in their
laptop and connect to the company network without wires, using a docking station
 LAN-in-a-box applications: Bluetooth enables small groups of workers to establish their own
LAN while off-site, for example, for consulting engagements or audits
 Point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connections: Bluetooth is not limited to point-to-point
communication. By establishing an ad hoc LAN between up to eight devices, it creates a piconet;
each device within the piconet can belong to more than one piconet at any one time, creating a
scatternet. Other wireless LAN technologies are not capable of this function
 Shared Sites: constitute large sites where there is heavy use of computing equipment and high
traffic volumes need to be catered for. Therefore, installing or moving a wired LAN can be highly
disruptive. Bluetooth can eliminate this. Segments within this market include financial/securities
markets, government offices and departments, hospitals and universities
 Difficult to wire environments: wireless connectivity via Bluetooth is effective where cabling can
cause problems. Public access locations where cabling runs the risk of being damaged such as
airports, department stores or hospitals. Industrial sites with potentially dangerous environments
such as extreme temperatures. Listed buildings with restrictions on building modifications
3.5 Serial Port Applications:

Current State: Motorola is not currently working on applications that would allow a Bluetooth enabled
keyboard, mouse, or other serial device to connect wirelessly with a computer.

Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: These products are low-
tech and low margin. Motorola does not have the expertise nor the complementary assets required in
manufacturing, marketing, or distributing these types of products.

Competitive Environment: Motorola would face fierce competition from established companies such
as Microsoft and Logitech.
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Strategic Recommendation: Motorola would have to re-tool manufacturing facilities that are
producing high margin products in order to produce the low margin serial devices. Motorola would
also have to absorb the costs associated with traveling up the learning curve before it could attain a
similar cost base to its competitors. Additionally, avoiding head-to-head competition with Microsoft
is almost always a good strategy. Therefore, Motorola should not devote resources to developing
serial port applications.

Headsets:

Current State: Motorola is currently working on applications that would allow a Bluetooth enabled
cellular phone to connect with a wireless headset.

Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: This product is a critical

product offering to stay competitive in the cellular phone sector. The headset, for all intents and
purposes, is a radio, and Motorola has a strong development and distribution foundation for these
types of products.

Competitive Environment: Motorola will face competition from the traditional cellular phone
manufacturers, such as Ericsson and Nokia, because all manufacturers will need to offer a wireless
headset to complement their phones.

Strategic Recommendation: Motorola should invest the necessary resources to get to market quickly
with a high-quality wireless headset. This application will also allow cellular phone customers to
experience the benefits of Bluetooth in a familiar, easy-to-use product with obvious benefits.

3.6 Dial-up Modem Networking / Faxing:

Current State: Motorola is not working on a stand-alone wireless modem/fax application that utilizes
Bluetooth.

Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: Motorola has robust

experience and complementary assets in both wireless technology and wireline modem
manufacturing.

Competitive Environment: The market for wireless modems, connected by cable from the PC to
(usually) a cell phone with modem capability is not large because current performance level's are in
the 14.4 Kbps range. Demand is expected to increase as wireless data rates increase between the
wireless modem devices and the cellular infrastructure.
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Strategic Recommendation: Motorola should not invest in developing standalone wireless modem
devices. They should continue to focus on the development process for high-speed, cellular phone-
based wireless modems with Bluetooth interface capability. Motorola should increase development
expenditures, as necessary, to ensure that cell phone/modem's availability coincides with the
availability of high-speed cellular data infrastructure (projected for the first half of 2002).

3.7 LAN Access:

Current State: Motorola is not presently working on Bluetooth enabled access point connections to
company Intranets.

Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: Although LAN access is

similar to wireless modem capability, there are some additional complexities involved in LAN access.
There would be a need for substantial software development resources while Motorola is just
beginning to invest in and grow its software development capabilities. Moreover, Motorola has
limited experience with competing in the networking products arena.

Competitive Environment: There are already competing formats for wireless LAN access such as
Hiper LAN and IEEE802.11. These products/standards permit data transmissions at speeds much
faster than Bluetooth and over much longer distances.

Strategic Recommendation: Because of its lack of complementary assets and experience, Motorola
should not invest resources in developing Bluetooth products aimed at this market.

3.8 Advantages:

Bluetooth has a lot to offer with an increasingly difficult market place. Bluetooth helps to
bring with it the promise of freedom from the cables and simplicity in networking that has yet to be
matched by LAN (Local Area Network).

In the key marketplace, of wireless and handheld devices, the closest competitor to Bluetooth
is infrared. Infrared holds many key features, although the line of sight it provides doesn't go through
walls or through obstacles like that of the Bluetooth technology.

Unlike infrared, Bluetooth isn't a line of sight and it provides ranges of up to 100 meters.
Bluetooth is also low power and low processing with an overhead protocol. What this means, is that
it's ideal for integration into small battery powered devices. To put it short, the applications with
Bluetooth are virtually endless.
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3.9 Disadvantages:

Bluetooth has several positive features and one would be extremely hard pressed to find
downsides when given the current competition. The only real downsides are the data rate and security.
Infrared can have data rates of up to 4 MBps, which provides very fast rates for data transfer, while
Bluetooth only offers 1 MBps.

For this very reason, infrared has yet to be dispensed with completely and is considered by
many to be the complimentary technology to that of Bluetooth. Infrared has inherent security due to
its line of sight.

The greater range and radio frequency (RF) of Bluetooth make it much more open to
interception and attack. For this reason, security is a very key aspect to the Bluetooth specification.

Although there are very few disadvantages, Bluetooth still remains the best for short range
wireless technology. Those who have tried it love it, and they know for a fact that Bluetooth will be
around for years to come.

3.8 Wind Turbine:

A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind, also called wind energy,
into mechanical energy; a process known as wind power. If the mechanical energy is used to produce
electricity, the device may be called a wind turbine or wind power plant. If the mechanical energy is
used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain or pumping water, the device is called
a windmill or wind pump. Similarly, it may be referred to as a wind charger when used for charging
batteries.

The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's wind
turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines
are used for applications such as battery charging or auxiliary power on boats; while large grid-
connected arrays of turbines are becoming an increasingly important source of wind power-produced
commercial electricity.

Types:

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Horizontal axis

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of
a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while
large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which
turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical
generator.

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting
tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high
winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are
sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they
don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds
the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since
cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind
design.

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed and
pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over 320 km/h
(200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades are
usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (66 to
130 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 metres (200 to 300 ft) tall. The blades
rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 90 metres
per second (300 ft/s). A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator,
although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant
speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power
converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to
avoid damage at high wind speeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation,
supplemented by brakes.

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Vertical axis design

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key
advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be
effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable, for example when
integrated into buildings. The key disadvantages include the low rotational speed with the
consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power
coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence
the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the
drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of
analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.

With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive
from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence improving accessibility for maintenance.

When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this
can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is
approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and
minimum wind turbulence. It should be borne in mind that wind speeds within the built environment
are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites, noise may be a concern and an existing structure
may not adequately resist the additional stress.

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 CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

This project is implemented using following software’s:

 Express PCB – for designing circuit
 PIC C compiler - for compilation part
 Proteus 7 (Embedded C) – for simulation part

4.1 Express PCB:

Breadboards are great for prototyping equipment as it allows great flexibility to modify
a design when needed; however the final product of a project, ideally should have a neat PCB, few
cables, and survive a shake test. Not only is a proper PCB neater but it is also more durable as there
are no cables which can yank loose.

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 Express PCB is a software tool to design PCBs specifically for manufacture by the
company Express PCB (no other PCB maker accepts Express PCB files). It is very easy to use, but it
does have several limitations.

It can be likened to more of a toy then a professional CAD program.

It has a poor part library (which we can work around)

It cannot import or export files in different formats

It cannot be used to make prepare boards for DIY production

Express PCB has been used to design many PCBs (some layered and with surface-mount
parts. Print out PCB patterns and use the toner transfer method with an Etch Resistant Pen to make
boards. However, Express PCB does not have a nice print layout. Here is the procedure to design in
Express PCB and clean up the patterns so they print nicely.

4.1.1 Preparing Express PCB for First Use:

Express PCB comes with a less then exciting list of parts. So before any project is
started head over to Audio logic and grab the additional parts by morsel, ppl, and tangent, and extract
them into your Express PCB directory. At this point start the program and get ready to setup the
workspace to suit your style.

Click View -> Options. In this menu, setup the units for “mm” or “in” depending on
how you think, and click “see through the top copper layer” at the bottom. The standard color scheme
of red and green is generally used but it is not as pleasing as red and blue.

4.1.2 The Interface:

When a project is first started you will be greeted with a yellow outline. This yellow
outline is the dimension of the PCB. Typically after positioning of parts and traces, move them to
their final position and then crop the PCB to the correct size. However, in designing a board with a
certain size constraint, crop the PCB to the correct size before starting.

Fig: 4.1 show the toolbar in which the each button has the following functions:

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 Fig 4.1: Tool bar necessary for the interface

 The select tool: It is fairly obvious what this does. It allows you to move and manipulate
parts. When this tool is selected the top toolbar will show buttons to move traces to the top /
bottom copper layer, and rotate buttons.
 The zoom to selection tool: does just that.

 The place pad: button allows you to place small soldier pads which are useful for board
connections or if a part is not in the part library but the part dimensions are available. When
this tool is selected the top toolbar will give you a large selection of round holes, square holes
and surface mount pads.

 The place component: tool allows you to select a component from the top toolbar and then by
clicking in the workspace places that component in the orientation chosen using the buttons
next to the component list. The components can always be rotated afterwards with the select
tool if the orientation is wrong.

 The place trace: tool allows you to place a solid trace on the board of varying thicknesses. The
top toolbar allows you to select the top or bottom layer to place the trace on.

 The Insert Corner in trace: button does exactly what it says. When this tool is selected,
clicking on a trace will insert a corner which can be moved to route around components and
other traces.

 The remove a trace button is not very important since the delete key will achieve the same
result.

4.1.3 Design Considerations:

Before starting a project there are several ways to design a PCB and one must be
chosen to suit the project’s needs.

Single sided, or double sided?

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 When making a PCB you have the option of making a single sided board, or a double
sided board. Single sided boards are cheaper to produce and easier to etch, but much harder to
design for large projects. If a lot of parts are being used in a small space it may be difficult to make
a single sided board without jumpering over traces with a cable. While there’s technically nothing
wrong with this, it should be avoided if the signal travelling over the traces is sensitive (e.g. audio
signals).

A double sided board is more expensive to produce professionally, more difficult to

etch on a DIY board, but makes the layout of components a lot smaller and easier. It should be
noted that if a trace is running on the top layer, check with the components to make sure you can get
to its pins with a soldering iron. Large capacitors, relays, and similar parts which don’t have axial
leads can NOT have traces on top unless boards are plated professionally.

Ground-plane or other special purposes for one side

When using a double sided board you must consider which traces should be on what
side of the board. Generally, put power traces on the top of the board, jumping only to the bottom if
a part cannot be soldiered onto the top plane (like a relay), and vice- versa.

Some projects like power supplies or amps can benefit from having a solid plane to use
for ground. In power supplies this can reduce noise, and in amps it minimizes the distance between
parts and their ground connections, and keeps the ground signal as simple as possible. However,
care must be taken with stubborn chips such as the TPA6120 amplifier from TI. The TPA6120
datasheet specifies not to run a ground plane under the pins or signal traces of this chip as the
capacitance generated could effect performance negatively.

4.2 Compiler
Introduction

Ah yes, it is finally time to make your Arduino do something! We're going to start with
the classic hell world of electronics, a blinking light.
This lesson will basically get you up and running using the Arduino software and uploading a sketch
to the Arduino board. Once you've completed this step we can continue to the really exciting stuff,
which is when we start writing our own sketches!

These instructions mostly show Windows software. Except when indicated, the software (should be)
identical on all platforms. Linux will be added once I figure out how to get it working (yay)

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Do you have everything you need?

Not much is needed for this lesson, just a USB cable and an Arduino. If you have an older Arduino
you may also need an LED. Any LED is fine as long as it looks sorta like the photo, with a plastic
bulb and two legs

Make sure you've gone through Lesson 0 first!

Assembled Arduino board,

preferrably a Diecimila (or $35
Adafruit
whatever the latest version is)

Adafruit
Or any
USB Cable. Standard A-B cable is computer
$5
required. Any length is OK. supply store

LED - Optional
Nearly any LED is OK, as long as
it has two wire legs. This part is Any
only required for NG rev electronics $1
c Arduinos (and maybe other supply store
older ones). Diecimila Arduino's
have this part 'built-in'

Download the Software

The first thing to do is download the Arduino software.

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Go to the Arduino Software Download page and grab the right file for your OS. As of Sept 2007 the
version is 009 but you should use whatever is most recent.
The packages are quite large, 30-50 MB so it may take a while to finish

Unpack and Install

Extract the package onto the Desktop

Windows

Mac OS X
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Windows

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 Mac OS X
Startup!

Double click the Arduino software icon

Windows

Mac OS X
To open up the workspace
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I think I get the red error text shown because I already have Arduino installed. Either way, it isn't a
problem if you do or don't see it.

Select chip

The first step is to configure the Arduino software for the correct chip. Almost all Arduinos use the
ATmega168, but there's a chance you have an ATmega8. Look for the chip on the Arduino that looks
like this:

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If the text says ATMEGA8-16P then you have an atmega8 chip. If the text says ATMEGA168-20P
then you have anatmega168 chip. If it says "ATMEGA328P-20P" you have an atmega328p chip

Make sure the correct chip is selected (this picture is really old, will be fixed soon). This preference is
saved so you only have to set it once, the program will remember next time it's run.

Select port

Next, its time to configure the Serial Port (also known as the COM Port). Go back to lesson 0 to
remind yourself of which port it is. On a PC it will probably be something like COM3 or COM4. On
a Mac it will be something liketty.usbserial-xxxxx

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 Windows port selection

Mac port selection

This preference is saved so you only have to set it once, the program will remember next time it's run.

However, if you have multiple Arduino's, they may be assigned difference COM ports. So every time
you plug in a new Arduino, double check that the correct port is selected.

Open blink sketch

Sketches are little scripts that you can send to the Arduino to tell it how to act. Let's open up
an Example Sketch. Go to the File menu -> Sketchbook -> Examples -> Digital -> Blink

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The window should now look like this, with a bunch of text in the formerly empty white space and the
tab Blink above it

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Verify / Compile

The first step to getting a Sketch ready for transfer over to the arduino is to Verify/Compile it. That
means check it over for mistakes (sort of like editing) and then translate it into an application that is
compatible with the Arduino hardware.

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After a few seconds, you should see the message Done compiling. in the Status Bar and Binary
Sketch Size: in theNotification area. This means the sketch was well-written and is ready for
uploading to the Arduino board!

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Reset (NG only)

To tell the Arduino that it should prepare itself for a new Sketch upload, you must reset the board.
Diecimila Arduino's have built-in auto-reset capability, so you don't need to do anything. Older
Arduinos, such as NG, must be manually reset before uploading a sketch. To do that simply press the
black button on the right hand side of the board, shown here.

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Upload

Now it's time to upload. Make sure the Arduino is plugged in, the green light is on and the correct
Serial Port is selected.

If you have an NG Arduino, press the Reset Button now, just before you select the Upload menu
item.
Select Upload to I/O Board from the File menu

After a few seconds you should get this screen, with the message Done uploading. in the status bar.

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 If you get the following error message "avrdude: stk500_getsync(): not in sync: resp=0x00" that
means that the Arduino is not responding

Then check the following:

 If you have a NG Arduino, did you press reset just before selecting Upload menu item?
 Is the correct Serial Port selected?
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 Is the correct driver installed?
 Is the chip inserted into the Arduino properly? (If you built your own arduino or have burned the
bootloader on yourself)
 Does the chip have the correct bootloader on it? (If you built your own arduino or have burned the
bootloader on yourself)
If you get the following error message:

It means you dont have a serial port selected, go back and verify that the correct driver is installed (lesson 0)

and that you have the correct serial port selected in the menu.

If you get the following error Expected signature for ATMEGA

Then you have either the incorrect chip selected in the Tools menu or the wrong bootloader burned
onto the chip
If you get the following error: can't open device "COM10": The system cannot find the file
specified (under Windows, COM port value may vary)

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It means that you have too many COM ports (maybe you've got 9 Arduinos?) You should make sure
that the port is numbered as low as possible. You can use a program like FTClean to clear out old
COM ports you aren't using anymore. Once you've cleaned out the ports, you'll have to reinstall the
driver again (see lesson 0).
Alternately, if you're sure that the ports are not used for something else but are left over from other
USB devices, you can simply change the COM port using the Device Manager. Select the USB
device in the Device Manager, right click and select Properties

Then click Advanced... and in the next window change the COM port to something
like COM4 or COM5. Don't forget to select the new port name in the Arduino software. The lower
port names may say (in use) but as long as the other USB devices aren't plugged in, it shouldn't be a
problem. This is a little riskier than just using FTClean...
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Video of all steps

Here is a video showing the timing of the steps described so far.

Insert LED (NG Arduinos)

Some older Arduinos don't have a built in LED, its easy to tell if yours does or not

If you have a Diecimila or other Arduino with a built in LED you will see a translucent part as shown

If you have an NG rev C or other Arduino without an LED, the translucent part will not be there, and
instead you will see two silver dots

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If you don't have an LED, you'll need to add your own. Any LED will do, as long as it has two legs
and kinda looks like the one shown here. LEDs are directional components. That means if you put it
in backwards it will not work! To help you put the LED in right, the LED factory cuts the legs at
different lengths. The longer leg goes in the hole marked 13and the shorter one goes in the hole
marked GND

Watch!

If you have a Diecimila Arduino, the upload process is quite fast, just start the Upload from the
software. The board will automatically reset itself, transfer the sketch and start the sketch. The little
translucent LED will start blinking

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 Click To Play

If you have an NG arduino, make sure the LED is inserted as indicated before. Here is a video of the
entire uploading process. Right after I press the Reset Button I start the sketch upload. There is a short
wait while the software prepares to transfer the sketch. Then the two small orange lights blink,
indicating the sketch is being transfered. When its done, there is a 7 second delay until the sketch
starts.

Click To Play

If you don't get a blinking LED, make sure you put the part in the right way, in the correct holes, and perhaps
try a different LED as it may be bad

CHAPTER 5: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:

1. Power generation by wind.

2. Tracking of sun light.
3. Efficient and low cost design.
4. Low power consumption.

Disadvantages:

1. Implementing of Wind turbine should be in high places.

Applications:

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 This system can be used in real time to perform wind turbine to gain more energy from wind.

CHAPTER 6: RESULTS
6.1 Result:

The project “Wind energy robot” was designed such that to construct a movable wind turbine
that moves according to speed of wind. This helps to gain More energy from the wind.

6.2 Conclusion:

Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best
working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s with the help of growing technology, the
project has been successfully implemented. Thus the project has been successfully designed and
tested.

6.3 Future Scope:

Our project “ Wind energy robot ” is mainly intended to design an automatic movable wind. The
main controlling device of the whole system is a microcontroller. LDR sensors, DC motors, limit
switches and Relays are interfaced to microcontroller. LDR sensors input will help the
microcontroller to assess the sun light conditions.

This project can be extended using GSM modem for status feed back of wind energy.

REFERENCES

The sites which were used while doing this project:

1. www.wikipedia.com

2. www.allaboutcircuits.com

3. www.microchip.com

4. www.howstuffworks.com

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Books referred:

1. Raj kamal –Microcontrollers Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design.

2. Mazidi and Mazidi –Embedded Systems.

3. PCB Design Tutorial –David.L.Jones.

4. PIC Microcontroller Manual – Microchip.

5. Embedded C –Michael.J.Pont.

APPENDIX

Program Code:

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