Chapter 3: Determinants

Math 18, Winter 2025

Lecture A00 (Anzaldo)

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Section 3.1 - Introduction to Determinants

Definition. Let A be an n × n matrix. The determinant of A, denoted by det A or |A|, is

defined as follows:

ˆ If n = 1, then det A = det [a11 ] = a11 .

ˆ If n ≥ 2, then

det A = a11 det A11 − a12 det A12 + · · · + (−1)1+n a1n det A1n
Xn
= (−1)1+j a1j det A1j
j=1

where A1j is the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix obtained by removing the 1st row and jth column
of A.

a11 a12
Example. Compute the determinant of A = . Does it agree with the definition of a
a21 a22
2 × 2 determinant given in Chapter 2?

 
1 2 3
Example. Compute det 4 5 6.
7 8 9

2
Section 3.1 - Introduction to Determinants

Definition. The (i, j)-cofactor of A is Cij = (−1)i+j det Aij .

Theorem. Let A be an n × n matrix where n ≥ 2. Then

n
X
ˆ det A = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + · · · + ain Cin = aij Cij , which is called the
j=1

cofactor expansion across the ith row .

n
X
ˆ det A = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + · · · + anj Cnj = aij Cij , which is called the
i=1

cofactor expansion across the jth column .

 
1 2 −2
Example. Let A =  1 −3 −1. Find det A.
−4 0 1

3
Section 3.1 - Introduction to Determinants

 
1 2 3 4
0 5 6 7
Example. Let A =  . Find |A|.
0 0 8 9
0 0 0 10

Definition. A square matrix is triangular if either

ˆ All entries below the main diagonal are zero. In this case, the matrix is upper triangular .

ˆ All entries above the main diagonal are zero. In this case, the matrix is lower triangular .

Theorem. If A is a triangular matrix, then the determinant of A equals the product of the
diagonal entries of A.

 
1 2 3 4
0 5 6 7
Example. Compute the determinant of 
0
 using the theorem above.
0 8 9
0 0 0 10

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Section 3.2 - Properties of Determinants

How do elementary row operations affect the determinant of a matrix?

 
1 2
Example. The determinant of A = is −2. Let B be the matrix obtained by applying
3 4
the given elementary row operation to A. Find det B and compare this with det A.

1. −3R1 + R2 → R2 2. R1 ↔ R2 3. 2R2

Theorem. Let A be an n × n matrix.

ˆ If B is obtained by adding a multiple of one row of A to another row of A, then

det B = det A.

ˆ If B is obtained by interchanging two rows of A, then det B = − det A.

ˆ If B is obtained by multiplying one row of A by a constant k, then det B = k det A.

 
0 1 5 1
3 −6 9 3
Example. Find det 
2 −6 1
 using row reduction.
0
0 3 10 7

5
Section 3.2 - Properties of Determinants

Theorem. If U is obtained from A using only row interchanges and replacements, and U is
in row echelon form, then U is triangular and
(
(−1)r · product of the pivots of U if A is invertible
det A = .
0 if A is not invertible

Theorem. Let A and B be n × n matrices. Then

ˆ A is invertible iff det A ̸= 0.

ˆ det AT = det A.

ˆ det (AB) = (det A)(det B).

Linearity Properties
Is the map det : Mn×n → R, where A 7→ det A for all A ∈ Mn×n , a linear transformation?

However,if we fix all but one

 column of a matrix, we do have a linear transformation:
n
Let A = ⃗a1 ⃗a2 · · · ⃗an be an n × n matrix and define T : R → R by
 
T (⃗x) = det ⃗a1 · · · ⃗aj−1 ⃗x ⃗aj+1 · · · ⃗an .

6
Section 3.2 - Properties of Determinants

You can check that T is linear: For any ⃗x, ⃗y ∈ Rn and any scalar c,

ˆ det ⃗a1 · · · ⃗x + ⃗y · · · ⃗an = det ⃗a1 · · · ⃗x · · · ⃗an + det ⃗a1 · · · ⃗y · · · ⃗an

     

ˆ det ⃗a1 · · · c⃗x · · · ⃗an = c det ⃗a1 · · · ⃗x · · · ⃗an

   

Example. Let A and B be 3 × 3 matrices such that det A = 2 and det B = 5. Find

5. det (A−1 )


1. det (AB) 2. det (A4 ) 3. det B T 4. det (2B)

Theorem. Let A be an n × n matrix. Then

ˆ det (Am ) = (det A)m if m is a positive integer.

ˆ det (kA) = k n det A if k is a scalar.

1
ˆ det A−1 =


if A is invertible.
det A

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Section 3.3 - Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear Transformations

⃗ n
Theorem. (Cramer’s Rule)  Let A be an n × n invertible matrix. Then for any b ∈ R , the
x1
 x2  det (Ai (⃗b))
unique solution ⃗x =  ..  of A⃗x = ⃗b is given by xi = for i = 1, 2, . . . , n where
 
. det A
xn
Ai (b) is the matrix obtained by replacing the ith column of A with ⃗b.
⃗

Example. Solve the linear system using Cramer’s Rule.

x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0
x2 − 3x3 = −7
2x1 + x2 − x3 = 1

1
Theorem. (Inverse Formula) Let A be an n × n invertible matrix. Then A−1 = adjA
det A
where the matrix adjA, called the adugate of A or the classical adjoint of A , is defined
by (adjA)ij = Cji , i.e. the transpose of the matrix of cofactors. So
 T
C11 C12 · · · C1n
1  21 C22 · · ·
 C C2n 
A−1 = ..  .

 . ..
det A  .. . . 
Cn1 Cn2 · · · Cnn

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Section 3.3 - Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear Transformations

Example. Find the inverse of A using the Inverse Formula.

 
1 2 3
A = 0 4 5
0 0 6

Areas and Volumes

Theorem. Let ⃗aj be the jth column of a matrix A.

ˆ If A is a 2 × 2 matrix, then the area of the parallelogram determined by ⃗a1 and ⃗a2 is
| det A|.

ˆ If A is a 3 × 3 matrix, then the volume of the parallelepiped determined by ⃗a1 , ⃗a2 , and
⃗a3 is | det A|.

Example. Find the area of the parallelogram whose vertices are (−2, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3), and
(−1, 0).

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Section 3.3 - Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear Transformations

Example. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with one vertex at the origin and adjacent
vertices at (1, 0, −3), (1, 2, 4), and (5, 1, 0).

Definition. Let T : V → W be a function. If S ⊆ V , then T (S) = {T (⃗x) | ⃗x ∈ S} is the

image of S under T .

Theorem. ˆ Let T : R2 → R2 be a linear transformation with standard matrix A. If S

is a region in R2 with finite area, then the area of T (S) equals | det A| · area of S.

ˆ Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation with standard matrix A. If S is a region

in R3 with finite volume, then the volume of T (S) equals | det A| · volume of S.

2 2 2
Example.  the region bounded by x1 + x2 + x3 = 1, so S is a sphere of radius 1, and
 Let S be
2 0 0
let A = 0 3 0. Compute the volume of the image of S under the mapping ⃗x 7→ A⃗x, i.e.
0 0 4
x2 x2 x2
the region bounded by the ellipsoid 21 + 22 + 23 = 1. Recall that the volume of a sphere of
2 3 4
4 3
radius r is πr .
3

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