Signal Transduction
- It is defined as the sensing of signals, passing the signal using chain reactions and
responding accordingly.
- The process happens through this pathway:
Releasing of signal
Transport of signal
Detection of signal
Transmission of signal
Amplification of signal
Response to the signal
Termination of response
- Signal transduction happens by the perceptions of signal which then elucidates the
response.
- Example 1: Cells in the shoot tip sense light and send the signals to cells on non
illuminated side of the shoot. Here, the signal is a hormone molecule,[Auxin]. This
promotes cell growth and causes bending of the shoots towards the light.
- Example 2: Insulin- High blood sugar content signals GLUT 2 receptor which activates a
signal cascade and synthesizes insulin. This happens in the Beta Pancreatic cell.
- Similarly, in target cells, the receptor of the cell membrane allows binding of insulin
which initiates a signal cascade which produces more glucose receptors (GLUT 4). These
receptors then help in larger uptake of glucose molecules.
Types of signaling:
1. Direct intracellular signaling: Signals passed through cell junctions (gap junctions) from
Cytosol to adjacent cells.
2. Contact dependent signaling:
- It is also called as Juxta crine signaling.
- Here the signals are membrane bound which binds to membrane bound receptors of
adjacent cells.
- They need direct contact, example: Ecadherins, growing cells signal each other when
they need to stop growing.
3. Autocrine signaling: In this type, the signals released by the cell, bind and effect
receptors on themselves.
4. Paracrine: Here, the cell which releases the signal and the target cells with receptors are
near each other.
- Example: Neurotransmitters- The serotonin released from the Axon of one neuron is
detected and bound to the Dendrite of adjacent neuron.
- Here, the serotonin passes through a small synapse.
5. Endocrine signaling:
- The cell releases signals that travel long distances to effect target cells.
- Example: Epinephrine
- These types of signals are called hormones and they target multiple organ
How do the target cells respond?
1. Receptor activation: Signal molecule bind to the receptors and changes its confirmation
and activates it.
2. Signal transduction: The activated receptor stimulates a series of changes in proteins that
form a pathway.
3. Cellular response: The pathway alters the synthesis of proteins which are responsible for
the response.
Types of receptors:
1. Enzyme linked receptors:
- They consist of extra cellular domain that binds to the signal molecule and
intracellular domain that has catalytic function.
- Here, the signal binds to the receptor Receptor changes its confirmation
Signal cascade begins
- Example 1: Protein kinases they add phosphate groups to protein and activate
them.
- Example 2: Tyrosine kinases Receptor: Tyrosine residues are seen on the
intracellular domain.
i. One transmembrane domain in present.
ii. When signal molecule binds to receptors they create conformational
changes to the receptors wherein two Tyrosine kinases form a dimer.
iii. This change triggers the cellular response.
2. G-Protein coupled receptor (GPCR)
- They bind to the G-Protein in the intracellular region.
- They contain 7 transmembrane segments that are embedded in the plasma
membrane.
- They can bind to GDP and GTP.
3. Ligand gated ion channel:
-These types of receptors contain a Ligand that controls the opening and closing of the channel.
- When signal molecules bind to the receptors they gate opens and allows the flow of ions
- Here, the signaling between the ligand and the receptors (to open or close the channel)
becomes primarily signaling, whereas the calcium ions that receive the message from the
receptor and carry out the signal cascade are considered as secondary messengers.
4. Intercellular receptors:
- These receptors are activated only by molecules that are capable of passing through the
plasma membrane they can be lipophilic molecules like steroid hormones or Estrogen.
- They move to the intercellular region and then bind to receptors that are there and active the
signaled cascade.
Signal transduction cascade:
1. The signal transduction cascade refers to the series of Transformations that are
triggered by activated receptors To bring about a cellular response.
2. Example: EGF pathway ( epidermal growth factor that promotes cell division) —> EGF
molecules bind to EGF receptors —> the EGF receptors dimerize —> phosphorylation
takes place —>This triggers a series of phosphorylation in proteins (Ras)
—> These proteins then trigger a series of phosphorylation or dephoshorylation of
proteins (Raf, ERK) —> These phosphorylated molecules then move inside the nucleus
signal the transcription factor (proteins that promote transcription of specific
sequence of genes) which gets phosphorylated —> transcription of specific MRNA
begins the MRNA is produced —> translation —>proteins that help in cellular
response ( Here the response is cell division)
Methods of intercellular signal
1. Phosphorylation:
In this process phosphate groups are added to amino acid sequences [serine,
threonine and tyrosine] by various Kinases.
2. Second messenger:
They are small molecules that propagate a signal after it has been initiated by
the primary signal bound to the receptor.
They help in amplifying the signal and increase the speed of signal transduction
Important second messengers include cyclic AMP and calcium. Other second
messengers are phospholipase C, Diacylglycerol, inositol triphosphate and
protein kinase C.
Cellular response
1. They alter cellular metabolism.
- Example: Epinephrine- The activate enzymes in response to sudden attacks and release
glucose molecules
2. They alter gene expression EGF pathway induces activation of cell division genes. Here the
transcription factors become the targets.
3. They change cell shape or movement of cell. Example change in platelet morphology during
blood clotting. Structural proteins are targets
4. They promote cell growth when cell growth factors bind to the receptors example tyrosine
kinase.
5. They also promote cell death in apoptotic cells.
