1. What is a Project?

• Definition:
o A temporary, unique endeavor with a defined start and end date aimed at
creating a specific product, service, or result.
o Examples: Building construction, software development, upgrading IT
infrastructure.
• Key Attributes:
o Temporary: Not ongoing; has a deadline.
o Unique Purpose: Delivers something new (e.g., a voting system for a TV
program).
o Progressive Elaboration: Details evolve as the project progresses.
o Resources: People, time, budget, hardware.
o Stakeholders: People involved in or affected by the project (e.g., sponsors,
customers, team).
o Uncertainty: Risks and unknowns inherent in novel tasks.

2. Project Management Fundamentals

Triple Constraint:

• Every project is constrained by Scope, Time, and Cost.

o Scope: Work required to deliver the product (e.g., features in software).
o Time: Schedule and deadlines (e.g., Gantt charts for tracking).
o Cost: Budget and resource allocation.
• Key Insight: Balancing these constraints is critical. For example, expanding scope
without adjusting time or cost leads to failure.

Project Management Definition:

• Applying knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to meet project requirements.

• Focuses not just on the triple constraints but also on stakeholder
satisfaction (e.g., ensuring the final product meets user needs).

3. Project Management Knowledge Areas

There are 9 core competencies a project manager must master:

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 1. Core Areas:
o Scope Management: Defining and controlling what is included in the
project.
o Time Management: Scheduling and tracking progress (e.g., Gantt charts).
o Cost Management: Budgeting and cost control.
o Quality Management: Ensuring deliverables meet standards.
2. Facilitating Areas:
o Human Resource (HR) Management: Motivating and managing teams.
o Communications Management: Ensuring clear information flow.
o Risk Management: Identifying and mitigating risks (e.g., using
probability-impact matrices).
o Procurement Management: Acquiring external resources (e.g., vendor
contracts).
3. Integration Management:
o Coordinates all other areas to ensure alignment with project goals.

Project Success:
a. The project met Scope, Time and cost goals.
b. The project satisfied the customer / sponsor.
c. The results of the project met its main objective, such as making or
saving a certain amount of money, providing a good return on
investment, or simply making the sponsors happy.

Ethics means the rules or principles we follow to decide what is right or wrong, often based on our
personal values.
Project managers often deal with ethical dilemmas—situations where it’s hard to decide what the
right thing to do is.

For example:

• What if a project manager can earn more money by doing a poor job? Should they choose the
extra money even if it means doing low-quality work?
• What if a project manager personally disagrees with making nuclear weapons? Should they
say no to managing a project that supports making them?

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Explanation:

• Ethics = your moral compass. It helps you decide what’s "right" or "wrong" based on your
beliefs and values.
• Ethical dilemma = a tough situation where doing the right thing might come with personal
or professional sacrifices.

In project management, these situations are common. You might have to choose between:

• Doing what’s right vs. what’s profitable.

• Doing what your company wants vs. what you personally believe in.

4. Systems Thinking in Project Management

• Systems Approach:
o Projects do not exist in isolation; they are part of a larger organizational
system. If project managers lead projects in isolation, it is unlikely that those
projects will ever truly serve the needs of the organization.
o System approach includes
1. System philosophy: overall model for thinking about things as systems
2. System Analysis: is a problem-solving approach that requires defining
the scope of the system, dividing it into its components, and then
identifying and evaluating its problems, opportunities, constraints, and
needs.
3. System Management: addresses the business, technological, and
organizational issues associated with creating, maintaining, and making
changes to a system.
o Three-Sphere Model: Projects must balance:
1. Business Goals (e.g., profitability).
2. Technological Requirements (e.g., software/hardware needs).
3. Organizational Dynamics (e.g., company culture).
• Why It Matters: Ignoring organizational context (e.g., politics, culture) is a
common cause of project failure.

FOUR FRAME OF ORGANIZATION:

• Structural Frame: deals with how organization is structured , focuses on roles and
responsibility to meet goals
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 • Human Resource Frame: Focuses on providing harmony(combination of
simultaneously) between needs of the organization and needs of people

• Political Frame: addresses organization and personal politics. Politics in organizations

take form of competition among groups or individuals for power and leadership.

• Symbolic Frame: focuses on symbols and meanings related to events.

e.g, was it a good sign that the CEO came to kick off the meeting for the project or it is a
threat

Culture is important

Organizational Structures:

• Functional: Departments (e.g., marketing, IT) manage projects within their

domain.
• Project-Based: Teams are formed around specific projects.
• Matrix: Hybrid structure; employees report to both functional managers and project
managers.

Organizational Culture:

is a set of shared assumptions, values and behaviours that characterize the functioning of an
organization

ORGANIZATION culture is very important and many people believe the underlying causes of
many companies problems are not in the organizational structure or staff , they are in the culture

• Clan Culture: Collaborative, team-oriented (e.g., startups). ------

Stronger relationships among workers, creating a more “relaxed” environment
Employees are given the opportunity to provide open and honest feedback without
repercussions.
• Adhocracy Culture: Innovative, risk-taking (e.g., tech companies).-----
Constant innovation and growth, High risks can result in high rewards.
• Market Culture: Competitive, results-driven (e.g., sales-focused firms).-------
Competitive atmosphere encourages employees to push their limits when reaching
company goals, Employees are given bonuses and promotions for hard work.
• Hierarchy Culture: Structured, rule-based (e.g., government agencies).-----
Organized and efficient work environment, Responsibilities allocated by job level, Clear
authority and boundaries between employees
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5. Stakeholder Management

• Who Are Stakeholders?:

o Internal: Project sponsor, team, internal users.
o External: Customers, suppliers, regulators, competitors.
• Why It Matters:
o Unidentified stakeholders (e.g., opponents of the project) can derail
progress.
o Example: A project to upgrade IT infrastructure may face resistance from
employees comfortable with old systems.
• Strategies:
o Use the Four Frames of Organizations (structural, human resources,
political, symbolic) to analyze stakeholder needs.

6. Project Life Cycle (PLC) & SDLC

Project Life Cycle Phases:

In early phases of a project life cycle:

✓ Resource needs are usually lowest

✓ The level of uncertainty (risk) is highest

✓ Project stakeholders have the greatest opportunity to influence the project

In middle phases of a project life cycle:

✓ The certainty of completing a project improves More resources are needed

The final phase of a project life cycle focuses on:

✓ Ensuring that project requirements were met

✓ The sponsor approves completion of the project

1. Initiation: Define project purpose, stakeholders, and feasibility. High uncertainty, low
resources.
2. Planning: Develop WBS, schedule, budget.
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 3. Execution: Coordinate resources to deliver outputs.
4. Monitoring & Controlling: Track progress, manage changes (e.g., scope creep).
5. Closing: Formal acceptance, document lessons learned.

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC):

• Predictive Models (e.g., Waterfall):

o Sequential phases; requirements are fixed early.
o Best for projects with clear, stable goals (e.g., building a bridge).
• Adaptive Models (e.g., Agile, RAD):
o iterative; requirements evolve.
o Best for IT projects with unclear needs (e.g., software for a new market).

7. Scope Management

Key Processes:

1. Collect Requirements:
o Methods: Interviews, surveys, prototyping.
o Output: Requirements Documentation and Traceability Matrix (ensures all
requirements are tested).
2. Define Scope:
o Create a Scope Statement detailing deliverables, acceptance criteria.
3. Create WBS (Work Breakdown Structure):
o Break deliverables into smaller work packages (e.g., "Develop login page" for a
website project).
o Approaches:
▪ Top-Down: Start with major deliverables.
▪ Bottom-Up: Start with detailed tasks.
▪ Mind-Mapping: Visual grouping of related tasks.
o WBS Dictionary: Explains each task’s scope, owner, and costs.
4. Verify Scope:
o Formal stakeholder sign-off to prevent scope creep (uncontrolled
expansion of project scope).
5. Control Scope:
o Manage changes through formal procedures (e.g., change requests).

Common Challenges:
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 • Scope Creep: Adding features without adjusting time or budget.
o Solution: Involve users early, use prototypes to clarify requirements.

8. IT Project Teams

Characteristics of Effective Teams:

1. leadership: Clear direction from project managers.
2. Defined Roles: Developers, testers, analysts.
3. Communication: Regular updates, conflict resolution.
4. Collaboration: Shared tools (e.g., Slack, Trello).
5. Adaptability: Flexibility to handle tech changes (e.g., shifting from Java to
Python).

Challenges in IT Teams:

• Diverse Technologies: A COBOL programmer may struggle in a Java project.

• Rapid Tech Changes: New tools/frameworks require continuous learning.

9. Recent Trends in IT Project Management

1. Globalization:
oPros: Access to global talent, 24/7 productivity.
o Cons: Time zones, cultural misunderstandings (e.g., different holiday
schedules).
2. Outsourcing:
o Hiring external vendors for cost efficiency (e.g., outsourcing software
testing to India).
o Risks: Quality control, communication gaps.
3. Virtual Teams:
o Use tools like Zoom for remote collaboration.
o Challenges: Isolation, reliance on technology.

10. Ethics & Professionalism

• PMI (Project Management Institute):

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 o Offers PMP Certification, requiring ethics adherence, experience, and
exams.
• Ethical Dilemmas:
o Example: Should a PM prioritize profit over quality?
Key Diagrams & Tools

1. Gantt Chart:
o Visual timeline showing tasks, durations, and dependencies.
o Example: Tracking software development phases (design, coding, testing).
2. WBS:
o Hierarchical breakdown of deliverables (e.g., Level 1: Website; Level 2:
Frontend, Backend).

Study Tips for Conceptual Understanding

1. Focus on Relationships:
oHow does organizational culture (e.g., Clan vs. Market) affect project
execution?
2. Compare & Contrast:
o Predictive vs. Adaptive SDLC models.
3. Real-World Examples:
o The Manhattan Project (modern PM origins) vs. Agile software
development.
4. Practice Application:
o Create a WBS for a sample project (e.g., developing a mobile app)

1. Triple Constraint Model

• Purpose: Balances three core constraints in every project:

o Scope (work required),
o Time (schedule),
o Cost (budget).
• Key Insight: Changing one constraint impacts the others (e.g., expanding scope without
adjusting time/cost leads to failure).

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2. Systems Thinking / Three-Sphere Model

• Focus: Projects must align with three interconnected spheres:

1. Business Goals (e.g., profitability),
2. Technology (tools, infrastructure),
3. Organization (culture, politics, structure).
• Why It Matters: Ignoring any sphere risks project failure (e.g., a tech upgrade failing
due to employee resistance).

3. Organizational Culture Models

• C.A.M.H Model: Four types of organizational cultures:

1. Clan: Collaborative, team-oriented (e.g., startups).
2. Adhocracy: Innovative, risk-taking (e.g., tech firms).
3. Market: Competitive, goal-driven (e.g., sales teams).
4. Hierarchy: Structured, rule-based (e.g., government agencies).
• Impact: Culture influences project execution (e.g., hierarchy cultures resist agile
methods).

4. Project Life Cycle (PLC) & SDLC Models

Project Life Cycle (PLC):

• Phases: Initiation → Planning → Execution → Monitoring/Controlling →

Closing.
• Key Idea: Early phases have high uncertainty; later phases focus on delivery.

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC):

• Predictive Models (requirements fixed early):

o Waterfall: Linear stages (design → develop → test).
o Incremental Build: Progressive releases (e.g., adding features iteratively).
o Prototyping: Clarify requirements via mockups.
• Adaptive Models (evolving requirements):
o RAD (Rapid Application Development): Iterative cycles (Plan →
Collaborate → Learn).

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5. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
• Purpose: Breaks deliverables into smaller work packages (e.g., "Develop login
page").
• Approaches:
o Top-Down: Start with major deliverables.
o Bottom-Up: Start with granular tasks.
o Mind-Mapping: Visual grouping of tasks.
• Output: WBS Dictionary (details scope, owners, costs for each task).

6. Stakeholder Management Frameworks

• Four Frames of Organizations:

1. Structural (roles, hierarchy),
2. Human Resources (employee needs),
3. Political (power dynamics),
4. Symbolic (culture, rituals).
• Use: Analyze stakeholder expectations and conflicts (e.g., political resistance to IT
upgrades).

7. Risk Management Models

• Probability-Impact Matrix:
o Maps risks based on likelihood (probability) and severity (impact).
o Helps prioritize risks (e.g., high-probability/high-impact risks need
immediate action).

8. Virtual Team Management

• Model: Addresses challenges of global teams:

o Pros: 24/7 productivity, cost savings.
o Cons: Isolation, communication barriers.
• Tools: Zoom, Slack for collaboration.

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1. Waterfall Model

• Definition (from slides):

A predictive model with linear, sequential stages (e.g., requirements → design
→ development → testing → deployment).
o Assumes stable requirements once defined.
o Example: Used in projects like building infrastructure where scope is clear
upfront.
• Where Mentioned:
o Lecture notes on Predictive Life Cycle Models (Chapter 2/3).

2. Incremental Build Model

• Definition:
Develops operational software progressively through multiple releases.
o Each release adds new capabilities (e.g., launching a basic app first, then
adding features).
• Where Mentioned:
o Under Predictive Life Cycle Models.

3. Prototyping Model

• Definition:
Focuses on creating prototypes (mockups) to clarify user requirements early.
o Example: Building a dummy interface to get stakeholder feedback before full
development.
• Where Mentioned:
o Part of Predictive Models in SDLC discussions.

4. Reuse-Oriented Software Engineering

• Definition:
Assembles systems from existing components (e.g., APIs, libraries) rather than building
from scratch.

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 oExample: Using pre-built modules for payment gateways in an e-
commerce app.
• Where Mentioned:
o Listed under Predictive Models.

5. RAD (Rapid Application Development)

• Definition:
An adaptive model replacing Waterfall with iterative cycles:
1. Speculate (Plan): Outline goals.
2. Collaborate: Implement the plan.
3. Learn: Review outcomes and adapt.
o Used for projects with unclear requirements (e.g., experimental software).
• Where Mentioned:
o Under Adaptive SDLC Models (ASD Life Cycle Models).

6. Agile (Implied via RAD)

• While not explicitly named "Agile," RAD shares principles with Agile
methodologies (e.g., iterative development, stakeholder collaboration).

Key Takeaways

• Predictive Models (Waterfall, Incremental, Prototyping):

o Best for projects with fixed requirements (e.g., construction, regulatory
compliance).
• Adaptive Models (RAD):
o Best for evolving requirements (e.g., IT projects, startups).

How to Identify These in Your Slides

Look for sections titled:

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 • "Predictive Life Cycle Models" (Waterfall, Incremental Build).
• "Adaptive SD Life Cycle" (RAD).
• "Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)" in Chapter 2/3.

📘 What is PERT?

PERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique.

It is a project management tool used to estimate the duration of activities more accurately when
there is uncertainty involved.

🧠 Purpose of PERT:

• To analyze and represent the tasks involved in completing a project.

• To estimate time when durations are not fixed or predictable.
• To help with scheduling, especially for complex, research-oriented, or development
projects.

🧮 Three-Point Estimation in PERT:

PERT uses three time estimates for each activity:

Estimate Type Description Symbol

Optimistic (O) Best-case scenario – the shortest possible time O
Most Likely (M) The realistic time estimate based on normal effort M
Worst-case scenario – the longest time it might
Pessimistic (P) P
take

Project Time Management Processes (PMBOK)

There are 6 major processes involved:

1. Define Activities
o Identify specific actions to produce project deliverables.
o Break down work packages into smaller, manageable tasks.
o Inputs: Scope baseline, enterprise environmental factors, organizational process
assets.

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 o Outputs: Activity list, activity attributes, milestone list.
2. Sequence Activities
o Determine the order in which tasks should be performed.
o Identify and document dependencies (relationships) between activities.
o Tools: Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM), dependency determination.
o Types of dependencies:
▪ Mandatory (hard logic): Required by nature of the work.
▪ Discretionary (soft logic): Preferred sequence, can be changed.
▪ External: Involves outside entities or teams.
3. Estimate Activity Resources
o Estimate the type and quantity of resources (people, materials, equipment) required.
o Tools: Expert judgment, alternative analysis, published estimating data.
4. Estimate Activity Durations
o Estimate the number of work periods needed for each activity.
o Consider resources, constraints, and past data.
o Tools: Expert judgment, analogous estimating, parametric estimating, three-point
estimates.
5. Develop Schedule
o Combine activity sequences, durations, and resources to create the project schedule.
o Tools: Critical Path Method (CPM), Critical Chain, Resource Leveling, Gantt Charts,
Schedule Compression (e.g., crashing and fast tracking).
o Outputs: Project schedule, schedule baseline.
6. Control Schedule
o Monitor the schedule to detect variances and adjust as needed.
o Use performance measures like Schedule Performance Index (SPI) and Earned
Value Management (EVM).
o Update project documents and communicate changes to stakeholders.

Key Concepts and Terms

• Activity/Task:
o Smallest unit of work.
o Has a defined duration, cost, and required resources.
• Activity List:
o Includes: activity ID, name, description, predecessor/successor, constraints, etc.
• Milestone:
o A significant event or achievement in the project.
o Has zero duration but marks important checkpoints.
o Examples: Approval received, phase completed.

Three Types of Dependencies in Project Scheduling

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1. Mandatory Dependencies (Hard Logic)

• Definition: Inherent sequencing required by the nature of the work.

• Example: Building a foundation (Activity A) must be completed before constructing walls
(Activity B).
• Key Traits:
o Unavoidable and logical (e.g., coding before testing).
o No flexibility; skipping or reordering is impossible without altering the project’s
scope.

2. Discretionary Dependencies (Soft Logic)

• Definition: Team-defined sequencing based on preferences, resource availability, or strategy.

• Example: Choosing to design Phase B before Phase A to align with a specialist’s schedule.
• Key Traits:
o Flexible but risky—overuse can limit future scheduling options.
o Often used to optimize resources or workflows.

3. External Dependencies

• Definition: Third-party-driven sequencing reliant on factors outside the project team’s

control.
• Example: Waiting for a government permit or a vendor’s delivery.
• Key Traits:
o Requires coordination with external stakeholders.
o Delays here often impact the project timeline unpredictably.

MBTI (Myers-Briggs) personality types:

• "J" types (Judging) prefer schedules and deadlines.

• "P" types (Perceiving) are more flexible and spontaneous.

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