DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION EDUCATION

VETERINARY COLLEGE SHIVAMOGGA (MSVE-2016: 2023-24 BATCH)

UNIT-II

EARLY EXTENSION EFFORTS IN INDIA

India was a self-sufficient and self sustained country a long time back. It had a
balanced system of society. But this situation was changed and distributed by
invaders and Mogul rule. At that time village were very much affected and for a
long time no people felt the need for rural reconstruction work.

After the Mogal Empire, India was ruled by British people. The
British government also never took any serious attempts to uplift the Indian
villages. They woke up only under some critical and compelling situations like
famines or similar widespread economic distress. Between 1800 to 1900 there
were 31 famines which affected the different part of the country. These famines
jerked the government into action.

To improve the economic status of the people the Government implemented

certain programmes, the details are as follows:

Name of Programme Year Result of the

programme
The Famine Commission 1880 Agricultural departments
in most of the states
started functioning.
The Famine Commission 1901 The Imperial Agricultural
Research Institute,
Agricultural College at
Poona, District level
agricultural and
livestock farms and
experimental stations
were started. The Indian
Agricultural Service was
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constituted at the centre.

Later the Animals
Husbandry, Irrigation,
Rural Development
Departments were
started.
The Government of India 1919 Agricultural development
Act became a state subject.
The Royal commission 1928 Establish a body for
Agricultural Research at
the National level for
promotion guidance and
co-ordination of
Agricultural and animal
Husbandry Research.
The Famine Commission 1898
The Irrigation committee 1903
The Commission on co-operation 1915

The efforts taken by the British government and India are described in
detail in the following chapters.
The series of famines in the last quarter of the 19 th century (1875 to 1901)
compelled the government to appoint Commissions. They suggested the need
for establishing rural development work. This was followed by different Acts.
In 1935, the rural development work was transferred as a provincial subject
and many provinces established their Rural Construction Departments or
Village Uplift Boards.
They got funding from the Central government for this work. But their
activities were not based on detailed studies of programme planning or the
needs and resources of the people.
It neither gave emphasis to the participation of the people nor did seek their
cooperation and involvement.
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EARLY ATTEMPTS OF EXTENSION MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

The early efforts of extension work were mostly the contribution of few thinkers
who laid the foundation for rural development work in the country. The
contribution of some such pioneers is indicated in this section.

(1) Rural Reconstruction (1903)

Sir Daniel Hamilton had experimented with model villages near by

Sundarbans in West Bengal based on co- operative principles in Bengal. This
work continued with the organization of a Central Cooperative Bank and a
Cooperative Marketing Society in 1924 and a Rural Reconstruction Institute in
1934. The latter offered training facilities in cottage industries.

(2) Servants of India Society (1905): Launched by Gopala Krishna Gokhale

as political society /association at Poona. The main emphasis was given on
Socio-economic and educational activities and later on started training centers
at Madras state (united Province) and Madhya Pradesh (Central province) and
published booklets on basic education and labour problems. Due to lack of
finance, government support, lack of involvement of people and untrained staff
this project could not bring much success.

(3) Economic Conference of Mysore (1914-18)

Launched by Sri. S.M Vishweshwarayya erstwhile Diwan of Mysore Province.

It was a purposeful and methodological plan for achieving improvements over a

wide range. Agriculture was one of the main points in the scheme. Committees
at all level (Dist- Taluka) consisting of revenue officers was set up look in to
matter. The revenue officers as chairman surveyed the needs and possibilities,
examined them carefully, arranged them in a priority, fixed targets were set
and designed appropriate ways and means of achieving them.
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(4) Gurgaon Experiment (1920)

Mr. F.L. Brayne, the then official in government started a fairly extensive
experiment in rural reconstruction in the Gurgaon district of the Punjab and
succeeded in arousing considerable enthusiasm among the people. He
introduced such improvements into the villages as the construction of manure
pits and ventilators, and the use of improved agricultural implements. He also
encouraged the education of women. For the purpose of disseminating new
knowledge among the villagers Mr. Brayne introduced the idea of having a
‘village guide’ in each village who serve as channels for information from
outside.

In 1933, Mr. Brayne was appointed Commissioner of Rural Reconstruction in

the Punjab, and his work was further expanded. The Punjab Government aided
the work financially in 1935-36, and later the reconstruction work was
transferred to the Cooperative Department, and ‘Better Living Societies’ were
organized for work in the villages.

(5) Rural Reconstruction works by Christian Missionaries

Christian missions have for years included education for rural living in their
work, and so great has been their dedication that one often hears the
admonition to work with ‘missionary zeal’. Their major contributions were
in education, medical services and rural reconstruction, through Allahabad
Agriculture institute, Christian college Nagpur, Marthandum project in Kerala.

Marthandam Project (1921)

Several agricultural demonstration centers have been established under the

auspices of the Y.M.C.A., the most famous of which is that started at
Marthandam (Kerala) by the American agricultural expert, Dr. Spencer Hatch,
who pioneered this type of work. It was intended to symbolize the three-fold
development of spirit, body and mind with economic and social dimensions.
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The essential technique of the centre was “self help with intimate expert
counsel”. From the demonstration centre at Marthandam about hundred
villages were covered through YMCA centers in villages. The extension secretary
supervised the work.

At Marthandam, Dr. Hatch started a multipurpose cooperative, with poultry,

bee-keeping, seeds, animal husbandry and other projects. The programme was
all-round, with extensive social activities included. Marthandam was in a
strategic position to serve the villages. It kept prized bulls and goats, model
beehives, demonstration plots for improving grain and vegetable seeds, poultry,
a weaving shed etc.

The most successful project was the Egg-selling club. By 1939, the egg-selling
cooperative society became a self-governing body. There were honey clubs bull
clubs and weaver’s clubs.

(6) Shantiniketan (1921)

The famous poet and Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore established a

Rural Reconstruction Institute more popularly known as Shriniketan in 1921.
They aimed at inducing each villager to work to the limit of their capacity, and
also to help their fellow-men. Tagore believed in both self-help and mutual
help and was one of the first to recognize the need for a change in the outlook
of villagers as a precondition for improvement.

Objectives :

1) To take real interest in village welfare

2) To study rural problems
3) To help villagers to develop resources by teaching / educating
them.
4) To improve village sanitation- make the sanitary conscious.
5) To encourage spirit of service
6) To train students and leaders in rural matter
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(7) Gandhian Constructive Programme / Sewa gram attempt (1923)

This has really begun as All India Spinners Association in 1920.

Mahatma Gandhi considered the village to be the essence of Indian life.

Gandhiji emphasized the role of the people themselves in constructive
programmes. He argued that self-help was the first step towards moral
advancement. He also emphasized the need for (i). Decentralized production
and equal distribution of wealth and (ii). Self-sufficiency of Indian villages. He
started a number of movements which have spread throughout India, such as
the All India Village Industries Organization /Association- Wardha (1934), and
the Harijan Sewak Sangh. (1932)

Objectives :

1) To provide service to the unpreviledged.

2) To achieve self – dependency
3) To provide basic education
Activities :

1) Organization of training centers for cottage industries.

2) Removal of untouchability
3) Stressing on basic education and woman’s education
(8) Firka Development Scheme of Madras State

It was Government-sponsored and aimed at the attainment of the Gandhian

ideas of Gram Swaraj by bringing about not only educational, economic,
sanitary and other improvements in villages, but also by making the people
self-confident. The scheme was launched in 1946.

The scheme aimed at provision of water supply, formation of Panchayats,

organization of cooperatives and programmes for sanitation and also to enable
the area self-sufficient through agricultural, irrigational and livestock
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improvements, and the development of Khadi (handmade cloth) and other

Cottage Industries.

Contribution of V.T. Krishnamachari

It is not proposed to describe all the experiments and projects undertaken over
the past few years in the interest of rural uplift. Suffice it to mention further
only the fine work done in rural reconstruction by V. T. Krishnamachari, as
Dewan of Baroda (1927-44), in the Sarvodaya Scheme in Bombay, and the
Firka Development Scheme in Madras. These were all magnificent beginnings,
but they suffered, for the most part from limitations in scope and organization
and from lack of continuity

(9) Indian Village Service (I.V.S. 1945)

In 1945, A.T. Mosher of New York, and Shri B.N. Gupta established IVS to
assist village people to realize the best in their own villages by developing
individuals, volunteer leaders and local agencies, and enabling them to be
effective in helping themselves and others. India village “collegues” were
appointed for this purpose.

(10) Etawah Pilot Project

The idea of starting this project was conceived in 1947 but put into action
within Etawah (U.P.), in 1948. Lt. Col. Albert Mayer of USA, who came to
India with the American forces in 1944, was the originator of this Project. He
started it with the aim of introducing intensive work on the rural
reconstruction front.

The most significant achievement was that the entire area was brought under
improved wheat crops. The area under vegetables was extended and diseases in
livestock like Rinderpest and Hemorrhagic Septicemia were controlled. The
other programmes taken on were the construction of roads, soak pits, adoption
 DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION EDUCATION
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of improved agricultural practices, etc. All these resulted in improving the

economic conditions of the villagers.

(11) Nilokheri Experiment

It was originally started to rehabilitate 7000 displaced persons from Pakistan

and later integrated with the 100 surrounding villages. It was built round the
vocational training centre that was transferred from Kurukshetra (now in
Haryana), in July,1948. The architect of this project was Shri. S.K. Dey, who
served as Union Minister for Community Development and Cooperatives up to
1965. The scheme called “Mazdoor Manzil” aimed at self-sufficiency for the
rural –cum-urban township in all the essential requirements of life. The colony
had a school, an agricultural farm, polytechnic training centre, poultry farm,
piggery farm, horticulture garden, printing press, garment factory, engineering
workshop, soap factory, etc.

(12) Bhoodan Movement / Land gift movement (1951)

A voluntary land reform movement in India at Poochampally village initiated by

Acharya Vinoba Bhave, the leader of the Bhoodan Movement in India. They
have concentrated on the metaphysical aspects of life. He believed that society
is sure to change itself, once people realize and understand love, religion, duty,
and truth. Life is not governed by law; people do not live their lives on account
of law. Hence only those can have influence on the villagers who are of loving
heart, who are devotees of God, and who show renunciation or sacrifice in their
lives. This philosophy naturally led to his great mission in life of persuading the
villagers to till their land in cooperation with one another.

Adarsh Sewa Sangh, Pohri (Gwalior)- 1936

This plan of rural reconstruction was put into operation in 232 villages, falling
in the Jagirdari of Col. Shitole. It aimed a t increasing the per capita income of
villagers. In each village, a village Reconstruction Society was formed and the
 DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION EDUCATION
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important items of work were compost making, deep ploughing, improved

breeding and management of cattle, etc. The Sangh published a monthly
journal “Rural India” which was devoted to Planning and Community
Projects.

Overall Short comings of all the projects or early efforts

1) Most of them were based on individual initiative

2) Govt. backing and financing were not forthcoming
3) All attempts were isolated, uneven and discontinuous
4) Staff were mostly inexperienced and untrained
5) Plans and programmes were ill defined and unbalanced
6) Need for proper methods and skills of approach was not realized
7) No evaluation was carried out; hence results were not known.

TYPES OF EDUCATION: Formal, non-formal and informal education.

Education is a process of bringing desirable changes into the behaviour of

human beings. These changes must be desirable to the society at large.
The education is effective when it results in changes in all the following
behavioural components as specified by Paul Lagans:

Knowledge - What an individual knows

Attitudes -What he thinks

Skills (both Physical& Mental) -What he can do

Action - What he actually does

These are in short regarded as KASA changes.

Types of education

Education is categorized into informal, formal and non formal on the basis of
the extent of use of formal rules and regulations.
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Informal education

The day to day process of learning, whereby knowledge is transferred in the

context of the family, the neighborhood, the daily working relationships
between the people and through the media. The best example is the way one
learns at home especially when his mother teaches him. There is neither a
fixed curriculum nor rules for learning. It is the most important source of
knowledge for successive farming generations, but not for rapid agricultural
development. It tends to be static and traditional. It serves as a basis for the
other categories of education.

Formal Education

The education which takes place in the schools and colleges. It starts from
theory to practice. It can either be general or vocational. There is a fixed
curriculum and set pattern of examination mostly leading to the award of
degrees or diplomas.

The audience is homogeneous with similar characteristics of age, education,

common goals etc. Teaching is vertical in the sense it flows from the teacher to
the students. The primary education contributes a lot to agricultural/livestock
production indirectly, as it enlarges the absorption capacity for
vocational education following it.

Non-formal Education

All organized education outside the formal education system. It is mostly

practical and problem oriented. The audience is heterogeneous (differ in age,
sex, literacy level, resources etc.) and they may have varied goals. Teaching is
mostly horizontal in the sense the teacher also learns from the farmers.
Extension education is a type of non formal education.
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Difference between formal education and extension education

It may, however, be mentioned here that when extension education is put into
action for educating the rural people, it does not remain formal education. In
that sense, there are several differences between the two. Some of these
differences are:

Formal education Extension education

1. The teacher starts with theory &  The teacher (extension worker)
starts with practical’s & may take
works up to practical. up theory later on.

2. Students study subjects.  Farmers study problems.

3. Students must adapt themselves  It has no fixed curriculum or

course of study & the farmers help
to the fixed curriculum offered. to formulate the curriculum.

4. Authority rests with the teacher.  Authority rests with the farmers.

5. Class attendance is compulsory.  Participation is voluntary.

 Teacher teaches & also learns from

6. Teacher instructs the students.
the farmers.

7. Teaching is only through  Teaching is also through local

instructors. leaders.

8. Teaching is mainly vertical.  Teaching is mainly horizontal.

9. The teacher has more or less  The teacher has a large &
homogeneous audience. heterogeneous audience.

10. It is rigid.  It is flexible.

11. It has all pre-planned & pre-  It has freedom to develop

programmes locally & they are
decided programmes. based on the needs & expressed
desires of the people.

12. It is more theoretical.  It is more practical & intended for

immediate application in the
solution of problems.
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EXTENSION EDUCATION

CONCEPT, LEVELS, OBJECTIVES AND DIMENSIONS. PRINCIPLES,

PHILOSOPHY AND FUNCTIONS OF EXTENSION EDUCATION.

CONCEPT (MEANING)OF EXTENSION)

The term extension education was first used by Cambridge University

in 1873, with an objective to take educational advantages of the university to
ordinary people. The term extension was first coined in England in 1840,
James Stuart is considered to be the father of Extension. After being
influenced by this, the Land Grant Colleges in the United States of America
formally established the Agricultural Extension work by integrating different
activities of the colleges. From then it was spread to other parts of the world as
well as to India. The concept of extension was then applied in the field of home
science and popularly called as home economics in USA. Similarly, the concept
of extension was also applied to various fields depending upon the sector which
is being addressed. This has led to the development of disciplines like
agriculture extension, livestock extension, home science extension and
fisheries extension.

The word extension is derived from the Latin roots’ ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and
‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching’. Extension education is stretching out to the
people who are beyond the limits of educational institutions.
Most definitions refer to extension education as an out of school education.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976)refers to extension as “an
out of school education and services for the members of the farm family and
others directly or indirectly engaged in farm production, to enable them to adopt
improved practices in production, management, conservation and marketing.
Several authors defined extension in various ways emphasizing the importance
of one or the other aspect of extension”.
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Extension was defined by Maunder (1982) as the extending of a service or

system which extends the educational advantages of an institution to persons
unable to avail themselves (of them) in a normal manner.

Extension involves the conscious use of communication of information to help

people, form sound opinions and make good decisions (Van den Ban, 1996).

“Extension education is an applied science consisting of contents

derived from researcher, accumulate field experiences and relevant
principles drawn from the behavioral sciences, synthesized with useful
technology in a body of philosophy, principles, content and matters
focused on the problems of out of school education for adults and
youths.” (J P Laegans)

Extension is also defined as a professional communication intervention

deployed by an institution to induce change in voluntary behaviour with a
presumed public or collective activity (Roling, 1988). These definitions indicate
that

 Extension is for extending educational advantages

 Extension is for forming sound opinions to make good decisions

 Extension is for inducing changes in voluntary behavior.

The main objective of all extension work is to teach people living especially in
rural areas how to raise their standard of living, by their own efforts using their
own resources of man power and materials with the minimum assistance
from Government (Paul Lagans, 1960).

The broader function of extension work is to help people to solve their

own problems through the application of scientific knowledge is now
generally accepted. Extension is largely educational in nature and
approach. Hence, the words “extension” and “extension education” are used
interchangeably.
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Levels of Extension / Components of Extension

Extension is generally thought of at two levels,

1. Extension education
2. Extension service.
Extension at these two levels is interrelated, but at the same time maintains
their separate identity.

Extension Education-The extension education role is generally performed by

the higher learning institutions like the Agricultural and other Universities and
Colleges, ICAR Institutes, Home Science Colleges and apex level Training and
Extension Organizations.

At the university level, extension is integrated with teaching and research,

while at the research institutes, extension is integrated with research. At the
other apex level organizations, extension is generally integrated with training in
extension.

The extension education function of these institutions and organizations is to

educate, train and develop professionals for teaching and research in extension
and for the extension service, and also to develop methodology for research in
extension and field extension work. The field extension work of these
institutions and organizations is generally limited to the neighbouring villages
or blocks, which are considered as their extension laboratories.

Extension Service-It is mainly to provide educational service to the people

according to their need, for improving their life through better working. The
main responsibility of extension service is with the State Government. The
departments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Veterinary,
Forestry, Fishery, Sericulture etc. of the State Government carry out extension
work with the farmers and rural people over the entire State.
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The departments maintain close contact with the relevant Universities and
Research Institutes for obtaining appropriate technology and methodology for
extension work, and for providing them with feedback information from the
field for research.

The extension service provided by the departments of the State Government is

location-specific, input-intensive and, target and result oriented. The extension
service works in close coordination with other development departments, input
supply agencies, credit institutions, voluntary organizations and Panchayats.

The extension service has the main responsibility of educating and training the
farmers, farm women, and rural youth and village leaders of the State and for
this purpose they take the help of the universities, research institutes and,
training and extension organizations.

Two more trends in extension service are gaining ground in India. These are,
decentralization of extension through closer coordination with Panchayats
(Local Self- Government), and privatization of extension through increased
private sector participation.

SCOPE OF EXTENSION

Education Extension appears to have unlimited scope in situations where there

is need for creating awareness amongst the people and changing their
behaviour by informing and educating them. Kelsey and Hearne (1967)
identified nine areas of programme emphasis, which indicate the scope of
agricultural extension.

1. Efficiency in agricultural production.

2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization.

3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources.

4. Management on the farm and in the home.

5. Family living.
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6. Youth development.

7. Leadership development.

8. Community development and rural area development.

9. Public affairs Extension is an integral part of agricultural and rural
development programmes in India.
The progress in production which has been achieved in agriculture,
horticulture, animal husbandry, veterinary, fishery, social forestry, sericulture
etc., may be thought of as proportional to the strength of extension service of
the relevant government departments.

The following statements will further amplify the scope of extension.

1. Extension is fundamentally a system of out-of-school education for adults

and youths alike. It is a system where people are motivated through a proper
approach to help them-selves by applying science in their daily lives, in
farming, home making and community living.

2. Extension is education for all village people.

3. Extension is bringing about desirable changes in the knowledge, attitudes

and skills of people.

4. Extension is helping people to help themselves.

5. Extension is working with men and women, boys and girls, to answer their
felt needs and wants.

6. Extension is teaching through learning by doing and seeing is believing. 7.

Extension is working in harmony with the culture of the people.

8. Extension is a two-way channel; it brings scientific information to village

people and it also takes the problems of the village people to the scientific
institutes for solution.
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9. Extension is working together (in groups) to expand the welfare and

happiness of the people with their own families, their own villages, their own
country and the world.

10. Extension is development of individuals in their day-to-day living,

development of their leaders, their society and their world as a whole.

Research Extension worker Farmer

The need for extension arises out of the fact that the condition of the rural
people in general, and the farm people in particular, has got to be improved.
There is a gap between what is the actual situation and what ought to be the
desirable situation. This gap has to be narrowed down mainly by the
application of science and technology in their enterprises and bringing
appropriate changes in their behaviour.

According to Supe (1987), the researchers neither have the time nor are they
equipped for the job of persuading the villagers to adopt scientific methods and
to ascertain from them the rural problems. Similarly, it is difficult for all the
farmers to visit the research stations and obtain first hand information. Thus,
there is need for an agency to interpret the findings of the research to the
farmers and to carry the problems of the farmers to research of solution. This
gap is filled by the extension agency.

OBJECTIVES OF EXTENSION

1. The basic aim is to influence the attitudes, ways of thinking and doing
things. The objectives of extension education are the expressions of the
ends towards which our efforts are directed. In other words, an objective
means a direction of movement. Before starting any programme,
its objectives must be clearly stated, so that one knows where to go &
what is to be achieved.
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2. It can be said that the objective of extension education is to bring

desirable changes in the quality of life of target group which it serves by
helping them to change their attitude, knowledge, skill and resources
(both natural and manmade) like land, pasture, water, livestock,
equipment etc in a right way. The ultimate objective of livestock
extension education is development of livestock farmers by improving
their living standards. This could be done by

3. Bringing about a desirable change in the knowledge, attitude and skill

4. Assisting livestock farmers to realize their needs and problems.

5. Developing rural leadership, mobilizing people and their resources.

6. Providing knowledge about recent technologies and their application.

PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION

Principles are generally guidelines, which form the basis for decision and action
in a consistent way. The universal truths in extension, which have been
observed and found to hold good under varying conditions and circumstances
are presented.

1. Principle of cultural difference

a. Culture simply means social heritage.

b. There is cultural difference between groups of farmers also.

c. The differences may be in their habits, customs, values, attitudes and

way of life.

d. Extension work, to be successful, must be carried out in harmony with

the culture of the people.
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2. Grassroots principle

a. Extension programmes should start with local groups, local situations

and local problems.

b. It must fit to the local conditions.

c. Extension work should start with the people where they are and what
they have.

3. Principle of indigenous knowledge

a. People everywhere have indigenous knowledge systems which they have

developed through generations of work experience and problem solving in
their own specific situations.

b. The indigenous knowledge systems encompass all aspects of life and

people consider it essential for their survival.

c. Instead of ignoring the indigenous knowledge systems as outdated, the

extension agent should try to understand them and their ramifications in
the life of the people, before proceeding to recommend something new to
them.

4. Principles of interests and needs

a. People’s interests and people’s needs are the starting point of extension
work.

b. To identify the real needs and interest of the people are challenging
tasks.

c. The extension agents should not pass on their own need and interests as
those of the people.

d. Extension work shall be successful only when it is based on the interests

and needs of the people as they see them.
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5. Principle of learning by doing

a. Learning remains far from the perfect, unless the people get involved in
actually doing the work.

b. Learning by doing is most effective in changing people’s behaviour.

c. This develops confidence as it involves maximum number of sensory

organs.

d. People should learn what to do, why to do, how to do and with what
results.

6. Principle of participation

a. Most people of the village community should willingly cooperate and

participate in identifying the problem, planning of projects for solving the
problems and implementing the projects in getting the desired results.

b. It has been the experience of many countries that people become

dynamic if they take decisions concerning their own
affairs, exercise responsibility for, and are helped to carry out projects in
their own areas.

c. The participation of the people is of fundamental importance for the

success of an extension programme.

d. People must share in developing and implementing the programme and

feel that it is their own programme.

7. Family principle

a. Family is the primary unit of society.

b. The target for extension work should, therefore, be the family.

c. That is, developing the family as a whole, economically and socially.

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d. Not only the farmers, the farmwomen and farm youth are also to be
involved in extension programmes

8. Principle of leadership

a. Identifying different types of leaders and working through them is

essential in extension.

b. Local leaders are the custodians of local thought and action.

c. The involvement of local leaders and legitimization by them are essential

for the success of a programme.

d. Leadership traits are to be developed in the people so that they of their

own shall seek change from less desirable to a more desirable situation.

e. The leaders may be trained and developed to act as carriers of change in

the villages.

9. Principle of adaptability

a. Extension work and extension teaching methods must be flexible and

adapted to suit the local conditions.

b. This is necessary because the people, their situation, their resources and
constraints vary from place to place and time to time.

10. Principle of satisfaction

a. The end product of extension should produce satisfying results for the
people.

b. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate people to seek further

improvement.

11. Principle of evaluation

a. Evaluation prevents stagnation.

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b. There should be a continuous built-in method of finding out the extent to

which the results obtained are in agreement with the objectives fixed
earlier.

c. Evaluation should indicate the gap and steps to be taken for further
improvement.

PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom, body of general principles or laws of field

of knowledge. Essentially philosophy is a view of life and its various
components.

The practical implication is that, the philosophy of a particular discipline would

furnish the principles or guidelines with which to shape or mould the
programmes or activities relating to that discipline.

Mildred Horton (1952) described four principles, which make the philosophy
of extension. These are

 The individual is supreme in democracy,

 The home is the fundamental unit of civilization,

 The family is the first training group of the human race, and

 The foundation of any permanent civilization must rest on the

partnership of man and land.

According to Ensminger (1965) the philosophy of extension is as follows:

a. Extension is fundamentally a system of out of school education for

adults and young. It is a system where the people are motivated
through a proper approach to help themselves by applying science
in their daily lives in farming, home-making and community living.
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b. Extension is education for all the farmers, farm women, youth and
villagers as a whole.

c. Extension is bringing desirable changes in the knowledge, attitude

and skill.

d. Extension is helping people to help themselves by education and

not merely by service.

e. Extension is working with men and women, boys and girls to

answer their felt needs and wants

f. Extension is teaching people what to want (i.e. converting unfelt

needs into felt needs) as well as how to work out ways of satisfying
these wants, and inspiring them to achieve their desires.

g. Extension is teaching through “Learning by doing and seeing is

believing”.

h. Extension is to work in harmony with culture of the people.

i. Extension is a two-way channel; it brings scientific information to

village people and it also takes the problems of village people to the
scientific institutes for solution.

j. Extension is working together to expand the welfare and happiness

of the people with their own families, their own villages, their own
country and the world.

k. Extension is a living relationship between the extension workers

and the village people. Respect and trust for each other and
sharing of joys and sorrows results in friendship through which
village extension works continues.
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l. Extension is development of individuals in their day to day living,

development of their leaders, their society and their world as a
whole.

m. Extension is a continuous educational process in which both

learner and teacher contribute and receive.

According to Kelsey and Herne (1967) the basic philosophy of

extension education is to teach "how to think, not what to think".
Extension’s specific job is furnishing the inspiration, supplying specific advice
and technical help, and counseling to see that the people as individuals,
families, groups and communities work together as a unit in blue ‘printing’
their own problems, charting their own courses, and that they launch forth to
achieve their objectives. Sound extension philosophy is always looking ahead.

In the words of Bhatnagar and Desai (1987) extension is an educational,

cooperative, collaborative, democratic, persuasive and never-ending process
that generates harmony, leadership, effective communication, participation and
involvement of the people in organizing self-help activities and projects. It is a
system of ‘learning by doing’ and 'seeing is believing’ at an individual level and
'mutual learning’ at group level amongst professional and target beneficiaries,
result in a high degree of rapport and empathy.

Need for Extension.

The need is obvious especially for the rural economy, with its major
components of agriculture and animal husbandry, to keep pace with the brisk
changes in characteristics of modern times.

In other words, the rural people should know and adopt useful research
findings from time to time, and also transmit their problems to the research
workers for solution.
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The researchers neither have the time nor are they employed for the job of
persuading the villagers to adopt scientific methods and to ascertain from them
the rural problems.

On the other hand, it is impracticable for millions of farmers to visit research

stations and learn things by themselves. Thus, an agency is required to bridge
the gulf between the research workers and the people to play the dual role of
interpreting the results of research to the farmers as well as of conveying the
farmers’ problems to the to the research stations for solution. This agency is
termed as ‘Extension’, and the personnel manning this agency or organization
are called ‘Extension Workers’.

To equip the prospective extension workers for their job, it is necessary for
them to train adequately in the formal ‘teaching institutions’.

Need for studying extension

a. To be a successful extension worker he should not only know what to

teach, but also how to teach people.

b. In other words, it is not enough that he is equipped with technical

knowledge in subject matter fields; but also, he should have the ability to
successfully communicate his ideas to the people, taking the personal
social and situational factors into consideration.

c. The extension worker needs to understand not only his own programme

and objectives but also the nature of the people with whom he lives and
works.
d. He needs to understand the motives of people; why certain people take
the new ideas more rapidly than others, why certain people want to take
the leadership and why certain others hesitate.
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LEARNING & TEACHING IN EXTENSION

Extension is an educational process for bringing about the maximum number

of desirable changes among the people, which involves both learning &
teaching & needs some tools or methods commonly known as extension-
teaching methods. It is, therefore, necessary here to understand what is meant
by learning, teaching & extension methods.

'Learning' is the process by which an individual, through his own activity,

attains a change in his behaviour. It is an active process on the part of the
learner. The essential role of an extension worker is to create effective 'learning
situations'. An effective learning situation requires the following essential
elements:

1. An instructor (an extension worker, e.g. an extension officer or a village-

level worker).

2. Learners (the farmers, the farm women & the youth).

3. Subject-matter (the recommended improved practices, such as the seeds

of high-yielding varieties, fertilizers, balanced diet, etc.)

4. Teaching material, such as a flannel-board, a black-board, charts,

models, samples, slides, film strips, etc.

5. Physical facilities, such as sitting accommodation, good visibility, etc

The extension worker should skillfully manipulate the elements of the learning
situation & provide satisfactory learning experiences for the people. The farmer,
the farmer women or the farm youth are the focal points in the learning
situation. The main aim of an extension worker is to bring about a change in
this behaviour of the people with the help of a judicious combination & use of
different elements. All the teaching should be carried out according to the
needs & resources of the local community or group.
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'Teaching' is the process of arranging situations in which the things to be

learnt are brought to the notice of the learners, their interest is developed &
desire aroused, i.e. they are stimulated to action.

for example, if we want to teach the farmers the use & advantages of chemical
fertilizers, we do this by conducting demonstrations on their fields, showing
them how the fertilizers are applied, & compare the yield of the fertilized crop
with that of the crop to which no fertilizers have been applied. After seeing the
beneficial effect of fertilizers, the farmer is convinced & motivated to action &
starts using fertilizers regularly.

Extension Teaching

It is the process of arranging situations in which the important things learned

are called to the attention of the learners, their interest developed, desire
aroused, and action promoted.

Principles of Extension Teaching:

The principles which need to be followed for making the extension teaching
effective are discussed here:

Extension Teaching Requires Specific and Clearly Defined Objectives:

While deciding the objectives of teaching, following aspects are to be

considered:

a. People to be taught.

b. Behavioural changes to be developed in people.

c. Content or subject matter to bring the desired change in behaviour.

d. The life situation in which the action is going to take place.

1. Extension Teaching Requires a Suitable Learning Situation:

The learning situation consists of the following five inter-related elements:

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a. Instructor (Extension Worker)

b. Learners (Farmers, Women, Youth)

c. Subject Matter (i.e. Agriculture, Horticulture, Social Forestry)

d. Teaching Materials (Seeds, Plants, Audio-visual aids).

2. Extension Teaching Requires Effective Communication:

Extension teaching, to the effective, must take into consideration proper

functioning of the elements of communication process.

a. Communicator
b. Message
c. Channel
d. Treatment
e. Audience
Effective communication can motivate people to act.

3. Extension Teaching Requires Both Content and Method:

Content means the subject matter. Method means the delivery system. Content
should be relevant and method should be appropriate.

4. Extension Teaching must be looked upon as an Intentional Process:

It should be properly planned on the basis of existing situation and available

research findings. There is no scope for haphazard thinking and action.

5. Extension Teaching must Result in Effective Learning:

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The topic taught should be understood by the learners. As per the situation,
combinations and teaching methods should be done. It should lead to
maximum behavioural change among the farmers.

6. Extension Teaching Requires Careful Evaluation of Results:

The changes brought about in the behaviour of people need to be assessed.

Later, steps need to be taken to meet to the deficiencies identified in the
process.

Extension-teaching methods: The extension-teaching methods are the tools &

techniques used to create situations in which communication can take place
between the rural people & the extension workers. They are the methods of
extending new knowledge & skills to the rural people by drawing their attention
towards them, arousing their interest & helping them to have a successful
experience of the new practice.

A proper understanding of these methods & their selection for a particular type
of work are necessary.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS:

(A) ACCORDING TO USE: One way of classifying the extension methods is

according to their use & nature of contact. In other words, whether they are
used for contacting people individually, in groups or in masses. Based upon
the nature of contact, they are divided into individual, group & mass-contact
methods.

Individual-contact methods: Extension methods under this category provide

opportunities for face-to-face or person-to-person contact between the rural
people & the extension workers. These methods are very effective in teaching
new skills & creating goodwill between farmers & the extension workers.

Group-contact methods: Under this category, the rural people or farmers are
contacted in a group which usually consists of 20 to 25 persons. These groups
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are usually formed around a common interest. These methods also involve a
face-to-face contact with the people & provide an opportunity for the exchange
of ideas, for discussions on problems & technical recommendations & finally
for deciding the future course of action.

Mass or community-contact methods: An extension worker has to approach

a large number of people for disseminating a new information & helping them
to use it. This can be done through mass-contact methods conveniently. These
methods are more useful for making people aware of the new agricultural
technology quickly.

Classification of extension-teaching methods according to their use

Individual contacts Group contacts Mass contacts
Method demonstration
Farm & home visits Bulletins
& result demonstration
National demonstration
Office calls Leaflets
leader-training meetings
Conferences &
Telephone calls discussion meetings & Circular letters & radio
workshops
Television, exhibitions,
Personal letters Field trips
fairs, posters

Important extension-teaching methods under these 3 categories are listed in

the following chart.
(B)ACCORDING TO FORM: Extension-teaching methods are also classified
according to their forms, such as written, spoken & audio-visual. Some of the
important methods under each of these 3 categories are given in Chart 2.

Classification of extension-teaching methods according to their form

General & special
Bulletins Result demonstration
meetings
Leaflets, folders,
Farm & home visits Demonstration posters
News articles
Personal letters Official calls Motion-picture or
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movies,
charts
Slides & film-strips,
Circular letters Telephone calls, radio models,
exhibits

A brief description of some of the extension methods which are commonly used
by extension workers is given below.
Farm & home visits. Farm & home visits constitute the direct or face-to-face
contact by an extension worker with the farmer or the members of his family.
During these visits, information is exchanged or discussed. The visits may be
to get acquainted with the problems of the farmers, or to organizational
purposes. Such visits provide an opportunity for a two-way communication.

Result demonstration: Result demonstration is an educational test to prove

the advantages of recommended practices & to demonstrate their applicability
to the local condition. It is conducted by a farmer under the direct supervision
of an extension worker. It is designed to teach others, in addition to the person
who conducts the demonstration. It helps the farmers to learn by seeing &
doing. This method can be used to show the superiority of practices, such as
the use of fertilizers, insecticides & pesticides & high yielding varieties of seeds.

Method demonstration: It is used to show the technique of doing things or

carrying out new practices, e.g. preparing a nursery-bed, treating seed with
insecticides & fungicides, line-sowing, taking a soil sample, grafting fruit trees,
etc. This method is usually used for groups of people.

National demonstrations: National demonstrations are the "first-line

demonstrations," conducted by researchers on the farmers' fields to show how
production can be increased per unit of area & per unit of time. These
demonstrations usually include the system of multiple cropping & the use of
high-yielding varieties, along with the best package of practices. They were first
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initiated on a modest scale in 1965 & have now become a part of the
agricultural production programme in the country.

Group discussions: All the farmers cannot be contacted by extension workers

individually because of their large number. It is convenient & feasible to
contact them in groups. This method is commonly known as group discussion.
It is used to encourage & stimulate the people to learn more about the
problems that concern the community through discussion. It is a good method
of involving the local people in developing local leadership & in deciding on a
plan of action in a democratic way.

Exhibitions: An exhibition is a systematic display of information, actual

specimens, models, posters, photographs, and charts, etc in a logical sequence.
It is organized for arousing the interest of the visitors in the things displayed. It
is one of the best media for reaching a large number of people, especially
illiterate & semi-illiterate people. Exhibitions are used for a wide range of
topics, such as planning a model village, demonstrating improved irrigation
practices, soil conservation methods, showing high-yielding varieties of seeds &
plants, new agricultural implements & the best products of village industries.

General meetings: These are usually held for passing on certain information
to the people for future action. Extension workers give lectures to the people on
certain pre-selected items of work, such as the celebration of Van Mahotsav, a
national festival.

Campaigns: Campaigns are used to focus the attention of the people on a

particular problem, e.g. rat control, village sanitation & plant protection, the
production of rabi crops & family planning. Through this method, the
maximum number of farmers can be reached in the shortest possible time. It
builds up community confidence & involves the people emotionally in a
programme.
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Tours & field days: Conducted tours for farmers are used to convince them &
to provide them with an opportunity of seeing the results of new practices,
demonstration skills, new implements etc. & to give them an idea regarding the
suitability & application of these things in their own area. Such tours may also
be arranged to enable the rural people to visit places & institutions connected
with the problems of rural life, such as research institutions, training
institutions, agricultural universities, model villages, areas of advanced
developments, leading private farms, exhibitions, & agricultural & cattle fairs.

Printed matter (literature): Newspapers, magazines, bulletins, leaflets,

folders, pamphlets & wall news-sheets are another set of mass media for
communicating information to a large number of literate people. They are used
for communicating general & specific information on a programme of
technology or a practice. Small folders, leaflets & pamphlets are used to give
specific recommendations about a practice, such as the use of fertilizers,
vegetable cultivation, green-manuring & the growing of individual crops, e.g.
wheat, barley, gram & sugarcane.

Radio: It is a mass medium of communication & can reach a large number of

people at any given time involving the least expense. Extension workers use the
radio for communicating information on new methods & techniques, giving
timely information about the control of crop pests & diseases, weather, market
news, etc. For this purpose, talks, group discussions, folk-songs, dialogues &
dramas are usually organized. There are 38 stations of All-India Radio
broadcasting regular rural programmes.

Television: It is one of the most powerful media of communication. It has come

into vogue only in the recent years. It combines both audio & visual impact &
is very suitable for the dissemination of agricultural information. It is more
useful in teaching how to do a specific job. A beginning has been made in India
for using this medium for development programmes since 1967, & it is
expected that its use will become more extensive in the coming years.
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Motion-pictures (movies): Movies are an effective tool for arousing interest

among the people, because they involve seeing, hearing, & action. They are the
most suitable medium for drawing bigger audience. a film show can be followed
by a discussion with the villagers.

VISUAL AIDS

Visual aids are the tools of teaching through the sense of sight. They are
supporting materials & they alone cannot generate learning. They should be
considered only a tool that helps to do a job in a better way. Visual aids are of
different types. The following are the more commonly used ones in India:

i. Posters

ii. Flannel-graphs

iii. Flash cards

iv. Puppets

v. Slides & film-strips

vi. Models

vii. Bulletin boards

viii. Photographs

ix. Black-boards

x. Cultural programmes

Posters: A good poster creates awareness & interest among the people. It
inspires & takes people towards action. It consists of 3 main parts. The first
usually announces the purpose or the approach, the second sets out
conditions, & the third recommends action. A poster should be bold enough to
attract attention of the people, & should communicate only one idea at a time.
It should have simple letters which are clear & forceful. The size of a poster
should not be less than 50*75 cm.
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Flannel-graphs: Flannel-graphs serve as a good teaching aid. When a piece of

sand paper is fixed to the back of a picture, a photograph, a letter, etc. They
can be made to adhere easily to a piece of thick flannel cloth, fixed on a board.
They are used as an aid for group methods like informal talks or lectures.

Flash cards: Flash cards are a set of small compact cards approximately 30 to
45 cm. In size, & are used to bring home an idea, such as the benefits of a
smokeless chulha, the cultivation of hybrid maize, compost-making & other
practices. Pictures on the theme are drawn on these cards in a logical sequence
which is flashed before the audience. Upon seeing them, the villagers are able
to follow a story more easily.

Puppets: Puppets are very popular & especially suitable for village situations.
Puppet shows can be effectively organized to gather the rural people. For a
puppet show, a short story, brief scenes & quick dialogues are necessary. Such
shows can teach a lesson about health, literacy, agriculture, or home-making.

Slides: A slide is a transparent picture or photograph in an individual mount.

For viewing the image, the picture is projected through a slide-projector which
brings the enlarged image into focus on a screen. Slides are excellent aids of
illustrating talks & showing people concrete activities & aspects of
development. They can be effectively used to show different situations &
methods of carrying out an activity. They can be arranged in a series for giving
an illustrated talk on improved agricultural practices, cultivation of crops, etc.

Film-strips: They are a series of black-and-white or coloured pictures depicting

a single idea, & instead of being individually mounted are printed on a single
length of strip of 35-mm film. Such strips can be shown to an audience of
about a 100 people. The additional advantage in using the film-strips is that
the film can be stopped anytime during the show to explain or discuss a
difficult or interesting point.
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Models: Models create a sense of realization in a person. Models of new farm

equipments, compost pits & sanitation devices & animals are mostly prepared
for those people who are not in a position to see them in the actual form. They
are used to create interest, promote understanding & influence the people to
adopt a certain practice.

Bulletin-boards: A bulletin-board can serve the purpose of making

announcements, displaying events of short duration & photographs of local
activities. The information should be written in simple language.

Photographs: They are a very simple visual aid. Good photographs show some
action & catch the feelings & emotions of the people. They are so arranged that
they tell a story. They are displayed on a bulletin-board at a common meeting-
place where a large number of people can see them. They should be clear &
bold in composition with proper captions.

Black-boards: They provide writing & drawing surface for chalk. They are
usually used in schools, colleges & meeting places. They make possible the use
of sketches, drawings, words, symbols of a combination of them to emphasize a
point. Black-boards are most useful in group-teaching methods.

Cultural programmes: Local cultural programmes, such as folk-songs &

dramas, are used as an effective medium of communicating the message of
development programmes. Dramatization of a theme or story creates a lively
interest among the audience. Folk-songs & dances related to the subjects of
local interest & importance, when acted on the stage, bring them home more
forcefully.

For an effective use of extension-teaching methods, it is just not enough to

know these methods & their techniques, but what is more important is the
appropriate selection of a method or combination of methods for a particular
situation. In fact, when a farmer is exposed to a new idea several times by
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different methods or a combination of methods, he is likely to accept it more

quickly.

Farmers learn about new practices through several stages. These stages are
known as:

(1) The awareness stage- when a person comes to know about a new practice
but lacks the complete information;

(2) The interest stage- when he becomes interested in a new idea & wants to
know more about it;

(3) The evaluation stage- when he mentally applies the new idea to his
present situation & evaluates it;

(4) The trial stage- when he applies the new idea or practice on a small scale
in order to determine its utility under his own situation; and

(5) Adoption stage- when he decides to continue the full use of the practice.
Thus, it is the cumulative effect on people through exposure to an idea
repeatedly that result in action.

Steps in Extension Teaching

Extension teaching is a planned and deliberate act on the part of the extension
worker. The extension worker has to move step by step in a scientific and
logical way to impact training to the clients who are farmers, farm women and
rural youth. The role of the extension worker is that of a facilitator and
motivator. Though details of the procedure may vary from situation to
situation.

There are some steps which are basic to extension teaching. These are
presented following by Wilson and Gallup (1955).
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SATISFACTION

ACTION

CONVICTION

DESIRE

INTEREST

ATTENTION

Fig. Steps in Extension Teaching

1. Attention:

The first step in extension teaching is to make the people aware of the new
ideas and practices. The people must first know that a new idea, practice or
object exists. This is the starting point for change. Until the individual’s
attention have been focused on the change that is considered as desired, there
is no recognition of a problem to be solved or a want to be satisfied.

Mass methods like Radio, Television, Exhibition etc. and personal contact by
the Extension workers, contact through Local Leaders are important at this
stage.

2. Interest:

Once the people have come to know about the new idea, the next step is to
stimulate their interest. This may be done by furnishing them more
information about the topic in a way they will be able to understand and use. It
is necessary to present one idea at a time relevant to their needs. Personal
contact by the extension worker, contact through local leaders, farm
publications, radio, television etc. are important at this stage.

3. Desire:

It means un-freezing the existing behaviour and motivating the people for
change. At this stage, it is necessary to emphasize on the advantages of the
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new idea or practice. Visit to demonstrations, farm publications, personal

contact by the extension worker, group discussion etc. are important at this
stage.

4. Conviction:

It is a stage of strong persuasion so as to convince the people about the

applicability of the new idea or practice in their own situation and that it would
be beneficial for them. The people are furnished with adequate information
about the idea and how it works. Field day or Field Visit, Slide Show, personal
Contact by the Extension worker and Trainings are important at this stage.

5. Action:

This is the stage of the idea or practice into operation. Small scale
demonstration with supply of critical inputs may be set up in real life situation
of the individuals who come forward. This provides the opportunity of direct
experience on the part of the learners. At this stage it is necessary to collect
evidence of change such as change in yield, income, employment etc.

Demonstration, personal contact by the extension worker, supply of critical

inputs and ensuring essential services are important at this stage.

6. Satisfaction:

To produce lasting change, the extension efforts should produce satisfying

results. Satisfaction may come from high yield, more income, better health etc.
Satisfaction reinforces learning and develops confidence, which generates
motivation for further change. To sustain the changed behaviour, it is
necessary to furnish new and relevant information about the practice on the
continued basis till change in the practice itself is felt necessary.

Use of mass media, local leaders and personal contact by the extension
workers are important at this stage. Availability of critical inputs and essential
services are also to be ensured.
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The steps in Extension Teaching are to be synchronized with the innovation-

decision process of the learners. The teaching methods and aids mentioned
here are by way of example.

Edgar dale’s cone of experience

CONCEPT OF NEED AND ITS TYPES

All the problems cannot be solved at one time. Sound programme building
selects problems based on people’s needs, and the problems are those which
are most urgent, are of widest concern, and have a priority. Choice of problems
must be from an analysis of the facts i.e. regarding their felt and unfelt needs.
To be effective, extension work must begin with the interests of families. The
needs of most urgent concern and widespread interest should be given first
priority.

Brunner (1945) said that an extension programme must meet the felt needs of
the people.

Lagans (1961) recommended that the extension workers adopt the subject
matter and teaching procedure to the educational level of the people, their
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needs, interests and their resources. People’s needs are the basis for developing
meaningful programmes.

Concept of Need

Lagans: defined people’s needs as the differences between what is, what could
be, and what ought to be.

What is: indicates the present state of affairs, the existing situation. This
involves collection of facts about the people, their attitudes, knowledge, and
level of living, physical factors like soils, crops, livestock and levels of
production etc at the present time.

What Could Be: This is an ideal situation, which in many cases may remain
unattainable by the people.

What Ought To Be: It is the attainable situation i.e. the realistic goal which
the people select with or without outside help.

Need, therefore implies a gap between the existing situation, and the desirable
situation. The nature and extent of the gap indicates significance of the
problem.

According to Abraham Maslow, human needs are of five kinds

1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Social needs
4. Esteem needs and
5. Self-actualization needs.
Abraham Maslow, a famous social scientist and a psychologist, developed a
theory of motivation which is based on the hierarchy of needs.

The basic assumption underlying this theory is that the behaviour of the
individual is strongly driven by the urgency of the need i.e. the individual
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would try to satisfy his strongest need first and once it has been achieved it
would no longer motivate him hence he would move higher to meet his other
needs.

According to him there are five kinds of needs viz., physiological, safety, social,
esteem and self actualization as explained below in the diagram.

1. Physiological Needs:

Physiological needs (e.g. food, shelter, clothing, water, air, sleep etc.) refer to
those needs which are so essential. The survival of human beings would be in
danger if these needs are not satisfied. These needs are biological in nature and
keep the body fit. There is a famous saying that a man can live on bread alone
if there is no butter.

2. Safety Needs:

After the physiological needs are satisfied to a reasonable degree, the safety
needs take the place e.g., security of job, pension for old age, insurance plan,
compensation for lay off or retrenchment. In choosing a job, security needs
play an important role.

3. Social Needs:
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Social needs include need for love, affection, friendship, acceptance by group
etc. A man is a social being and he has a need ‘to love’ and ‘to be loved’.
Workers form informal groups for having a meaningful relationship with others.
Management should not object to such groups except when they are
detrimental to the organization.

4. Esteem Needs:

These needs are concerned with one’s self esteem such as self-respect, self
confidence, status, recognition, approval, appreciation etc. The satisfaction of
these needs produces a feeling of self-confidence among the employees. The
employees should be praised for good work done since it amounts to
recognition of their work.

5. Self-Actualization Needs:

These needs include need for self-development, self-actualization, self-

advancement, desire to take an increased responsibility etc. Not many
employees try to satisfy these needs but an employee who wants to develop,
will feel restlessness till he satisfies this need.

According to Maslow, this need might be phrased as the desire to become more
and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.

Maslow’s need hierarchy theory emphasizes three basic ingredients:

(i) A man is a social animal and he always desires for more and more. His
needs are of many types.

(ii) There is a hierarchy of these needs i.e., these needs are arranged in a series
of preference. After the lower level needs are satisfied, the needs of the higher
level take their place. A man whose stomach is full becomes conscious of the
other needs.
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(iii) A satisfied need can never work as a motivator. Only those needs which are
not satisfied act as a motivator for influencing the human behaviour.

"Felt needs" is a basic concept in community development. Felt needs are

changes deemed necessary by people to correct the deficiencies they perceive in
their community. The use of felt needs in community development practice
involves the process of identifying needs, ranking their importance, and
building programs based on the ranking. A frequent application of the concept
is the methodology of needs assessment as a technique to gather data used for
program definition and design.

Felt needs are products of a past-to-present orientation. Continuing to

function on the basis of felt needs will contribute to community development
becoming increasingly irrelevant and incapable of addressing today's major
social and economic issues. Felt needs should be replaced by the concept
anticipatory needs, which identifies what needs to be done in order to move
toward a specified future.

Anticipatory needs are products of a present-to-future orientation. The

distinction is critical to the practitioner because felt needs and anticipatory
needs are very different "needs" and, therefore, lead to different programming
activities and patterns of relationships with community groups.
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RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Rural Development in a democratic society is not only a matter only of plans

and statistics, targets and budgets, technology and methods, material aid and
professional staff, agencies and organizations to administer them, but also one
of, using these mechanisms skillfully as educational means for changing mind,
heart and actions of people to attain improvements economically, socially,
potentially and morally.
Man is endowed with internal desire for improvement. He only needs to be
shown, the paths clearly and convincingly and provided with necessary
resources and help in, and organized programme to promote rural development
through Community Development and Panchayath Raj movements. The
workers of the National Extension Service Organization constitute the
connection link between the people and the institutions created to promote
their economic, social and political development. Hence, upon the character,
quality training and skill of the workers largely rests the success the success of
the Programme.
Objectives of Rural Development
1. Changes in what people know: their knowledge of themselves of their society
and of their physical environment.
2. Changes in what people can do: their skills, mental and physical.
3. Changes in what people think and feel: their attitude towards themselves
towards their society and towards their physical environment.
4. Changes in what people actually do: their actions related to factors
determining their own welfare.
Different approaches to Rural Development.
1. Extension Approach
2. Training approach
3. Cooperative Self Help
4. Integrated Approach
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Extension Approach to Rural Development

The extension approach uses the extension teaching methods for educating the
people. It believes that the extension service can transform static economy
into a dynamic economy. While improving the quality of family and
community life, it emphasizes on the communication of information about
innovative technical practices. It is mostly followed in America and Asia today
and is referred to as the conventional or classical model of extension. This
model was prepared by the Professors of the Land Grant Colleges of America
who sought to make agricultural extension a separate scientific profession with
its basic concepts, theory, principles and methodologies. The disciples who
propagated this idea are the Americans and those who studied in the American
Universities. They helped to establish this model in developing countries.
Objectives:
1. The main objective is to persuade and help farmers in increasing
agricultural production by adopting improved agricultural practices.
2. It also aimed at improving the rural family life to be educated the women
and youth in the rural family life by educating the village people.
Training approach to Rural Development
The training approach is considered to be related to the extension approach.
But it has a different basic educational tradition and philosophy, closely
related to institutionalized schooling. It emphasizes more systematic and
deeper learning of specific basic skills and related knowledge. Training
programmers involve assembling learners in a training center for a sustained
period of instruction. These trained extension workers are rural people. It is
based on the assumption that outsiders or extension workers with superior
knowledge and wisdom can help in solving the problems of rural society and
lead them on the voyage of modernization.
The Training and Visit (T & V) system is a good example of training approach.
This approach is based on the assumption that there is a gap between average
productivity of various crops on the farmer’s fields and the potential. This gap
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can be minimized by intensive extension efforts. The Training and Visit System
is initiated by Daniel Benor. It is being used in most of the developing
countries with assistance from the World Bank to reduce the gap.
Objectives:
The basic spirit behind the T & V system is that, any land even though, it may
not have produced satisfactory crops in the past, can be made to yield an
optimum crop according to its capacity within the crop season. This can be
done, provided, the farmer can be advised what to do on his own field, step by
step according to the stage of crop growth. Thus, the farmers are persuaded to
adopt improved agricultural practices for increasing production.
Cooperative Self-Help Approach to Rural Development
The Co-operative self-help approach starts with the assumption that the
complex process of rural transformation must begin with changes in the rural
people themselves. This change may be in their attitudes, towards change in
their aspirations for improvement and in their perceptions of themselves. They
should realize their own inherent power, individually and collectively, to better
their conditions. The chief motive power for rural development must come from
the people so that outside help of various kinds can be provided in response to
the expressed needs of the people. There is heavy emphasis in this approach on
the building of local institutions for co-operative self-help and governance.
The example chosen for this approach is from Bangladesh. It is commonly
known as the Comilla Project, as this approach was first used by the Academy
of Rural Development at Comilla, in Bangladesh. The educational components
of the Comilla Project are of particular interest as they involved an extension
service in which much of the efforts moved from bottom to up instead of from
top to down.
Objectives:
In this project the village people chose one of their own members to serve as
their educational liaison with the outside services of knowledge relevant to
their needs. This procedure was developed by the local cooperative societies
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and the Academy of Rural Development. Under this protocol the villages agreed
to:
1. Organize themselves, choose a Chairman and form a Registered Society.
2. Hold weekly meetings with compulsory attendance of all members.
3. Select a man from the group and send him to the Academy once a week for
training so that he could be the organizer and teacher of the group.
4. Keep proper and complete records.
5. Use supervised production credit.
6. Adopt improved agricultural practices and skills.
7. Make regular savings.
8. Join the Central Cooperative Association and
9. Hold regular member education sessions.
Integrated Approach for Rural Development
The integrated development approach emphasizes the need of coordinating
different agencies under a single management system of essential
components (including education) required to get agricultural or rural
development moving. The management system may be highly authoritarian
credit may be designed to provide an important role for local people in
planning, decision making and implementation of the programmers. The main
emphasis is on rational development and coordination of all principal factors
required for agricultural and rural development. The community development
for agricultural India could not achieve the desired impact in increasing
agricultural productions. As a solution to this situation the Intensive
Agriculture District Programme (IADP) was launched in selected districts. The
IADP used the integrated development approach in tackling the problem of
rural development.
Objectives:
In this Programme there was more emphasis on the package approach.
(Therefore, IADP is also called as Package programme) The ten points
included in the programme were:
1. Adequate farm credit through strengthened cooperatives.
2. Adequate supplies of fertilizers pesticides, improved seeds, implements and
other essential production needs through strengthened service cooperatives.
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3. Price incentives to participating farmers through assured price agreements

for rice, wheat and millet.
4. Marketing arrangements and services to enable farmers to obtain a full
market price for their marketed surplus.
5. Intensive educational, technical and farm management assistance made
available in every village.
6. Participation of all interested farmers in farm planning for increased
production.
7. Village planning for increased production and village improvement
programme by strengthening village organizations and leaderships.
8. A public works programme using local labour and development works
contributing directly to increased production.
9. Analysis and evaluation of the programme from its inception and
10. Coordination of all essential resources for maximum speed and
effectiveness.
Rural Development Programme
Rural Development in a democratic society is not a matter only of plans and
statistics, targets and budgets, technology and methods, material and
professional staff organization and machinery to administer them, but, one of,
using these mechanisms skillfully as means for changing the mind, heart and
actions of the people in ways that in improvements educationally, socially,
economically and morally. Hence, the process is of working with people,
helping to become self-reliant, not dependent on others, and making people the
central actors in the drama, not the stage hands or spectators.
So the key to rural development in a free society is the human element, not
material aid. The central means is education of the people in ways of
improving their farms, home and community. This change must emerge from
the people’s own decisions to act, result from their own efforts, and utilize their
own resources to the maximum. To progress along these lines requires careful
mobilization of the resources for promoting advancement and sharp focusing of
them on changing the minds of people educationally.
Rural development programmes
Rural Employment
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Unemployment as well as underemployment kills the skills and its effect is

more perceptible in rural areas compared to urban localities. Providing
additional employment opportunities in rural areas invariably is an in built
component of all the rural development programmes. The Government of India
has taken up various employment generation schemes to alleviate poverty in
rural areas. These schemes include Rural manpower programme, Crash Scheme
for Rural Employment, Pilot Intensive Rural Employment programme, Food for
Work Programme, National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and Rural
Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). In April, 1989 the two
ongoing employment programmes RLEGP and NREP were merged into a single
rural employment programme and is named as Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
which was later restructured and streamlined and renamed as Jawahar Gram
Samridhi Yojana (JGSY). This Yojana was launched on 1 April, 1999 with a
twofold objective of creating village infrastructure including durable assets
and generation of supplementary employment for the unemployed poor in the
rural areas.
Funds are allocated to the states on the basis of incidence of poverty. Within
the states the allocation is done on the basis of SC/ST rural population. The
village panchayaths are empowered to choose the work on the basis of felt
needs of the people. However, preference is given to works, which create
economically productive assets. DRDA/ Zilla Parishads will release the funds to
village panchayaths for implementation of the projects at village level.
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)
This scheme came into operation on 2 nd October, 1993 and it is being
implemented in all the rural blocks of the country. The main objective of the
scheme is to provide assured employment of 100 days of unskilled manual
work to the rural poor who are in need of it. The scheme is open to all men and
women in the age group of 18 - 60 years in rural areas. The expenditure under
this scheme is shared by Centre and States in the proportion of 75 : 25
respectively. The central assistance is released directly to the DRDA or Zilla
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Parishad and the District Collector or the Deputy Commissioner is the

implementing authority of the scheme.

Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)

The Drought Prone Area Programme was started in 1973 with a view to
minimize the adverse effects of drought on production of crops and livestock
and productivity of land, water and human resources through integrated
development of the natural resources. The other objectives include
conservation and development of natural resources and ultimately to improve
the socio economic condition of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections
of the society.
The programme was implemented in 946 blocks of 149 districts in 13 states.
The funds of this programme were shared by the Centre and the concerned
State on 50: 50 bases.
Desert Development programme (DDP)
The DDP was started in the year 1977-78 in the hot deserts of Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Haryana, and the cold deserts of Jammu & Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh. It aims at capacity building and empowerment of village
community. Since, 1995-96, a new approach was adopted based on watershed
development and under this programme a large area of land was brought
under afforestation and pasture development.
The Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP)
The programme was started in the year 1989-90. This is being implemented
from 1st April 1995 onwards on watershed basis under Watershed
Development. The Scheme is being implemented through ICAR, State
Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Government and private institutions having
adequate infrastructure facilities. This project is being implemented in 25
states of India covering an area of 2.96 lakhs hectares by May, 2000.
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Technology Development, Extension and Training Scheme (TDET)

This scheme was launched in 1993-94 to develop suitable technologies for the
reclamation of wastelands for sustained production of food, fuel-wood, fodder
etc. It is being implemented by ICAR, State Agriculture Universities, DRDAs
and Government institutions having adequate institutional framework and
organizational back up.
Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology
(CAPART)
CAPART is a registered society and operating from September, 1986 with New
Delhi as its Headquarters. It aims at encouraging, promoting and assisting
voluntary action for enhancement of rural prosperity by providing financial
assistance to voluntary organizations. It is formed by merging two autonomous
bodies Peoples’ Action for Development of India (PADI) and Council for
Advancement of Rural Technology (CART). The schemes covered by CAPART for
rendering financial assistance include DWCRA, IRDP, organization of
beneficiaries of anti-poverty programme, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana and
Advancement of Rural Technology Schemes.
CAPART has recently established nine regional committees at Ahmedabad,
Bhubaneswar, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Patna, Chandigarh, Dharwad
and Lucknow which are empowered to consider, sanction and monitor projects
up to an outlay of Rs.10 lakhs.
Programmes included in IRDP
 Employment Guarantee Scheme
 Food for Work Programme (FWP)
 Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA)
 Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL)
 Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
 Desert Development Programme (DDP)
 Command Area Development Programme (CADP), etc.
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PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT

Development:
Development means development of men, the satisfaction of their basic needs:
food, shelter, clothing and access to safe drinking water, sanitation, public
transport, health and educational facilities (ILO, 1976).
Underdevelopment means denial of basic needs to the people while enhancing
the material returns to the dominant groups.
Development will necessarily involve the use of physical, financial and human
resources. The use of resources will depend on who controls the available
resources and how decisions are made affecting their use.
Human (Personal) Development
Development in any meaningful sense must begin with and within the
individuals. Unless motivation comes from within, efforts to promote change
will not be sustainable by the individual. The individual will remain under the
power of others.
It is a process by which an individual develops self-respect and becomes more
self-confident, self-reliant, cooperative and tolerant of others through becoming
aware of his/her shortcomings as well as his/her potential for positive change.
Economic development
It is a process by which people through their own individual and/or joint
efforts boost production for direct consumption and have a surplus to sell for
cash and earn some income.
Political development
If development is to truly benefit the people, then the political structure must
be responsive to their needs and aspirations as well as protect their rights and
their property. The people have to acquire political power in order
 To participate in decision making at local level and to choose their own
leaders.
 To Plan and share power democratically.
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 To create and allocate communal resources equitably and efficiently

among individual groups.
Social development
It refers to those investments and services carried out or provided by a
community for the mutual benefit of the people of that community whether as
a village, a district or a nation. These services include health, education, water,
energy, transport, communication. No social development is without cost.

Building development
The relationship between social, economic and political development can be
illustrated as two columns representing economic and political development
and a girder representing social development where the girder is dependent
upon the support of the two columns which in turn rest upon a foundation of
personal (human) development.
Development is a complex and slow-moving process involving people on the one
hand and the factors of production and organization on the other.
Sustainable development:
The most comprehensive definition of Sustainable development was contained
in the report of Brundtland commission (formerly known as World Commission
on Environment and Development: WCED, 1987) which states that
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. It contains within it two key concepts:
 The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's
poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and
 The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social
organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future
needs.
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Sustainable agriculture:
The phrase “sustainable agriculture” is open to many interpretations (Conway
and Barbier, 1990 )
For agriculturalists it embodies a desire to consolidate and build upon the
achievements of the green revolution. They equate sustainability with food
sufficiency, and sustainable agriculture can embrace any means toward that
end.
For environmentalists, though, the means are crucial, sustainable
agriculture represents a way of providing sufficient food and fibre that
complements and, indeed, enhances our natural resource endowment of
forests, soils and wildlife. For them, sustainability means a responsibility for
the environment – a stewardship of our natural resources.
For economists, sustainability is a facet of efficiency, not short-run efficiency
alone, but the use of scarce resources in such a fashion as to benefit both
present and future generations.
Finally, sociologists see sustainable agriculture as a reflection of social
values. They define it as a development path that is consonant with traditional
cultures and institutions.
They defined agriculture sustainability as the ability to maintain productivity,
whether of a field or farm or nation, in the face of stress or shock. A stress may
be increasing salinity, or erosion, or debt; each is a frequent, sometimes
continuous, relatively small, predictable force having a large cumulative effect.
Community and Community Development
Community:
A community is a group of people, who live in a common geographical area and
have an interest in each other for the purpose of making a better living.
Development:
It is a gradual growth with sequential phases of change. It is socio-economic
progress or overall growth in desirable changes in all sectors of rural life.
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Community Development:
It is a continuous social process for change and wherein the group of people of
a community organize themselves for planning and action, define their
common and individual needs and problems, make up plans to meet their
needs and solve the problems with execution of their, plans by utilizing
maximum local community resources and supplement these resources
whenever it is necessary.
Community Projects / Community Development Projects (CDP)
Community development programme started on October 2 nd, 1952, as a pilot
project to see people’s reaction and pitfalls. There were 55 projects. Each
covered about 300 villages with the population of about two lakhs and an area
of about 1, 50,000 acres.
Each project was divided into 3 development blocks consisting of 100 villages
with a population of 60,000 to 70,000. Each block was divided into groups of
5-10 villages with a Village Level worker (Gram sevak). To begin with, only
areas with assured rainfall and facilities for irrigation and soil capable of giving
quick returns were selected.
A project was to be completed within a period of 3 years. For facilitating the
implementation of the work, this period was divided into five stages of work.

S. No. Stage Period Activities

1. Conception stage 3 Months Selection of the area for projects,
its economic survey
and planning.
2. Initiation stage 6 Months Arrangements for temporary
houses for block personnel. Cost
of communication and collection
of required materials.
3. Operation stage 18 Months Approved activities were taken
up.
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4. Consolidation 6 Months Operation was wound up.

stage
5. Finalization 3 Months Final touches were given,
stage finalization of report and
submission to government.

This was experimental. The villagers were expected to continue after they
become well versed with the nature of activities. But the initial projects and
blocks suffered from several handicaps in the beginning, which retarded the
pace of progress.
The period of operation was extended by one year and these continued to
operate up to September 30, 1956.
Community development
Community development – as a Method
Community development is a method of helping local communities to become
more aware of their needs, to assess their resources more realistically, to
organize themselves and their resources in such a way as to satisfy some of
their needs through action projects. This is to develop themselves on their own
capacity and resources.
Community Development – as a Process
Community development is a process of change from the traditional way of
living of rural communities to progressive ways of living. It is a process in that,
it is a dynamic sequence which being set in motion, supplies its own motive
power so that the people are enabled through their own efforts to move steadily
towards the goal of self-improvement.
Community development – as a Programme
Community development is a programme for accomplishing certain activities
concerning the welfare of the rural people.
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Community development – as a Movement

Community development is a movement for progress with certain ideological
contents.
This process had been reduced (by Dr. Carl Taylor) to its simplest components
by way of the following four steps.
1. Systematic discussion of community felt needs by members of the
community.
2. Systematic planning to carry out the first self-help undertaking that
has been selected by the community.
3. Mobilization and harnessing of the physical, economic and social
potentialities of local community for carrying out a concrete project.
4. Creation of aspiration and determination to undertake additional
community improvement projects.

The two essential elements in community development are

1) Participation by the people themselves in efforts to improve their level of
living with as much reliance as possible on their own initiative and
2) The provision of technical and other services in way which encourage
initiative, self help and mutual help and make these more effective.
Objectives of community development
The fundamental or basic objective of community development in India is the
“development of people” or “destination man”.
Its broad objectives are
 Economic development.
 Social justice.
 Democratic growth.
The attempt is to secure good balance as far as possible among these
three objectives and to inter-relate them in a manner that they support one
another.
More specially, objectives of the community development programme are
To assist each village, in having effective panchayath, co-operative and schools.
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Through these village institutions, plan and carry out integrated multi-
phased family, village, block and district plans for the following purposes.
 Increasing agricultural production.
 Improving existing village crafts and industries and organizing new
ones.
 Providing minimum essential health services and improving health
practices.
 Providing required educational facilities for children and
adult education programme.
 Providing recreational facilities and programmes.
 Improving housing and family living conditions.
 Providing programmes for village women and youth.

Differences between Extension education and Community development

 The differences between community development and
extension education can be viewed under various statements
of objectives and form.
S. No. Extension Education Community Development
I Objectives
1 Emphasis on the individual. Emphasis is on community
and it has its main theme on
community needs.
2 Education aimed at individual Education aimed at groups of
development to obtain individuals to obtain economic
economic and social and social improvement.
improvement.
3 Has it’s main theme on Has it’s main theme on
individual needs. community needs.
II Forms
1 Extension is an educational Community development is
arm of government, usually usually a
through educational direct government approach to
institutions or straight line organization.
other government departments.
2 Emphasis is on organization Emphasis is on the
that either carries out coordination of service
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educational services directly or agencies by a working team

transmits knowledge from made up of representatives of
other resources to people. different services.
3 Essentially a branch of the Essentially a branch
department of agriculture. of government serving several
departments of the
government.

Similarities between Extension education and Community development

 Both are education and democratic processes.
 Tackles the problem at the people level.
 Aim at improving social and economic status.
 Helps people to help themselves.
 Aimed at bringing about change.
National Extension Services (NES) and Community development blocks
 The experience of these pilot projects indicated that people were ready,
even keen for the programme. So, there was a need for rapid extension of
the programme of same magnitude (as in 55 projects).
 The government therefore decided to launch another programme
alongside Community Development programme, of less intensive nature
called National extension Services (NES) formulated in April, 1953 and
was inaugurated on October 2nd, 1953. (One year after CDP).
 This was a major development in the sphere of rural reconstruction in
India. Since the basic idea underlying both CD and NES was same, two
were integrated under one agency at the centre and states. The idea
behind both was to cover the entire country within a period of 10 years.
CDP V/s NES
 Interrelationship between Community Development Programme (CDP)
and National Extension Services (NES):
Community Development National Extension Services
Programme
It was a pilot project. There were 55 It is a permanent organization and
projects, only resourceful areas covers the whole country.
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were selected
Financial provision was adequate It has provided basic organization
and abundant. (official and non-official and
minimum financial provision for
development.
There was no selection of NES block with successful results
community blocks for intensive and maximum co-operation from
development. people are selected periodically for
intensive development for 3 years.

 Both NES and CDP have identical aims and operation units called a
development block, representing 100 villages with a population of 60,000
to 70,000. But out of NES blocks selection was made periodically for
intensive development.
 The blocks showing good progress and with abundant people’s
participation were selected. The number of blocks depends on the
available financial resources and local support and enthusiasm.
 Community development blocks after completing scheduled period of
operation are called Post-intensive blocks. Intensive phase of programme
financed by specific provisions in the blocks budget ceases at this stage.
It is the stage called as real people’s programme.
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PANCHAYATH RAJ SYSTEM

Panchayath Raj (Democratic Decentralization)
The word democracy is derived from the Greek roots - cracy meaning 'rule’
of' and demo meaning 'the people'. It is governance of the people, by the
people and for the people. The emphasis is on the people distinct from officers.
Rule by majority is, no doubt, an important feature of this system of
governance, but more important ingredient is rule by consultation, i.e
consultation between the people’s representatives on one hand and with
officers on the other. It is pooling the intelligence and the experience of all
concerned with the administration.
Decentralization means devolution of central authority among local units close
to the area served. Where authority devolves by this process on people’s
institution, it is called democratic decentralization.
Need for democratic decentralization
Our administration was described as democracy at the top and dictatorship at
the bottom because the people were not associated with the administration on
the lower tiers from the district downwards. Hence the study team on
Community Development headed by Balwant Roy Mehta (B.R. Mehta)
recommended democratic decentralization.
Implementation
The study team’s recommendations were approved by National Development
Council and communicated to the states for implementation in 1958. Madras
State started as an experiment in a pilot block as early as 1957. Andhra
Pradesh State started in July 1958, twenty pilot blocks more or less on the
same lines of the recommendations of the study team. Inspired by this, the
state of Rajasthan became the pioneer in bringing the whole of Rajasthan
under democratic decentralization on October 2, 1959. which was
inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru at a national rally at Nagaur.
On November 1, 1959, Andhra Pradesh State introduced this scheme of
democratic decentralization in the entire state, followed by Assam, Tamil Nadu
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and Karnataka in 1960, Maharashtra in 1962 and Gujarat and Wet Bengal in
1963 and 1964 respectively
The term democratic decentralization was not easily understood by the people
and was given an Indian name, Panchayath Raj. It means a system
of government. Horizontally, a network of village panchayath and vertically, it
is an organic growth of the panchayath rising up to the national level.
The functioning of these local governments was reviewed by Ashok Mehta
committee of 1978 and later by Dr. L. M. Singhvi committee of 1986. The new
Panchayath Raj system with some amendments was passed on Lok Sabha on
22nd December 1992 (73rd amendment).
Election to Panchayath Raj Institutions (PRIs)
Elections to the Panchayats are to be conducted regularly under the
supervision of the Panchayath Raj and Election Commission of the State.
The elections of the members of the Panchayats at village, intermediate and
district levels have to be compulsorily elected by direct election. However, the
election of President of Village Panchayath has to be elected indirectly by and
from amongst the elected members.
Reservation of seats
Reservation for the candidates belonging to the weaker sections, namely the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes at all levels in proportion to their
population and in proportion to the area has been provided in order to ensure
participation of these groups in the decision-making process.
One third of the total number of seats has been reserved for women (including
the number of seats reserved for women belonging to SCs and STs.)
Not less than one-third of the total number of Chairpersons in Panchayats at
each level has been reserved for women. Likewise, reservation for the offices of
Chairpersons belonging to the SC and ST categories has also been made.
Reservation of seats:
Scheduled caste – 15%
Scheduled tribe- 3%
Other backward classes- 33%
Ladies – 1/3rd
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Tenure
A term of five years has been provided for every Panchayath unless it is
dissolved earlier on specific grounds.
Resources
The Panchayats have been authorized to levy, collect and appropriate suitable
local taxes.
A state can also provide grant-in-aid to Panchayats from its consolidated fund.
A State Finance Commission is appointed to review and assess financial
position of the Panchayats and recommend to the states the pattern of
distribution of funds between the state and PRIs.
The Panchayath Raj functions in each state under three tier system with the
 Village Panchayath at the grass root level,
 Panchayath Union at intermediate level and
 District Panchayath at district level.
VILLAGE PANCHAYAT
The first formal democratic institution as enjoined on us under the directive
principles in the Indian Constitution is the Gram Panchayath. It is the
primary unit of local self-government. A village with more than 5000
population but below 7000 is treated as one Village panchayath.
In Belgaum, Chickkamangaluru, Dakshina Kannada, Dharwad, Udupi,
Hassan, Coorg, Shivamogga and Uttara Kannada a village or cluster of villages
with not less than 2500 population can be declared a village Panchayath or
10kms diameter (5kms radius) area can also be declared a village Panchayath.
The members (5-15) of the Gram Panchayaths, one for every 400 people
having a tenure of 5 years and are directly elected from wards while the
Sarpanch is elected by the members. Minimum of three meetings in every
year and there should not be a gap of 6 months between two meetings. One
third of total members of the Panchayath should be present in every meeting.
President or Vice President will preside over the meeting.
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These are basically civic bodies but function also as agents of Taluka
Panchayath and Zilla Parishad in all developmental and social welfare
activities.
Administration – Panchayath Development officer-PDO (Panchayath secretary)
is appointed by the government and he is executive authority of the village
Panchayath
Functions : General Functions
1 Those that may be called ‘representative’ functions where the main role
is to voice and represent the community’s opinion on matters affecting it.
2 Those that may be called ‘regulatory and administrative functions’
which consists of regulating the conduct of individuals and institutions
and also collecting taxes; Revenue through house tax, duty on property
dealings, watching the work done in the village school, registering births
and deaths, collection of statistics, enforcing measures of safety and
sanitation etc.
3 What may be called ‘service or developmental’ functions, such as
promotion of education, health, agriculture, communications, irrigation
etc.
Specific functions
1. Planting and preservation of trees.
2. Lighting of public roads and places other than built up area.
3. Opening and maintenance of public markets
4. Control of fairs and festivals.
5. Opening and maintenance of cart stands and halting places, public cattle
sheds.
6. Opening and maintenance of public slaughter house.
7. Opening and maintenance of reading home.
8. Establishment and maintenance of Community TV sets, playgrounds,
parks and sports clubs.
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9. Opening and maintenance of literacy centers for imparting

social education.
10. Construction of works of public utility, provision of facilities for safety,
health, comfort, conveyance, culture or recreation of the inhabitants of
the village.
Taxation and finance
Shares of local cess, house tax, vehicle tax, stamp duty surcharge, house tax
matching grant, tolls, fee for markets, income from endowment, share of
entertainment tax, ferries, fines and penalties.
Economic development and social justice
Each village Panchayath will prepare a plan for economic development and
social justice including implementation of programmes and schemes of
the government.
Standing committees of GP:
1. Production committee
This committee shall perform functions related to agriculture production,
animal husbandry and rural industries and poverty alleviation
programmes
2. Social Justice committee
This committee shall perform functions related to
Promotion of educational economic, social, cultural and other interests of
the SC, ST and OBCs
Protection of such castes and classes from social injustice and any other
form of exploitation.
Welfare of women and children
3. Amenities committee
This committee shall perform functions in respect of education, public
health, public works and other functions of the Grama panchayath.
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PANCHAYATH UNION (PANCHAYATH SAMITI)

It is known as Taluka Panchayath in Karnataka, Panchayath Union Council in
TN, Panchayath Samithi in AP, Taluka Panchayath in Gujarat, Anchalik
Panchayath in Assam, Kshetra Samithi in UP.
Composition:
One elected member for every 10,000 population of the Taluka (11 members
for Taluk with less than 1 lakh population). Members of Lok Sabha, Raja
Sabha, MLAs and MLCs of the Taluka. One fifth of the Presidents of the Village
Panchayath who will be changed every year. All these members have the right
to vote. As per the rule’s reservation will be followed. The president and Vice
Presidents of the Samithi are elected from among the elected members.
Executive Officer appointed by the Government is the chief administrative of
the Taluka Panchayath and functions as the leader of the team of Taluka level
officials.
Every Taluka Panchayath normally has three Standing Committees. Each
Standing Committee consists of six elected members including Taluka
President who is the Chairman of all Standing Committees. Each Standing
Committee has independent powers of sanction within specified limits and
arranges for executing the works and schemes within its jurisdiction.
Standing committees of Taluka Panchayath: 3 Standing committees

1. Finance, Audit and Planning Committee:

i. Concerned to the finance of Taluka panchayath,
ii. Framing of budgets,
iii. Scrutinizing proposals for increase of revenue,
iv. Examination of receipts & expenditure statement,
v. Consideration of all proposals attracting the finance of the taluka
panchayath
vi. General supervision of Revenues and expenditure of TP and cooperation,
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vii. Small saving scheme and any other functions relating to development
plan of the Taluka.
2. Social justice Committee:
i. Promotion of education, economic, cultural, and other interest of the SC
and ST and Backward classes.
ii. Protecting them from social injustice and all other forms of exploitation.
iii. Amelioration of SC, ST and other Backward classes.
iv. Securing social justice to the SC and ST , women and other weaker
sections of the society.
3. General standing Committee:

Concerned with establishment matters, communications, building rural

housing, village extensions, relief against natural calamities, water supply and
all miscellaneous residuary matters.
Functions:
1. Construction, repair and maintenance of public roads.
2. Maintenance of dispensaries.
3. Maintenance of maternity and child welfare centers.
4. Construction and maintenance of house for the poor, orphanages, shops
and stalls.
5. Construction and maintenance of elementary schools.
6. Preventive and remedial measures of epidemics or malaria.
7. Control of notified fairs and festivals.
8. Veterinary relief.
9. Regulation of buildings.
10. Opening and maintenance of public market.
11. Maintenance of statistics of birth and deaths.
12. Maintenance of choultries.
13. Promotion of agriculture.
14. Promotion of cottage industries.
15. Other duties as mentioned by the government.
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16. The government may entrust all measures relating to agriculture,

animal husbandry, village industries and schemes for economic
development. Also review of schemes, programmes and other activities
executed by the government or any statutory body or any agency within
the Panchayath Union should be taken up.
Taxation and finance
Share of local cess, local cess surcharge, house tax, matching grant, rental of
common property resources, local educational grant, local road grant, fee on
licenses, fees levied by public market, fees for temporary occupation, fees for
use of choultries (chatrams), receipts from dispensaries and income from
endowments, entry / parking fee for vehicles.
Proportionate share from tax, income from ferries, interest on investments,
fines and penalties.
Economic development and social justice
Each Panchayath Union will prepare plan for economic development and social
justice of the union including implementation of programmes and schemes of
the government.
ZILLA PANCHAYATH SAMITHI (ZILLA PARISHAD)
It is the third tier of Panchayath Raj operating at the district level. Constituted
for every Revenue district excluding townships, municipal corporations and
industrial townships.
Composition:
Elected members of the district panchayath determined on the basis of the
population of the district at the rate of one person for every 40000 population
(Uttara kannada and Chickkamagalur – one person for every 30,000 population
Coorg- one person for every 18,000 population,)
Members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, MLAs and MLCs of the district
One fifth of the Taluka Panchayath chairpersons will change every year. The
members of the Parishad elect a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman. The district
heads of development departments take part in the proceedings of the Parishad
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and its Standing Committees. There will be a Chief executive officer of IAS
cadre appointed by the Government, who attends all meetings of the Parishad
and its Standing Committees. The District Collector is the Chairman of all the
Standing Committees.
Functions
Zilla Parishad should function as advisory and supervisory body over the
Taluka Panchayath with powers to;
(a) approve their budgets,
(b) co-ordinate their plans
(c) distribute funds given by the Government among the Talukas
Prepare Plans and Execution of plans
Advising the Government on developmental activities of the district
Establishing and maintenance of secondary, vocational and industrial schools
Maintenance of major communications
Classifying the roads, markets, development of roads, classification of fairs and
festivals.
Taxation and finance
All grants, all rents from lands or other property, interest on securities and
penalties.
Economic development and social justice
Each district panchayath will prepare plan for economic development and
social justice of the district including implementation of programmes and
schemes of the government.
Standing Committee: There are five standing committees.

1. General standing committee

2. Finance, Audit & Planning committee
3. Social justice committee
4. Education & Health committee
5. Agriculture & Industries committee.
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Each committee consists of not more than five members including the
chairman. The chairman of the Zilla Parishad is the Ex-officio member of the
committees. Members of the standing committee elect a chairman of their own
for each committee. No person is allowed to occupy membership of more than 2
committees. The CEO appoints one of his officers as ex-officio secretary for
each standing committee. The CEO is entitled to attend the meetings of the
standing committees.
Funding
Fund sanctioned to the district by state
All grants, loans etc made by the Government
All rents from lands and other properties of the Zilla Parishad
All interests profits accumulating by depositing government grants
All fees and penalties levied by ZP
District planning committee: Composition
 MP, MLAs, Chairman of the district panchayath
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DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW ELECTIONS ARE HELD IN

PANCHAYATH INSTITUTION (PRIs)

VOTER

Representative
WARD MEMBER
members elected from
Presidents

VICE PRESIDENT

PRESIDENT
Representative
members elected from
WARD MEMBER PU Chairmen
VILLAGE
PANCHAYATH
(GRAM SABHA) VICE CHAIRMAN

CHAIRMAN

TALUKA PANCHAYATH
UNION (PANCHAYATH

WARD MEMBER
Ex–Officio members

MLAs and MPs

VICE CHAIRMAN

Direct election CHAIRMAN

Indirect election
DISTRICT
PANCHAYATH
(ZILLA PARISHAD)