ETHICS REVIEWER 1ST SEMESTER f.

Moral standards are associated with

special emotions and vocabulary.
➢​ ETHICS VS. MORALITY

ETHICS is the branch of philosophy that 3. DILEMMA AND MORAL

studies morality or the rightness or DILEMMA
wrongness of human conduct.
DILEMMA refers to a situation in which
MORALITY speaks of a code or system a tough choice has to be made between
of behavior in regards to standards of two or more options, especially more or
right or wrong behavior. less equally undesirable ones.

MORAL DILEMMA are situations in

[Link] IMPORTANCE OF which a difficult choice has to be made
RULES TO SOCIAL BEINGS between two courses of action, either of
which entails transgressing a moral
a. Rules protect social beings by principle.
regulating behavior.
b. Rules help to guarantee each person
certain rights and freedom. 4. THREE LEVELS OF MORAL
c. Rules produce a sense of justice DILEMMAS
among social beings.
d. Rules are essential for a healthy a. Personal Dilemmas are those
economic system. experienced and resolve on personal
level.
b. Organizational Dilemmas refer to
2. MORAL VS. NON-MORAL ethical cases encountered and resolved
STANDARDS by social organizations.
c. Structural Dilemmas refer to cases
MORAL STANDARDS involve the rules involving networks of institutions and
people have about the kinds of actions operative theoretical paradigms.
they believe are morally right and
wrong, as well as the values they place
on the kinds of objects they believe are 5. ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN
morally good and morally bad. BE ETHICAL

NON-MORAL STANDARDS - refer to Human beings possess some traits that

rules that are unrelated to moral or make it possible for them to be moral:
ethical considerations
a. Only human beings are rational,
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL autonomous, and self-conscious.
STANDARDS b. Only human beings can act morally or
immorally.
a. Moral standards involve serious c. Only human beings are part of the
wrongs or significant benefits. moral community.
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred
to other values.
c. Moral standards are not established 6. FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION
by authority figures. OF MORALITY
d. Moral standards have the trait of
universalizability. Morality is choosing ethical codes,
e. Moral standards are based on values, or standards to guide us in our
impartial considerations. daily lives. Philosophically, choosing is
impossible without freedom.
 3. Deep down, we can find basic moral
7. MINIMUM REQUIREMENT truths.
FOR MORALITY: REASON AND ●​ People of different cultures can
IMPARTIALITY still agree on certain moral
principles.
Reason as requirement for morality ●​ Soft universalism.
entails that human feelings may be
important in ethical decisions, but they 4. There is one universal moral truth.
ought to be guided by reason. ●​ One moral code that everybody
must follow for this moral code is
Impartiality involves the idea that each universal and objective.
individual's interest and point of view are ●​ Moral absolutism.
equally important.

➢​ THE CONCEPT OF MORAL

➢​ ETHICAL RELATIVISM RESPONSIBILITY

A philosophy or thinking that holds the ●​ Assumption: man is a rational

differences of moral beliefs and being and free being
practices from the point of view of ●​ provide the bases for giving
culture. praise, blame, reward and
punishment for his actions.
●​ What I know good others would ●​ provide the reasons why he is
know it wrong or indifferent. held responsible for his actions.
●​ What I know wrong others would
know it indifferent or good.
➢​ MORAL RESPONSIBILITY
➢​ SITUATIONAL ETHICS
➢​ ●​ Refers to holding to people
Moral Subjectivism morally accountable for some
●​ It emphasizes moral differences past actions.
based on personal beliefs and ●​ Means care, welfare or treatment
convictions of others as derived from specific
social role that one plays in the
society.
➢​ APPROCHES TO MORAL ●​ Refers to one's capacity for
DIFFERENCES making moral or rational
decisions on his own.
1. There is NO moral truth.
●​ no ultimate right and wrong.
Moral nihilism. ➢​ HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF
●​ Related to moral skepticism. We MAN
cannot know whether or not there
are moral truths. ●​ To investigate the nature or
●​ Result: subjective morality quality of human conducts, it is
important to clearly understand
2. There is NO UNIVERSAL moral truth. the difference between acts of
●​ Each culture has its own set of man and human = acts.
rules.
●​ Moral truths are relative and
dependent on culture.
 ➢​ ACTS OF MAN and consent is partial. Imperfect
voluntariness him
●​ Actions that are naturally ●​ Actions that are intended for its
exhibited by man. own sake, either as a means or
●​ These actions are performed as an end. DIRECT
involuntarily. VOLUNTARY e.g. murder,
●​ Metabolism, perspiration, stealing
circulation, blinking of the eye, ●​ Actions that are not intended for
beating of the heart. its own sake but which merely
●​ actions are within the control of follows as a regrettable
man but only for some period of consequence of an action
time. INDIRECT VOLUNTARY e.g. the
●​ Sleeping, eating, walking. killing of innocent people from
bombing.
➢​ HUMAN ACTS
PRINCIPLE
●​ Actions that proceed from ●​ A person is accountable for his
deliberate free will of man. actions directly intended.
●​ Done with knowledge, consent ●​ Ex. He knows that camcording is
and free will. wrong. Yet, he does it everytime
he goes to see new movie.
➢​ HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF
MAN PRINCIPLE
●​ Understanding the ●​ A person is accountable for
difference between acts of indirectly intended acts when:
man (involuntary actions ●​ He is able to foresee the evil
like breathing, sleeping) result or consequence in a
and human acts (actions general way.
done with knowledge, ●​ He is free to refrain from doing
consent, and free will). the [Link] has the moral
obligation not to do it.

PRINCIPLE: Action with Double

➢​ QUALITIES OF HUMAN ACTS Effect:
●​ A person is held responsible for
●​ MORAL- actions in conformity any evil effect which flows from
with the universal absolute the action directly willed though
standards of morality. the evil effect is not directly
●​ IMMORAL- actions in intended.
contradicting universal standards
of morality. PRINCIPLE: Action with Double
●​ AMORAL- actions that are Effect:
neither good nor evil. Question:
Is it permissible when an action has
double effect, one is good and the other
is evil?
VOLUNTARINESS OF HUMAN ACTS Answer:
●​ An act is voluntary when it is YES, only under four conditions.
done under the control of the will.
●​ Actions performed with full PRINCIPLE: Action with Double
knowledge and with full consent. Effect:
Perfect voluntariness 1. The action must be morally good in
●​ No perfect knowledge or consent itself or at least morally indifferent.
or when both of the knowledge
2. The good effect of the act must not ●​ CIRCUMSTANCE
come from the evil effect.
3. The purpose of the doer is the -How. The manner or mode by which
attainment of the good effect. the act is performed
4. The good effect must outweigh in -When. The circumstance of the time
importance the evil effect. -Why. The intention of the act.

PRINCIPLE: Action with Double

Effect: ➢​ THE PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN
1. The action must be morally good in THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE
itself or at least morally indifferent. ACTION
2. The good effect of the act must not
come from the evil effect. ●​ The indifferent act can become
3. The purpose of the doer is the good or evil through
attainment of the good effect. circumstances.
4. The good effect must outweigh in ●​ A good act can become evil
importance the evil effect. through circumstances.
●​ An intrinsically good act can
become better or an intrinsically
➢​ DETERMINANTS OF evil act can become worse
MORALITY through circumstances.
The determinants of morality serve as ●​ An evil act can never become
the measure of the goodness and the good through circumstance.
evilness of the human act.

END THE MODIFIERS

INTENTION
CIRCUMSTANCE ●​ factors that may influence the
intellect and will so that actions
●​ END are not perfectly voluntary.
The natural purpose of the act or that in ●​ They may reduce or increase
which that act in its very nature accountability.
terminates.
Ex. Studying - Learning Reading - The greater the knowledge and freedom
Acquiring new knowledge is the greater voluntariness therefore the
greater accountability.
●​ INTENTION
The intention of the agent in doing the ●​ IGNORANCE
act. ●​ PASSION
"makatulong sa kapwa" ●​ FEAR
"makapasa sa exam” ●​ VIOLENCE
●​ HABITS
●​ CIRCUMSTANCE
conditions that surround the act ➢​ THE MODIFIERS: IGNORANCE

-Who. The person to whom the act is • the absence of knowledge which a
ascribed. person ought to have.
-What. The quality or the quantity of the • Ex. The manager ought to know his
object of the act. business operations.
-Where. The place where the act is
performed • VINCIBLE, INVINCIBLE, AFFECTED
Principles:
• Invincible ignorance renders an act
involuntary.
• Vincible ignorance does not destroy Principle:
voluntariness but lessens it and the • External acts performed by a person
corresponding accountability subjected to violence are involuntary
• Affected ignorance increases and not accountable.
accountability of an act.
• Internal acts those done by the will
➢​ THE MODIFIERS: PASSIONS alone are not subject to violence are
voluntary.
• Psychic responses.
• They are tendencies towards desirable ➢​ THE MODIFIERS: HABIT
objects or tendencies away from
undesirable objects. • The readiness for acting in a certain
• Love, desire, delight, hope, bravery, manner and acquired through repetition
hatred, horror, sadness, despair, = and of an act.
anger.
• In themselves passions are not evil. Principles:
• Actions done by force of habit are
• Antecedent, Consequent voluntary unless a reasonable effort is
Principles: made to counteract the inclination.
•Antecedent passions do not always
destroy voluntariness but they diminish
accountability over an act. 1. CULTURE: SOME
• Consequent passions do not lessen DEFINITIONS
voluntariness and may even increase it.
The following are definitions of culture:
➢​ THE MODIFIERS: FEAR
a. Culture refers to cumulative deposit of
• disturbance of the mind of a person knowledge experience, beliefs, values,
who is confronted by a danger attitudes, meanings, hierarchie religions,
• Acting with fear, Acting out of fear notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
etc. acquired by a group of people in the
Principles: course of generations through individual
• Acts done with fear are voluntary and and group striving.
are accountable.
• Acts done out of fear is invalid acts. b. Culture consists of patterns, explicit
• disturbance of the mind of a person and implicit, of and or behavior acquired
who is confronted by a danger and transmitted by symbols.
• Acting with fear, Acting out of fear
2. CULTURE'S ROLE IN MORAL
Principles: BEHAVIOR
• Acts done with fear are voluntary and
are accountable. People learn moral aspects of right or
• Acts done out of fear is invalid acts. wrong from transmitters of culture:
respective parent, teachers, novels,
➢​ THE MODIFIERS: VIOLENCE films, and television. Observing or
watching them, people develop a set
• Any physical force exerted on a person idea of what is right and wrong, and
by a free agent for the purpose of what is acceptable and not.
compelling said person to act against
his will.
• Insults, torture, isolation, starvation
and mutilation are examples of violence.
 3. MORAL STANDARDS AS 6. ASIAN MORAL
SOCIAL CONVENTION AND UNDERSTANDING
THE SOCIAL CONDITIONING
THEORY Eastern Ethics
1. Focus - Protocol and Respect
Social Convention Refers to the usual 2. Basis - Religious Teachings
or customary ways through which things 3. Emphasis - Respect Towards Family
are done within a group. 4. Roots in Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Taoism
Social Conditioning It can be observed 5. Approach - Holistic and Cultural
that when one says that a particular [Link] and Harmony - Good and
action 'ought' or 'ought not to be done, Bad, Light and Dark all exist in
he/she is not simply echoing social equilibirum.
approval or disapproval.
7. FILIPINO MORAL
4. CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN CHARACTER: STRENGHT AND
ETHICS WEAKNESSES

Cultural Relativism, the most dominant 1. Pakikisama

form of moral relativism, defines 'moral' 2. Hiya
as what is 'socially approved by the 3. Amor Propio
majority in a particular culture. 4. Utang na Loob
5. Filipino Hospitality
Cultural Relativists base their moral [Link] for Elders.
theory on the observation that societies
fundamentally disagree about ethical 8. UNIVERSAL VALUES
issues.
Universal values are generally shared
5. CULTURAL RELATIVISM: AN by cultures.
ANALYSIS
The following are some of the universal
5.1 Valuable lessons from ethical values:
relativism.
5.2 The theory's ethical faults. 1. Truth Telling
5.3 Rachel's evaluation of cultural 2. Respecting Life
relativism.
5.4 The bad consequences of cultural
relativism. 1. MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUE

6. ASIAN MORAL Moral Virtue (Excellence of Moral

UNDERSTANDING Character) highlighting the blend of
qualities that make a person the sort of
Western Ethics ethically admirable individual he/she is.
1. Focus - Finding Truth
2. Basis Rational Thought Moral Character refers to having or
3. Emphasis - Logic, Cause, and Effect lacking of moral virtue. If one lacks
4. Roots in - Athens, Rome and Judeo virtue, he/she may have and of the
Christianity moral vices, or he/she may be marked
5. Approach - Rational by a condition somewhere in between
[Link] and Harmony - Good must virtue and vice, such as continence or
triumph over evil, incontinence.
2. THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF 5. GETTING TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL,
ACTS AND CHARACTER CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL
DECISIONS
In the process of moral development,
there is the circular relation between Stage 1. Respect for Power and
acts that build character and moral Punishment
character itself. Not all acts help to build Stage 2. Looking out for #1
moral character, but those acts which Stage 3. Being a "Good Boy" or "Nice
emanate from moral characters certainly Girl"
matter in moral development. Hence, Stage 4. Law and Order Thinking
there appears the apparent circular Stage 5. Justice through Democracy
relationship between individual acts and Stage 6. Deciding on basic moral
moral character. A person's actions principles by which you will live your life
determine his/her moral character, but and relate to everyone fairly.
moral character itself generates acts
that helps in developing either virtue or 6. PROBLEMS WITH KOLHBERG'S
vice. THEORY

3. MORAL CHARACTERS AS Some say that Kolhberg's sample is

DISPOSITIONS biased because Kohlberg's theory was
based on all-male sample, and thus the
A good moral character is practically a stages reflect an androcentric or male
disposition to do virtuous acts. definition of morality. It is argued that
Oppositely, a bad moral character is, in men's morality is basically based on
effect, a disposition to do vicious deeds. abstract principle of law and justice,
whereas women's is based on principle
4. SIX STAGES OF MORAL of compassion and care.
DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

American psychologist who is best
known for his theory of stages of moral
development.

3 Levels of Moral Reasoning:

Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment
Orientation
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange

3 Levels of Moral Reasoning:

Level 2: Conventional Morality
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal
Relationships
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order

3 Levels of Moral Reasoning:

Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual
Rights
Stage 6. Universal Principles