ISBN No

978-93-5737-702-7

EGCON-2022
Abstract Proceedings of the International Conference
on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for Safe and
Sustainable Infrastructures

INDIAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

16-17 NOVEMEBER, 2022

KOLKATA
 Reviewing, and Editing of Manuscripts By
Shri M. Raju
Dr. Timir Baran Ghoshal
Dr. Saibal Ghosh
Dr. Mridul Srivastava
Shri Saikat Pal

Compilation, Processing, and Layout Preparation By

Dr. Timir Baran Ghoshal
Shri Sunandan Basu
Ms. Kavitha S.
Shri Sourav Sen
Shri Ankur Kumar Srivastava
Shri Sumit Kumar

Cover Photo
Front Cover: Pakal Dul and Kishen Ganga Projects, UT: J&K
(Courtesy: Shri Vivek Sharma, DGM, NHPC)
Back Cover: Construction of Idukki Arch Dam, Kerala, India
(Courtesy: Dr. K. Jayabalan, Ex-DDG, GSI)

Published By
Dr. Saibal Ghosh, Editor, ISEG
Indian Society of Engineering Geology
C/O, Deputy Director General,
Geological Survey of India, Eastern Region,
Bhu-Bijnan Bhavan, DK-6, Salt Lake, Sector-II,
West Bengal, Kolkata - 700091
2
3
4
5
 Message

It is heartening to know that the Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG), the India
National Group of the International Association of Engineering Geology and the
Environment (IAEG) is organising an international conference – EGCON-2022 on
“Engineering Geology and the Geotechniques for Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures” in
association with the premier geoscientific organisation – the Geological Survey of India
(GSI) during 16-17 November 2022 at Kolkata. EGCON-2022 has already attracted
about 200 experts, technocrats, students, and researchers from all over the country and
from neighbouring nations like Nepal and Bangladesh, which includes 17 eminent experts
delivering keynote lectures on five diverse themes. I am happy to note that the 2-day
event will have about 190 oral and poster presentations through multiple concurrent
technical sessions, and exhibitions, which shows its relevant richness, and diversity in
this particular fundamental field of study.

I understand that such a rich technical congregation on basic scientific and technological
aspects of engineering geology and geotechniques will be extremely beneficial for all the
delegates participating in the conference, which will evolve new and innovative
knowledge and thinking through interactive discussions for relevant applications in
tackling the newer challenges of safe and sustainable construction of large and diverse
infrastructures. It is indeed a fact that the sustainability of large infrastructure projects is
fundamentally dependent on sound scientific investigations, advanced probing, prompt
addressing of the already-identified problems, and also adopting quick mitigation of
diverse risk scenarios. I hope EGCON-2022 will discuss such newer knowledge and
techniques for the furtherance of such tasks in hand for many developers.

I am personally happy that DVC is also associated in this endeavour with ISEG and GSI,
and I convey my heartiest best wishes on behalf of DVC for the grand success of
EGCON-2022.

Dated 28th day of October, 2022 Ram Naresh Singh

Kolkata Chairman, DVC

6
7
 Message from the President, IAEG

The Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG) was inaugurated

on 15th October 1965 at Kolkata and is affiliated with the
International Association of Engineering Geology and the
Environment IAEG. ISEG organizes an International Conference on
Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for Safe and Sustainable
Infrastructures (EGCON 2022), on 16-17 November 2022 Novotel
Hotel, Kolkata, back to the roots for serving the Engineering
Geological Society. This conference marks a milestone in the
history of the activities of the ISEG, not only because it is an
international conference, but also because it triggers
brainstorming toward safe and sustainable infrastructures.
Population growth and climate change pose severe challenges
when it comes to safe and sustainable infrastructures.

As president of IAEG, I am delighted to express our support to the ISEG and EGCON 2022 and
to convey the greetings on behalf of IAEG. International conferences increase the visibility of
Engineering Geology worldwide. Their contribution to the society is very important,
especially with regard to the civil infrastructure, monitoring and protection of geohazards,
and to many other environmental problems.

In my scientific career, I was personally involved for many years in India as the German
coordinator of the Indo-German Center for Sustainability at IIT Madras, which is a successful
example of international cooperation in science and technology. Only international
cooperation can help us to address the current and future challenges in the civil society.
Every single contribution is needed in this process.

International conferences are important tools in exchanging our knowledge and they help us
to learn from each other.

I wish the conference fruitful discussion, ISEG successful and prosperous future and the
participants’ great time in Kolkata and all the best.

Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. Rafig Azzam

IAEG President

8
 Message from the IAEG President elect

Dear Colleagues and Friends,

On behalf of the International Association for Engineering Geology and

Environment (IAEG), I would like to
congratulate the Indian National Group of IAEG
for organizing the "International Conference on
Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON
2022)".
IAEG has always been very active in
promoting engineering geology and its
importance internationally to the public in
order to improve human safety and quality of
life through geohazards and risk mitigation,
infrastructure development and environmental protection. EGCON 2022 will
provide an opportunity to present the current trends, recent advances and
new approaches in Engineering Geology and Geotechniques in correlation with
the climate change and the relevant environmental issues, ensuring safe and
sustainable infrastructure development.
I wish to highlight the successful works and efforts of the IAEG National
Group of India, a traditionally active group of IAEG, towards promoting our
profession and competences among the geo-engineering community and
especially congratulate the Organising Committee for shaping up an excellent
program with several keynote lectures and diverse technical themes.
EGCON 2022 will certainly create opportunities for engineering
geologists and geotechnical engineers to partake in and familiarize themselves
with the knowledge and practices available worldwide and especially within
India, while I am confident that the networking opportunities will be also
outstanding.

I wholeheartedly wish you a successful and fruitful conference.

Yours Sincerely,

Vassilis P. Marinos
President elect of the International Association for Engineering Geology and
the Environment (IAEG)
Assistant Professor
School of Civil Engineering - Geotechnical Division
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA)

9
 Message from the IAEG Secretary General

Dear colleagues,

I am so happy to express my warm congratulation to the "International

Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for Safe and
Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)" which is to be organized on
16-17 November 2022 at Kolkata by Indian Society of Engineering
Geology (Indian National Group of IAEG).

Indian Society of Engineering Geology (Indian National Group of IAEG) is one of the most
active groups in the community of engineering geology and geotechniques, and has made
significant contribution to the advances of the disciplines and great effort to ensure the
safe and sustainable infrastructure construction in the past decades. IAEG is very
appreciated your efforts and contributions to the common cause of the world!

India is one of the rapidly developing countries in today's world. I have been lucky to visit
India and attend IAEG conferences in the great country for several times and invite our
Indian delegation to visit China in the past years. And I have made many lifetime Indian
friends like Yogendra Deva. I wish the Indian National group great development in the
future and happy and good healthy to all my Indian friends and colleagues!

My best wishes to a completely successful conference EGCON 2022!

Professor Faquan Wu
Secretary General of IAEG

10
 Nepalese Society of Engineering Geologists
नेपाली इन्जिननयरिङ्ग भूगभभनिद समाि
Kathmandu, Nepal
2018
“Nepalese National Group of International Association of Engineering Geology and Environment (IAEG)”

Date: 2022/11/05

Message
As a keynote speaker and elected Vice-President (Asia) of the International Association for
Engineering Geology and the Environment (IAEG) for 2023-2026, it gives me immense pleasure to
express my sincere support to the Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG) for organizing
EGCON-2022, themed “Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for Safe and Sustainable
Infrastructures” on 16-17 November 2022, Kolkata, India. The ISEG is the Indian National Group
of IAEG and conducts EGCON regularly to promote engineering geological science in the Indian
subcontinent. My participation in ECGON conferences is regular since 2015 and I have found that
it is highly useful to highlight the roles of engineering geology in civil infrastructure, monitoring
and protection against geohazards and many other geo-engineering as well as environmental issues
throughout the Indian subcontinent.
I am involved in ISEG as a life member since 2015. Being the founder president of the Nepalese
Society of Engineering Geologists (NSEG), I have been supporting ISEG in its various professional
activities from Nepal. For this series of EGCON as well, I have requested Bangladeshi and Malaysian
national groups of IAEG to support EGCON from their capacity. Our colleague from Bangladesh is
participating in the Conference as a keynote speaker and delivering documents from fifteen Asian
Regional Conference of IAEG (ARC-15) for 2025. As a life member of ISEG and elected vice-
president of IAEG, I am indeed delighted to work jointly with ISEG for the benefit of engineering
geological science.
Furthermore, I am confident that the deliberations in the EGCON-2022 would bring out innovative
strategies of engineering geology for societal use. I also hope that you all will very much enjoy and
benefit from this conference! Finally, I wish this conference will bring out a fruitful discussion and
a prosperous future for ISEG, and the participants will have a good time in Kolkata.
Thank you.

__________________________
Ranjan Kumar Dahal (Ph.D. in Engineering, Post-Doc in Geodisaster Management, M.ASCE)
Founder President, NSEG
Life Member, ISEG
Associate Professor of Engineering Geology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
Management Director, International Consortium on Geodisaster Reduction (ICGdR), Japan
And
Newly elected Vice-President of IAEG for Asia (2023-2026)

P.O. 9669, Dhobighat, Bagdol, Lalitpur, Nepal

Phone: +977-1-5188602, Email: [email protected], URL: www.nseg.org.np

11
Executive Committee 2022-2026
President
Sunil Kumar DE
North-Eastern Hill University
Shillong, India
[email protected]

Vice-Presidents
Andrea CORONATO
Austral Center for Scientific Research
Ushuaia, Argentina
[email protected] MESSAGE
Mihai MICU
Romanian Academy
Bucharest, Romania
I am pleased to know that the Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG), in association
[email protected] with the Geological Survey of India (GSI), is going to organize the International Conference
Takashi OGUCHI
University of Tokyo
(EGCON-2022) on ‘Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for Safe and Sustainable
Tokyo, Japan
[email protected]
Infrastructures', during November 16-17. 2022.
Secretary General With the increasing demand for different types of civil constructions, in-depth
Achim A. BEYLICH
Geomorphological Field Laboratory geotechnical studies should be carried out to know the suitability of the area for such
Selbustrand, Norway
[email protected] structures for designing. Engineering Geology certainly helps to understand the
Treasurer mechanism of geotechnical problems and associated issues. At the same time,
Francisco GUTIÉRREZ
University of Zaragoza
Geomorphological parameters are equally important in any civil construction.
Zaragoza, Spain Topographic deformation is first visible after any geo-hazards. Based on the slope, area
[email protected]
of deformation and load volume estimation, we should proceed with any construction
Officer
Katja LAUTE activities for their sustainability. From this point of view, the theme of the conference is
Geomorphological Field Laboratory
Selbustrand, Norway of utmost importance.
[email protected]

Co-opted Members
The conference organizers have rightly kept all the subthemes related to the theme. I
Tim BEACH hope and believe that the conference will be held in a befitting manner and the outcome
University of Texas
Austin, USA of the meeting will be worthy for all the concerned authorities to take proper necessary
[email protected]
Anita BERNATEK-JAKIEL measures to save our environment.
Jagiellonian University
Kraków, Poland
[email protected]
On behalf of the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG), I wish the
Susan CONWAY Conference a grand success.
National Centre for Scientific Research
Nantes, France
[email protected]
Narges KARIMINEJAD
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
Mashhad, Iran
[email protected]
Prof. Sunil Kumar De
Efthimios KARYMBALIS President, IAG
Harokopio University
Athens, Greece
[email protected]
Ghislain ZANGMO TEFOGOUM
University of Maroua
To
Maroua, Cameroon Dr. Saibal Ghosh
[email protected]
Organizing Secretary, EGCON-2022
Special Portfolio Members Deputy Director General (Geology)
Sam McCOLL Geological Survey of India Eastern Region,
GNS Science
Lower Hutt, New Zealand Salt Lake, Kolkata
[email protected]
Cengiz YILDIRIM
Istanbul Technical University
Istanbul, Turkiye IAG registered office: Paseo de la Castellana 91, Planta 2 (28046 Madrid, SPAIN)
[email protected]
IAG account (Bankinter) IBAN: ES19-0128-0409-7701-0002-8064 / SWIFT Code: BKBKESMMXXX
www.geomorph.org

12
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology
(Indian National Group of International Association for Engineering Geology and The Environment)
(Established 1965)
C/o Geotechnical Laboratory, Geological Survey of India,
Vasundhara, Sec-E, Aliganj, Lucknow- 226024, Uttar Pradesh
e-mail: [email protected] / website: www.isegindia.org

Message
President
S. L. Kapil
Executive Director, NHPC

Vice-Presidents
Dr. S.K. Wadhawan
Retd. DG GSI
Dr. Bineshian Hoss
Tech. Director, Amberg
Naveen K Jain
AGM(Hydro-Engg), NTPC

Secretary
Dr. Mridul Srivastava
Director, GSI,

Joint Secretaries
Vachaspati Pandey
DGM(Geo), NHPC, Faridabad Sustainable infrastructure development has become a new paradigm for the
Dharmendra Kumar technological, economic, and social progress of a nation, and India is not an
Sr. Geologist, GSI, New Delhi exception. Infrastructure development in open and underground spaces for river
valley projects, railways, highways, and other large civil structures also poses
Treasurer
innumerable challenges during the design, and construction stage. Appropriate
Rajanish Mishra
Sr. Geologist, GSI, Lucknow application of engineering geology and geotechniques helps in understanding the
mechanism of geotechnical problems beforehand to prevent time and cost over-run
Editor as well as safety of men and machinery.
Dr. Saibal Ghosh
DDG, GSI, Kolkata
With the accelerated development of infrastructure projects in far-flung areas, the
Joint Editor
M. Raju geotechnical challenges have also increased manifold as evident from recent
Retd, DG, GSI catastrophic landslides and collapse especially in the Himalayan region during
Saikat Pal Monsoon. Under these circumstances, the role of engineering geoscientists and
DGM (Geo) geotechnical engineers has become more crucial in providing site-specific solutions
Past President
to critical geotechnical problems. ISEG has emerged as the flag bearer in the
A.K. Singh dissemination of developments in this domain since 1965.
CMD, NHPC
Past Secretary In the tradition of organizing brainstorming conferences/ seminars, ISEG is
S. L. Kapil organising an International Conference (EGCON 2022) in association with the
Executive Director, NHPC
Geological Survey of India (GSI) on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for Safe
Council Members and Sustainable Infrastructures at Novotel Hotel, Kolkata during 16-17 November
B. Ajaya Kumar, Director 2022 with the active participation of about 200 delegates from Government, Public
GSI, Hyderabad Sector Undertakings, Industry, IIT, and Universities from India and abroad. During
AP Singh, EGCON-2022 Plenary sessions, 17 renowned global experts will deliver keynote talks
Explore India P Ltd., Delhi introducing five technical themes, which will be followed by 97 oral and 76 poster
Prof. S. N. Patil, presentations structured in various concurrent sessions, and exhibitions.
Professor, North Maha. Univ.
B. K. Gupta, Hope we will be witnessing an enriched and invaluable technical discourse and
AGM (Geology), SJVNL meeting during the 2-day event at EGCON-2022 which will render an excellent
B N S Naveen Kumar, opportunity for all of us to meet personally in the city of joy and discuss various
Sr. Mgr (Geology), NHPC technical issues pertaining to fundamental concepts and applications of engineering
Vinod Kumar Jaiswal, geology and geotechnical knowledge, and information for ensuring safe and
Sr.Mgr (Geology), NHPC sustainable infrastructures.
Dr Ashutosh Kainthola,
Asstt. Professor (Engg. Geo), With warm regards,
BHU
Dr. Vinay, Senior Geologist,
GSI
Arindom Chakraborty,
DGM(Geo), CVPPPL, Kishtawar S. L. Kapil
Akshaya Kumar Mishra, President, ISEG
Director GSI, Kolkata Vice President, ISRM (India)
Executive Director, NHPC

13
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology
(Indian National Group of International Association for Engineering Geology and The Environment)
(Established 1965)
C/o Geotechnical Laboratory, Geological Survey of India,
Vasundhara, Sec-E, Aliganj, Lucknow- 226024, Uttar Pradesh
e-mail: [email protected] / website: www.isegindia.org

Message
President
S. L. Kapil
Executive Director, NHPC

Vice-Presidents
Dr. S.K. Wadhawan
Retd. DG GSI
Dr. Bineshian Hoss
Tech. Director, Amberg
Naveen K Jain
AGM(Hydro-Engg), NTPC

Secretary
Dr. Mridul Srivastava
Director, GSI,

Joint Secretaries Dear Colleagues,

Vachaspati Pandey
DGM(Geo), NHPC, Faridabad
Dharmendra Kumar It is a matter of great pleasure and honour that the Indian Society of Engineering
Sr. Geologist, GSI, New Delhi Geology, the Indian national group of the International Association of Engineering
Geology and the Environment (IAEG) is organising a two-day event on the
Treasurer
International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Rajanish Mishra
Sr. Geologist, GSI, Lucknow Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures, at Kolkata between 16-17 November
2022, in association with Geological Survey of India.
Editor
Dr. Saibal Ghosh I firmly believe that the EGCON 2022, the fifth in the EGCON series will enrich the
DDG, GSI, Kolkata
audience with the latest concepts and techniques in the field of surveys,
Joint Editor
M. Raju investigations, challenges, and solutions of various infrastructure development
Retd, DG, GSI projects of water resource development, hydropower and road/rail communication
Saikat Pal projects, geohazards and related environmental issues relevant to ensuring safe and
DGM (Geo) sustainable development through technical discourse and deliberations on well-
Past President
crafted five themes of the conference.
A.K. Singh
CMD, NHPC On behalf of the ISEG Council, I take the opportunity to welcome all the
Past Secretary professionals, academicians, researchers, and students involved in the investigation,
S. L. Kapil construction, mining, and infrastructure development works in EGCON 2022 at the
Executive Director, NHPC
city of joy – Kolkata.
Council Members
B. Ajaya Kumar, Director Further, I extend my warm regards and best wishes to the presenters and
GSI, Hyderabad organisers for their focused and informative presentations and the grand success of
AP Singh, the event.
Explore India P Ltd., Delhi
Prof. S. N. Patil, With warm regards,
Professor, North Maha. Univ.
B. K. Gupta,
AGM (Geology), SJVNL
B N S Naveen Kumar,
Sr. Mgr (Geology), NHPC
Vinod Kumar Jaiswal, Dr. Mridul Srivastava
Sr.Mgr (Geology), NHPC Director, GSI &
Dr Ashutosh Kainthola, Secretary, ISEG
Asstt. Professor (Engg. Geo),
BHU
Dr. Vinay, Senior Geologist,
GSI
Arindom Chakraborty,
DGM(Geo), CVPPPL, Kishtawar
Akshaya Kumar Mishra,
Director GSI, Kolkata

14
 Message

Dear delegates,

On behalf of the Eastern Regional Headquarter of the Geological Survey of India and
behalf of the Local Organising Committee of EGCON-2022, I extend my warm welcome
and best wishes to you all to the City of Joy – Kolkata for participating in an invigorating
scientific congregation – EGCON-2022 during 16-17 November 2022.

GSI being the Co-Organiser of EGCON-2022 is also privileged to offer all sorts of local
support and help to ISEG for successfully organising this mega International event.
The themes of this congregation are aptly diverse dealing with the challenges of
ensuring a safe and sustainable infrastructure in a complicated geological milieu and
the same would be a befitting topic of interesting discourse by all the participating
scientists and technocrats of EGCON-2022.

Being the Chairman, of the Local Organising Committee (LOC) of EGCON-2022, I am

proud to note that overwhelming support in the form of the submission of a large
number of abstracts to EGCON-2022, and the consent of 17 global experts agreeing for
delivering the keynote addresses would present EGCON-2022 as one of the most
valuable, and relevant technical congregation in this part of the country. During this 2-
day event, about 200 delegates from Government, PSUs, Industries, and Academia are
likely to participate and discuss very pertinent topics, and for which, I profusely thank
the Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG) for organising this event, physically at
Kolkata in association with GSI.

The LOC of EGCON-2022 is all set with the required preparations and has already
engaged an adequate number of local competent resources from GSI for each of the
sub-activities. Hope your stay at Kolkata, and participation in EGCON-2022 will be a truly
enjoying, lasting, and invigorating experience.

With warm regards,

P. V. Ramanamurthy,
Addl. Director General & HoD, GSI, ER &
Chairman, Local Organising Committee, EGCON-2022

15
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Foreword

With great pleasure ISEG notes that the EGCON-2022 is finally enriched by the
overwhelming and enthusiastic support of a large number of technocrats, scientists,
students, and researchers from a wide diaspora that is involved in the infrastructure
sector, from all over the country, through the submission of technically-relevant and
invaluable abstracts by 17 global experts as keynote, and 173 abstracts for five diverse
technical themes. It is worth mentioning that there are some prominent submissions
from Bangladesh, Nepal, UK, and Russia, which shows that EGCON-2022 had also
generated wide interest among many global experts. Out of the total 190 accepted
abstracts presented in EGCON-2022, 73 are from the Geological Survey of
India, 14 are from different PSUs, 46 are from the academia - IITs/ Universities of
India, 25 are from 11 different private Industry players, 15 are from Universities
abroad from Bangladesh, Nepal, Russia, and United Kingdom, and the rest 17 are
from our esteemed, and learned retired ISEG experts. One abstract was withdrawn
later.

It is apparent that the success of any conference of a similar dimension is always

marked by its rich technical content which is published in the form of Proceedings, and
EGCON-2022 is also not an exception. On behalf of the entire Editorial Team of ISEG, I
take the opportunity to introduce you to the abstract proceedings of EGCON-2022
containing 190 abstracts of invaluable information and knowledge. The abstracts are
grouped into five discernible themes highlighting vital subject areas about engineering
geology and geotechniques starting from the basic concepts and applications to the
various challenges faced by the geoscientists, and the engineers at various stages of
investigations of large infrastructures, technological advancements in the field, emerging
challenges in the field of geohazards, risk management, and climate change, etc. Each
theme in the book starts with the concerned Keynote abstracts introducing the central
idea of the theme, followed by the abstracts submitted on that particular theme. The
distribution of abstracts in different themes is as follows. Theme 1: Safe and
Sustainable Infrastructure Development has three (03) Keynotes, followed by 59
abstracts; Theme 2: Technological advancements in investigation and monitoring has
four (04) Keynotes, followed by 28 abstracts; Theme 3: Geohazards and Disaster Risk
Reduction has four (04) Keynotes, followed by 63 abstracts; Theme 4: Climate Change
and Environmental Impact System have two (02) Keynotes, followed by 10
abstracts; Theme 5: Emerging Challenges in Urban Infrastructures has four (04)
Keynotes, followed by 13 abstracts.

The contents of the proceedings not only disseminate new knowledge, and ideas, but
also present innovative approaches, state-of-the-art techniques, and methods applied in
different infrastructure projects ensuring their safe and sustainable construction,
including identification of risks and their mitigation from geohazards, etc. Apart from the
domain of sustainable development, EGCON-2022 abstract proceedings also discuss
issues on technological advancements in the investigation, and monitoring, Climate
change, and emerging challenges in urban infrastructures. A very informative and high-
valued collection of abstracts is already there in the ensemble of the abstract
proceedings covering vital fields, and thus presents a really rich source of invaluable and
innovative scientific data and information for our future use in shaping a safe and
sustainable environment around us.

Dr. Saibal Ghosh

Editor, ISEG & Organising Secretary, EGCON-2022

16
 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Co-Organiser & Sponsors

Co-Organiser Geological Survey of India

Platinum Sponsor NHPC

Greenko Group
MECL

Diamond SJVN
Megha Engineering and Infrastructure Ltd.

Gold Sponsor DVC

Alpha GEO
NORMET

Silver Sponsor ITD Cementation

NTPC
NHDC,
Raghava
SPAR GEO INFRA PVT. LTD.

Bronze JSW Energy

THDC
WBSEDCL

Our Health Partner :

Medica Superspeciality Hospital, Kolkata

17
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

CONTENTS
Sl.
Abstract No. Title and Author/Authors Page no:
No
Theme 1: Safe and sustainable infrastructure development
Keynote abstracts
Safe and Sustainable infrastructure – A paradigm change
1. KN 1.1
Balraj Joshi
32
Renewable Energy Integration Enhancement Using Renewable
Energy Storage Technologies such as Pumped Storage
2. KN 1.2 Hydroelectric Project (PSHP) for ZeroC 33
Praveen Mitter Nanda
Executive Vice President (Engineering & Projects), Greenko Group
Application of Geomorphology in Sustainable Engineering Practices:
3. KN 1.3 Examples from Hilly Areas 34
Sunil Kumar De
Abstracts
Importance of Foundation Geological map of major structures of
4. 1/001 any Hydroelectric Project-A case study from Himalaya 35-36
Indranil Chakraborty, Bhanu Prakash Rawat
Influence of Paleo and Neo stresses on underground construction
1/002
5. sites 36-37
D S Subrahmanyam
Development of cracks and ground subsidence in Chota Rasulpur
village, Purba Medinipur District, West Bengal – a deep concern
6. 1/003
associated with excessive exploitation of groundwater
37
K.S Gupta, D. Bhattacharya
Occurrences of sub-vertical and sub-horizontal joints detrimental
to tunnel stability - A case study from Chheligada Irrigation project,
7. 1/004
Odisha
38
Debasis Mohanty, Er. Sagar Mohanty

Problem of construction of tunnel along a deep cutting reach of

8. 1/005 Rengali left bank cannel project, Jajpur District, Odisha 38-39
Jaydip Mukherjee, R.C.Munda, Debaprasad Sahoo

Critical wedges identification and their stabilization in underground

Tunnel - A case study of Rammam III HEP
9. 1/006
Sanjib Kumar Bhakat, Satish Upadhyay, Rajeev Ranjan, Vibhu
39
Kaushal
Underground-unlined Crude Oil Strategic Storage Cavern Project,
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India – Concept, Construction
10. 1/007
and Challenge
39-40
S. K. Mohanty, Dr. Florian Krenn, Dr. Oskar Sig
Geological Risk Mitigation Plans and Strategies for Underground
11.
1/008 Construction Projects 41
Narendra Singh Rana, Swapan Kumar Mohanty
Remediation of acid mine drainage
12. 1/009
Neelam Phougat, Sameer Vyas, U.S.Vidyarthi
42
Terrain Boundary shear zone and its bearing in Upper Kolab Multi-
13. 1/010 purpose Project, Koraput District, Odisha 42-43
Asim Kumar Basu, Jaydip Mukherjee
Grouting to Arrest Water Seepage and Maintain Hydrodynamic
Confinement in Strategic Storage of Crude Oil Project, Padur, Kar-
14. 1/011
nataka, India
43-44
S. Shashank, Shekhar, Swapan Kumar Mohanty

18
 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Review of Quality Control and Design Aspects of Asphaltic Con-

15. 1/012 crete Core in Earthen/Rock Fill Dam 44-45
Satyajit Roy, V K Jain, Manish Gupta, R Chitra
Engineering geological evaluation of the large underground surge
pool cavern of Kaleshwaram lift irrigation scheme package-6, Tel-
16. 1/013 angana State, India 45
D S Rawat, A K Naithani, L G Singh, Prasnna Jain, R N S Babu,
Padmaja Reddy, P. Allen. Samuel, K Ravindra Nath

Stability Assessment of Tunnel Portal Excavations in varying Rock-

17. 1/014 mass and Slope Geometries 46-47
Koushik Pandit, Shantanu Sarkar, Mohd. Shazan, Pankaj Uniyal

Overview on engineering geological investigation for power house

area of Polavaram Hydroelectric Project (80 x 12 MW), Andhra
18. 1/015
Pradesh, India
47-48
L. G Singh, A. K Naithani, Prasnna Jain, D.S Rawat

Construction stage engineering geological investigations of the

foundation of onsite emergency support centre of Kakrapar atomic
19. 1/016
power project units 1 to 4, Gujarat State, India
49
Prasnna Jain, A. K. Naithani, L.G. Singh and D.S. Rawat
Geotechnical investigation of earth cracks in Ratua–II block, Malda
20. 1/017 District, West Bengal 49-50
Sudipto Nath, Debasish Bhattacharya, A Roy

Challenges on foundation evaluation for pre and post-dam

21. 1/018 construction: implications on dam performance 51-53
Susmita Bal, Mrinal Kanti Mukherjee

An insight developed from the railway alignment project carried

22. 1/019 out in Himalayas 53-54
Radhakrishnan. S
Reservoir competency study of Kanupur Irrigation Project, Keon-
23. 1/020 jhar District, Odisha 54-55
Debaprasad Sahoo*, Bardan Topno, Jaydip Mukherjee
Challenges & Strategies in the construction of Dyke embankment
24. 1/021 in the marine foundation 55
Vinod Mauriya
Geoenvironmental investigation using Integrated Geophysical
25. 1/022 Methods: An Implication to geotechnical engineering 56-57
Abul Aas, Satish Kumar Sinha
Challenges of developing a railway alignment in outer and lesser
26. 1/023 Western Himalayas 57-58
P L Narula, Rajeev Soni, Deepali Saxena, Radhakrishnan S.
Tunnel stability and their geological & non-geological controls:
27. 1/024 present status and future approach 58-59
Jitendra Kumar, Mrinal Kanti Mukherjee
Experimental Study of a Laterally Loaded Single Pile in Jointed
28. 1/025 Rock Mass 59-60
Koushik Pandit, Mahendra Singh, Jagdish Prasad Sahoo
Challenges in the Pre-construction Stage Geotechnical Investiga-
29. 1/026 tion of Kharkai Barrage, Saraikela-Kharswan District, Jharkhand 60-61
N.R. Bhattacharjee, D. Bhattacharya
Mitigation measure for seepages in the Barua Sagar Lake, Jhansi,
30. 1/027 Uttar Pradesh, India 61-62
Ajay Shankar Pandey, Hemant Kumar, Joyesh Bagchi

19
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Problem of pervious foundation of Kanupur Earth Dam, Keonjahar

District, Odisha
31. 1/029
Jaydip Mukherjee, Debaprasad Sahoo, Bardan Topno, Dwaipayan
62
Bhattacharya
Stability problem of project road, Balimela Multipurpose Project,
32. 1/030 Malkangiri District, Odisha 63
Jaydip Mukherjee, Debaprasad Sahoo, Bardan Topno

Challenges faced during construction at Left Bank of Diversion

Tunnel (DT) Outlet Structure, Deonallah, High Level Road & Low
33. 1/031 Level Road in Subansiri 2000MW Lower Hydro Electric Project, 63-64
India
Biswajit Das, K. K. Barthakur

Role of geotechnical investigation for hydropower development in

34. 1/032 Peninsular India - a case study from Purulia, West Bengal 64-65
Sourav Sen, Kavitha S., Sunandan Basu, Timir Baran Ghoshal
Geotechnical appraisal of the proposed tunnels along Koderma-
Tilaiya new broad gauge railway line, Bihar
35. 1/033
Kavitha S., Prithwiraj Maiti, Sunandan Basu, Mayukhee Ghosh,
66
Sustava Bhattacharya
DPR stage geotechnical investigation of Balason Hydroelectric
36. 1/034 Project, Darjeeling District, West Bengal 66-67
Sustava Bhattacharya, Kavitha S., Timir Baran Ghoshal
Investigation of Block Toppling Failure in Sandstone Cut Slope
37. 1/035
Ashutosh Kainthola, Vishnu HR Pandey, Vikas Yadav
67-68

Ground assessment & Rehabilitation of decade-long abandoned

38. 1/036 Pressure Shaft-Rangit-IV HEP, West Sikkim 68-71
Sahoo R. N*, Rawat Pankaj,Lal S.P, Yadav Sudhir
Problems faced while driving tunnel below Mumbai city for water
39. 1/037 supply 72
P.T. Sinha Roy
Stabilization of Soft Coastal Soil of Matarbari Power Project,
Bangladesh by Deep Mixing Method
40. 1/038
Md. Shakil Mahabub, Md. Raqibul Hassan, A.T.M. Shakhawat
72-73
Hossain
DPR stage geotechnical investigation of Damanganga-Vaitarna-
41. 1/039 Godavari Link Project, Palghar & Nashik districts, Maharashtra 73-74
Anamitra Dey, Jeyabal S., Ashish Barsagade, D. Chakraborty
Geotechnical Investigations for Underground Power House in Dul-
42. 1/040 Quartzite- A case Study of Dulhasti Stage-II HEP (260MW) 74-75
Ajay Singh, Sumit Dabral
Engineering geological evaluation and design support system of
draft tube tunnels of Palamuru-Ranga Reddy lift irrigation scheme,
43. 1/041
package-16 site-A case study
75
P Lingaswamy, D S Rawat, A K Naithani, G C Shekar, L K Rao

Construction stage geotechnical studies of tunnel across Zoji-La

Pass on Sonamarg-Kargil section of NH-01 in the Union Territories
44. 1/042
of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh
75-77
Mandapalli Raju, Mehraj Ud Din Lone, Bilal Ahmad Mir

SPT-Based Liquefaction Risks and Shear Strength Behaviour of

Some Soils of Ukhiya, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
45. 1/043 Dutta T., Hossain ATMS., Mahabub M.S., Hossain Md. Sayem, 77-78
Khatun M., Haque M.E., Imam H., Jafrin S.J., Khan. P.A, Bakali R.,
Hasan M

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 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Construction stage geotechnical problems of earth dam of

Basawapur Balancing Reservoir, Kaleswaram Project, Package-16,
46. 1/044 Basawapur (V), Bhongir (M), Yadadri-Bhuvanagiri District, 78
Telangana
B. Ajaya Kumar, Bhushan D Kuthe, B. Venu Gopala Krishna
Construction stage geotechnical problems of the tunnel from
Ramappa tank to Dharmasagar tank, J. Chokka Rao Devadula
Lift Irrigation Scheme, Phase-III, Package-III, Warangal District,
47. 1/045
Telangana
79
Shailendra Kumar Singh, B. Venu Gopala Krishna, B. Ajaya Kumar,
S.K. Tripathi

Problems faced during the construction stage in parts of cut off

trench of earth dam of Sri Komuravelli Mallanna Sagar Reservoir,
48. 1/046
Kaleshwaram Project, Siddipet District, Telangana
79-80
B. Ajaya Kumar, Bhushan D Kuthe, S.K. Tripathi

Construction stage geotechnical assessment of Rock Mass Quality

of Irrigation Tunnel, Package-65, Polavaram Irrigation Project East
49. 1/047 Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh 80-81
B. Ajaya Kumar, Bhushan D Kuthe, B. Venu Gopala Krishna, S.K.
Tripathi

Geotechnical assessment of part of cut off trench of earth dam of

Udandapur Reservoir near Udandapur village, Jadcherla Mandal,
50. 1/048 Mahabubnagar District, Telangana 81-82
B. Venu Gopala Krishna, Bhushan Dadaji Kuthe, B. Ajaya Kumar,
S.K. Tripathi
Problems faced during Construction Stage Geotechnical
Investigation of Pippalkoti Balancing Reservoir under Lower
51. 1/049
Penganga Project, Bheempur Mandal, Adilabad District, Telangana
82-83
Shailendra Kumar Singh, B. Venu Gopala Krishna, S.K. Tripathi
Strength improvement of expansive soil treated with jute fiber
52. 1/050 reinforcement 83
Devagya Raman, Abhishek S. Maury, Anupam Mital

Load settlement behaviour of bamboo mat reinforced sand bed

53. 1/051
Abhishek Singh Maury, Devagya Raman, Ashwani Jain
84-85

Comparative study of investigations of two mega dams of the sub-

continent: Tehri Dam, India and the proposed Kuri-Gongri HEP,
54. 1/052
Bhutan
86-87
D. P. Dangwal, Ravi S. Chaubey
Ascertaining probable Hazard Scenarios under high cover during
excavation of HRTs with TBM in Himalayan Geology at Pakal Dul HE
55. 1/053
Project (1000MW), J&K, India
87-89
Sharma Vivek, Ganvir S. J.

Geological assessment on the failure of part back slope of the

56. 1/054 powerhouse, Vyasi HEP, Uttarakhand 89
Dharmendra Kumar, Vinay, Neetu Chauhan
Geological and geotechnical evaluation of the proposed site of Song
57. 1/055 Dam Drinking Water Project, Dehradun, Uttarakhand -A case study 89-90
Vinay, Neetu Chauhan, Dharmendra Kumar

Reservoir rim stability assessment of Vyasi Hydroelectric Project,

58. 1/056 Dehradun district, Uttarakhand 90-91
Neetu Chauhan, Vinay

21
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Seismic site response study in Port Blair town, Andaman Nicobar

59. 1/057 Islands, India: a way for risk resiliency of infrastructure 91
Bahadur Ram, Rajni, S. Dasgupta, L. H. Moirangacha
Post construction foundation treatment at Bhimsagar Dam, district
60. 1/058 Jhalawar, Rajasthan 91
V. K, Kasliwal
Construction stage Geotechnical investigations for the design
of Weirs and appurtenant structures, Kollimalai HEP, Namakkal
61. 1/059
District, Tamil Nadu
92
Asrar Ahmed, A., Gaurav Chand., Vivek kumar Singh. Aravind, K.

Geo investigation & Tunnelling through Clay Rock Formation

in middle-upper Siwalik group of rocks at outer boundary of
62. 1/060 Himalayan Region-A case history of 2.79 km long road transport 93
Sungal Tunnel, Located in Jamnu and Kashmir, India
Swetabh Singh, D.C Tripathi, Koteswara Rao.Kusunuri

Theme 2: Technological advancements in investigation and monitoring

Keynote abstracts
Power of an Engineering Geological Map
63. KN 2.1
Gopal Dhawan
96-100

Thermal effects on rocks

64. KN 2.2
Louis Wong
101

The Future of Engineering Geology Education

65. KN 2.3
Bhabesh C Sarkar
102-103

Significance of geotechnical investigation for DPR of Hydroelectric

66. KN 2.4 projects in Himalaya-a case study 104-105
Timir Baran Ghoshal

Abstracts

Seismic Tomography between exploratory drifts for Dam Projects

67. 2/001
Sanjay Rana, Ashutosh Kaushik, Bhaskar Chendhoor
106

Comparative study of factor of safety of Tunnel segment by adding

68. 2/002 macro synthetic fibre using Ansys 106
Prajakta Nanasaheb Kenjale, Sanket Tirpude
Inflatable (Rubber) Dam across Phalgu River, near Vishnupad
69. 2/003 Temple, District Gaya, Bihar- A Geotechnical Perspective 107-108
V. K. Sharma
Stability assessment, numerical analysis and design of Hydropower
Tunnel –
70. 2/004
a case study
109
Pranali Salunke, Rahul Joshi, Rajib Sinharay
A comprehensive review on the recent development of non-
destructive empirical techniques in estimating geo-mechanical
71. 2/005
properties of shales
109-110
Divyanshoo Singh, Hemant Kumar Singh
Numerical stability analysis of a jointed rock slope in the Sikkim
72. 2/006 Himalaya 110
Shubham Chaudhary, Suvam Das, Anindya Pain, Shantanu Sarkar
The role of Geo-physical techniques in enhancing mine planning
73. 2/007 decision-making for open cast quarry in Basaltic Terrain 111
S. N. Patil, B. D. Patil, A. K. Kadam, N. S. Patil

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 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Reduce Time & Cost Overrun using Geotechnical Investigation

during Survey & Investigation Stage of Hydro Power Projects, Luhri
74. 2/008 Stage –II (172MW), SJVN Ltd., Himachal Pradesh 111
Sushil Sharma, Akshay Acharya, A.K. Pandey, Naveen Kumar
Kanyan
Shear Strength Behaviour of Weak Rock Mass
75. 2/009
D. V. Sarwade, Senthil. P., K. K. Mishra, Pankaj Kumar, Hari Dev
112

Evaluation of Ulusay Block Punch Index Model Efficacy in Predicting

76. 2/010 Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Anisotropic Rocks 113
Kumar Nilankar, Hemant Kumar Singh
Utilization of geotechnical studies and Electrical Resistivity
77. 2/011 Tomography for Soil characterization and Foundation Engineering 114
Abul Aas, Satish Kumar Sinha
Seismic activities in Palghar area of Maharashtra in the western
78. 2/012 part of Deccan Volcanic Province 114-115
S. K. Bhattacharyya, A. K. Joshi, O. P. Singh
Assessment of subsurface water storage potential zone using
geospatial and AHP technique in alluvial plain North Maharashtra
79. 2/013 Region, India 115-116
Ajaykumar K. Kadam, S. N. Patil, V. M. Wagh, Bhavesh D. Patil,
Nilesh S. Patil
Evaluation of bond strength between rock surface and sprayed
80. 2/014 concrete 116-117
Narendra Kumar Singh Tomar, Nitesh Kumar Rai
Measurement of hoop stress on Wye section during internal
81. 2/015 hydrostatic loading- Case history 117
B. K. Gupta
Vegetation as a constrain in landslide change detection using multi-
82. 2/016 temporal LiDAR data 117-118
Megotsohe Chasie, P.K. Theophilus, A.K. Mishra
Strategising hydropower generation in Meghalaya-evaluation of
neotectonic deterrents
83. 2/017
K. Nath, D. Gogoi, B. N. Mahanta, S. Halder, T. K. Goswami, R. K.
118-121
Sarma
Prognosis and management of water ingress hazard in mined rock
84. 2/018 caverns for hydrocarbon storage 121-122
Saikat Pal, Altaf Usmani, Debasish Biswas, Pavan Chakravarthy
Assessment of in-situ rockmass properties utilizing cross-hole
85. 2/019 Seismic Tomography 123
S. L. Kapil, Vipul Nagar
Underground hydraulic conductivity measurements in underground
86. 2/020 structures importance and new developments 123-124
Swetabh Singh, D.C Tripathi, Koteswara Rao. Kusunuri
Resistivity imaging technology for delineation of different structural
87. 2/021 geological features 124
Shweta, Vipul Nagar, Naveen Pandey
Assessment of health parameters for underground structures to
88. 2/022 evaluate the rockmass behaviour 124-125
Narendra Kumar Singh Tomar
GeoTools*3DLog: An App for estimating weak rock spans along
89. 2/023 tunnels and for much more 125-127
Yogendra Deva, Dr.Gopal Dhawan, Mugdha Patwardhan

23
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

High-accuracy long-range seismic prediction during tunnel

construction phase using TSP and correlation with geotechnical/
90. 2/024 geomechanical calculations using I-System; A recommended 128
prediction technique in (I)-TM
Kripal Choudhary, H. Bineshian

Normal and Shear Stiffness from Field Direct Shear Test

91. 2/025
Senthil P, D.V. Sarwade, K.K.Mishra, Hari Dev
128-129

Geotechnical Instrumentation and Monitoring of Excavation of

Underground Power House Caverns of Mangdechhu Hydro-Electric
92. 2/026
Project
129
Mishra, A.K., Punetha, P.
Mechanical behaviour of Carbonaceous rocks from Lesser Himalayan
93. 2/027 Region 130
P. S. K. Murthy, Dhirendra Kumar, Mahabir Dixit

An Overview of the Success in Resolving the Years-lasting Problem

of USBRLP’s T01 Tunnel in Himalayas’ MBT within the RT Zone by
94. 2/028
Employing I-System and (I)-TM
130
S Mahi, H. Bineshian, S. Gupta, R. K. Hegde

Theme 3: Geohazards and disaster risk reduction

Keynote abstracts

A review of seismic hazard status of the state of Bihar

95. KN 3.1
Prabhas Pande
132-133

Recent effects of high-altitude geomorphological systems for

96. KN 3.2 triggering geodisasters in the Himalayas 134
Ranjan Kumar Dahal

Multi-hazard Disaster Risk Reduction & Resilience: Challenges,

97. KN 3.3 Framework & Technologies 135
Maneesha V Ramesh

Landslide forecasting and monitoring for disaster risk

98. KN 3.4
Neelima Satyam
136
Abstracts
Catastrophic rockslides in the upper reaches of the Bhagirathi River
99. 3/001 valley: their past and future 137-138
Alexander Strom

6th July 1988 Naina Peak Landslide, Nainital, Uttarakhand:

100. 3/002 Reminiscences 139-141
G. C. Kandpal

Assessment of the various slope stabilization initiatives undertaken

along the pathways of Shri Mata Vaishno Deviji of Jammu and
101. 3/003
Kashmir Himalaya, India
141-142
A.K. Naithani, P.C. Nawani
Geological cues from frequent earth tremors in Dakshin Kannada-
102. 3/004 Kodagu border areas of Southern Karnataka, India 142-143
R Sajeev & Rahul V
Relationship between Structural Damage zone and Rockmass Clas-
sification for natural slope stability-Hardiya Nala Landslide, Inner
103. 3/005 Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India 143
Priya Joshi, Mohit Kumar Puniya, Pitamber Dutt Pant, Rajeev
Upadhyay

24
 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Hysteretic damping of sands under cyclic loading and its relation to

104. 3/006 Shear Modulus by Cyclic Simple Shear Testing 143
Uday Bhanu Chakraborty, Suresh Maurya, N. P. Honkanadavar
Stability analysis of lateritic soil slopes exposed near Rajapuri
village, Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra, India using limit equilibrium
105. 3/007
approach
144
Bhushan D. Kuthe, Saikat Roy & Prakash K. Gajbhiye
Understanding the effect of discontinuities on the slope instability
along NH-03, Himachal Pradesh, India
106. 3/008
Prateek Sharma, Rajesh Singh, Rahul Kumar Verma, Kumar,
145
Pranshu Mishra
Effect of water content, initial volume, and grain size distribution
107. 3/009 on debris flow runout and deposition: an experimental study 145
Rajesh Kumar Dash, Manojit Samanta, Debi Prasanna Kanungo

Terrain specific conditioning factors for Landslides in Western

108. 3/010 Maharashtra 146
Prakash K. Gajbhiye

Preliminary slope stability appraisal of Landslide in Amagarh Hill,

Jaipur, Rajasthan- a serious concern for the adjacent densely
109. 3/011
populated area
147
P.K. Sharma, Mohd. Ahmad, Debasish Bhattacharya
Landslides and slope stability assessment on Tarki-Tau Mountain
110. 3/012 (Eastern Caucasus, Russia) 147-149
O.V. Zerkal, I.V. Averin, I.K. Fomenko, D.D. Shubina
Landslide evaluation on the planetary bodies with special reference
111. 3/013 to the Earth 149-150
Pranshu Mishra, Rajesh Singh
Slope Mass Rating (SMR) of the vulnerable slopes near Khairna,
Uttarakhand, India
112. 3/014
Rahul Kumar Verma, Rajesh Singh, Prateek Sharma,
150
Pranshu Mishra

Assessment of road–cut slope stability as a function of geo-

mechanical slope mass category, rock microstructure and
geomorphic indices of ongoing tectonic activity: An example from
113. 3/015
Dharasu-Uttarkashi roadway (NH-108) section, Uttarakhand,
151-152
Northern India
Mrinal Kanti Mukherjee
Seismic hazard microzonation study in and around Kalyan, Dombivli
114. 3/016 and Badlapur area, Maharashtra 152-154
Bhupesh B. Urkude, Harsharaj L. Wankhade, D. Chakraborty
Review of trigger thresholds for landslides in tropical residual
soils
115. 3/017
Nikhil Nedumpallile Vasu, Vanessa Banks, Christian Arnhardt,
154-155
Majdi Mansour, Audrey Ougier-Simonin
Mapping Earthquake Induced Ground Rupture through
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR): A case
116. 3/018 study of the 22ndJune 2022 Afghanistan earthquake (Mw 5.9) 155-156
Snehasis Bhattacharya, Mrinmoy Kumar Das and Soumitra
Dasgupta
Classification of slope forming mass along the proposed cut slope
between Goilkera and Posoita, Chakradharpur division, SE Railway,
117. 3/019 Jharkhand 156-157
Debasish Bhattacharya, Sudipto Nath, N.R. Bhattacharjee

25
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Stability analysis of rock slopes along Manali-Marhi road corridor

118. 3/020 using Kinematic Analysis and Rock Mass Classification 157-158
Jina Mandal, Kundan D. Rangari, Prashant T. Ilamkar

Bank erosion in the largest inhabited river island Majuli: Neotectonic

119. 3/021 factors for protection strategies 158-159
Bashab N. Mahanta, Mansoom P. Kashyap, Baba M. Mahapatra
Study on implementable remedial measure for Landslide due to
120. 3/022 climate change and anthropogenic activities 160
Joyita Golder*, Koushik Shankhary, Gupinath Bhandari
A simple, quasi-quantitative approach for rapid landslide risk
121. 3/023 assessment to support regional landslide forecast in India 161
Gargi Singh, Sumit Kumar

Assessing the Landslide susceptibility of the Shri Amarnath Yatra

route corridor along Pahalgam-Poshpatri track, Anantnag District,
122. 3/024
Jammu and Kashmir
161-162
Mohd. Ibrahim, Abdul Q. Paul, Harish Bahuguna

Domain-based meso-scale Landslide Susceptibility Zonation with

special emphasis on landslide management map: A case study
123. 3/025 from Darjeeling Himalaya 163-164
Sunandan Basu, Suman Saha, Prithwiraj Maiti, Timir Baran
Ghoshal
Site-specific geological and geotechnical investigation of Landslide
incidences along road cut slopes from Dolwas to Peera road section,
124. 3/026 Jammu-Srinagar National Highway, District Ramban, Jammu and 162-163
Kashmir
Varun Mandotra, Parveen Kumar, Ajay Kumar
Slope instability Management around Batote town, District Ramban,
125. 3/027 Jammu and Kashmir 163-164
Abdul Qayoom Paul, Pankaj Kumar, Ajay Kumar
Impact of rockmass characteristics in inducing slope instability/
subsidence along Namol to Dhanti Road, block Pancheri, District
126. 3/028
Udhampur, Jammu and Kashmir
167-168
Parveen Kumar, Imran Khan, Harish Bahuguna
Influence of topography on landslide occurrence in and around
127. 3/030 Kodaikanal hills, Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu 168
Souvik Acharya, Balaji B.
Post-disaster Assessment of Catastrophic Karincholamala
Landslide in Kerala, India
128. 3/031
Sulal N. L., Vishnu C. S. , Archana K. G., Praveen K.R., Thrideep
168-169
Kumar, N.
Stress studies with special reference to coal mine planning
129. 3/032
D.N.Sharma
169-171
A qualitative approach in landslide susceptibility along Gauchar-
130. 3/033 Nandprayag Road, Chamoli District, Uttarakhand 171-172
Ritu Chauhan, Sandeep Sharma, M.K. Kaistha

Factors influencing the design seismic coefficient of Shahpurkandi

131. 3/034 Dam Project, district Pathankot, Punjab, India 173
Prashant Tukaram Ilamkar, Jina Mandal

Reactivation of an Old Landslide Zone at Piyakul in the Higher

Himalayan Zone of Jammu and Kashmir: Caveat for the Future
132. 3/035
Planning
173-174
Imran Khan, Harish Bahuguna

26
 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Geological and geotechnical apprisal of Kuligarh-Drabshalla

133. 3/036 Landslide, Kishtwar District, UT: Jammu and Kashmir, Jammu 174-175
Tarsam Kumar, Harish Bahuguna
Landslide hazard studies using bivariate statistical method in the
134. 3/037 Geo-environs of Chamba Township, Northwestern Himalayas 176-177
Wangshitula Ozukum, Manisha Biswal, Atul Kohli
Reappraisal of landslides catastrophe and mitigation with special
emphasis on geotechnical inputs for restoration of the distressed
135. 3/038
sites, Nilgiris district, Tamil Nadu
178
K. Jayabalan, P. Jeevanantham
Geological assessment and geotechnical appraisal of the proposed
National Institute of Technology at Sumari in Srinagar, Garhwal,
136. 3/039
Uttarakhand
179
Sebabrata Das, Harsharaj L. Wankhade, Neetu Chauhan, Vinay
Surface deformation monitoring in and around Mangan area, North
Sikkim with coherent point target interferometry
137. 3/040
Mrinmoy Kr. Das, Dhananjai Verma, P. K. Theophilus, M. Chasie,
180
S. K. Das and A. K. Mishra
Detailed geological investigation of Pulinda Landslide, Pauri
138. 3/041 Garhwal, Uttarakhand 180-181
Ravi Negi, Sebabrata Das
Three dimensional numerical simulation using Strength Reduction
Technique of Ambithang Landslide, Mangan, North Sikkim district,
139. 3/042 Sikkim, India 182
Verma D., Chasie M., Rajkumar M., Kumar M. D., Theophilus P.
K., Mishra A., K.
Geological investigation of Balianala Landslide: an altered
140. 3/043 perspective and engineering geological solution 183-184
Mridul Srivastava, Sebabrata Das, Adrija Chatterjee
Remote sensing and GIS based Landslide mapping for the
assessment of the impact of hydropower projects on landslides in
141. 3/044
Himalayas
184
Anish Mohan, Vipul Nagar, Naveen Kumar Pandey
Geological problems encountered in Diversion tunnel of Arun-3
142. 3/045 HEP Nepal (900MW) during excavation in Himalayan Geology 185
Arun Dhiman, Rakesh Sehgal, R. K. Chauhan
Seismic Hazard Microzonationin in and around Kozhikode, Kerala,
India- An integrated approach
143. 3/046 Rahul Dhiman, Animesh Thakur, Ali Asger, Sasmita Naik, Kunal 185-186
Kumar Singh, A. B. Ekka, B.P. Rawat, D. Livingston, R. Balaji, S.
K. Tripathi
Factors affecting slope stability for triggering rainfall induced
144. 3/047 landslide: A case study of Bhakra Dam, India 187
Arpita Pankaj, Pankaj Kumar
Morpho-tectonics of Chamba Basin: A relation with Landslide
145. 3/048 occurrences 188
Pankaj Kumar, Arpita Pankaj, Ajai Mishra
Assessment of Landslide Susceptibility and event based rockfall
modelling in parts of Shimla and adjoining area: An Earth Obser-
146. 3/049
vation Initiative
188-189
Mohit Singh, Shovan L. Chattoraj, Suresh Kannaujiya
Identification of river bank failures in the erosion vulnerable areas
of world’s largest river island: Majuli
147. 3/050
Mansum P. Kashyap, Baba Mrutyunjay Mahapatra., Bashab N.
190-191
Mahanta

27
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Impact Assessment of 2016 Pakistan Earthquake (Mw5.5) Around

148. 3/051 Gulistan Region 191-194
Shivam Saxena, Sandeep Kumar Mondal, Rishikesh Bharti
Drained triaxial experimental behaviour of some Landslide Hazard
Site Soils of Ukhiya, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
149. 3/052
Khan PA, Hossain ATMS, Sayem HM, Haque ME, Mahabub MS,
194-195
Khatu M, Imam MH, Jafrin SJ, Dutta T, Bakali R, Hasan M
A Geotechnical appraisal on the stability of slopes along the road
150. 3/053 section from Kanthan to Khanikot, district Reasi, Jammu 195
Parveen Kumar, Harish Bahuguna
Predicting landslide susceptibility zones and its controlling
151. 3/054 factors along NH44 of UT: J&K, a northwest Himalayan region 196
Riyaz Ahmad Mir, Zahid Habib, Ajay Kumar
Influence of Mineralogy on the Geotechnical properties of some soil
samples of the Rohingya Refugee Camps of Ukhiya-Teknaf, Cox’s
Bazar, Bangladesh
152. 3/055
Bakali R., Hossain Md. Sayem, Hossain ATMS., Imam H., Haque
196
M.E., Khatun M., Dutta T., Jafrin S.J., Khan P.A., Mahabub M.S.,
Hasan M.
Evaluation of the ground response of the Rangamati Landslide
Hazard Sites, Bangladesh using field SPT & grain size data
153. 3/056
Mahmuda Khatun, A.T.M. Shakhawat Hossain, Hossain Md.
197
Sayem
Direct shear box testing on some sand samples of Balukhali
Rohingya Refugee Camp, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
154. 3/057 Sheikh Jafia Jafrin, Atm Shakhawat Hossain, Hossain Md. Sayem, 197
Md. Hasan Imam, Md. Emdadul Haque, Mahmuda khatun, Ruma
Bakali, Tanmoy dutta, Purba AninditaKhan, Md. Shakil Mahbub
ML based Ensemble Spatial Landslide Initiation Forecasting in
Darjeeling Himalayas, India
155. 3/058
Sumit Kumar, Mauro Rossi, A. K. Mishra, Gargi Singh, Rabisankar
198
Karmakar, Rajkumar M.
Occurrences of creeping, sinking, and subsidence incidences in
Himachal Himalaya-Generalized geoscientific and geomorphic
156. 3/059
causes
198-199
Kundan Digambar Rangari, Jina Mandal, Prashant T. Ilamkar
Regional rainfall threshold for shallow Landslide forecast in
Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand -a step towards disaster risk
157. 3/060 reduction 199
Rabisankar Karmakar, Sumit Kumar, Ankur Kumar Srivastava,
Adrija Chatterjee
Establishing a pan-India network of GPS-Geodetic Observatories:
An Overview, Objective and Perspective
158. 3/061
Soumitra Bhargab Dasgupta, Snehasis Bhattacharya, L.H.
200-201
Moirangcha, A. K. Mishra
Slope stability assessment of rock slide using empirical method in
159. 3/062 Nigulsari, District Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh, India 202
Tripti Baba, Wangshitula Ozukum, Prashant T. Ilamkar
Impacts of landslide hazards on society and sustainable
development in Bangladesh
160. 3/063
Mohammad Feruj Alam, ATM Shakhawat Hossain, Mohammad
202
Ashraful Kamal
A comparison of Landslide Susceptibility map of Munnar area,
Idukki district, Kerala State developed from three different models
161. 3/064
on GIS platform
203
Rakhi Gopal R., Athira S.G., Rajaneesh A.
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 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Theme 4: Climate change and environmental impact assessment

Keynote abstracts
Climate Change and Imperatives for Safe and Sustainable
162. KN 4.1
Sudesh Kumar Wadhawan
206-207

Climate Variability &Geohazards –A Threat for Sustainable

Development In The Rohingya Refugee Camps of Ukhiya, Cox’s
163. KN 4.2
Bazar
208-209
ATM Shakhawat Hossain
Abstracts
Sustainability Assessment of Passive House Retrofits of Residential
164. 4/001 Buildings in India - A Life Cycle Carbon Balance 210-211
Bhanu Sowmya Andraju
Utilization of GGBS and Quarry Sand for Application asa Partial
165. 4/002 Replacement to Natural Sand in Construction: A Case Study 211
S. B. Bhavsar, D. L. Chavan, N. S. Patil, S. N. Patil

Understanding climate change impact on sustainable development

of environmental resources in lower parts of Mandakini River valley,
166. 4/003
Rudraprayag District, Uttarakhand, India
212-213
Fernanda Imada de Lima, Sudesh Kumar Wadhawan

Decoding the recurrence of extreme weather events and their

consequences vis-a-vis exogenic processes from AmarnathJi Cave
167. 4/004
area, Kashmir Himalaya
214-215
Abdul Qayoom Paul, Imran Khan, Harish Bahuguna

Potential of Flow Irrigation Scheme and Small Hydropower in

168. 4/005 South-Eastern part of Mikir massif, Assam, India 215-217
Manash Protim Baruah, D. Bezbaruaha, T, K, Goswami

Shear Strength of Unsaturated Granite Residual Soils under Multiple

169. 4/007 Drying-Wetting Cycles 217-218
Hossain Md. Sayem, Ling-Wei Kong
Arsenic, posing water security issues for urban infrastructure in
170. 4/008 Bihar 218-220
Akhouri Bishwariya, Shreya Singh, Divya

Fluoride contamination in groundwater in parts of Yadadri-

Bhuvanagiri and Nalgonda districts, Telangana- Causes & long
171. 4/009
term remedial measures
221
Satish B Chavan, Ramesh Guguloth, T. Vaideswaran, S.K.Tripathi

Shared Himalayan Geotourism & Research: Panacea for Safety,

172. 4/010 Peace and affluence 221-222
Arun Deep Ahluwalia

Theme 5: Emerging challenges in urban infrastructure

Keynote abstracts

(I)-TM; The Tunnelling Method that Solved the Years-lasting

Problem of USBRLP’s T01 in Lower Himalayas’ Main Boundary
173. KN 5.1
Thrust
224
H. Bineshian

Minimizing Geological Uncertainties Through Advanced Geophysical

174. KN 5.2 Technologies 225-230
S. L. Kapil

29
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Static and Dynamic Stability Analyses of Chenab Bridge

175. KN 5.3 Abutments: Technical and Social Challenges 231
Dr. K. S. Rao

Shear behaviour of natural rock discontinuities - insights from

176. KN 5.4 laboratory studies 232
Arindam Basu

Abstracts

Dealing with saturated zone and ground water inflow in urban

177. 5/001 tunneling in rock with TBM 233
Snehal Phadatare, Ganesh Ingale, Kshitiji Dhawale
Site Response Study Using H/V Ratios in and around Silchar City,
178. 5/002 Assam, India 233
K. K. Mukherjee, PiuDhibar, Pankaj Kumar Das, M. S. Kumar
Micro-Earthquake investigation in and around Vellore District,
179. 5/003 Tamil Nadu, India: An approach to infer seismicity level 234
O. P. Singh, Praveen Allipelli, S. K. Bhattacharya

Applications of GIS techniques in sustainable development of urban

180. 5/004 environment: An overview 235
N.S.Patil, S.N.Patil, A.K.Kadam, B.D.Patil, V.J.Patil
Integrated geo-environmental appraisal of Guwahati city to assess
181. 5/005 the causes and remedies of urban flood 235-236
Deepjyoti Gogoi, Suma C.S., Th. N.B. Singha
Restoration of Railway Embankment – A Case Study
182. 5/006 Somnath Banerjee, Aminul Islam, Sudip Kumar Koley, Prodyot 236-237
Kumar
Route Optimization for Emergency Vehicles – A Review
183. 5/007
S. P. Rasagna
237
Cognizance of Green Building for Sustainable Construction in Smart
184. 5/008 Cities…Decision to Build Green 238
P. Anupama
Urban Flooding Frequency Analysis – A Basis to Optimize Design
185. 5/009 Specification for Hydraulic Structures 238-239
Yajjala Lakshmi Prasanna
Safe and Sustainable Design of Overhead Service Reservoir – Intze
186. 5/010 Tank for Water Supply 239-240
Paidi Maneesha
Sustainable Design of Reinforced Concrete Chimney for Smart
187. 5/011 Cities to Isolate Pollutants to Higher Atmosphere 240
Mannava Yasaswini
Reappraisal of Urban Agglomerations and Prevention of Flood
188. 5/012 Inundations with Mitigations for Greater Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India 241
K. Jayabalan, K.Aravind, S.B. Vijay Kumar, Asrar Ahmed

Geology of Bangalore City and the challenges during tunnelling

189. 5/013
Fareeduddin
242

30
International Conference on Engineering
Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures
(EGCON 2022)

THEME-I
Safe and Sustainable
Infrastructure Development
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Keynote Abstract

KN 1.1
Safe and Sustainable infrastructure – A paradigm change
Balraj Joshi
Formerly CMD NHPC Ltd.

The development of any country is gauged by the number of developmental interventions of various forms and
manner and at various levels for improving the standard of living of Its citizens by promoting socio-economic
activity, be it agriculture, transportation, trading, manufacturing, service industry, and so forth.
All of these activities necessarily require infrastructure. The development of infrastructure is the development of
an eco-system that is economically viable, environmentally friendly, and the one that enhances the productivity
of a process or a person.
A Safe and Sustainable infrastructure encompasses a whole lot of sub-processes that would collate the
formulation, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of the infrastructure over its entire planned life
cycle. The bureau of Indian standards introduced the idea of safety and sustainability in IS 456: 1978 wherein it
introduced the safety as well as serviceability requirements and standards in a structured fashion. Even though
the emphasis of this code was to regulate and standardize the Design and construction of the RCC structures
but the concept is equally applicable to various systems, processes, and infrastructures alike towards the
idea of safety and sustainability. While the concept of safety is perceptibly understood by the realization that
the structure should be safe against various combinations of an array of forces that the structure is required
to withstand, the idea of sustainability is rather abstract. Simply put, the structure shall be able to perform
effectively & efficiently throughout its planned life. In this backdrop, one can define sustainability as applied to
the infrastructure as any intervention to which the eco-system of a physical state, process, or project can adapt
in a manner that it can perform its intended function throughout the estimated life of such an intervention,
would be justifiably called a sustaining infrastructure.
Various infrastructure projects thus have to be tested on this touchstone, they are in the transport sector
comprising the road in plain areas, roads in hilly areas, bridges, railway networks, Electricity generation projects
– Thermal, Hydro, Solar, and wind projects, transmission networks, so on and so forth.
To evolve a safe and sustainable structure, the performance requirements have to be meticulously defined, and
the properties and behaviour of every input- be it design processes, material, workmanship, and maintenance
have to be understood, documented, and ensured. Technical specifications are the blueprints that define and
ensure sustainability and these must be adapted and conducive to the latest available and proven technology
and have to be detailed enough so as not to leave anything undefined or ambiguous. A case in point is
the improved quality of our road surfaces which is largely attributable to our adoption of much improved
international technical specifications due to the institution of the golden quadrilateral road project.
Our understanding of the geotechnical interface with the structure has evolved substantially and with the advent
of state-of-art investigation methods & tools, we have a fairly good understanding of the material behaviour at
the microscopic levels, but we have to continue with this evolution process so that we can live without slope
stability issues, foundation subsidence and excessive deformations in our underground structures. With the use
of 3D modelling, our understanding of the structural behaviour of the structures during seismic excitation has
improved and has instilled larger confidence in our existing algorithms.
The climate change perspective has added a new dimension to our planning paradigm in the development of
hydropower and irrigation projects. Apart from the flash floods during construction, the spectre of GLOF like
phenomenon is expected to increase with the rise in global temperatures. The rainfalls are projected to be more
intense on one hand while being scanty on the other. The increased rain intensities would lead to increased
run-off and much more silt would be generated from our younger mountain ranges. The deposition of silt in our
reservoirs is already eating away our storage capacities and with increased run-off and with limited capacities
to store water, the water future does not appear to be very rosy. The sea levels are rising and this exposes our
constructions in the reclaimed areas more to the action of saline water. We must therefore consistently evolve
better concrete mixes to sustain the onslaught.
The good news is that we, as a scientific and technical community are alive to the situations and even have the
necessary wherewithal to address a possible adverse situation or conditions that may have a detrimental effect
on the safety & sustainability of our infrastructure. We need to make use of the technology to decipher the in-
situ stress and deformations characteristics and their time dependant behaviour on the structure as well as its
geo-technical interface, to evolve strategies for safe and sustainable infrastructure projects.

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 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

KN 1.2
Renewable Energy Integration Enhancement Using Renewable Energy Storage Technologies such
as Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Project (PSHP) for ZeroC
Praveen Mitter Nanda
Executive Vice President (Engineering & Projects), Greenko Group

The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and strengthening the security of electric energy has gained
enormous momentum recently. Integrating the renewable energy sources (RESs) such as solar and wind into
the existing grid has increased significantly in the last decade. However, this integration hampers the reliable
and stable operation of the grid by posing many operational and control challenges. Generation uncertainty,
voltage and angular stability, power quality issues, reactive power support and fault ride-through capability
are some of the various challenges. The power generated from RESs fluctuates due to unpredictable weather
conditions such as wind speed and sunshine. Energy storage systems (ESSs) play a vital role in mitigating
the fluctuation by storing the excess generated power and then making it accessible on demand. This paper
provides unique renewable electrical energy storage technologies used to integrate renewable energy sources
to the grid in large scale. There is a big opportunity to transition to a carbon-free economy future by integrating
ESS with renewable powers. It is proven that techno-economically the use of a hybrid solar-wind-pumped
(battery) storage system is the best option in terms of economic benefits and reliability.

33
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

KN 1.3
Application of Geomorphology in Sustainable Engineering Practices: Examples from
Hilly Areas
Sunil Kumar De
Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Applied geomorphological knowledge provides a clear view of how the earthwork sand is essential to solving
various problems, especially the development of resources and the diminution of hazards, to planning,
conservation, and specific engineering or environmental issues. It incorporates what is sometimes called
‘Engineering Geomorphology’.
Engineering geomorphology provides practical support for engineering decision-making (project planning,
design, and construction). Several points that need to be addressed by an engineering geomorphologist include:
the nature of ground conditions that could be expected in a particular area, the nature of risk from erosion or
depositional processes over its design lifetime, sources of problems, the likelihood of the project being affected
by instability, erosion or deposition processes over its design lifetime, the effect of climate change or sea-level
rise on the project risks, effects of the project elsewhere, suitable aggregates be found in sufficient quantities
to satisfy the project demand for construction materials and many others.

For the present purpose, an intensive investigation of landslide events along the national highway has been
carried out in Tripura. For such analysis, we have prepared a detailed landslide susceptibility map, and risk
map and proposed scientific measures based on a geotechnical investigation. For assessing the landslide risk,
we have used fuzzy set theory and determined the spatial distribution of different risk categories on different
land-use/ landcover types. For such a study, a landslide susceptibility map and land-use/ landcover map have
been used as input data layers. The input data layers have been quantified using Analytical Hierarchic Process
(AHP) to produce a risk scoring. Finally, these risk-scoring maps indicating fuzzy membership values have been
integrated to get the final landslide risk-scoring map of the Dhalai district, Tripura. The values of landslide risk
matrices range from 0.001 to 0.18. The risk-scoring map was then reclassified into very high, high, moderate,
low, and very low-risk zones. The final risk assessment map shows that only 0.45% (10.80 km2) of the district
is under a very high-risk zone. The major part (94.06%) of the district is under the very low and low-risk zone.
The risk assessment map indicates that about 50% of road sections are prone to high or very high landslide
risk.

For proposing a landslide hazard mitigation plan, different aspects like geological, geotechnical, metrological,
and anthropogenic factors behind the occurrence of the landslide have been studied to identify the principal
cause and trigger of the landslide. A geophysical investigation has been carried out on a large volume
landslide that occurred on the slopes (latitude 23° 53’20.50”N, longitude 91° 46’29.78”E) of Surma deposits
of Atharamura Hill, Tripura. For such study, measurement of micro slope using Total Station, clinometers, and
the LISCAD software for terrain modelling and determining the total volume of the material displaced and total
area affected by landslides and analysis of soil properties have been considered to understand the present
condition of the scarps. Results obtained through intensive field investigation and laboratory testing revealed
that unconsolidated sandy materials with the occasional intersection of silt or clay layers, continuous seepage
through the fractures, and unscientific cutting of hill slopes for the widening of the road (NH44) have triggered
the landslides through an abundant precipitation event in monsoon season.

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 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Abstract No: 1/001

Importance of Foundation Geological map of major structures of any Hydroelectric
Project-A case study from Himalaya
Indranil Chakraborty*, Bhanu Prakash Rawat
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Foundation geological mapping of any important structures of hydroelectric projects is essential for safe
construction of the same. Geological mapping is done by collecting all the geological data, followed by proper
interpretation and site-specific suggestive measures. It is also an important document for the post-construction
stage. This paper deals with one of such case studies from the Bhutan Himalaya. The powerhouse complex
(1200 MW) of Punatsangchhu-I Hydroelectric Project, Bhutan contains one underground powerhouse, one
transformer hall cavern (THC), and one downstream surge gallery (DSG) on the left bank of the Punatsangchhu
River within quartzo-feldspathic biotite gneiss belonging to Sure Formation of Thimphu Group of Precambrian
age. It comprises six Francis turbines (units) of 200MW capacity each.

Fig-1: Foundation Geological map of Unit-2 floor, Punatsangchhu-I Hydroelectric Project

Engineering geological mapping on 1:100 scale (Figure-1) of the foundation of the unit-2/pit-2 for placing the
turbine at the powerhouse has been carried out. Poor (class-IV) to fair (class-III) grade quartzo-feldspathic
gneiss with minor mica schist band intersected by two major and one minor shear, four prominent joints along
with foliation are delineated in the foundation.
The three shear zones encountered in the foundation were projected (Figure-2) towards Unit-1/Pit-1for early
assessment of the foundation of Unit-1. It has been noticed that the shear zones would intersect around 8m,
13m, and 15m below the foundation level of unit-1. Based on the engineering geological investigations, the
geotechnical problems are identified and site-specific remedial measures are suggested. Dental treatment of
the shear zones as well as deep rock anchors proposed to stitch the weak/sheared rock mass with the sound
were rockmass below the foundation of Pit 1 & 2 to negate any uplift pressure along with reinforced concrete
are the major recommendations.
35
16-17 November, 2022 Kolkata, India
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Fig-2: Projection of shear zones from Unit-2 towards Unit-1

It is underscored that no weak zone (minor or major shear) was noticed during the foundation geological
mapping of the Pit-1 and the rock type was fresh quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with minor pegmatite veins, but
the geological projection of shear zones detected in the foundation of pit-2 indicates that site-specific measures
are very much required to strengthen the foundation of the pit-2 for placing the huge turbine safely. Thus, a
foundation geological map as well as proper analysis of geological data derived from the map play a vital role
in the preparation of a safe foundation of important structures of any hydroelectric project to nullify the effect
of both exposed and hidden adverse geological features; in turn helps the project engineers and designers a
lot in proper planning, execution and successful implementation of the project.

Abstract No: 1/002

Influence of Paleo and Neo stresses on underground construction sites
D S Subrahmanyam*
Scientist & Head (GED), National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bangalore
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Construction of hydroelectric power projects has become the need of the hour today in India. Consequently,
large, and small-scale Hydro Power Projects are growing in various parts of India, particularly in hilly areas. The
planning and successful completions of these projects require not only geological mapping but the large- and
small-scale structural analysis of the areas that are of prime importance. The paleo and neo-stress tensors in
relation to major and minor structures of projects also are important in the successful running of the projects.

Though considerable advances have been made in the measurements of in-situ stress over the past 25 years
the interpretations of these measurements with respect to geological structures have not received significant
attention. From different hydro and mining sites all over the world, many observations implicating the rotation
of stress orientation as much as 90° near geological structures are reported. Hence it is clarified that the in-
situ stress parameters are controlled by major geological structures like folds, faults, and intrusives. Besides

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 International Conference on Engineering Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

this, the magnitude and distribution of in situ stresses are also governed largely by the rock mass structure
and its cumulative geological history. The role played by the scale effect and the boundary conditions due to
the composite nature of rocks from the micro-scale to the regional scale in rock masses is important to civil,
petroleum, and mining projects. At many construction sites, the rotation of stress orientation was as high as 900
to the geological structures. Due to the proximity of these perturbed stresses to the underground structures, it
is expected that these stresses will have a greater impact on the overall stability of the underground structure
than regional stresses. Thus, stress perturbations due to local geological structures at the site of underground
projects must be clearly understood before stress values are taken as input parameters for the design of any
structure.

This paper explains the importance of Paleo and Neo stresses and their influence on underground construction
sites for successful planning and design.

Abstract No: 1/003

Development of cracks and ground subsidence in Chota Rasulpur village, Purba
Medinipur District, West Bengal – a deep concern associated with excessive exploitation
of groundwater
K.S Gupta*, D. Bhattacharya
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The appearance of earth crack and ground subsidence affecting 1600 sq. ft. of agricultural land was reported
near Chotto Rasulpur village, Sarvodaya Gram Panchayat of Egra-II Block under Purba Medinipur District. The
Chotto Rasulpur village (21° 51’ 20’’: 87° 38’ 20’) falls in Survey of India toposheet no. 73 O/9. The authors
carried out the necessary geotechnical assessment of the aforesaid phenomenon. Development of earth crack
and ground subsidence has not been reported earlier from this part of West Bengal. In the previous reports
of GSI where extensive work has been carried out on Quaternary Geology in this District, no such incidences
are mentioned. Development of fissures and subsidence of ground surface generally takes place due to the
following four reasons, either independently or as a combined effect of them:

(i) Seismic activity, (ii) Excessive or over withdrawal of groundwater, (iii) Mining activity, and (iv) Presence of
a buried channel. Based on the field observations and local information, three (first, third and fourth) of the
above-mentioned possibilities were ruled out in this particular case.

The area represents a part of the vast alluvial plain/tract of the Bengal Basin as the geomorphic province
confined between the Haldi River in the northwest and the Bay of Bengal in the southeast. The topography of
the area is flat with a very gentle regional slope towards the southeast. In this area, the groundwater table
is deep and occurs under confined conditions. The first layer of sand begins at a depth of about 300 ft and is
60ft thick, yielding saline water. The next sandy layer is very thick and begins at a depth of about 700ft, an
excellent aquifer that produces sweet potable water. The sandy layers are separated by thick and hard older
alluvium consisting of clay and silt. The soil mass contains a significant amount of silt (76%-83%), a small
amount of clay (12%-13%), and a very little amount of sand (4%-14%). The liquid limit of the soil samples
collected varies from 39 to 78, the plastic limit varies from 26-33 and the plasticity index of the soil mass in
this area ranges from 12 to 45. During summer, in Chotto Rasulpur and the surrounding area, the practicing
cultivation survives only on deep tube wells having a depth of more than 700 ft, since there is no proper
irrigation facility. As a result, groundwater is excessively withdrawn from the above-mentioned second layer
through the prolonged and continuous operation of heavy-duty submersible pumps without giving sufficient
time for an optimum recharge. The aquifer from which water is being pumped out may not have a continuous
lateral extension; rather it may be of pinching & swelling type (perched aquifer) with limited lateral extension.
In the perched aquifer condition, the sandy lenses holding limited water, when tapped, lead to shrinkage due to
the dehydration of the overlying clay. This, in turn, results in the development of wavy cracks on the surface.
Moreover, considering the compositional difference between the sand lenses and the confining clay layers, it
is also possible that some differential volume adjustment takes place due to draining out of the water from
the sand lenses without corresponding recharge, ultimately leading to the subsidence of the ground lying
immediately above.

37
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Abstract No: 1/004

Occurrences of sub-vertical and sub-horizontal joints detrimental to tunnel stability -

A case study from Chheligada Irrigation project, Odisha
Debasis Mohanty*, Er. Sagar Mohanty
Department of Water Resources, Government of Odisha
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

To facilitate inter-basin transfer (from Vansadhara basin to Rushikulya basin) of water from the Chheligada
reservoir to the water-scarce Ghodahada reservoir, a tunnel of 3m dia is being constructed near Mahendragada
town of Gajapati district in Odisha. The alignment of the tunnel is N35°W-S35°E and runs along the hill base.
The tunnel cuts through granite gneiss country rock with a crude trend of the foliation of N10°W-S10°E. The
total length of the tunnel is 1280m with a gradient of 1 in 705. 3-D geological logging from chainage 1217m to
chainage 1158m has been carried out with the help of Leica Total Station and 3 prominent sets of joints could
be traced. Two of them are sub-vertical and one is sub-horizontal. Multiple occurrences of sub-horizontal joints
containing clay infilling of thickness ranging from 0.02m to 0.80m are found to occur between Ch. 1211m to Ch.
1158m. Intersection of 3 joints sets can be traced along the crown portion which gives rise to wedge failure. In
view of the above-ground condition, an SRF (Stress Reduction Factor) value of “10” is taken for the Q-system of
rock mass classification. RQD of the tunnel face is estimated using “Volumetric Joint Count” (In-direct method).
RQD value ranges between 70% to 95% i.e. fair to excellent. Due to the higher SRF value, according to the
“Q” classification, from Ch. 1217m to Ch. 1211.5 m, the Q value is 1.87-2.49 (“Poor” Category according to
Q classification) and beyond Ch. 1211.5m up to the heading at Ch. 1158 m, the rock mass quality degrades
drastically and remains within “Extremely poor” to “Very Poor” category (Q = 0.058- 0.125) as per “Q” system.
Based on the rock mass classification, support systems such as rock bolts and steel ribs have been installed to
ensure the stability of the stretch.

Fig-1: Schematic diagram depicting orientation of Fig-2: Major joint sets traces within the
joints with respect to tunnel alignment tunnel

Abstract No: 1/005

Problem of construction of tunnel along a deep cutting reach of Rengali left bank
cannel project, Jajpur District, Odisha
Jaydip Mukherjee*, R.C.Munda, Debaprasad Sahoo
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In order to avoid deep excavation to the tune of 20.5m and 33.5m, a 3.460 km long (either a single tunnel
having 8.5m diameter or twin tunnels having 5.93m diameter)was proposed for routing design discharge of
89.605m3/sec of 141 km long Rengali Left Bank canal. The proposed tunnel is aligned in the N50°E-S50°W
direction between RD 100.49 km (inlet portal)- RD 101.740 km and in the N69°E-S69°W direction between
RD 101.740 km - RD 103.950 km (outlet portal), with a 19° kink at RD 101.740 km. Topographically, the area
along the tunnel alignment forms a part of the peneplain and is crossed by three dry/ seasonal streamlets
at RD 100.775 km, RD 102.21 km, and RD 103.010 km. The area belongs to the Iron Ore Group of rocks of
Singhbhum Super Group represented by quartzite forming narrow linear ridges with silicified metabasic rock
and granite gneiss intruded by dolerite dyke.
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The area around the proposed tunnel alignment shows the presence of grayish coloured silty clay with ferruginous
and calcareous concretions with scanty outcrops of quartzite showing N20°W-S20°E striking foliation with 45°-
50° dip towards N70°E. Apart from the foliation joint, the rock mass has been dissected by N45°-60°W-S45°-
60°E/N50°E-S50°W striking smooth, planar and tight vertical joints. Foliation and most joint planes show an
askew relationship with the proposed tunnel alignment.
Subsurface exploration along the proposed tunnel alignment shows the presence of highly weathered, jointed,
and intensively fractured metabasic rock/ultramafic rock as tunnelling media. Q value at the crown level ranges
between 0.003 and 2.2 indicating “exceptionally poor” to “very poor” quality of rock mass where RQD ranges
between nil and 32. RMR value at the proposed crown varies between 0.489 and 49.183 indicating the “very
poor” to “fair” category of rockmass. At the proposed tunnel invert, the Q value ranges between 0.013 and
4.9333 indicating the “extremely poor” to “fair” category of rockmass. Modified RMR value at the invert level
varies from 0.489 to 53.885 indicating the “poor” to “fair” category of rockmass. RQD in invert level varies
between nil and 70. Near the inlet portal, fresh rock cover is nil to 2.872 whereas no fresh rock cover exists
near the outlet portal where the Q value ranges between 0.003 and 0.006. No fresh rock cover over the crown
occurs between RD 101.6 km(deepest section) and RD 103.950 km(outlet portal).0.372m-8.46m thick fresh
rock cover (<1D) occurs between RD 100.52 km and RD 101.6 km. Uniaxial compressive strength of the rock
mass varies from 2.35 to 18.8N/mm2 indicating poor rock mass strength. Groundwater occurs at a shallow
depth varying between 1.3m and 8m.
A detailed study shows that “poor” to “exceptionally poor” quality of rockmass constitute the tunneling media.
Absence of required fresh rock cover i.e. 2D (D-tunnel diameter) over tunnel crown, and shallow groundwater
level are the main adverse features for tunneling. Excessive over break at the crown and spring level, tunnel
collapse and loose rock fall have been anticipated. Shallow groundwater levels and the nala crossing points can
cause a sudden inflow of ground water-which may carry large quantities of weak rock mass during excavation
causing cavity and chimney formation. Moreover, groundwater can lubricate clay-filled joints and shear planes
and thus causing destabilization of the rockmass. Considering the above, open excavation with slope moderation
through benching and drainage or cut and cover has been recommended instead of the construction of the
tunnel.

Abstract No: 1/006

Critical wedges identification and their stabilization in underground Tunnel - A case

study of Rammam III HEP
Sanjib Kumar Bhakat*, Satish Upadhyay, Rajeev Ranjan, Vibhu Kaushal
NTPC Ltd, Rammam III HEP, Darjeeling, West Bengal
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Two general possible failure mechanisms in tunnels and caverns - structurally controlled and stress-induced
ones. Both are dependent mainly on the quality of rock mass, Joints attribute, and in-situ stress conditions.
Structurally controlled instability especially wedge failure is most common in jointed rock masses at relatively
shallow depths. The wedges are formed by intersecting discontinuities and the free face is created through
the excavation of an underground opening. Under the influence of gravity and other forces, the roof and wall
wedges may dislodge by falling, sliding, rotation, or a combination of all the above.
The wedge stability analysis was carried out using the Rocscience UnWedge Software in the Head race tunnel
and Adit tunnel. The analysis shows that some critical wedges, with the factor of Safety less than 1, are formed
in these tunnels. All identified critical wedges become stable after implementation of designed rock support.

Abstract No: 1/007

Underground-unlined Crude Oil Strategic Storage Cavern Project, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh,
India – Concept, Construction and Challenge

S. K. Mohanty1*, Dr. Florian Krenn2, Dr. Oskar Sig3

1
L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC, Visakhapatnam, 2Geoconsult India Pvt. Ltd. Gurgaon, Haryana,
3
Geoconsult Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

India’s population is nearly 1.3 billion and these numbers are increasing daily. Around 70-80% of the population
is completely dependent on petrol, diesel and other essential needs. India does not possess any kind of natural
oil reserves and is completely dependent on oil-reserved nations like the United States, Saudi Arabia, Russia,

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 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Canada, China, Iraq, United Arab Emirates, Brazil, Iran, Kuwait, etc. Whenever there are situations like war,
pandemic (COVID-19), and other emergencies, the natural oil reserved countries cannot export the oil to other
countries which will lead to great chaos in the country.
Oil-consuming economies, in particular, the Indian economy is likely to become increasingly vulnerable to oil
supply disruptions in the coming decades for the growing reliance on specific regions for energy supply vis-à-
vis the political instability associated with such regions. Therefore, the political and economic damages from oil
supply interruptions could be regulated through alternative attentiveness and comeback conducts to alleviate
the gap in the oil supply and demand. The oil stocks could be used reliably, at the government’s discretion,
during an emergency to make up for the shortfall caused by interrupted oil supply.
With the increase in crude oil consumption in India, the need for new import terminals with significant storage
capacity is a critical aspect due to environmental constraints and, quite often, land restrictions in the areas of
interest. After the development of techniques to achieve hydrodynamic containment in underground-unlined
rock caverns, the storage of oil became commercially attractive in the 1950s. In subsequent years, quite a
lot of underground-unlined rock caverns, which are cost-effective, environmental-friendly, safe, and sound as
compared to conventional surface tanks, have been constructed in hard rock in many countries.
In a socio-politically sensitive area of Southeast Asia, the security of the supply of petroleum products assumes
great importance. To ensure safe, secured, adequate, and strategic storage required for sustaining 35-40 days
of refinery operations, the Government of India-GoI has been augmenting its storage capacity. To deal with
contingencies arising out of any disruption in the supply chain, the government decided to set up strategic crude
oil reserves of 5.33 MMT at a total cost of Rs. 11,267 Crores (at September 2005 prices) at Visakhapatnam,
Andhra Pradesh (eastern-coast), and at Mangalore and Padur, Karnataka (western-coast) in India.
The principle for storage of crude oil in underground-unlined rock caverns essentially makes use of confinement
by groundwater pressure for containing the products within. The storage of crude oil in underground-unlined
rock caverns is based on the following basic principles: a) The stored oil is lighter than water and is not soluble
in water, and b) The storage cavern is located below the surrounding groundwater level. When the cavern is
excavated below the surrounding groundwater level, due to natural fissures in the rock, water continuously
percolates towards the cavern, thus preventing oil from leaking out.
Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited-ISPRL, a special purpose vehicle and a wholly owned subsidiary of
the Oil Industry Development Board, was set up by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. ISPRL awarded
the package of constructing an underground-unlined rock cavern for storage of 1.33 MMT of high sulfur crude oil
at Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh in India to Hindustan Construction Company Limited, where-in Geoconsult
India Pvt. Ltd.-India, Geoconsult ZT GmbH-Austria, and Geoconsult Asia Singapore Pte. Ltd.-Singapore were
appointed for detailed design and site services.
The unlined rock caverns for oil storage call for site characterization in terms of geology, hydrogeology,
geochemistry, geomechanics, and geotechnics, which in turn facilitates assimilation, assessment, and
amalgamation of all relevant data to establish an overall geological and/or geotechnical framework. In general,
the construction of an unlined rock cavern comprises five principal activities: (i) geological and/or geotechnical
site investigations; (ii) stability assessment; (iii) temporary rock supports design; (iv) excavation and related
works; and (v) permanent rock supports re-design according to the observational approach.
This paper outlines the concept, construction, and challenges during the construction stage of the Underground
Crude Oil Strategic Storage Cavern Project, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Fig. Isometric view of Underground-unlined Crude Oil Strategic Storage Cavern, Vizag
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Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Abstract No: 1/008

Geological Risk Mitigation Plans and Strategies for Underground Construction Projects
Narendra Singh Rana, Swapan Kumar Mohanty*
Larsen and Toubro Limited-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Underground construction projects are inherently risky mainly because of the variability and unpredictable nature
of geological conditions. In addition, challenging conditions such as fault and shear zones; highly fractured and
jointed rock mass; high in-situ stresses – deformation and settlements; high groundwater inflows/pressures,
and toxic gases present significant risks for underground projects. Therefore, an effective geological risk
management process is crucial to the successful completion of these projects, and a comprehensive geological
risk assessment and geological mitigation plans and strategies are the first step in this process.

Some of the anticipated geological hazard events in underground construction projects are mentioned below:

Potential Hazard Events Controlling Factors

Unfavourable structural conditions: primary discontinuity

Rock fall (cooling cracks, stratification, schistosity), secondary
discontinuities (fractures and faults of tectonic origin, folds,
karst dissolution); seismicity
Unfavourable structural conditions;, lithology (rock with brittle
Sidewall instability (rock burst,
behaviour), tensional state (i.e. high depth, folds, faults /
spalling, spitting, slabbing)
thrusts), seismicity
Lithology (rock with ductile behaviour), tensional state,
Squeezing or swelling
hydrogeological conditions

Lithology (loose rock), unfavourable structural conditions,

Face collapse
hydrogeological conditions, seismicity

Groundwater(tunnel inflow, Water

Permeability, structural conditions, hydrogeological conditions
table drawdown, spring extinction)

Gases in tunnel Lithology (clastic and bio-clastic rock), structural conditions

High temperature High depth, nearness of magmatic bodies

Surface settlements and sinkholes Lithology (loose and weak rocks), low depth, hydro

Underground construction projects involve the resolution of technical problems whose complexity depends on
the geological context. An “unforeseen geologic event” can produce a relevant increase in time and costs, in
the order of 30% of the whole tunnel cost. A proactive risk management process is critical for these difficult
projects and identifying the key geological risks is an important first step. There are numerous benefits of a
comprehensive geological risk assessment: applicable risks are more easily defined; it is less likely that key
risks will be missed, and the ability to develop more effective risk mitigation plans and strategies.

The types and range of risks have to be evaluated in close cooperation between the engineers, geologists,
hydrogeologists, and any other specialists required for specific circumstances.

The basic geological risk management process involves

1. Identifying the applicable hazards associated with the project.

2. Determining the consequences of each hazard.
3. Assessing the chances (or probability) that each hazard will be encountered.
4. Developing strategies to mitigate the critical risks.
5. Monitoring of the efforts to mitigate risks; checking the effectiveness of mitigation measures; and
evaluating potential new risks.
This paper proposes a synthesis of the state-of-art on geological risk assessment, geological mitigation plans
and strategies for Underground Construction projects.
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 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Abstract No: 1/009

Remediation of acid mine drainage

Neelam Phougat*, Sameer Vyas, U.S.Vidyarthi
Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi-110029
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Kopili River flows through the states of Meghalaya and Assam. Acid from illegal coal mines of Meghalaya has
polluted the Kopili river and its tributaries. Kopili hydroelectric power project is an important project because
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura are getting benefited from
this project. Kopili hydroelectric project has suffered serious damage due to contamination of Kopili river by
acid mine drainage from open cast coal mines and rat hole mines in Meghalaya. The acidic water of the Kopili
River has been seriously affecting the performance of the Kopili hydroelectric project due to severe corrosion
and damage to the water pipe and underwater parts of the generating units. Kopili hydropower station in
Assam suffered a major disaster on 7 October 2019 when it was submerged and flooded due to a rupture in a
pipeline. The pH level of the acidic water in the reservoir was 3.25. The burst pipe was designed to bring water
at the rate of 12,000 liters per second. The fountain of water from the burst pipe rose several hundred feet
and continued to do so for hours. A huge loss of INR 6 billion occurred due to the accident at Kopili hydropower
station. Though the water of Kopili River is unfit for human consumption thousands of villagers living near Kopili
river are using this water. The presence of heavy metals in water due to high acidity levels of river water could
do a lot of damage to the human body.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) forms when sulfide minerals deep in the earth are exposed to oxidizing conditions
during mining, highway construction, or other large-scale excavations. Acid mine drainage occurs after mining
exposes metal sulfides to oxidizing conditions. Upon exposure to water and oxygen, most sulfide minerals are
oxidized to form sulfuric acid, metal ions, and sulphate which are leached into the surface or groundwater to
pollute it. When AMD enters surface water bodies, acidic water and metal precipitates have a toxic effect on
organisms and the colour of water changes. Water often becomes unsuitable for domestic, agricultural, and
industrial uses.

Acid mine drainage can be controlled by actively or passively treating acid-producing rock to stop or retard the
production of acid. Active treatment of acid mine drainage is done by land reclamation, injection of alkaline
materials into underground mines, remaining abandoned areas, oxygen barriers, water covers, etc., and passive
treatment of acid mine drainage is done by forming alkaline leach beds, open limestone channels, anoxic
limestone drains, vertical flow wetlands, constructed wetlands, etc. Certain systems are better suited to specific
water quality and can provide good treatment success. AMD from acid-producing materials can be controlled by
certain alkaline amendments. Blending acid-producing and acid-neutralizing rocks in the reclamation process
to develop a neutral material are done. Companies must choose the chemical that treats the water adequately
and cost-effectively. Mining companies must predict AMD before mining. On sites where the potential exists,
quick coverage of acid-producing materials in the backfill should be practiced. Low maintenance is required
for passive treatment systems implemented on abandoned mine land and stream restoration projects. Over
the long-term, maintenance of passive systems is necessary but it is not needed as frequently as for active
treatment systems. A comprehensive survey of the literature on acid mine drainage is done and various aspects
related to the process of acid mine drainage formation, its hazardous impact on the environment and living
organisms, and preventative and control measures are being discussed in this paper.

Abstract No: 1/010

Terrain Boundary shear zone and its bearing in Upper Kolab Multipurpose Project,
Koraput District, Odisha
Asim Kumar Basu*, Jaydip Mukherjee
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Terrain Boundary Shear Zone (TBSZ) demarcates the boundary between two contrasting terrains i.e. granulitic
terrain of Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt (EGMB) in the east and Bastar Craton in the west. This boundary shear zone
plays a vital role in Upper Kolab Multipurpose Project -one of the major projects in Odisha. This project consists
of a 646 m long and 55 m high masonry cum concrete gravity storage dam with a centrally located 169m long
spillway, constructed across river Kolab, a tributary of Godavari River near village Koranga (18°47’:82°37’,
65J/9) with intake structure of power outlet at the foot of the right abutment hill for carrying 120 m3/s design
discharge through a 6m. dia. 3838m long Horse shoe shaped head race tunnel up to the 15m diameter

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Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

and 145m deep surge tank. From surge tank up to valve house for a length of 391m. 2 nos. of steel lined
pressure tunnels of 5.5 m. dia carries the discharge. From the valve house, 4 nos. of steel penstocks of 3.5m
dia. and length 537m are feeding to the 4 units of the powerhouse to generate 320 MW electricity under an
average head of 253m. Tailrace water has been used for drinking water supply at Jeypore Town nearby and
to irrigate 69982 hectares of ayacut. The main headwork structures i.e. dam, intake, head race tunnel, surge
shaft, valve house up to penstock anchor block 1 are located in high-grade EGMB where main rock types are
charnockite, pyroxene granulite, granite gneiss, and meta dolerite of Granulite facies. The sheared contact
between charnockite and hornblende granite gneiss of Bastar craton and from Anchor Block .3 up to tail channel
low grade, medium to coarse-grained garnetiferous gneiss, hornblende gneiss, amphibolites, and biotite quartz
schist of Green Schist to Amphibolite facies occur. The sheared contact is marked by a 1.5m-3m wide foliation
parallel shear zone consisting of sheared rockmass showing N70°E-S70°W strike and 45°-60° dip towards
hill (i.e. upslope direction) and traverses the block obliquely. The upslope part of the shear zone shows the
presence of moderately weathered to fresh, hard, jointed charnockite suit of rock whereas the shear zone itself
and downslope part show the presence of quartzo feldspathic hornblende gneiss with bands of softer greyish
black quartzite- which is foliated at places. This shear zone occurs along the western margin of EGMB and is
characterized by the presence of southerly inclined mylonitic foliation, down dipping stretching lineation, quartz
ribbon, verging S-C fabric, and sigmoidal porphyroblast indicating simple shear deformation. The Mylonite zone
shows the growth of hornblende, biotite, chlorite, and epidote with the extensive crushing of rockmass and
shows the transition from granulite facies to green schist-amphibolite facies hence this shear zone is termed
as “retrograde shear zone”. In view of the presence of horizontal clay-filled joints in litho units, 1.5m-3m wide
shear zone, and different types of rocks of varied bearing capacity, the problem of differential settlement has
been anticipated, and accordingly, adequate dental treatment for shear zone along with proper anchoring and
intensive consolidation grouting has been provided.

Abstract No: 1/011

Grouting to Arrest Water Seepage and Maintain Hydrodynamic Confinement in Strategic Storage of
Crude Oil Project, Padur, Karnataka, India
S. Shashank1*, Shekhar2, Swapan Kumar Mohanty1
1
L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC, 2Patna Science College, Patna University
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In a socio-politically sensitive area of Southeast Asia, the security of the supply of petroleum products assumes
great importance. To ensure safe, secured, adequate, and strategic storage required for sustaining 35-40 days
of refinery operations, the Government of India-GoI has been augmenting its storage capacity. To deal with
contingencies arising out of any disruption in the supply chain, the government decided to set up strategic crude
oil reserves of 5.33 MMT at a total cost of Rs 11,267 Crores (at September 2005 prices) at Visakhapatnam,
Andhra Pradesh (eastern-coast), and at Mangalore and Padur, Karnataka (western-coast) in India.

The principle for storage of crude oil in underground-unlined rock caverns essentially makes use of confinement
by groundwater pressure for containing the products within. When the cavern is excavated below the surrounding
groundwater level, due to natural fissures in the rock, water continuously percolates towards the cavern, thus
preventing oil from leaking out. The reason for this, 2 horizontal water curtain tunnels were constructed 20
m above the cavern, and water was pressurized at 2.5 bar to 3.0 bar artificially through number of boreholes
drilled all along the water curtain tunnels.

Fig. Generalized Hydrodynamic Confinement Principle

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 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

During excavation, in the southwest corner, high persistence (>50 m) sub-horizontal joints with a spacing of
2.0 m to 5.0 m were encountered. These joints originated from an intrusive dyke (TD2 dyke), which was highly
permeable with a hydraulic conductivity of 5x10-5 m/sec. TD2 dyke was getting recharged by an interpreted
fault, which lay about 300 m beyond the project premises. These joints first came across during heading
excavation (El. -40.0 m to El. -48.0 m) with very minor to no seepage. During Bench-1 and Bench-2 excavation,
these joints were much more prominent and persistent.

Pre-WPT and grouting (where water seepage was more than the permissible limit) were carried out during
excavation. These joints were not anticipated as prominent water-bearing lineament during the investigation
stage as well as during water curtain tunnel excavation. Therefore, additional investigation boreholes were
planned from the surface to monitor the groundwater level while progressive excavation along this lineament.
Unexpected water seepage was observed in heading (El. 42.0 m to 44.0 m) a month after completion of the
proposed borehole (MWB-19) from the surface, whereas excavation was going at Bench-2 (El. -64.0 m).

Unexpected water seepage 20.0 m above the current excavation level created the instability of hydrodynamic
confinement in and around the area, which was evident from the decreasing trend of groundwater level in
surface monitoring boreholes, and also from water curtain tunnel boreholes along and around TD2 dyke,
where-in pressure decreased and water flow increased with time. Nevertheless, arresting the unexpected water
seepage 20.0 m above the current excavation level, maintaining hydrodynamic confinement, and retaining the
project time schedule was a great challenge.

To finalize the correct grouting locations and methodologies, a number of tests and investigations were carried
out within the cavern as well as from water curtain tunnels. From all the reviews and investigations, the
reason for water seepage 20.0 m above the current excavation level was identified, and it was established
and concluded that grouting should be done from water curtain tunnels, which would not affect the overall
progress of the project and project time-schedule. Seepage was stopped from heading after grouting, and the
groundwater level was recovered to its original level.

This paper outlines grouting to arrest water seepage and maintain hydrodynamic confinement in the Strategic
Storage of Crude Oil Project, Padur, Karnataka, India.

Abstract No: 1/012

Review of Quality Control and Design Aspects of Asphaltic Concrete Core in Earthen/
Rock Fill Dam
Satyajit Roy*, V K Jain, Manish Gupta, R Chitra
Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi - 110016
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Clay core in embankment dam provides an impermeable barrier within the body of the dam [IS 8826]. The
construction of clay core faces challenges like the availability of suitable borrow area material near the dam site,
high annual precipitation, etc. These challenges led the construction engineer to replace the clay core with an
asphaltic concrete core (ACC) for the construction of an embankment dam. The first embankment dam with a
compacted asphalt concrete core was built in Germany in 1961–1962. More than 130 asphalt core embankment
dams have been built so far, most of them constructed in Europe, however, China is currently building several
dams of its type. The entire asphaltic concrete dam constructed so far has been seen performing well and
satisfactorily meeting all the design criteria. Asphaltic concrete is virtually impervious (10-7 cm/s to 10-9 cm/s),
flexible, resistant to erosion and aging, workable and compactable, and offers joint-less core construction. The
design of the asphaltic concrete core is based on Marshall Stability Test, however, for a dam height of more than
60 m, the triaxial test is recommended as per ICOLD. Typical cross-section and Triaxial tests performed on the
asphaltic concrete core of Storglomvatn Dam (125 m), Norway are given below in Fig. 1. In order to analyze the
stability, deformability, and impervious characteristics of ACC Marshal Stability value, flow value, percentage
air voids, etc parameters needs to be evaluated. Quality control for ACC should be exercised at every stage of
production, from monitoring the mixing plant and placing operations to the sampling of raw materials as well
as the finished core. An attempt was made to highlight the field quality control measure adopted for asphaltic
concrete mix. The paper presents quality control tests necessary for aggregate, bitumen, filler as well as
asphaltic mix and their frequency of testing adopted in different projects worldwide.

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Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures (EGCON 2022)

Fig.1 Typical Cross Section Fig. 2 Tri-axial Test on asphaltic core of

Storglomvatn Dam, Norway

Abstract No: 1/013

Engineering geological evaluation of the large underground surge pool cavern of

Kaleshwaram lift irrigation scheme package-6, Telangana State, India
D S Rawat1*, A K Naithani1, L G Singh1, Prasnna Jain1, R N S Babu2, Padmaja Reddy2, P. Allen. Samuel2, K
Ravindra Nath2
National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bengaluru-560070, 2Aarvee Associates, Hyderabad-500082
1

*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Kaleshwaram lift irrigation scheme is a multi-purpose scheme of Telangana state. The scheme aims to provide
irrigation, drinking, and industrial water in the state. The total demand for water is 225 thousand million cubic
feet (TMC) out of which 169 TMC are for irrigation, 40 TMC for drinking purposes, and 16 TMC for industrial
utility. The Godavari River is the source of water for this scheme and water will be lifted from 100 meters
elevation to higher elevations up to 630 meters, with the help of a multi-stage lift mechanism. The major
components of the scheme are barrages, water conveyor systems consisting of gravity canals & tunnels, lift
systems, reservoirs, and distributary network systems, etc. The total length of the scheme is 500 km from
the source Medigadda barrage to the destination point at Narketpally. This paper is pertaining to the large
underground surge pool cavern of 375.0 m long, 25.0 m wide, and 67.30 m high of the KLIS package-6 site.
The surge pool cavern is a very important component of any lift irrigation scheme and the main purpose of
this structure is to accumulate the diverted water, release water with gate structures to the pumphouse, and
drop water pressure in case of sudden power failure during the lifting of water. Geologically project site is
belonging to the Peninsular Gneissic Complex (PGC) of the Archean age. The main rock types of the surge pool
cavern are medium to coarse-grained grey granite and charnokite which were traversed by basic enclaves.
A detailed engineering geological and geotechnical investigation for the heading portion of the surge pool
was carried out for the evaluation of rock mass quality based on the tunnelling quality Index (Q). Geological
mapping on 1:100 to 1:200 scales were carried out to collect various geological information available with
the exposed discontinuities. Geological mapping of the heading portion of any large cavern is significant input
data for the rock mass quality assessment, prediction of adverse geological features, and for providing design
and additional rock support system in the heading and benching down up-to-invert levels. The encountered
rock classes are ranging from fair, good, and very good types. Weathering grades of fresh (W-I) to moderately
weathered (W-III) in nature were observed on the exposed discontinuities. The excavation methodology of
this underground cavern was challenging for Designers, Engineers, and Geologists in view of the parallel
excavation of transformer and pump house caverns within the limited rock ledges. The rock support system was
provided in the form of rock bolts, steel fibre-reinforced shotcrete, grouting, and drainage holes arrangement.
Monitoring of the rock strata, timely rock support, controlled blasting, wedge analysis, and additional rock
support system were the key factors to avoid the risk of instability at the heading portion (crown and walls)
and during the multistage benching. In this paper, the identification of adverse geological features, modified
excavation methodology, wedge analysis, and provided additional rock support system is described in detail.

45
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Abstract No: 1/014

Stability Assessment of Tunnel Portal Excavations in varying Rockmass and Slope

Geometries
Koushik Pandit*, Shantanu Sarkar, Mohd. Shazan, Pankaj Uniyal
CSIR – Central Building Research Institute, Uttarakhand-247667
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Tunnel excavations are challenging in the Indian Himalayas due to the fragile nature of geological and geotechnical
characteristics, seismic activeness, and high altitudes. Tunnel portal stability becomes one of the critical issues
often faced during tunnel construction and its operation, especially in weak rock mass conditions. Rock-fall
and slope failures lead to obstruction in traffic operations, loss of economic activities, and sometimes lead
fatal accidents causing loss of human lives. In the present study, a detailed parametric numerical study using
the two-dimensional finite element method has been carried out to assess the stability behaviour of a tunnel
portal opening (tunnel height = Ht) in phyllite rock mass commonly found in the North-Western Himalayas
subjected to varying slope angles (β = 40, 50 & 60 degrees) and overburden heights (Ho = 25, 50 & 100 m).
The phyllite rock mass quality has been taken for three ranges of geological strength index values, namely GSI
= 25, 50 & 75 so that almost the entire rock mass quality classes as described in the GSI system are covered
in the analysis. Furthermore, the stability of the slopes has been evaluated for both the static and pseudo-
static loading conditions which simulate the natural gravity loading of the overburdened rock mass as well as
the earthquake behaviour of the sloping ground observed for a seismic zone V, the extreme class as depicted
in the Indian Standard code (IS 1893:2016). A typical cross-section of the numerical models developed and
analyzed is shown in Fig. 1. The obtained stability values have been described in Table 1. From these studies,
it was observed that as the slope angle increases for a constant overburden thickness, rock mass quality, and
portal opening size, the safety of the slope decreases. Similarly, for a constant slope angle, rock mass quality,
and portal opening size, the safety of the slope decreases as the overburden increases. Finally, for a constant
slope angle, overburden height, and portal opening size, the safety of the slope increases as the rock mass
quality improves. The failed cases need the intervention of further studies and installation of appropriate tunnel
portal support design.

Fig. 1. A typical numerical model of a tunnel portal excavation in a sloping rock mass

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Table 1. Computed values of Factor of Safety (FoS) for the studied cases

Slope Angle Overburden Height, FoS (Pseudo-

S. No. GSI FoS (Static)
(degree) Ho (m) static)

1. 25 1.11 1.02
2. 40 50 1.08 1.05
3. 100 0.92 0.84
4. 25 1.10 0.80
5. 25 50 50 1.04 0.71
6. 100 0.93 0.69
7. 25 0.86 0.70
8. 60 50 0.81 0.64
9. 100 0.68 0.60
10. 25 2.82 2.29
11. 40 50 2.61 1.90
12. 100 2.18 1.57
13. 25 2.43 1.87
14. 50 50 50 2.10 1.49
15. 100 1.73 0.87
16. 25 2.08 1.60
17. 60 50 1.70 1.25
18. 100 1.30 0.88
19. 25 11.73 8.90
20. 40 50 7.82 5.84
21. 100 5.21 3.85
22. 25 10.74 8.36
23. 75 50 50 7.05 5.41
24. 100 4.58 3.48
25. 25 10.28 8.02
26. 60 50 6.60 4.99
27. 100 4.14 3.12

Abstract No: 1/015

Overview on engineering geological investigation for power house area of Polavaram

Hydroelectric Project (80 x 12 MW), Andhra Pradesh, India
L. G Singh*, A. K Naithani, Prasnna Jain, D.S Rawat
National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bengaluru-560070
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Polavaram irrigation project is a multi-purpose project being constructed on the Godavari River near
Polavaram village in the East Godavari and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. The project will
provide hydropower, irrigation, and drinking water to East Godavari, Visakhapatnam, West Godavari, Krishna
districts, and other districts of Andhra Pradesh, directly and indirectly. This project has been accorded national
project status by the Union Government of India. As a part of the National River Linking Project, the Godavari
River basin is considered a surplus one, while the adjoining Krishna River basin is considered to be a deficit
one. As of 2017, over 3000 thousand million cubic feet (TMC ft) of underutilized water from the Godavari
River flowed into the Bay of Bengal. The study recommended that a sizable 80 TMC ft. of surplus water can be
transferred from the Godavari River basin to the Krishna River basin.

The project also contemplates the construction of earth-cum-rock-fill dam (Gap I-565 m length and Gap II-2310
m length), a non-over flow concrete dam (140 m length); 1054.50 m long spillway with 48 nos. of the gate,
surface power house to generate 960 MW (12 x 80 MW) electricity and tailrace channel, right connectivity’s
from the main reservoir including regulator, saddle dams, twin tunnels (package-63 & 64), bunds-1 & 2 and left
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 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

connectivity’s from the main reservoir including approach channel, head regulator, navigation tunnel, navigation
canal with lock 1 & 2 and irrigation tunnel, canal, saddle dams. The right and left connectivities are being made
for a design discharge of 20000 Cusecs. On the left side of the river, an intake pool with 12 nos. of pressure
tunnels connected to 12 nos. of turbines, each having 80 MW capacity, is being constructed. The hydropower
plant of this multipurpose project will generate 2.29 billion kWh of green or renewable electricity annually.

Engineering geological investigations of the excavated surface of cut slopes for the powerhouse area of the
Polavaram hydroelectric project (PHEP) being constructed in East Godavari District were carried out. Geological
and geotechnical mapping was carried out on a 1:200 scale. The rocks exposed in the area belong to the
Khondalitic Suite of the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt. The prominent rock types in the area are garnetiferous
sillimanite gneiss, quartzo-felspathic gneiss, and charnockite with intermittent bands of pegmatite. In general,
the bedrock is moderately strong to strong, moderately jointed and compact in nature, and exposed throughout
the hill slope of the powerhouse cut slope area. Four sets of prominent joint sets viz. N260°(dip direction)/70°(dip
amount), N320°/40°, N140°/V, and N185°/35° were mapped at different levels of cut slopes.

In this paper, the rock mass conditions encountered during the excavation of downstream walls i.e. back, left,
and right walls are discussed and protection measures applied are also discussed.

The cut slope front wall of the powerhouse area, excavated from EL -9 to EL+ 135 m with different berms from
Ch. 370 to Ch. 459 m and offset +150 to -150 m was geologically examined in detail. The height of the walls
are 10 m, 16.32 m, and 27.9 m and slope angles are 76°, 83° and 90° for competent rock mass and whereas
in highly weathered to residual soil mass the slope angle is maintained at 45°. The width of the berms is 2.75
m, 5.0 m, 6.5 m, 8.0 m, and 15.50 m (at EL+6.80). The details of the geological section above the slopes of
pressure tunnels PT-12 at offset -125.84 is given in Figure 1. The left side wall of the downstream area was
excavated from EL-9 to +165 m with different walls and berms at Ch. 370 m to 596 m. The heights of the walls
are 10 m and 44 m, slope angles are 76°, 83°, and 90° for competent rock mass. The width of the berms is
2.50 m, 2.75 m, and 5.0 m. The right-side wall of the downstream area is excavated from EL-9 to +35 m at
Ch. 459 m to 596 m. The height of the wall is 44 m, and slope angles are 83° and 90° in the competent rock
mass. The trends of the cut slopes left and right sides of the powerhouse are aligning along the N160°- N340°,
whereas the cut slope front walls of the powerhouse are aligning along the N060°- N240° direction. 151 m in
length and 9 m in diameter, 12 numbers of pressure tunnels are being excavated below these cut slopes. The
total quantity of excavation is 124 lakhs m3 for the intake pool and powerhouse area.

Rock mass of cut slopes both for incline and vertical walls were characterized by Slope Mass Rating and
Q-system classifications. Based on detailed investigations, geotechnical problems were identified as the
excavation progressed and engineering solutions were suggested for the protection of inclined/vertical walls
and pressure tunnel portals. Based on engineering geological investigations and site geological characteristics,
6.0 m long, 2.0 m c/c (staggered) spacing at 25 mm diameter fully cement slurry grouted rock bolts (Fe≥500),
100 mm thick SFRS/PFRS in two layers, consolidation grouting using 32-45 mm dia. holes at 6.0 m c/c spacing
(staggered) up to 6.0 m deep and 6.0 m long 40 mm diameter drain hole (perforated GI pipes) @6000 mm
c/c were applied for fair and good rock mass condition of incline cut slopes. Grout holes are 3.0 m away from
the corner & sides. Vertical walls of the low cover area were supported by the alternate of 4.0 and 6.0 m
long, spacing at 2.5 m c/c (staggered), 25 mm diameter fully cement slurry grouted rock bolts (Fe≥500),
100 mm thick SFRS/PFRS in two layers, consolidation grouting using 32-45 mm dia. hole at 6.0 m c/c spacing
(staggered) up to 6.0 m deep and 6 m long 40 mm diameter drain hole (perforated GI pipes) @ 6000 mm c/c
for poor and fair rock mass condition.

Figure 1: Geological section along pressure tunnels PT-12 at offset -125.84

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Abstract No: 1/016

Construction stage engineering geological investigations of the foundation of onsite

emergency support centre of Kakrapar atomic power project units 1 to 4, Gujarat
State, India
Prasnna Jain*, A. K. Naithani, L.G. Singh and D.S. Rawat
National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bengaluru-560070
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) Committee on review of the safety of Indian Nuclear Power Plants
(NPPs) against external events of natural origin had recommended the creation of an onsite facility at each
Nuclear Power Plant site for handling emergencies. This facility will have adequate radiation shielding and will
be seismically qualified. At present in India, a total of 22 reactors are placed at 7 locations and are in operation.
The Onsite Emergency Support Centre (OESC) building is of RCC framed structure with shear walls having a
basement, ground floor, first floor, and second floor. To evaluate the design basis foundation parameters for the
OESC building of Kakrapar Atomic Power Project Units 1 to 4 Gujarat State, engineering geological mapping
(on 1:100 scale) was carried out, and engineering geological data were collected for rock mass classification
and characterization. Mapping data will be used to assess the requirement of any ground improvement. All the
discontinuities in the rock mass of OESC with the zone of influence of the foundation have been identified and
mapped. Geological foundation mapping was done after the excavation and before the pouring of concrete.
The foundation of OESC was examined on a grid-to-grid basis; the size of the grid was 1 m x 1 m. All
the lithological and structural features were observed and mapped using Total Station surveying equipment.
Detailed examination of rock types in each grid was carried out which includes mineralogical composition,
texture, classification and nomenclature, and degree/grade of weathering. Fracture fillings that have taken
place in the study site were examined and recorded. The attitude and structure of the rocks, fractures and
joint patterns present in the floor were determined for mapping. ISRM (1981), classifications for weathered
rock mass were used to characterize the rock mass into different grades. The assessment of RMR (Bieniawski,
1989) for basaltic rock masses, based on the rock joints and their nature, drill holes, and laboratory test data
has been done. Based on the field observations and evidence, it was found that the entire floor area of the
OESC building foundation including the ramp area consists of thick flows of porphyritic amygdaloidal basalts
of Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP), also known as “Deccan traps”. No evidence of faulting or shearing was
observed along the flow contacts and vertical joints on the surface of the floor area. The rock exhibits massive
structures with few tight discontinuous vertical joints. The floor rock mass was classified into fresh and slightly
weathered (W-I to W-II) zones as per the weathering grade classification. Based on surface geological mapping
and a review of drill cores log recommendations for the treatment of the foundation were given. The excavated
surface was geologically accepted for foundation after treatment because the rock mass was competent. This
permanent foundation record will also assist in making a better interpretation of post-construction foundation
instrumentation data.

Abstract No: 1/017

Geotechnical investigation of earth cracks in Ratua–II block, Malda District, West

Bengal
Sudipto Nath*, Debasish Bhattacharya, A Roy
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

At the request of The District Magistrate, Malda, Government of West Bengal GSI carried out a geotechnical
investigation of land subsidence and formation of cracks in Ratua-II Block of Malda district, West Bengal, which
occurred at two places – near Kumarganj (25°12´42´´N - 88°03´43´´E) and Golasibganj (25°08´55´´N
- 88°01´02´´E). In Kumarganj about 0.05 sq km area was affected due to the development of this crack.
Development of earth cracks and ground subsidence has not been reported earlier from this part of West
Bengal. The area falls in Zone –III of the Seismic Zonation Map of India (IMD) and seismicity of low to moderate
magnitude was felt in the past. The area lies in the interfluve of Kalindi River and Mahananda River. Geologically
these areas comprise of Baikunthapur formation, Malda formation, the Shaugaon formation, and the Present
Day deposit. Numerous abandoned channels are present in this area. This area remains dry and barren for most
of the year and has a low ground water table in contrast to the rich agricultural lands of the low areas, adjacent
to it. In Kumarganj a few houses – both thatched and RCC have suffered partial damages through the formation
of cracks in the wall. The major crack in the ground is mostly of an irregular serpentine pattern having an
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overall NNW-SSE trend joined by a few WNW-ESE trending secondary cracks resulting in an overall hexagonal
pattern. The cracks have a length of around 30m – 50m and an average width of 15-20cm. The nature of
cracks indicates considerable sagging of the ground. However, at places, ~10-15 cm relative subsidence is also
observed along the crack. At places, ground hollows/holes having a depth of about 1m have also been noticed.
In Golasibganj same type of cracks were observed within a small area ( ~ 30m × 10m), particularly towards
the western bank of Kalindi River but there is no effect on any house in this area.Local residents reported
that these were first noticed on 18th June 2012 after a heavy rain that was the first monsoon shower after a
prolonged dry spell in these areas. Moreover, there is a scarcity of water in shallow hand tube wells (30-40
feet deep) particularly in and around the Kumarganj area but deeper (~ 100-150 feet) tube wells are being
used for drinking water. The shallow hand tube wells were becoming dry during peak summer indicating the
average groundwater table is deeper in this area. Also, some water pumps lift water from very deep (~200 m)
underground sources for irrigation purposes almost throughout the year. Furthermore, the number of brick kilns
has also flourished in the adjacent area mostly on the course of some old abandoned channels. Palaeo/buried
channels present as form source of local groundwater zones (pockets), recharged during the rainy season.
Due to prolonged dry spells along with the continuous and excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation
purposes in this area, voids formed in the local groundwater pockets/zones. When the monsoon started, the
overlying sediment mass became heavier and readjustment of the ground takes place due to the presence of
voids resulting in cracks on the surface. It also affected houses in this zone. The cracks may get filled up after
a good monsoon when the underground local groundwater pockets/zones are well recharged. Nine undisturbed
soil samples were analyzed at the Geotechnical Laboratory of GSI, ER for determination of their physical
properties including water content, density, liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL), grain size analysis, specific
gravity, void ratio, porosity, consolidated undrained triaxial test, and consolidation index. Grain size analyses
of the soil samples indicate that the soils are silty clay, where total silt and clay fraction varies from 86.44% to
96.82% in general. The plasticity index of the analyzed soils varies between 5-6% approx. and the liquid limit
of the same lies within a range of 27%-33%. These two parameters together indicate that the soils are stiff to
very stiff clay belonging to CL-ML class (as per the engineering classification of soils) and are the potential for
liquefaction. The relation between total unit weight and the natural moisture content indicates that the soils
are saturated up to less than 80%. The moisture content upon saturation indicates that they are very close
to the liquid limit indicating that the soils are not collapsible i.e. they should not collapse and densify under
their own weight if it ever becomes saturated. The specific gravity values of the soil range between 2.12 to
2.61 and are well within the range of silty clay. Porosity is high (around 45%) for the samples collected from
Kumarganj but less (28%) in samples collected from Golasibgang due to an increase in sand percentage. An
estimation of the bearing capacity of the soils from UCS indicates the low bearing capacity of the soils around
2kg/cm2. The cohesion of the soil samples is low around 0.3 kg/cm2 and ø values within 16-22° and well within
the range of silty clay. The compression index of the soil is around 0.18 and the coefficient of consolidation is
around 0.003 mm2/minute indicating low consolidation and may be responsible for the ground subsidence.The
development of cracks in the studied area is the result of a combination of excessive withdrawal of groundwater
and the presence of clogged and abandoned buried/paleo-channels.The available field data suggests that this
subsidence is unrelated to any deep-seated adjustment/disturbance, as in that situation the surface expression
and extent would have been observed on a regional scale instead of being confined within a very limited area.
The low Compression index and low coefficient of consolidation of the soil may be responsible for the ground
subsidence. To avoid this type of ground collapsing remedial measures like controlled withdrawal of ground
water, digging up more ponds in this area, desilting of existing ponds, and clearing the course of the abandoned
channels by regular removal of the accumulated debris and anthropogenic wastes were suggested.

Cracks developed on the ground at Kumarganj Horizontal crack developed in a house at

Kumarganj due to subsidence of the ground

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Abstract No: 1/018

Challenges on foundation evaluation for pre and post-dam construction: implications

on dam performance
Susmita Bal, Mrinal Kanti Mukherjee*
Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad - 826004,
India.
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction
The purpose of the study on different parameters of pre and post-dam construction is to reduce the risk of
dam failures due to the presence of some inherent uncertain properties of the foundation. A detailed study of
regional geology, geotechnical investigation, and different tests are performed to understand the foundation
preparation and treatment. Lack of vast work on foundation treatment results in dam failures including slope
instability, sliding, uplift pressures, seepage flow, shearing, faulting, and internal erosion. So before the dam
design, a detailed study is performed on dam site selection, feasibility, and stability.

Pre-dam foundation study

Reconnaissance survey and feasibility study of the surficial exposures give vast knowledge about properties
of rock masses like permeability (for the understanding of the geometry of voids and their distribution),
microstructures, presence of joints, and their orientation. If the geology and geotechnics are not available at
the preliminary stage, rock mass characterization is done for the detailing of the characteristics of foundation
rock and rock masses. A quantitative classification system is followed for the assessment of rock quality. Rock
mass characterization includes six parameters – i) UCS (Uniaxial Compressive Strength) of intact rock ii)
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) iii) Joint or discontinuity spacing iv) Joint condition v) Groundwater condition.
Cumulating all these parameters gives the rock mass rating. If the rock mass rating lies within a given range,
the rock quality will be accordingly characterized. In addition to this, cohesion, angle of internal friction,
deformation modulus of the rock mass, and allowable bearing pressure, also need to be estimated.

In the case of studies, it is shown that inadequate evaluation of those rock mass properties makes large
leakage in the reservoir side mainly rainy season. It is observed that in a cold region, sometimes snowmelt
provides a concentrated leakage when they are thawed by the initial flow of water within fractures. The Baldwin
Hills Reservoir was constructed in 1951 to provide water to the south and southwest portions of the city of
Los Angeles, California (Fig. 1) The Baldwin Hills Dam reached a height of 232 feet and stretched a total of
650 feet in length. At 3:38 P.M. on December 14, 1963, the Baldwin Hills Dam breached releasing a majority
of the reservoir’s 250 million gallons of stored water. The sudden release resulted in the death of five people
and approximately 11 million in property damage. Engineers recognized the difficulties associated with the
land and sub-surface structure on which the foundation is built. At the site of the dam and reservoir location,
the subsurface is comprised of loose, sandy soil followed by large block-like rock formations which are more
prone to the generation of cracks that allows water to penetrate and erode the soil beneath. These cracks are
the primary cause of the Baldwin Hills Dam failure. The crack could have been caused by the movement of the
schist below the dam, a combination of that natural phenomenon as well as the heavy equipment used during
construction.

So the understanding of the foundation’s geology directly acknowledges/controls the stability of the dam in the
future. It is studied that the Inglewood Fault system underlays the Baldwin Hills area causing movement or
subsidence of the fault system which triggered the failure.

Post Dam foundation study

The dam construction has the load distribution from the reservoir side as well as the weight of the dam itself.
For the prevention of toppling of the dam, uplift pressure is a very important factor as the weight of the dam
should be higher than this pressure. The reservoir force acts not only on the foundation, as it is a hydrostatic
one this force allows water to enter, makes the horizontal path to the downstream side, and creates an up
thrust pressure which allows the foundation to slide on it. This uplift force is an active force that presents within
cracks, pores, and joints within the foundation rock.

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Fig.1. The foundation cracks caused layers of the foundation rock to slide on each other
and led to the failure of the Baldwin Hills dam

Fig.2. Remnants of Austin (Bayless) Dam one day after failure.

The dam’s failure due to sliding neglecting the uplift pressure

For example, Austin Dam was constructed between May and November of 1909 just outside Austin, Pennsylvania,
a concrete gravity dam that stood 50 feet tall and 544 feet long (Fig. 2) Austin Dam was constructed to supply
water to the Bayless Paper Mill. The dam stood for less than two years, during which numerous partial failures
made it a constant problem and safety concern. The dam completely breached on September 30, 1911,
releasing a flood wave that wiped out the towns of Austin and Costello, causing extensive loss of life and
millions of dollars in damages. The partial failure on two main causes: (1) the concrete did not have sufficient
time to reach ultimate tensile strength, and (2) water was able to get under the dam and exert a large upward
force on the structure. This upward force greatly decreased the sliding factor of safety and the dam faced that
partial failure by sliding.

Another documentation says the Austin gravity dam in the United States was designed without considering the
uplift pressure. At that time the view was that this pressure could not develop at the base of the dam in any
significant amount as the dam has its weight which is in positive contact with its foundation. After some highly
publicized dam failures in the early 1900s, engineers began to pay more attention to accounting for this force.

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The bearing capacity of the foundation as well as the pressure acting on the rock bed due to the foundation
should be taken into account during post-dam design. The bearing capacity of the dam must not overshoot the
bearing pressure of the foundation, failing which settlement takes place gradually. Fig. 3 illustrates the idea
between pressure bulbs and the foundation and orientation of rock masses.

Fig 3. Theoretical pressure bulbs (10% intensity) below strip load on a medium of rock mass

Conclusion

For optimum dam performance pre and post dam foundation analysis is therefore very vital.

Abstract No: 1/019

An insight developed from the railway alignment project carried out in Himalayas
Radhakrishnan. S*
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

This study is focused on railway alignment studies done in the Himalayan region. Railway alignment study
dealt with detailed analyses and investigation of various aspects such as topography, geology, geomorphology,
geotechnical, alignment, gradient, terrain stability, and hydrology. The location of critical features such as
station, tunnel, bridge, and cut/fill areas are finalized based on the inputs received from the above-mentioned
factors.

After analysing the given corridor concerning the requirements and selecting the different possible alignments,
deciding on the best viable option was crucial. But it was not easy to handle the amount of data collected for
each preferred option and compare it to choose the best among the rest. For this, Multi-Criteria Analysis ( MCA)
was used to select the best option out of all alternative options.

In this technical paper, the details of the vital investigation required to be carried out for the alignment
study are dealt with. The implication, description, and application of each analysis and tool are described.
Furthermore, each key railway alignment project features, optimum location, level, and lengths, particularly
for the tunnel, bridge, and stations, are discussed. Finally, the geotechnical risk and its mitigations involved in
each vital structure are also discussed in detail.

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Various investigations and surveys are done in the railway alignment study projects. The digital elevation
model (DEM) and the topographical model are generated for terrain evaluation in defining railway alignment.
A geological map along the alignment shows the major fault/shear zone/lineament and weak features.
Geomechanical characteristics of each soil and rock unit are also produced. The geophysical investigation
has been done in terms of seismic refraction and electric resistivity survey. A model is developed with all the
above inputs. Using this model, the alignment is formed, and risk analysis of each structure and its mitigation
measures are done.

Risk analysis and risk assessment of the key project structures is one of the essential studies done in the
railway alignment study project. Risk analysis mainly identifies and forecasts the threats that strongly influence
the relevant project structures. This paper deals with the risk analysis primarily relate to the geotechnical and
geological risks.

An attempt is made to generate a Matrix, which can be used as a decision tool for future railway alignment
projects. This matrix will have the following aspects detailing each important structure/feature of railway
projects. They are

1. Key investigations required,

2. Key factors in deciding on size and type of project feature.
3. Critical Geotechnical risk and recommended mitigation measures.

Abstract No: 1/020

Reservoir competency study of Kanupur Irrigation Project, Keonjhar District, Odisha

Debaprasad Sahoo*, Bardan Topno, Jaydip Mukherjee
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Reservoir competency study has gained importance after the failure of major dams/projects like Francis Dam
in 1928 due to heavy leakage, Hales Gar Dam in the Tennessee, USA in 1968 due the presence of cavernous
limestone in the reservoir area, and Vaiont Dam, Italy in 1963, due to massive landslide in reservoir rim area.

Reservoir competency study of the 3400 m long and 48 m high Kanupur earth Dam, Keonjhar District Odisha
which is a major irrigation project was carried out through surface and subsurface investigation to foresee the
problem to be tackled. Subsurface data analysis of the dam section between RD 0 m & RD 1155 m indicates
the presence of a 0.7 m to 20 m thick pebble horizon at the dam base. Due to the existence of this pebble zone
at the dam base, the chance of water seepage is apprehended at this stretch. To arrest the seepage positive
cut-off is being provided upstream along this stretch.

The project area falls to the east of the NNE-SSW trending Bonai-Keonjhar horseshoe fold belt occupied by
Archaean Supracrustals of Iron Ore Supergroup. The reservoir competency study was done on a contour plan
of 1:15,000 scale. Several geological traverses were taken in and around the area which indicates, the north-
western & western part of the reservoir is covered with metabasalt and the southern & southeastern by granite
gneiss & quartzite (chamakpur quartzite) intruded by vein quartz. Kolhan sandstone & conglomerate is exposed
at the hillock near the spillway section of the main Dam. About 60 % of the total area is soil covered (mainly
derived from granite). Surface investigation on both the bank of the Sona River indicates the existence of a
pebble horizon consisting of banded hematite jasper (BHJ), banded hematite quartzite (BHQ), metabasalt &
vein quartz of 1m – 1.5 m thick. To assess the subsurface condition of the reservoir rim portion, a total of 11
nos exploratory boreholes were drilled at/near selective weak/problematic zones. Subsurface data analysis of
these boreholes indicates that weathered bedrock (in the form of sludge of quartzite/ mica schist) starts from
NSL to 13.5 m depth and fresh rock occurs at 18.19 m to 35.4 m below NSL up to drilled depth. No shear zone/
weak zone material/ fault zone was intercepted in the boreholes.

Detailed geological study (both surface & subsurface) of the Kanupur reservoir area indicates that it is watertight
and devoid of any slope instability-related problems around the reservoir rim. Rock types like limestone/
dolomite/carbonate rock showing cavernous features, structurally weak zone/major shear zones are not present
in the reservoir area. A positive cut-off is being provided at the upstream side to arrest the chances of seepage
along the palaeo channel deposits of the Sona River at the dam base.

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Figure: Geological map of reservoir area, Kanupur Dam Project, Keonjhar District, Odisha

Abstract No: 1/021

Challenges & Strategies in the construction of Dyke embankment in the marine

foundation
Vinod Mauriya*
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In India, generally, Dyke embankments are constructed at the periphery of the ash pond to safely contain
coal-ash slurry and settled ash generated from thermal power plants. In one of the Ash-pond, a 12m high
homogeneous dyke embankment was envisaged at the periphery of 400 acres of ash-pond. After the start of
dyke embankment construction, it was seen that the movement of construction equipment like excavators,
dumpers, etc. was getting stuck/ sunk due to the presence of soft marine clay in some stretches along dyke
alignment. Based on field conditions assessment, it was observed that sub-surface flow from the adjacent
existing ash pond was resulting in inundation around the construction site leading to softening of the strata.
After some borehole investigations, it is seen that the topsoil is reported to have SPT ‘N’ values of 0 to 6
compared to design SPT ‘N’ values of 7 to 12. Based on the same section of embankment revised to reduce the
load intensity over the foundation. In the revised section, the height has been reduced from RL (+) 12.0m to
RL(+) 10.5 m, and slopes flattened from 1(V):2.5(H) to 1(V):3(H) with inner guide bund & outer guide bund
with earth and inner zone with ash up to RL (+) 4.0m.

During further execution above 5.0m in some stretches, distress/longitudinal cracks of width 5cm to 50cm
and 3 to 4m deep were observed. To investigate the root cause, an additional geotechnical investigation was
carried out to assess the soil condition/strength of the founding strata. After a detailed assessment, it is seen
that the possible cause of the distress is poor foundation conditions downstream of the embankment resulting
in slope failure. This necessitated foundation improvement through stone columns to improve bearing capacity.
Six rows of stone columns on the downstream slope of the dyke in the affected stretches were provided in the
affected area. Further, after foundation improvement, again distress in the same stretches in a similar manner
was observed as observed previously. After revisiting the investigation data and detailed assessment it is seen
that poor sub-soil conditions are resulting in downstream slope failures and strengthening of the dyke area
with counterweight and prefabricated Vertical Drain (PVD) is the only feasible solution in prevailing constrained
site conditions. This enabled releasing of excess pore water pressure of foundation soil with densification of
sub-soil.

With the above measures in challenging marine soil conditions, the dyke embankment has been successfully
completed and the ash pond is in successful operation for the last five years.
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Abstract No: 1/022

Geoenvironmental investigation using Integrated Geophysical Methods: An Implication

to geotechnical engineering
Abul Aas *, Satish Kumar Sinha
Department of Petroleum Engineering and Geoengineering, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology,
India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

A geo-environmental investigation is very important before using the land for any important projects such
as the construction of building structures, and placement of oil rigs, roads, dams, and railway lines. Shallow
subsurface consists of different kinds of material and a lack of knowledge about the subsurface condition/
uncertainties such as fault, fractures, loose soil, liquefaction zone, boulders, underground cavity, caverns,
and anomalies, which may affect the civil infrastructure projects. Therefore identifying ground uncertainties/
conditions is very important for mitigating geotechnical-related risk.

Geophysical techniques provide continuous information about the subsurface condition. These methods are
more non-invasive, cost-effective, and time-saving than a geotechnical test. Nowadays various geophysical
techniques are used for the investigation of ground uncertainties. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), multi-
channel analysis of surface wave (MASW), and ground penetrating radar (GPR) are the proven geophysical
techniques that can be used. Each technique has its specific benefits, dimensions, and limitations in which it is
appropriate to employ. When one geophysical method does not provide sufficient information to build a holistic
picture of the subsurface environment, integrated geophysical methods are used.

Integrated geophysical methods such as ERT, MASW, and have been utilized to map the ground uncertainties
and groundwater table in the Bundelkhand region of India. ERT, MASW, and GPR were acquired along the same
profile and it was processed using ZondRes2D, winMASW, and RADAN7 software to obtain the subsurface
image. The processed image of the subsurface produced by all three geophysical methods is shown in fig. 1. It
is observed from the shear wave velocity profile ( Fig. 1c) that up to a depth of 15 m, Vs varies from 160 to 400
m/s, which indicate the alternate layers of loose soil. Beyond 15 m depth Vs drastically increases to 530 m/s,
which suggests the presence of rock mass/boulder. The GPR section (Fig. 1d and 1e) shows a low amplitude
signal up to a depth of 15 m, which indicate the presence of soil. Around 15 m depth there is a strong reflection
and also showing bulge (indicated by the white circle in fig. 1e) at depth of 13 m. This suggests the presence
of weathered/fractured rock and the bulge is indicating the rock mass or the boulder. Beyond 15 m depth and
a horizontal distance of 20 m in the GPR section (indicated by an arrow in Fig. 1e), multiple dipping reflections
can be seen, which is attributed to highly fractured rock. It is observed from the resistivity section (Fig. 1f
), that the top layer of the subsurface up to 2 m depth shows high resistivity values (25-70 Ohm-m), which
indicates the presence of hard soil. Around 2-3 depth (Fig. 1f, indicated by arrow), a low resistivity value (2.5
to 10 ohm-m) can be seen, which indicates the water-saturated soil. A very low resistivity value (< 7 ohm-m)
can be observed at a depth from 6 to 14 m, which indicates the possibility of groundwater (Fig. 1f).The same
feature is also displayed in the GPR section at depth of 15 m. A very high resistivity value(~1600 ohm-m) in
the mid of the ERT section can be seen, which indicates the rock mass/boulder. This rock mass can also be seen
in the GPR section but at depth of 13 m. By integrating the results of GPR and ERT, it can be concluded that:
(i) at depth of 14 m, there is a highly fractured rock filled with water, and (ii) rock mass or boulder at depth of
7 or 13 m.

The main objective of the current study was to understand the near-surface variation by using integrated
geophysical methods for geotechnical engineering purposes. By combining the results of all three geophysical
methods it can be concluded that the current study site consists of loose soil layers and weathered/fractured
rock, which may affect the civil infrastructure projects. But there is uncertainty in locating the depth of rock
mass/boulder by using ERT and GPR methods. It can be resolved by making some additional depth corrections
while doing GPR and ERT data processing. There is always some uncertainty in locating the depth of geological
features, which can be minimized by using an integrated geophysical approach. Shear wave velocity obtained
from MASW can be used to find ground stiffness. Resistivity data evaluated from ERT can be utilized for
groundwater detection and contamination, water saturation, and seepage channel that may affect the structural
foundation. GPR gives a high-resolution image of the subsurface. Information about the depth to bedrock, soil
profiling, and water table can be extracted from the GPR subsurface image. Integrated geophysical approaches
aid in a better understanding of the subsurface environment. Subsurface images obtained by any geophysical
technique can be cross-verified by other tools. It reduces the chance of misinterpretation of the subsurface
image. It will assist geotechnical engineers in the construction of major buildings and in mitigating geotechnical
risk.

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Figure 1: (a) Seismic shot gather traces, (b) dispersion curve obtained from shot gather traces, (c)
vertical shear wave velocity profile(Vs), (d) mono-static GPR section along a single line, (e) mapped
shallow subsurface image by bi-static GPR technique, and (f) ERT subsurface resistivity section.

Abstract No: 1/023

Challenges of developing a railway alignment in outer and lesser Western Himalayas

P L Narula, Rajeev Soni, Deepali Saxena, Radhakrishnan S
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Many locations in India are being provided with railway connectivity in the Himalayas. The connectivity to the
outer and lesser Himalayan region is being focused on, which will serve to the alignment further in the higher
Himalayan region.

To materialize this, existing railway routes of the nearby plain area serve as the takeoff point, and then,
following the permissible gradient, the railway route connecting the locations of significance is defined. In the
outer and lesser Himalayan region, it is very challenging to fix a location that shall serve as a halt or crossing
station. The location has to cater to a nearby habitation area. At the same time, it shall be compatible with the
gradient flow of the route, shall have sufficient space to house the station, and shall be geologically stable and
geotechnically suitable. Moreover, the terrain shall be suitable to cater to the required gradient with appropriate
cost implications, be approachable during the construction stage, and have an easy approach during the service
stage.

The block length, i.e., the distance between two consecutive stations, also plays an important role. The block
length shall be between 12km to 15km optimally. It is aimed to get the desired gradient in a block length in
the hilly terrain with fewer structures as it can be economical. However, route stability and safety cannot be
compromised from an economic point of view. The key is understanding the terrain and defining the gradient
and structures accordingly.

Sometimes the existing alignment forms the initial portion of the new route. The inclusion of the prevailing
stretch may involve some modification in terms of re-profiling of curves and modification in gradient to dovetail
it into the new alignment. This requires a thorough investigation and study of the existing features of the
stretch under consideration.

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The gradients generally adopted in railway alignment of the lesser Himalayan region are between 1 in 100 to 1
in 80. It is maintained in this range to ease the transportation of cargo or goods too.

For the finalization of the new alignment, geological mapping, geotechnical classification of rock mass,
resistivity & seismic survey of critical areas, and landslide susceptibility assessment provide the primary input
while crossing the tectonic domains riddled with faults and thrust sheets. These above elements pose the
main challenge in defining the alignment and placing required structures. In addition, Nallah/river crossings
and the tunnel portal locations need to be evaluated critically from the stability point of view apart from the
approachability angle.

The case study presented here is a 63Km long railway route in the western lesser Himalayas. The takeoff
point was fixed, and the initial 20km of alignment was also defined. The re-profiling of this previously defined
alignment was done for a further stretch.

The area beyond Km20 up to Km63 was studied in detail. The satellite imageries were procured, and Digital
Elevation Modelling of the terrain was used. The starting point mentioned above was – Connection to important
locations abiding by the gradient permitted by Railways for the project. With this exercise, four alignment
options were worked out. All four options were studied thoroughly by carrying out geological mapping in
the region in light of the information provided on GSI maps. In addition to that, prevailing geotechnical
aspects, terrain challenges, and the crossing of the dominating tectonic zones, faults, and thrusts were also
evaluated. Furthermore, the seating and approach of the proposed station, bridges, and tunnels, block lengths,
interferences with the habitation, and environmental/social issues were studied.

Multi-Criteria Analysis was conducted to compare and determine the best option among four alignments. The
criteria for evaluation were constructability, functionality, safety, operation, maintainability, interference with
settlements, percentage length of alignment on surface and underground, percentage of alignment length
falling under challenging geology, length of tunnels and height of bridges, approach to structures - bridge
abutments and portal, costs including of diversions of services and resettlement.

A risk analysis of key project components was also done. Finally, the preliminary design of structures has
been carried out, considering the geotechnical conditions, gradients, curves, and minimum station length as
specified.

All the aspects mentioned above have been discussed in this paper.

Abstract No: 1/024

Tunnel stability and their geological & non-geological controls: present status and
future approach
Jitendra Kumar*,Mrinal Kanti Mukherjee
Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad 826004, India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The utilization of underground space, in the form of caverns or tunnels, has been common since the dawn
of civilization, and it is now becoming even more important because there is not enough space for new
infrastructure on the surface. Tunnels for water supply, hydropower, transit, sewage, and flood control are
typical underground buildings, as are caverns for power plants, nuclear waste repositories, and oil storage. To
raise the element of safety, these phenomena require the rigorous design guidelines, which include taking soil-
structure interaction (SSI) into account for both static and dynamic (seismic) loads.

The level of stress and the pore water pressure regime are altered while tunneling below the groundwater table.
Three crucial difficulties, including construction, stability, and environmental concerns, must be addressed
during the design and construction phases of such tunneling problems. The stability of the tunnel can analyze
by following two criteria:

1) Stability of tunnel with reference to the tunnel axis

In-situ stresses, groundwater in the rock mass, weak spots, and fault zones are a few of the main dangers.
Stress-induced instability develops in the tunnel when the rock mass is overstressed, which means that the
rock stress is greater than the rock mass’s strength. Squeezing will happen as a plastic zone forms around the
tunnel, creating severe deformation in the tunnel perimeter, if the rock mass is extremely weak, schistose, and
deformable. To forecast the rock load and support design, the parameters of the rock mass will be derived using
RMR and the Q System.

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The understanding and documentation of the tunnel orientation in relation to geological structural plane and
lines will be done necessarily and the morphometric analysis of the surrounding landscapes will also be done
with reference to the ongoing tectonic area and understanding the influence of those morphometric parameters
that will have future effects on the tunnel. Analysis of safety factors in terms of tunnel stand-up time and
stability-based rock-mass classification, geological structures, and groundwater scenarios will also be done.
The determination of in-situ rock strength of intact rocks of various lithologies will be done to understand its
contribution to tunnel stability design. Analysis of control of rock microstructures will also be done to understand
its influence on the stability of tunnel walls, crowns, and invert in the tunnel.

Despite being more resilient to earthquakes than surface structures, tunnels and other underground construction
have experienced serious damage in recent large earthquakes. The two main failure mechanisms that cause
damage are (1) earth failures, such as landslides at portals, liquefaction, and displacement of tunnels owing to
fault-slip, when the tunnel intercepts an active fault; and (2) damage from ground shaking, which causes lining
fractures and spalling. The study has shown that earthquake damage is imminent when several undesirable
and unintended criteria are met, including poor rock mass quality, shallow depth, high earthquake intensity,
proximity to the epi-centre, and intercepting an active fault, among others. Seismic hazards, such as anticipated
peak ground acceleration or intensity, geology conditions, and tunnel design, construction, and condition, are
the key elements affecting how earthquakes affect tunnels (FHWA, 2009). Two methods are used in the seismic
design of tunnels: the free field method and the soil-structure interaction method. In the first method, the
surrounding subsurface structures’ deformation has an impact on the soil shear strains, which then adjusts to
the structural strains. The shear strain may be significantly impacted by a reduction in the overall bulk of the
soil and structure at the soil cavity. In this situation, the shear strain of the soil close to the building will be
larger than it would be using a free-field method. In the free-field method, the relationship between soil and
structure is disregarded, and it is assumed that structures will adapt to the imposed ground deformations.
These deformations depend on the greatest shear strain.

2) Stability of tunnels in reference to the outside reference frame

The level of stress and the pore water pressure regime are altered while tunneling below the groundwater table.
Three crucial difficulties, including construction, stability, and environmental concerns, must be addressed
during the design and construction phases of such tunneling problems. First, water inflows during tunneling
severely impede the work, increasing building expenses on a global scale. Second, as the effective stress
controls the surrounding ground’s stress-strain strength characteristics, a change in the pore water pressure
regime during tunneling may have an impact on the stability of the tunnel both immediately and over time.
Rock mass mechanical characteristics are altered by rainfall seepage. The calculation model for a loess tunnel is
created using the finite element method while taking into account fluid-solid coupling (FEM). The stability of an
erosional tunnel under various rainfall amounts and loess cover thicknesses is studied using the dynamic finite
element static strength reduction method, which is based on the porous media seepage theory and rainfall
infiltration depth theory and takes into account the infiltrated depth of the loess surface for different rainfall
intensities over a certain period. According to the findings, the safety factor of a tunnel increases with tunnel
depth when there is a constant intensity of precipitation; but, when there is a constant thickness of loess/ Rock
mass cover, the safety factor of a loess/ Rock mass tunnel declines as infiltration depth increases.

Abstract No: 1/025

Experimental Study of a Laterally Loaded Single Pile in Jointed Rock Mass

Koushik Pandit1*, Mahendra Singh1, Jagdish Prasad Sahoo2
1
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee (IITR), Roorkee – 247 667, India, 2Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur (IITK), Kanpur – 208 016, India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Being a developing nation, India is presently on a rapid infrastructure growth path, be it urban or rural, hills or
plain areas, creating a spree of railway and highway tunnels and bridges across the length and breadth of the
country. On the eve of the 75th independence anniversary, Indians witnessed the mid-air connection of the last
two deck segments of the Chenab River bridge, 359 meters above the riverbed, which is currently the world’s
highest railway bridge. In addition to the Chenab Railway Bridge, 16 additional bridges are also being built on
the hilly terrains to connect Kashmir with the rest of the country. The Indian Railways is constructing the world’s
tallest bridge pier 141 m in height crossing Noney valley in Manipur which is a part of the 111 km long Jiribam-
Imphal railway project. Apart from these, the Bilaspur-Manali-Leh (BML) railway project is planned to have
more than 120 bridges and the Rishikesh–Karnaprayag railway line in Uttarakhand will have 16 bridges once
construction is completed. As it can be understood by now that these railway bridges are being constructed
in difficult hilly terrains and once constructed the pier foundation of these bridges will have to withstand the
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wind forces at high altitudes as well as the slope movements due to seismic and rainfall events. Both wind
forces and slope movements create huge lateral loads on the bridge piers and hence more understanding of
the lateral load behaviour of pile foundations in jointed rock mass conditions is the need of the hour. For this,
a parametric experimental study was undertaken. In the present study, the rock mass was simulated by using
Plaster of Paris (PoP) blocks which many researchers have widely used in the past as synthetic weak rock and
the rock joints are created by suitable arrangement of these blocks in an experimental tank (Fig. 1). A mild
steel pile was embedded in the jointed rock mass and the horizontal angle of incident of the rock joints was
varied from 0 degrees to a maximum of 75 degrees, at an equal interval of 15 degrees, creating six different
scenarios for which the pile was tested under lateral loading condition at its top which is designed to produce
maximum bending stresses and displacements in the pile-rock system. The pile was loaded and tested till the
rock blocks failed and a load reversal was observed. The experimental studies provided a rich set of data in
form of load-displacement graphs which showed a clear reducing trend of the ultimate load capacity of the
laterally loaded pile embedded in rock mass as the rock joint orientations, dipping of the joints to be specific,
keeps on increasing. The present study emphasizes the need for special attention while designing the bridge
piers, especially when the rock joints are dipping sharply on the piers, towards the valley direction.

Fig. 1. The experiment set-up for the pile embedded in inclined joint orientation

Abstract No: 1/026

Challenges in the Pre-construction Stage Geotechnical Investigation of Kharkai

Barrage, Saraikela-Kharswan District, Jharkhand
N.R. Bhattacharjee*, D. Bhattacharya
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Kharkai barrage envisages the construction of a 241m long, 15m high water diversion structure across the
Kharkai River, near Ganjia Village, Saraikela district, Jharkhand for providing irrigation facilities in Saraikela and
East Singhbhum districts. Detailed geological mapping carried out on 1: 1000 scale, covering 300 m on either
side of the proposed barrage axis and subsequent sub-surface exploration has revealed several challenges
before this project. In general, the fresh, hard rock mass comprising of quartz biotite gneiss intercalated
quarzitic phyllite and some metabasic intrusives, encountered in the boreholes at variable depths, is suitable
for the barrage foundation. Geological cross-section along the barrage axis reveals that fresh rock level varies
from El: 129.13m to El: 122.1m (elevation of the river bed level at the barrage site is about 125 m). The rock

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mass condition improves towards the left bank as observed in the drill cores. During geological mapping, it was
recorded that the rocks have been dissected by mainly four sets of joints. These are: J1, foliation joint - dip 30°-
45° towards N10°-35° E, J2- 25°-40°/N210°-220°, J3- 50°-55°/N155°-160°, and J4- 75°-80°/N100°-110°. The
dip of the foliation joint varies from 30° to 45°, as observed in the exposed rock mass and the dip amount may
further reduce locally (20° dips have also been recorded in the drill core). The foliation joints are smooth, and
planar and continue from 5 m to more than 20 m. Weathering and staining have also been noticed along the
joints. Owing to the low angle of foliation joints there are chances of the same getting day-lighted downstream
locally and as such sliding may occur. Unfavourable disposition (askew / perpendicular to barrage axis) and
the intersection of these joints with some open joints in between the rock mass would favour seepage/leakage
below the foundation. The shear zone having dip 45° towards N350° -355° observed on the right bank, the
downstream of the bridge under construction, may intersect the barrage axis. This zone was projected at the
barrage axis, but its continuity could not be traced in the holes drilled along the axis. Owing to the presence
of jointed and fractured rock mass and to arrest seepage, provision of consolidation grouting along with deep
anchoring as well as curtain grouting may be kept in the design considering the fractured nature of rock mass
as encountered in the drill holes. As a result of the low angle of foliation joints, there are chances of the same
getting day-lighted downstream locally, and as such sliding (planar failure) may occur. Provision of anchoring
after laying adequately designed mat concrete is suggested accordingly for consideration. Due to the presence
of meander curvature at the downstream of barrage axis, there are chances of scouring along the right bank
which may lead to slope instability as well as retrogressive erosion and may scour the barrage foundation.
Moreover, there are chances of unequal siltation on the riverbed as the barrage axis has been kept across a
meander curvature. Therefore, slight anti-clockwise rotation of the barrage axis is suggested to make the spill
water flow parallel to the river as far as possible. The intake of the canal is recommended on the right bank i.e.
at the convex side of the meander, which will facilitate smooth flow along the intake and flush out siltation once
regulated. However, proper care should be taken in the design to the right side of the barrage structure where
rock mass is poor and curvature of the river will aid in bank erosion, resulting in breaching during heavy floods.

Abstract No: 1/027

Mitigation measure for seepages in the Barua Sagar Lake, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ajay Shankar Pandey, Hemant Kumar*, Joyesh Bagchi
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Barua Sagar dam built across the Barua nala is a 270 years old semi-masonry structure situated in the
Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh. The dam is situated nearly 25 km SE of Jhansi district headquarters. It is a 1067
m long earthen structure, constructed for drinking & irrigation purposes. The main dam body is a 21 m high
earthen bund built with an older style of construction practices using lime, sand, and mortar. The gross storage
of the dam is 10 M Cum; whereas the full reservoir level and the dead storage level of the dam are 217.57 m,

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and 214.24 m respectively. The HFL (High Food level) of the dam is 220.0 m and the available freeboard is 3.58
m. Seepage in the right and left flanks of the D/S section of the spillway has been an issue of concern for the
last 2 decades.
Geologically, the dam was constructed on the firm basement rocks of the Bundelkhand gneissic complex &
granites belonging to the Archaean to Early Proterozoic ages. It is hard and compact with no visible sign of
weathering except for the slight discoloration on major weak planes. Based on the weathering pattern in the
area, the granite is under the W0-W1 grade of weathering. It is porphyritic and comprises feldspar phenocrysts
measuring up to 0.6-.8 cms. The area is cut across by two major sets of joints, J1 and J2 trending NW-SE and
NE-SW. The general trend of J1 varies between N100°-N120˚ dipping vertically whereas J2 varies between
N210˚ to N230˚ with vertical dips. Both J1 and J2 cross-cutting each other at an angle of about 90- 100˚.
Exfoliation joints trending E-W are also observed in the granitic lithology exposed in the area. Together the
discontinuities are forming a sort of Mural jointing pattern with all the planes almost perpendicular to each
other. Due to the effect of the jointing pattern trapezoidal blocks of granites are detached from the main rock
mass in due course of time due to the effect of atmospheric agents of weathering.
The seepage is also observed along the exfoliation planes that have openings in the range of 2cm to 10cm
(Photo-1). The seepage problem is associated with the dam structure especially along the flanks of the escape
drain-1(Photo-2) at latitude 25° 22’ 49” and longitude 78° 44’ 52”. When the water level rises above the dead
storage level, seepage starts along the base of the wall on both flanks of the escape drain or the spillway and
continues upward towards the top crest of the spillway as the water rises in the reservoir. The estimated rate
of seepage was 8-10 liters per minute and it has a direct connection with the fluctuation of the water level in
the reservoir.
Based on the geological conditions and observations of the area for the persistent seepage problem, it is
recommended to provide treatment in the reservoir side/US of the wall when the water level in the reservoir
is below the dead storage level. Probable places of seepage in the form of cracks and breakages would be
identified in the wall towards the reservoir/US after the drawdown of the water in the reservoir and specific
counter measures such as filters, clay blankets, and geo-synthetics can be used to control the seepage. To
control the seepage from the dam structure, it is recommended to repair the damaged surface with Silica-
Fume shotcrete (dry mix process), which is more resistant to “washout”. For controlling the seepage along the
prominent exfoliation joint planes, curtain grouting can also be done as a precautionary measure at a distance
of 03m apart in a staggered manner for a depth of 1-1.5 m with an admixture of plasticizer. The grout mixture
with the use of bentonite will be economical for treating the dam towards the reservoir side.

Abstract No: 1/029

Problem of pervious foundation of Kanupur Earth Dam, Keonjahar District, Odisha

Jaydip Mukherjee*, Debaprasad Sahoo, Bardan Topno, Dwaipayan Bhattacharya
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

During the excavation of the left abutment of the 256 m, long left flank spillway of 3247 m long & 39.5 m high
Kanupur earth dam across Baitarani River, pebble layers of varying sizes have been intercepted at varying
depths at the excavated left-wing wall and below the cut off trench base of left earthen section. This pebble
layer overlies on weathered and decomposed granite gneiss & successively followed by fresh, hard granite
gneiss at RL 398 m. Detection of such highly previous pebble layers warranted a relook into the geological
studies already carried out previously. These pebble layers are 0.5m – 3 m thick sandwiched between a silty
clay layer & overlain by bedrock granite. The said pebble layers are highly pervious & consist of a 75% coarser
fraction (pebble to granule) & 25% finer fraction (medium to fine sand). Water seepage has been noticed at
the interface of pebble & bedrock contact at 80m downstream of the spillway and a few spots upstream and
downstream. This seepage has been evaluated as water flow through the highly previous material of the buried
channel of the Sona River flowing parallel to the left earthen section. The possibility of heavy seepage/
water loss after impounding reservoir water is apprehended if this pebble horizon is exposed in any part of the
reservoir as well as downstream of the dam axis. Besides leakage, appreciably developed pore pressure will
endanger the stability of the dam. During the study of the cut-off trench, these pebble layers should have been
attended to prior to raising the embankment. A geophysical study by electrical resistivity identified previous
zones between RD 330 m –RD 460m, RD 750m –RD 900m, RD 990m –RD 1040m & RD 1130 m – RD 1150m.
Bedrock occurs at a depth varying between 25 m & 30 m except for certain depression points where bedrock
occurs at about 40 m depth. A detailed study has been made on the performance assessment of seepage-
controlling measures. For arresting seepage chance, provision of a plastic cut-off wall at the heel of the dam
up to fresh rock level throughout the foundation of the left abutment & Tube a Manchette (TAM) grouting has
been recommended.

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Abstract No: 1/030

Stability problem of project road, Balimela Multipurpose Project, Malkangiri District, Odisha
Jaydip Mukherjee*, Debaprasad Sahoo, Bardan Topno
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Slope stability problem has been reported between RD 0.995 km & RD 1.9 km of the Ghat Road from valve
house chowk to valve house of Balimela Power House in the form of dislodging of huge rock blocks, sliding along
rock discontinuity planes, and joint intersection. This slope distress may likely cause extensive damage to the
approach road to the valve house and surge tank in the future. This slope distress necessitated evaluating the
causative factors and formulating mitigative measures.
The project area falls in the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt.
The eastern part of the project area shows the presence of steep hills dissected by valleys whereas the rest
part is flat plain land. Potteru, Sabari, Sileru, Kolab, and Machakunda are the main rivers forming dendritic to
subparallel drainage patterns. The main rock types are charnockite, khondalite, and granite gneiss. Charnockite
occupies the right bank of the Sileru River down to penstock anchor blocks whereas khondalite occurs at the
left bank of the Sileru River and covers part of the reservoir. Contact between khondalite and charnockite is
marked by the presence of a 120 m – 150 m wide band of coarse-grained garnetiferous biotite gneiss/ granite
gneiss mostly occupying the Sileru River bed. The major part of the structures has been accommodated
in charnockite. Contact between the gneissic rock and Charnockite is sheared and characterised by deep
weathering (Sileru shear zone). This shear zone is a mega lineament trending in a NE-SW direction and
marking the boundary of the western Charnockite zone. The foliation of the rocks is having NE-SW strike with
35°-80° dip towards SE and rarely NW. Besides foliation, other joints were observed having NW-SE strike /
vertical and E-W strike/35°-75° northerly dip
The slope distressed zone located between RD 1.0 km to RD 1.9 km along valve house chowk to valve House
Road shows the presence of exposed fresh jointed Charnockite with intermittent granite gneiss. In general
slope trends in N40°-60°W – S40°-60°E direction with 20°-60° angle towards mostly in the NE direction.
Traverse has been taken in and around the distressed zone and detailed geological mapping was carried out for
the identification of different zones according to stability and slope stability analysis through slope mass rating
and suggesting required stability measures. The broad zone-wise description is given as follows:-
Zone - I: Occurs between RD 995m – RD1070m, RD 1136m – RD 1210m, RD 1630m – RD 1750m & RD
1830m – RD 1900m where the main rock type is fresh, hard charnockite & belongs to SMR Class II (SMR value
62.8 – 70.0) i.e. partly stable to stable. Both planer failure along the valley dipping joint and wedge failure
along the intersection joints are common. Block failures are also anticipated. Systematic rock bolting has been
recommended.
Zone – II: Occurs between RD 1070m – RD 1130m, RD 1750m – RD 1830m, where rock type is moderately
weathered charnockite belonging to SMR Class III & IV(SMR 42-46) i.e. partly stable to unstable, where planer
& wedge failure with 0.4 – 0.6 probability was noted. A slope retaining wall with weep holes & drains has been
suggested.
Zone – III: Occurs between RD 1210m & RD 1630m where rock type is highly weathered & decomposed granite
gneiss dissected by a number of joints showing parallelism with Sileru shear zone with SMR Class V (SMR 13)
i.e. completely unstable. The entire stretch shows the presence of soil-like mass with a 0.9 probability of slope
failure. For this part removal of jointed, sheared, fractured rockmass followed by the provision of a strong slope
protection wall with weep holes and drainage have been suggested.

Abstract No: 1/031

Challenges faced during construction at Left Bank of Diversion Tunnel (DT) Outlet
Structure, Deonallah, High Level Road & Low Level Road in Subansiri 2000MW Lower
Hydro Electric Project, India
Biswajit Das*, K. K. Barthakur
Soma Enterprise Ltd.
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Any Hydro Project Dam and appurtenant work is a challenge in the Lower Himalayan region, particularly due
to geological surprises. The Subansiri Lower H.E. Project of 2000MW, the largest capacity in India, Dam and
Appurtenant construction is no exception. Subansiri River forms a boundary between the State of Assam
and Arunachal Pradesh where the Dam is located. This paper deals with a particular area of concern, above
Diversion Tunnels (DT) outlet structure for about 200m stretch and height of about 220m from DT Channel
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Bottom to the top of the hill slope. DT Outlet channel, constructed on a natural stream called Deonallah, and the
Low-Level Road (LLR), and High-Level Road (HLR) have crossed this area in different levels to access the entire
dam area from the left bank, for all activities of construction. At present, mainly concrete transport & placement
and related activities are continuing at full speed and frequent landslides are encountered despite repeated
hill slope failure and stabilisation work done. This paper describes the nature of landslides, subsidence, and
mass movement of rock observed physically, recorded through instrumentation, and by the survey. The rock
characteristics that are mentioned in DPR may not hold well in this area anymore, due to the mass movement
of rock strata and repeated failure of slope stabilisation observed from 2005 onwards till date. The data and
information mentioned here may help to firm up a detailed investigation plan, starting with geophysical and
other specific geological exploration, rock mechanic study, etc., and prepare a fresh plan to stabilise the area
as the HLR is a permanent Road of the Project and will be used for the entire life of the project during operation
& maintenance stage which will connect both banks and states through dam top road.

Abstract No: 1/032

Role of geotechnical investigation for hydropower development in Peninsular India - a

case study from Purulia, West Bengal
Sourav Sen*, Kavitha S., Sunandan Basu, Timir Baran Ghoshal
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

West Bengal State Electricity Distribution Company Limited (WBSEDCL) has planned to construct a closed-
loop pumped storage project named as Turga Pumped Storage Project (TPSP) in Ajodhya hills of West Bengal
near the already-commissioned Purulia Pumped Storage Project (PPSP) to generate 1000 MW (4 X 250 MW)
hydropower. During the peak period, the water from the upper reservoir will be carried through the head race
tunnel to the underground powerhouse for generating 1000 MW of power. After the generation of the power, the
tail race water will be stored at the lower reservoir, which will be pumped back to the upper reservoir through
a reversible turbine during the lean period. This will cover up the power demand of the peak period as well as
reduce the wastage of energy in the lean period.

The project envisages the construction of one upper dam (Catchment area 8.29 sq. km) and one lower dam
having an intermediate catchment of 4.37 sq. km. across Turga Nala, a tributary of Subarnarekha River,
two nos. of 1078 m long headrace tunnels (HRTs) and an underground powerhouse [160 (L) X 25 (W) X 53
m (H)] at downstream of the upper dam. The tail water will be taken to the lower dam through two nos.
of 600 m long tail race tunnels (TRTs). The study area forms a part of the Ajodhya Hills, belonging to the
eastern extension of the Chottanagpur Plateau, traversed by NW - SE trending ridges and valleys. The hill
ranges steeply descend towards the south to merge with the flat peneplain. The proposed lower dam and
saddle dam of TPSP are located at a lower elevation close to the boundary between the plateau-forming hill
mass and the peneplain ground, whereas the proposed upper dam is located at a higher elevation within the
moderately steep valley of Turga Nala. The drainage system in this area originates from the plateau top and
flows radially towards alluvial plains/ peneplains. Regionally, the study area constitutes mainly the crystalline
rocks comprising quartzo-feldspathic gneiss and its migmatitic variants intruded by pegmatite and metabasics
belonging to the Chottanagpur Gneissic Complex of the Proterozoic age. The project site is located between the
South Purulia Shear Zone and North Purulia Shear Zone. The area comes under zone II of the seismic zonation
map of India. Two minor lineaments trending NE-SW and NW-SE are passing through the western and eastern
parts of the project area respectively. Several transverse faults are also reported in this area. Despite all the
above-mentioned structural discontinuities and shear zones, the project area lying within the Precambrian
geological setup having low seismicity as indicated by events of low-magnitude earthquakes in and around the
project area.

Systematic surface and sub-surface geological/geotechnical investigations have been carried out to provide
quality geological/geotechnical inputs towards the preparation of DPR and pre-construction stage geological
report of the project, finalization of layout and design of various appurtenant structures. The upper dam and
lower saddle dam of the project will be rock-fill dams whereas the lower main dam will be a concrete dam. The
feasibility of these dams has been explored through surface geological mapping and sub-surface exploration,
which reveals that the foundation of the upper dam will be placed on weathered to fresh quartzo-feldspathic

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gneiss and its variants as competent rock mass of fair to good quality (Q=5 to 15) is available at shallow depth
(4 to 10 m depth). The Foundation of the lower dam will be on Augen gneiss and quartzo-feldspathic gneiss of
fair to good quality (Q = 4.3 to 19) with discrete local patches of poor to fair quality (Q= 3.3 to 9) metabasic
rocks. The 48.268 m long exploratory drift on the right abutment of the lower dam has provided the scope of
geotechnical tests (shear tests from rock to rock, rock to concrete) in the drift, assessment of the rockmass
condition of the right abutment as well as to ascertain the striping limit for this abutment of the lower dam. 3-D
geological logging of the drift exhibits the presence of poor and weathered pegmatite (Q=2-3 (poor), RMR=30-
35 (class - IV) up to 10 m from the portal, followed by hard and fair to good quartzo-feldspathic gneiss and its
variants (Class II-III, Q: 4.29-12 (fair to good), RMR: 57-80 (class - III to class - II) in the remaining part of
the drift. Augen gneiss, quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, and biotite gneiss of fair to good quality (Q=8 to 15) will
constitute the foundation media for the saddle dam. Surface and subsurface exploration along the HRT & TRT
indicates that mainly fair to good quality gneissic rockmass will constitute the tunneling media. The geological/
geotechnical condition of the underground powerhouse has been explored through surface geological mapping,
deep boreholes, and exploratory drift. The above explorations as well as other geotechnical tests carried out
in the powerhouse cavern indicate the presence of competent rockmass (Q=5 to 16 (fair to good), RMR 55-75
(class - III to class - II) in the underground powerhouse. The location and orientation of the powerhouse have
been marginally modified based on the above investigation.

All the geological and geotechnical investigations carried out for the project will support the project authority
for the construction of a 1000 MW hydropower project safely in time.

Fig. 1 - View of the proposed lower dam complex Fig. 2 - Fair quality augen gneiss exposed along the
of Turga Pumped Storage Project left abutment of lower dam complex.

Fig. 3 - Along the left abutment of lower dam Fig. 4: Mesoscopic fold present within quartzo-
complex the metabasics are present as lensoidal feldspathic gneiss along the right abutment of the
bodies within the quartzo-feldspathic gneiss. lower dam complex of the proposed concrete lower
dam.

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Abstract No: 1/033

Geotechnical appraisal of the proposed tunnels along Koderma- Tilaiya new broad
gauge railway line, Bihar
Kavitha S.*, Prithwiraj Maiti, Sunandan Basu, Mayukhee Ghosh, Sustava Bhattacharya Geological Survey of
India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The East Central Railway has taken up the construction of a 50 km long Koderma-Tilaiya new Broad Gauge
(BG) Railway line project, Bihar for the transportation of people, and goods on large scale for the overall
development of the area. The project area is located in the undulating terrain of the Chhotanagpur plateau
consisting of Precambrian rocks belonging to the Chhotanagpur Gneissic Complex and Bihar Mica Belt. Five
tunnels have been proposed along this railway line. The suitability of these tunnels has been assessed through
the surface and sub-surface geological study. Sporadic outcrops of gneiss and its variants and mica-bearing
quartzite are present along the tunnel alignments under slopewash/regolith soil of varied thickness. Based on
the surface geological mapping, the possibility of Tunnel 5 has been ruled out due to insufficient (<2D) vertical
cover and anticipated considerable seepage through three cross drainages. An open cut/cut and cover section
is proposed for this stretch. To decipher the suitability of portal locations, rockmass configuration, and quality
of rockmass along the proposed tunnels (T1 to T4), 14 boreholes were drilled. The geotechnical investigation
indicates that mainly good quality (Q >10) gneissic rockmass will form the tunneling media. However, the
rock quality may deteriorate locally due to the presence of any sheared/ fractured rock mass. Systematic rock
bolting may be required to strengthen those local weak zones. Based on the surface geological mapping and
sub-surface geological exploration, the locations of the portals of the tunnels have been marginally shifted to
optimize cutting or to achieve sufficient vertical cover for the portals. The cut slopes of the portals should be
protected with rock bolting followed by wire mesh shotcreting after proper slope easing/dressing. Steel rib
support may be required near the entry and exit portals for about 10 meters depending upon the rockmass
condition. Considering the good quality rockmass lining may not be required for these tunnels; however, wire
mesh may be provided between crown and spring level to prevent any possible loose fall. Intermittent seepage
may be encountered during tunneling, especially below the nala. At such places, drainage holes have to be
provided. Shifting of the tunnel portals and the suggested support system will reduce the time and cost-over
run during the construction of tunnels. These geotechnical suggestions will help the project authority with
proper designing, cost estimation, and safe construction of the tunnels.

Abstract No: 1/034

DPR stage geotechnical investigation of Balason Hydroelectric Project, Darjeeling

District, West Bengal
Sustava Bhattacharya*, Kavitha S., Timir Baran Ghoshal
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The West Bengal State Electricity Distribution Company Limited (WBSEDCL) has planned to develop a
hydroelectric project in the Balason sub-basin of 36 MW capacity through the construction of two drop-type
weirs across Balason River and its right bank tributary Rongbong River, two surface desilting chambers, ~8.5
km long tunnel, a forebay, ~1.1 km long penstock and a surface powerhouse near Dhajia Village of Darjeeling
District. A detailed investigation of the Balason Hydroelectric project (36MW) has been carried out in order
to provide geological/geotechnical inputs for a bankable DPR. The project area is located within the lesser
Himalayas which falls in Zone-IV of the Seismic Zonation Map of India. In the study area, quartzofeldspathic
biotite gneiss and its variants belonging to the Central Crystalline Gneissic Complex (CCGC) are present under
overburden material of varied thicknesses. The rocks of the area are highly deformed and disturbed and
susceptible to frequent landslides. The major portion of the project area is falling under the moderate to high
landslide susceptibility zone. The geotechnical investigation of the project has been carried out to provide
necessary geotechnical/geological inputs for the preparation of a bankable DPR for the project as well as
to suggest the required subsurface investigations. The location and orientation of the proposed weirs have
been marginally modified on geological as well as engineering considerations. At the modified weir sites, the
foundation of both the intakes and the surface desilting chambers will rest upon loose unconsolidated riverine
material, hence appropriate raft foundation will be required; the design of which can be made considering the
seismic co-efficient of the area. The orientation and alignment of the ~8.5 km long HRT have been modified

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for better rock participation and to achieve sufficient vertical cover below the prominent nalas. Fair to poor
quality gneissic rockmass will constitute the major part of the tunnelling media, which may be supported
with rock-bolt and shotcrete of appropriate thickness. At a few places, very poor quality rockmass might be
encountered due to the presence of shear zones, heavy water influx, the adverse orientation of the major
discontinuities, etc. Possibilities of rock bursting at a few places due to high vertical cover may not be ruled out.
Considerable seepage is expected below the major nalas for which sufficient drainage arrangement needs to
be planned. To facilitate the construction of the HRT as well as to optimize the timeframe of excavation of the
tunnel, two adits have been proposed. The geometry and the location of the forebay have been considerably
modified due to space constraints. Necessary support for the foundation of the forebay in terms of grouting,
rock anchoring, and downstream shear key will be required to check the possible slip of the foundation along
the valley dipping open joints. The Penstock alignment has been modified marginally considering the human
agglomeration, road alignment, presence of cliff/ escarpment slope, availability of competent rockmass at the
foundation of the anchor blocks, and other engineering constraints. Most of the anchor blocks for the penstock
will be on the gneissic rock. The location and orientation of the powerhouse have also been considerably
modified to optimize cutting in hard gneissic rockmass, for better rock participation and to avoid differential
settlement. The foundation of the surface powerhouse will rest upon hard competent gneissic rockmass. The
above-mentioned geotechnical inputs will definitely help in the preparation of a bankable DPR which will in
terms reduce cost and time overrun during the construction of the project in the complex and fragile geological
milieu of lesser Himalayas.

Abstract No: 1/035

Investigation of Block Toppling Failure in Sandstone Cut Slope

Ashutosh Kainthola*, Vishnu HR Pandey, Vikas Yadav
Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (UP), India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Irrespective of the scale of slope failure along high-

speed transportation corridors, the loss of human
lives, traffic disruption, and damage to machinery are
enormous. Prevention of these failures necessitates a
thorough investigation into the possible causal factors,
triggers, and mechanisms. Generally, the collapse
of rock slopes is underpinned by the type of rocks,
hydrology, frequency, and orientations of structural
discontinuities and geometry. These attributes dictate
the mode of failure, viz., planar, wedge, circular, or
toppling. Toppling, common in stratified rocks, takes
place when discontinuities in rocks strike parallel to
the slope and dip steeply inside. Loose blocks end up
falling outside of the slope due to overturning. This
type of failure is common along the Markundi section of
state highway 5A, UP, India. Slide head toppling was the
most prevalent type of toppling noticed in the studied
section. For the stability assessment, a field survey was
carried out to record the lithology, structural attributes,
joint roughness, and Schmidt hardness. Further, in the
laboratory, the rocks were tested for their geotechnical
strength attributes and base angle of friction. Eventually,
a probability analysis was carried out to discern the
failure changes as a function of friction angle, block
generation algorithm, and column dimensions. A
mean factor of safety of 0.9 against toppling failure
was achieved by the algorithm. Keeping in mind the
economic importance of the state highway, mitigation
measures were simulated to attain stability.
Figure 1: Kinematic analysis of the
toppling failure.
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Figure 2: Toppling analysis of the cut slope.

Abstract No: 1/036

Ground assessment & Rehabilitation of decade-long abandoned Pressure Shaft-Rangit-IV HEP,
West Sikkim

Sahoo R. N*, Rawat Pankaj, Lal S.P, Yadav Sudhir

JPCL (A wholly Owned Subsidiary of NHPC Limited), Sikkim-737121, India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

It’s easier to buy a new equipment rather than refurbish & running a worn-out one. In similar condition, the
120 MW Rangit-IV HE Project which was stalled since 2013, was entrusted to NHPC through NCLT from the
previous developer-JPCL on 31/03/2021 for carrying out the balance excavation/construction works on as-is-
where-is-basis. The project envisages the construction of one steel lined Pressure Shaft (length-206m, finished
dia. 5.5m), wherein excavation stands complete i.r.o. D-shaped 46.5m UHPS (8.3mx8.3m) & 74.75m LHPS
(6.4mx6.6m). However, 21m excavation is balanced in VPS out of 84.75m. For a decade, VPS had remained
inundated/saturated due to underground seepage.

Construction planning of this balance excavation called for an initial restoration of the site viz. dewatering,
pipeline mending, dismantling/removal of construction equipment/trash, underground lighting & survey
reconciliation of structures.

Retrospective inspection revealed that these structures had negotiated in Class-IV/V rocks as reflected from the
existing rock supports. However, cavities/hollows in backfill behind steel ribs, rusting of steel laggings/plates,
damaged concrete laggings, detachment of shotcrete layer & cracks therein with deterioration of rockmass
including calcite leaching were observed. Hence, excavation planning of VPS demanded extensive repair/
rehabilitation works for the stability of the structure and to avoid any mishap.

This paper highlights the condition of a decade-long abandoned underground structure vis-à-vis deterioration
of rockmass, and installed supports & offers an insight into resurrective planning of such projects in terms of
Contracts/Project schedule.

Site Geology:

The geology of the Pressure Shaft belongs to Gondwana rocks comprising alternate bands of thinly bedded
Sandstone/Carbonaceous Sandstone, Shale/Carbonaceous Shale with intermittent Coal seams/bands of varying
thickness (~15cm-1m) with shearing along bedding/litho-contacts. Varying strength/competence of these rock
units evinces Mixed Ground Conditions. Pinch-swell structure evincing Lensoid bands & localised warping/
folding with a swing of bedding (N280/45˚-N340/60˚) are observed.

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Site-specific observations and rehabilitation measures adopted vis-à-vis VPS excavation Action plan is as under:

Vertical Pressure Shaft (VPS):

Ground verification showed discrepancies in RDs/Levels w.r.t. Contracts. Hence, it called for survey reconciliation,
which showed a 40mm alignment offset. VPS was found to be excavated up to a depth of 53.4m (EL374.1m)
from the false concrete collar top (EL427.5m). Accordingly, the balance length of the excavation got increased
to 24.385m against 21m.

Beyond the collar (2.4m high), circular ribs ISHB150 @1m c/c, concrete laggings (Steel plates at places) along
with backfilling were found installed up to the bottom by the previous developer.

Hollows/cavities ~30cm-1m deep in backfill behind laggings observed throughout the depth. Further, Steel
ribs/steel laggings were rusted and concrete laggings were damaged & disoriented at places.

Seepage was observed from mid-depth (27.4m), confining to the hillside slope (NW-SW quadrants) & showed
an increasing trend with depth. Further, VPS had remained saturated up to mid-depth for a decade, evincing
watermarks along the periphery (Photo-1).

Further below (28.4m), calcite leaching was observed owing to seepage. The degree of leaching/calcrete
deposition thereto also showed an increasing trend with depth.

Few loose rock chunks were found at 33-35m depth within scoured backfill in the SW hillside quadrant due to
decade-long saturation and deterioration of rockmass.

NX-size pilot hole with casing was found at VPS bottom-EL374.10m extending up to LHPS crown was found
choked with sludge/calcrete.

Upper horizontal & Lower Horizontal Pressure Shaft (UHPS, LHPS):

Reflectively, based on the existing support system, these tunnels are inferred to have negotiated through class-
IV/V rock evinced with Steel Ribs @1000/750mm c/c respectively with concrete/steel laggings and backfilling.

UHPS beyond Surgeshaft d/s transition negotiated in class-IV rock except for the last 13m in Class-V rock
up to RD155m, wherein VPS is located (C/L RD148.5m). Herein, 3 nos. vertical rib posts were found slightly
distorted/misaligned below the left SPL.

Further, difficult tunneling conditions are inferred herein, evincing Forepoles (32mm dia. bars, ISMC100, Box
channels) & Relict grout pipes for Pre-grouting (Photo-2).

Hollows/cavities ~20cm deep in backfill were observed in general. Steel ribs/steel laggings were moderately
rusted and concrete laggings were damaged in places.

Minor cracks were found adjacent to old rock bolts at UHPS concrete cladding end-wall RD155m owing to
distress & choked drainage holes.

Sympathetic seepage was observed in UHPS owing to rain and low cover (~35m) above the crown.

Installed Gantry-crane for VPS is operational at UHPS RD137.5m-RD152m.

Similar to UHPS, LHPS negotiated entirely in Class-IV rock having steel ribs @1m c/c with concrete laggings
and backfilling as well as inferred difficult tunneling conditions.

LHPS gable end-wall is bolted & shotcrete. The face is calcite coated with damp seepage from the VPS bottom
& leaching thereby.

Leaching was further noticed with calcrete deposition around a metal sling hung through a pilot hole exposed at
the LHPS crown (4.3m behind the end wall), hence rockmass above LHPS was inferred as saturated (Photo-3).

Optimal Rehabilitation Measures Adopted vis-à-vis Action plan for the maiden blast in VPS:

Hollows/cavities behind ribs were identified both visually & with sounding test and were backfilled with fill-grout
(sand-cement) post surficial spraying of 50mm SFRS at UHPS crown towards restraining surface leakages.

Rehab works were first ensured at UHPS crown above VPS including the Gantry-crane operational area for
avoiding loosening of old shotcrete/concrete fragments from the crown due to drill-blast vibrations & otherwise.

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Rusted steel laggings/damaged concrete laggings were selectively repaired/replaced.

Loose-slumped rock chunks were manually removed by barring.

Because of increasing seepage trend with depth & anticipated Class-V/IV rock in balance depth of VPS; Pre-
grouting at the periphery with 5m long sub vertical holes (45mm dia.) @3m c/c suggested for facilitating
excavation vis-à-vis strengthening of rockmass & counteracting seepage.

Suggested 2m max. pull in VPS by light charge smooth/cushion blasting to reduce vibration.

Similar Rehab works are also suggested in LHPS against Drill-blast vibration/effects ensuring the safety of the
last 21m stretches (bottom lower bend of Pressure Shaft).

Suggested cleaning of drainage holes at UHPS end-wall to ease out pressure & cleaning of the choked pilot hole
at VPS bottom to cater seepage during excavation.

Though the provision of these rehab works existed in Technical Specifications as per Contracts; were over &
above BOQ, which affected the project schedule/cost.

Conclusion:

Optimal rehabilitation measures as per site conditions were selectively adopted and the safety of vulnerable
zones was ensured before the commencement of balance excavation in VPS. Hence, the revival of such long
abandoned projects calls for a detailed site inspection before framing Tender/Contract documents. Further,
provisions for rehabilitation measures should be kept in BOQ to meet the project schedule and avoid cost over-
run.

Photo-1: View of Vertical Pressure Shaft (VPS) from bottom showing hollows/cavities in
backfill throughout the depth including damaged laggings and increasing
trend of seepage & calcite leaching with depth.

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Photo-2: Upper horizontal Pressue

shaft (UHPS) showing Installed
Class-IV Rock supports by previous
developer including forepoles &
relict Grout pipes and presence of
hollows at crown.

Photo-3(a,b): Calcrete deposition around metal sling hung through pilot hole exposed at Lower Horizontal
Pressure Shaft (LHPS) crown below VPS(3a). Close-up view of concentric calcrete layers depicting seasonal
deposition due to leaching since a decade (3b).

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 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Abstract No: 1/037

Problems faced while driving tunnel below Mumbai city for water supply
P.T. Sinha Roy *
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Municipal Corporation of Mumbai is driving tunnels below the township in order to provide water to
the residents of Mumbai. These Water Conductor Systems will run from i ) Hedgewar Udyan to Pratiksha
Nagar and further up to Parel ( AMT –I ) ii ) from Hedgewar Udyan to Trombay Lower Level Reservoir and
further up to Trombay Higher Level Reservoir ( AMT-II). During the monsoon, a huge quantity of rainwater
gets accumulated in the lakes of the Western Ghats hills near Mumbai city. Apart from that, the rain water is
also stored in large diameter shafts, sunk at a higher elevations in the Western Ghats hills near Mumbai.
This accumulated rain water is taken down to different parts of the city by gradient through tunnels
which are driven through very hard, compact Basalts and related volcanic rocks of the Western Ghats hills.

It is known that a series of large faults run almost in a straight line along the coast line of Mumbai. A
series of hot springs are also there, almost along a straight line, around this city. This spring water is coming
from great depth through a series of faults which are vertical /sub-vertical and have dissected the hard compact
Basalt on which city has come up.

It is to be mentioned that about two hundred years ago, at the site of present Mumbai, there were 6 to 7
small islands like Kolaba, Bombay, Mazgaon, Parel, Worli and Mahim where the local fishermen used to live.
The low lying areas in between these islands were filled with the marine sands of Arabian Sea. Subsequently
this city has gradually come up after the depressions in between these islands were filled up with slope wash
materials of the Western Ghats hills. These slope - wash materials are locally called Regular Soils or Black
Cotton soils which are the weathering product of basalt and related volcanic rocks. In wet condition, these soils
become very expansive /swelling, sticky, plastic due to presence of Montmorillonite type of clay.

Tunneling through hard, compact basalt and related volcanic rocks cannot be done without heavy blasting.
The conventional method of tunneling was not followed here because the foundation of the multi-storied
buildings of Mumbai City is likely to be damaged in the course of blasting operations. In order to avoid this,
tunnelling by TBM (i.e., Tunnel Boring Machines ) was favoured by the engineers of Municipal Corporation.
The highly experienced engineers who were entrusted to drive the tunnels got very much confused when
their expensive TBM got stuck up in the tunnels. The Geologist who was associated with this tunnelling
operation also got very much confused when the TBM did not move. This author was called in to find out
the reason. The engineers were advised to collect the clayey materials from the tunnel where the TBM got
stuck. The collected material is white /greyish-white clay which the author identified as Montmorillonite. The
Engineers were advised to get its D T A ( Differential Thermal Analysis ) from some reputed laboratories
to confirm. In Basalt, tunnelling lining is not required /may be avoided but where the sticky clays are
found tunnelling lining will be necessary after allowing the clay to expand fully.

Abstract No: 1/038

Stabilization of Soft Coastal Soil of Matarbari Power Project, Bangladesh by Deep

Mixing Method
Md. Shakil Mahabub1*, Md. Raqibul Hassan2 and A.T.M. Shakhawat Hossain3
1,3
Department of Geological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342,
1,2
Matarbari Joint Venture Consultant (MJVC), Matarbari Ultra Super Critical Coal-Fired Power Project, Bangladesh
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Construction of engineering structures is crucial on soft ground, especially in soft and expansive clayey soil
with a potential risk for deformation due to high compressibility and low shear strength. Ground improvement
is essential to mitigate these risks within soft and expansive soils. The study area is mainly composed of two
types of alluvial soils, i.e., cohesive clayey and non-cohesive sandy soils. The upper cohesive soil layer is very
soft to soft, normally to slightly consolidated, with a low shear strength of <25kPa and undrained cohesion
6.0-7.0kPa. The thickness of this soil layer is around 2.4-10.2m and is expected to have a high potential
for differential settlement (Mahabub & Islam, 2020). This research aims to understand the key influencing
parameters and their effect on stabilized soil strength and field performances depending on laboratory and field
trial mixing. Moreover, an attempt has been made to evaluate the treated soil behavior based on unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) for different cement contents (dosages) and water-cement ratios, including the

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effect of energy and construction conditions.

In this project, the deep mixing method (DMM) is considered for soft soil stabilization. DMM is a deep in-situ
soil stabilization technique that utilizes cement and/or lime additives in slurry or powder form into the ground
and mixed with the existing soil using blades that form a hard-treated soil column (CDIT, 2002). The chemical
binders are mixed with soil to improve its consistency, strength, permeability, and deformation characteristics
through the ion exchange at the surface of clay minerals, bonding of soil particles, or filling void spaces by
chemical reaction products. It is a fast and environmentally friendly solution and is mainly used to mitigate
low shear strength, high compressibility, and excessive settlement concerning the bearing capacity and slope
stability, solidify contaminated soil and seismically retrofit civil infrastructure, particularly liquefaction potential.

Field tests were conducted based on the embankments on soft clayey soil supported by deep mixing (DM)
columns. In this research, the stabilized soil quality is evaluated and discussed for post-quality verification by
following the laboratory and field trial mixing, full-scale DM column installation, in situ confirmatory (drilling
and core sampling of stabilized soil) tests, laboratory results of stabilized soils strength with including area
improvement ratios and DM column efficiency. The total volume of deep mixing (soil-cement mixture) is
approximately 3.66 million m3. The thickness of improved ground changes with site condition and stabilized
from +1.0 m to -17.0m MSL below the existing surface on a flat island (Matarbari Island) along the coastline
of Coxsbazar.

The obtained field average UCS strength is much higher than the required design strength in both cases, whereas
a value of 1992.40kPa for Zone-1 and 1690.56kPa for zone-2 has been determined. Only one sample’s strength
does not meet the required design strength in the case of Zone-1 (<500kPa). The average minimum and
maximum strengths for Zone-1 are 719.63kPa and 3271.73kPa, with a standard deviation value of 667.63kPa.
However, half (50%) of the sample’s average strength is much higher >2000kPa with a coefficient of variation
(COV) value of 0.33. Similarly, for Zone-2, the average minimum and maximum strengths are 428.27kPa
and 3287.07kPa with a standard deviation value of 622.51 kPa, and only one sample results are lower than
the strength 500kPa but meets the required design strength (>300kPa). Moreover, the 50% stabilized soil
sample’s average strength is around 1600kPa with a coefficient of variation value of 0.37 and these coefficients
of variation in both cases are consistent with standard field performance. The variations of UCS strength are
influenced by multiple factors involved in the construction process of the DM column.

From the overall observations, it is established that the UCS strength of treated soil depends on the original
soil type, water-cement (w/c) ratio, cement contents, mixing time, energy, and construction conditions. The
UCS strength increases with the increase of cement contents, the decrease of w/c ratios, natural water, and
percentages of finer particles. This research is significant for identifying the stabilized soil’s physical and
mechanical properties in a new region where DMM is unfamiliar as a ground improvement technique. The
authors believe that this research will certainly help engineers, practitioners, and policymakers as a general
guideline for optimizing the design and mixing process in a local and global construction sector for sustainable
infrastructure development near the coastal regions.

Abstract No: 1/039

DPR stage geotechnical investigation of Damanganga-Vaitarna-Godavari Link Project,

Palghar & Nashik districts, Maharashtra
Anamitra Dey*, Jeyabal S., Ashish Barsagade, D. Chakraborty
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Intra-State Damanganga(Vagh/Val) – Vaitarna(Upper Vaitarna) – Godavari (Kadva-DevNadi) Link (or DVG
Link) project in Maharashtra envisages diversion of 202 Mm3 of surplus water of west flowing Damanganga and
Vaitarna basins to east flowing Godavari basin through the construction of four RCC dams, two in Damanganga
basin and two in Vaitarna basin, to restrict the excess water flowing westward into the Arabian sea. The excess
water would be carried eastward to the draught-prone Godavari basin (Dev River) through a pipeline and four
tunnels. Detailed surface geological mapping around the dam sites and tunnel alignments indicate that the
entire project area is covered by thin soil, transported slope wash material, and River Borne Materials underlain
by fresh to moderately weathered Massive Basalt (MB) with patchy vesiculation and Vesicular Amygdular Basalt
(VAB). The MB rockmass is beset by several sets of sub-vertical to moderately dipping (35°-40°) tight joints
having low to moderate persistence. Sub-surface geological exploration at four dam sites has been carried out
through the drilling of five boreholes at each dam site. Good to very good quality rockmass has been encountered
at all the dam sites except at the Nilmati dam site where a thick calcite vein from 31m to 36m depth at the river
bed and fractured rockmass on the right bank has been encountered. Based on the surface and sub-surface

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geological exploration, all the dam sites are found feasible for constructing the RCC gravity dam; however,
further exploration has been suggested at the Nilmati dam site because of the weak and fractured rock mass.
Based on the geological exploration, portals of the proposed tunnels have been marginally shifted to optimize
cutting as well as to achieve sufficient vertical rock cover. The shifting of the portals results in the reduction
or the tunnel length by 600 m (in the case of the Nilmati tunnel) and 800 m (in the case of the UVK-1 tunnel)
respectively which will certainly save time and cost during the tunnel construction. Mainly good to very good
quality rock mass will constitute the tunnelling media along the modified tunnel alignments. However, the rock
condition may deteriorate locally due to the presence of a fracture zone, shear zone, or seepage zone. The cut
slopes of the portals should be protected with rock bolting after proper slope easing/dressing. Considering the
good quality rockmass lining may not be required in the major portion of these tunnels. Locally supports may
be required in the zones of weak rockmass and seepage. Shifting the tunnel portals and the suggested support
system will reduce the time and cost-over run during the construction of tunnels.

Abstract No: 1/040

Geotechnical Investigations for Underground Power House in Dul-Quartzite- A case

Study of Dulhasti Stage-II HEP (260MW)
Ajay Singh, Sumit Dabral*
NHPC Limited, Sector-33, Faridabad-121003, Haryana, India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Dulhasti Stage-II H.E. Project (260 MW) is envisaged on river Chenab in the Kishtwar District of UT of
Jammu and Kashmir. The present proposal is an extension of the existing Dulhasti Stage-I H.E. Project/Dulhasti
Power Station and was conceptualized during its DPR stage. The present scheme proposes the construction
of twin Desilting Chambers (300 m long each), an 860m long Silt flushing tunnel, and around 3.685 km long,
8.5 m dia single Head Race Tunnel aligned across Duldgar ridge and leading to an underground Power House
(100m x 19.5m x 52m) located on the left bank of River Chenab near village Banjwar. The tailwater from the
powerhouse will be discharged back into river Chenab at around 2 km u/s of the confluence of Chenab and
Marusudar River (near Bhandarkoot) by 1 no, 8.5 m dia, around 215 m long Tail Race Tunnel (TRT). Presently
the project is under DPR Stage, undertaken by NHPC Ltd.
Geologically, the project area falls in the inner Lesser Himalayas within Kishtwar Window Zone. The project is
located in Seismic Zone-IV as per the seismic zonation map of India (IS-1893-Part-I: 2016). All the project
components including the Underground Power House complex fall in a single litho-unit i.e., medium strong to
very strong Quartzite with occasional thin bands of green/grey coloured weak Phyllite of Dul formation under
the Kishtwar group of rocks.
The layout and stability of an underground powerhouse are controlled by mainly topography, geological setup
of the area, particularly subsurface geology, physical and engineering properties of rock mass and in-situ stress
as well as groundwater conditions in the area. Accordingly, the proposed powerhouse complex of Dulhasti
Stage-II and its appurtenant structures have thoroughly been investigated by geological mapping (on 1:1000
scale), geophysical survey viz High-Resolution Resistivity Imaging with cumulative profile length of 800m, 03
nos. of drill holes with a cumulative depth of 246m, one no. drift with a cumulative length of 328m and in-situ
& laboratory rock mechanics testing.
The surface and subsurface geological/geophysical investigations indicate that the powerhouse is expected
to be housed in medium to very strong Quartzite (Avg UCSdry: 125Mpa & UCS sat: 116Mpa and Modulus
of elasticity (Dry/Sat): 57/31 GPa) with occasional thin bands of green Phyllite and the area is free from
any significant adverse geological features viz folding, faulting, major shear zones, etc. Though Quartzite is
generally strong it is intensely jointed and slightly weathered to un- weathered in nature. Iron staining is seen
along joint planes particularly along sub-vertical joints, all along the excavated length of drift. Pockets of very
strong as well as moderately weathered/fractured zones are also seen in the drill holes as well as in the drift.
In general, the entire Power House cavern is expected to be housed in a dry rock mass as indicated in the
drift. Based on geological investigations, it is also inferred that the PH cavern media i.e. quartzite rock mass
is generally dissected by 4 sets of joints viz i.e. S1 (foliation/hill dipping): 049°/30°, S2: 179°/80° & 36°/8°,
S3: 055°/45° (hill dipping) and S4: 26°/55° (Valley dipping). Among these joint sets, Foliation appears feeble
whereas the sub-vertical / S2 Joint set (closely/intensely jointed) is most prominent followed by S3 and S4 sets
of joints. Accordingly, the Powerhouse has been aligned considering the orientation of the major joint set i.e. S2
and S3. The angle between the longer axis of the PH cavern and S2 joint set is around 74º whereas with S3 set,
it is around 50º which is considered to be favorable in general for tunneling/cavern excavation. Additionally,
results of the In-situ stress measurement test/ HTPF as well as the World Stress Map are also considered/
utilized for the finalization/optimization of the layout of underground PH and associated caverns. Sufficient
vertical and lateral cover i.e. around ±220m and ±350m is available over the powerhouse cavern.

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As such, results of all geological investigations indicate that the proposed underground powerhouse and other
associated caverns of Dulhasti Stage-II are expected to be placed in strong to very strong but generally closely
jointed and occasionally fractured/ slightly to moderately weathered Dul Quartzite with thin bands of Phyllite
at places.
This paper describes in detail the engineering geological investigations including surface geological mapping,
resistivity imaging survey, exploratory drilling & drifting, laboratory and in-situ rock mechanic tests carried out
for finalization/optimization of layout and design of underground powerhouse cavern of Dulhasti stage-II HEP.

Abstract No: 1/041

Engineering geological evaluation and design support system of draft tube tunnels of
Palamuru-Ranga Reddy lift irrigation scheme, package-16 site-A case study
P Lingaswamy1*, D S Rawat2, A K Naithani2, G C Shekar1, L K Rao1
1
RVR Projects, Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad- 500 033, 2National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bengaluru-560 078
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Palamuru-Ranga Reddy lift Irrigation Scheme is being constructed for irrigation and drinking water purposes
for the drought-prone upland areas of Nagarkurnool, Mahabubnagar, Vikarabad, Rangareddy, and Nalgonda
districts in the Telangana state. The scheme has been divided into five lift stages to complete the scheme within
the schedule. For this scheme, water will be lifted from the backwater of Srisailam reservoir FRL+269.735 m
near Yellur of Nagarkurnool district. The destination reservoir is K.P. Lakshmidevipalli reservoir at FRL +670.0
m and water will be lifted through multistage lift mechanisms. A total of 90 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of
water is proposed to lift from this scheme. A decent socio-economic benefit is being predicted with this scheme
for various villages and towns en route.
This paper is about draft tube tunnels of package 16 site of Palamuru-Ranga Reddy lift Irrigation Scheme
(PRLIS). Draft tube tunnels are important components of the pump house complex in lift irrigation schemes
that connect the surge pool and the pump house structures. The surge pool cavern is 233.0 m long, 20.0
m wide, and 92.0 m high and the pump house cavern is 257.0 m long, 25.0 m wide, and 59.93 m high are
interconnected with these five numbers of draft tubes. Water will control and release from five numbers of gate
structures which are just at the entry of these draft tube tunnels situated in the surge pool and finally reach
individual mechanical pumps in the pump house. Detailed engineering geological investigations were carried
out for the assessment of rock mass quality and to provide a suitable support system. Regionally the rock types
belong to the Peninsular Gneissic Complex (PGC) of the Archean age. The main rock types of draft tube tunnels
are coarse-grained pinkish-grey granite. The rock mass was classified based on rock mass rating (RMR) and
tunneling quality index (Q) classifications. The calculated classes of rock masses range between the fair and
good rock. Additional care of rock mass with rock support arrangement was taken in draft tube number 1 given
the site’s geological condition and the area was supported with steel ribs. Draft tube tunnels were constructed
as per the Norwegian method of tunneling (NMT) and support design as per the Q-system chart. Rock support
in the form of rock bolts, steel fiber-reinforced shotcrete, and steel ribs was applied.

Abstract No: 1/042

Construction stage geotechnical studies of tunnel across Zoji-La Pass on Sonamarg-

Kargil section of NH-01 in the Union Territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh
Mandapalli Raju1*, Mehraj Ud Din Lone2, Bilal Ahmad Mir2
1
Director General (retd.), Geological Survey of India, 2Megha Engg. and Infrastructures Limited
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Ladakh area of J&K is linked with the rest of the country through two routes: (i) Leh-Srinagar and (ii) Leh-
Manali, both remaining closed in the months November-March every year due to heavy snowfall. To overcome
this isolation of the Ladakh region, Border Roads Organisation proposed a tunnel across the Zoji-La, located 13
km from Sonamarg towards Minamarg (Dras) on NH-1D, between Baltal and Minamarg. Zoji-La Pass provides
a vital link between Ladakh and Kashmir. It falls at an elevation of 3,528 m (11,575 ft) and is the second-
highest pass after Fotu-La on the Srinagar-Leh Highway.

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The area is marked by NE-SW trending mountain ranges. The tunnel alignment also broadly trends in a NE-SW
direction, between two mighty turbulent rivers, Sindh and Dras Rivers.

The tunnel is a single tube, bidirectional road tunnel of length 13.150 km and finished width of about 10.50
m. The eastern portal of the Zoji-La tunnel is located 8 km before Minamarg on the left side of the River Dras,
whereas, the western portal of the tunnel is located at Baltal on the right side of the River Sindh. The tunnel
alignment at its western portal is at RL+2,900 m and its eastern portal is at RL+3,310 m, having a gradient of
about 1 in 33 towards the west portal, i.e., a fall of about 410 m in a total length of 13.150 km. As the rock
types present in the area are highly fractured in nature, the stability of slopes and stand-up time for cut slopes
are expected to be minimal. Considering the nature of the rock formations, geotechnical studies are important
inputs for the design and execution of the tunnel.

National Highways & Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd., New Delhi, the client on behalf of the
Government of India has taken up the project to facilitate the year connection of the Ladakh Region with
the rest of the country. Megha Engineering and Infrastructures Limited is the EPC contractor, AIG Awesome
Infrastructure Group EEIG is the Detail Design Consultant and ICT AIAPL JV is the authority engineer to execute
the assignment. Topographic survey and geological mapping of the area on a 1:5,000 scale has been carried
out, sections developed and prepared Baseline Geotechnical Report of the project by M/s G S GeoEnVirons Pvt.
Ltd., and Vayam Technologies Ltd., New Delhi.

After their initial work, Indian Geotechnical Services, New Delhi conducted drilling, obtained core recoveries,
and provided more details on sub-surface geology. Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE, DRDO),
Chandigarh helped to finalise the layout so that portals are located in safe zones free of avalanches and
if required to suggest suitable avalanche protection structures at the site. The authors of this paper were
associated with the project during actual execution through the EPC contractor, coordinating with the Baseline
Geotechnical Report along with the factual data on the ground. Close study of the ground details of the tunnel
helped to monitor day-to-day excavation and for suggesting suitable support measures.

Geology: Rock types present in the area are a predominantly stratified meta-sedimentary sequence of pyritious
phyllite, carbonaceous slate, limestone, micaceous quartzite, schist, and agglomerates, mostly belonging to the
Zoji-La Formation of Kashmir. Panjal volcanic are also observed predominantly along the alignment. Geological
mapping of the terrain and a few boreholes drilled along the tunnel alignment helped to understand the geology
of the terrain. Rock formations present along the proposed tunnel alignment from the west portal (0.0 m) up
to 5.400 km are Zoji-La Formation, mainly consisting of phyllite, slate, carbonaceous slate, schist with thin
bands of limestone and quartzite. RQD varies from 50 to 80%, UCS of the rock type range from 30 to 60 MPa,
while Poisson’s ratio is about 0.20. Volcanic Agglomerate, slate, and carbonaceous slate with thin bands of
mica schist and quartz are outcropped from ch 5.400 to 9.350 km. Panjal Trap is exposed from ch 9.350 to
10.800 km, having rock types predominantly biotite schist with veins of quartz, having RQD from 50 to 90%
and UCS of about 50 MPa. Zoji-La Formation is again exposed from 10.800 km to the end of the tunnel at the
East portal. Moderately weathered to fresh biotite schist, with thin bands of quartz and graphite schist and
gneiss are prominent rock types present in the area. Several fault zones and fractured zones are noted along
the proposed tunnel alignment.

Excavation: Portals of both ends of the tunnel were established at suitable locations devoid of avalanches and
landslides, duly providing suitable benches, driving rock bolts, and applying shotcrete along the cut slopes.
Excavation of the tunnel by drilling and blasting was commenced and progressed through heading and benching
from both portals. Excavation heading could be made so far about 2.0 km length from its east portal and about
2.0 km length from its west portal. Of late, benching is also commenced to accelerate work progress. Driving
rock bolts and applying shotcrete are prominent support measures being applied. In case of unstable rock mass
conditions were met while driving the tunnel through fractured rock formations, pipe roofing was applied at a
few reaches.

Seepage: As rocks are fractured and numerous joints, shears, faults, thrusts, and sutures cut across the
terrain in the vicinity of the tunnel area, there is a possibility of seepage into an excavation made in the tunnel.
Further, a major portion of the tunnel alignment passes almost beneath a river course, sometimes on the
left side and sometimes on the right side and many times cut across the river course. Rocks are non-porous
and impermeable, but the presence of joints, fractures, and shears in rock formation provides considerable
permeability. An inherent slope present in the tunnel will help the free flow of the seepage emanating from
excavation from the western portal and it can be safely drained off. However, for the remaining excavation
to be made from other faces, such as excavation made from the eastern portal, ventilation shafts need to be
drained off by proper and adequate dewatering arrangements.

Flexibility in lining: The terrain is seismically active, influenced by active faults and other major tectonic
features of the Himalayas.

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According to the seismic zoning map of India, the tunnel site is located within Zone IV. Considering the
prevailing stress conditions in the ground, developed due to mountain building activity of the Himalayas, stress
conditions prevail in the terrain, especially along N-S directions. As our tunnel is broadly aligned in the E-W
direction, there could be a possibility that the tunnel might get affected by these compressive forces. In the
process, tunnel lining also may be subjected to stress conditions, resulting formation of cracks. To avoid such
a situation and to minimize the stress affecting directly the tunnel, the suggested provision of flexibility in the
lining, which can accommodate a few centimeters of compression due to stresses developed in the terrain over
a period.

Ventilation Shafts: Among other works, prominent is the construction of three Ventilation Shafts along the
proposed tunnel alignment. The Ventilation Shaft No.1 is proposed at km 4.489 of tunnel alignment, to make
a total depth of 484 m; Shaft No.2 is proposed at km 7.646 of tunnel alignment, to make a total depth of 365
m; Shaft No.3 is proposed at km.

Abstract No: 1/043

SPT-Based Liquefaction Risks and Shear Strength Behaviour of Some Soils of Ukhiya,
Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
Dutta T.*, Hossain ATMS., Mahabub M.S., Hossain Md. Sayem, Khatun M., Haque M.E., Imam H., Jafrin S.J.,
Khan. P.A, Bakali R. and Hasan M
Department of Geological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342.
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Geographically Ukhiya is the southernmost sub-districts of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, and falls into the second-
highest vulnerable zone as per the seismic zoning map of Bangladesh (BNBC, 2012). Since it’s a tropical region,
rainfall is significant in most months of the year and the short dry season has little effect on groundwater level
(GWL) fluctuations. GWL varies between 1.21 to 3.0m in the wet season and 2.30 to 3.0m in the dry season
which led to increasing the susceptibility of liquefaction under sufficient shaking. Very limited attempts have
been made to evaluate the shear strength parameters and SPT-based earthquake-induced liquefaction risk
assessment in these areas. The purpose of the present research is to identify the liquefaction potential zone
based on SPT data and evaluation of Shear Strength parameters of soils using the Direct Shear Test. The
most widely used in-situ test throughout the world for subsurface geotechnical investigation is the Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) and the technique has evolved over decades. Liquefaction, a hidden Geo-engineering
hazard in the field of Geotechnical engineering, is the phenomenon when there is a loss of shear strength
in saturated and cohesion-less soils because of increased pore water pressure. Twelve (12) boreholes were
drilled in the investigated area using Light Cable Percussion drilling with water as a flushing medium and a
typical tripod stand with a 63.5kg Donut hammer is used to record SPT data. Disturbed samples were collected
using a 508mm long split-spoon sampler with inner and outer diameters of 35mm and 50.8mm. Undisturbed
samples were taken using a Shelby tube with 76 mm outer and 73 mm inner diameter. The simplified technique
originally developed by Seed and Idriss (1971, 1982), and updated by Seed et al. (1985) and Youd et al.
(2001) are used here for Liquefaction risk analysis. The cyclic resistance ratio (CRR), cyclic stress ratio (CSR) &
Factor of Safety (Fs) values (the possible occurrence of soil liquefaction) were determined. Values of CRR were
empirically correlated with the SPT blow count at different sites.

Grain size has a major influence on liquefaction. Even though historically, sands were considered to be the only
type of soil that tends to liquefy but liquefaction has also been observed in gravels and silts. Loose soils are
easier to liquefy than dense soils under the same effective stress. At the same density, soils under high effective
stress are easier to liquefy than soils under low effective stress. A total of 32 samples were collected from
different sites at particular depths. They were analyzed by both dry Sieve and Hydrometer testing methods.
The obtained dry sieve data shows 95.23% Sand, 2.94% Gravel, and 1.83% Silt & Clay. Hydrometer data
shows 53.43% Silt, 21.93% Sand & Gravel, 24.65 % Clay average. From the obtained results, it is established
that loose to very loose sandy soils (SP, SW) have a strong influence on liquefaction. From the direct shear
testing, a cohesion (c) value ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 and an angle of internal friction (φ) ranging from 21.94
ͦ to 27.79 ͦ were obtained. The graph shows shear strength increases rapidly initially with increasing shear
displacement, after reaching almost 200 mm shear displacement shear strength increases slowly, and at a peak
of 40 kPa it starts to decline.

A liquefaction risk assessment using the simplified method of Seed and Idriss (1987) was carried out using
LiquefyPro (2005) software. Three models have been projected by using three different earthquake magnitudes

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5.0, 7.0 & 8.0 to visualize the risk, and Factor of safety (Fs) values were calculated. It is established that
at magnitude 5.0 only the Palongkhali area (BH-11) shows a thick liquefiable zone whereas, other locations
show few liquefiable layers at different depths. But at magnitudes 7.0 and 8.0 each location shows sufficient
liquefiable layers at depths 5.0-7.5m respectively. From the obtained FOS (Fs) values Liquefaction Potential
Index (LPI) is calculated by following the empirical formula of Iwasaki et al. (1982). Four zones were identified
based on LPI values. A consistency was observed between the FOS and LPI values. These outputs will certainly
help to produce a risk map of the investigated area and help the policymakers to reduce earthquake-induced
liquefaction risks in the Ukhiya area of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.

Abstract No: 1/044

Construction stage geotechnical problems of earth dam of Basawapur Balancing

Reservoir, Kaleswaram Project, Package-16, Basawapur (V), Bhongir (M), Yadadri-
Bhuvanagiri District, Telangana
B. Ajaya Kumar*, Bhushan D Kuthe, B. Venu Gopala Krishna
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

A 13.73km long and 59.95m high earth dam is under construction to create a balancing Reservoir near
Baswapur Village, Yadadri-Bhuvanagiri district with a storage capacity of 11.39TMC water to provide irrigation
facilities made for an ayacut area of 1,25,000 acres in parts of Yadadri- Bhuvanagiri district, Telangana under
Kaleshwaram project.

The project site is occupied by hybrid granites, grey hornblende biotite granite, alkali feldspar granite, and
intrusion of NNE-SSW, NNW-SSE, ENE-WNW, and N-S trending dolerite dykes and quartz reefs belonging to
peninsular Gneissic Complex-II of Archaean age. Dolerite dykes are also exposed intermittently forming a
linear ridge downstream of the proposed earth bund. In general, the rock mass is intersected by three sets of
joints with sub-horizontal joints. 3-D geological mapping and geotechnical assessment of the cut-off trench
along the proposed alignment was carried out between Ch. 7.00km to 8.025km for a cumulative length of
1025L.m. scale to assess the geotechnical suitability of the excavated trench. The cut-off trench in this reach is
aligned in N20°-45°E/S20°-45°W and is excavated through medium to coarse-grained weathered grey and pink
granitic rock. In this reach, the ground levels vary from +463.325m to +494.080m and the depth of excavation
varies from 1.730m to 10.905m. The height of the water column varies from 0m to 26.675m. The excavated
cut-off profile in the reach reveals that reddish brown soil forms overburden for a thickness of about 0.5m to
2.00m, underlined by highly weathered grey granite for a thickness of 0.50 to 3.0m and further downward by
moderately weathered grey granite for a thickness of 1.0m to 4.0m. The slightly weathered/fresh, grey granite
is exposed in the cut-off trench bottom as well as on both the walls from Ch. 7.00km to Ch. 7.216km, Ch. 7.280
to Ch. 7.380km, and Ch. 7.524 to Ch. 7.650km up to height ranging from 0.5 to 3m on both u/s and d/s walls
from the bottom of the cut-off trench. The bottom of the COT is occupied by slightly weathered/fresh, grey
and pink granite from Ch. 7.00km to Ch. 7.216km, Ch. 7.280 to Ch. 7.380km, and Ch. 7.524 to Ch. 7.650km,
whereas, for the remaining area the bottom of the COT is occupied by highly and moderately weathered grey
granite. The cris-cross-cutting pegmatite veins are also recorded at places.

The prominent joints observed in the bedrock are N-S/vertical; N60°-65°W – S60°- 65°E/vertical to sub-
vertical; N70°-75°E – S70°- 75°W/vertical to sub-vertical; N-S/vertically dipping and sub-horizontal joints.
In general, joints are moderately close to widely spaced, discontinuous, and tight to slightly open in nature.
Permeability tests were conducted at Ch. 7.260km and Ch. 7.505km up to a depth of 12m and 15m from the
cut-off trench bed level.

Based on the site geology, rocks exposed in the proposed cut-off trench, and permeability data, suggested
drilling two rows of grout holes at a spacing of 3m to 6m up to a depth varying 6 to 15m below the COT bottom
to ensure water tightness of the reservoir. It was suggested to conduct post-grout permeability tests conducted
at random intervals after the completion of grouting operations to see the efficacy of grouting.

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Abstract No: 1/045

Construction stage geotechnical problems of the tunnel from Ramappa tank to

Dharmasagar tank, J. Chokka Rao Devadula Lift Irrigation Scheme, Phase-III, Package-
III, Warangal District, Telangana
Shailendra Kumar Singh*, B. Venu Gopala Krishna, B. Ajaya Kumar, S.K. Tripathi
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The scheme, which is under construction in a phased manner, contemplates lifting 38.16 TMC of water from the
Godavari River near Gangaram (V), Eturinagaram (M), Warangal District to irrigate an area of 6.21 lakh acres
in Karimnagar, Warangal and Nalgonda Districts of Andhra Pradesh. The principal component of the scheme is
49.060 km long, 5.6m finished dia. tunnel and a permanent approach adit to the pump house.

3-D Geological mapping and geotechnical assessment of the part of the tunnel was carried out for a cumulative
length of 4,540 L.mtrs on a 1:200 scale. The mapped reach comprises Peninsular Granitic Gneiss Complex
(PGC) of Archaean age with pink and grey variants of Granite with occasional Dolerite dykes and Quartz
veins. The sedimentary formations consisting of grey to black, thinly laminated shale, Limestone, Dolomite,
and Dolomitic Limestone of the Mulug Group (Pakhal Super Group) of the Middle to Late Proterozoic age are
exposed in the study area.

The rock mass is traversed by three sets of prominent joints and one random joint. Among them, two sets are
mostly aligned more or less perpendicular to the tunnel alignment and favorable for tunneling. The joints are
predominantly tight with occasional openings, rough, irregular to planar, stained to unstained, and discontinuous
to continuous. At places, wedge formation has been noticed during the mapping. Crushed rock mass due to the
intersection of closely spaced jointed rock has been observed with minor dripping/staining surfaces. In general,
the mapped reaches of the tunnel passing through granitic terrain exhibit dry conditions, and sedimentary
reaches are mostly in moist conditions with dripping at a few places.

The geotechnical assessment and rock mass characterization of tunneling media for the mapped reaches
have been carried out based on Grimstad and Barton, 1993 rock mass classification for stabilizing the crown
and excessive loosening of rock blocks along intersecting joints as immediate support after excavation. The
tunneling media have been categorized as Class- B (Good) in the granitic portion with a ‘Q’ value ranging from
10.8 to 17.5 and Class- C (Fair) in the sedimentary portion with a ‘Q’ value ranging from 4.2 to 7.8 based on
the calculated Rock Quality Index ‘Q’.

It was suggested that the mapped reaches falling in the “Good” category (Class-B), should be provided with
random rock bolts (3.5m long, 25mm dia.) and localized shortcreting where ever required. In the “Fair” category
reach pattern/systematic rock bolting (3.5m long, 25mm dia. 3m spacing) may be carried with shotcreting to
protect the crown of the tunnel till the permanent lining is done. Based on the rock mass characterization the
tunneling media mostly fall under the unsupported condition in the majority with rock bolting at places. Contact
grouting from the spring to crown portion and consolidation grouting for the invert portion has been suggested
in a staggered fashion with 3 m intervals after PCC lining.

Abstract No: 1/046

Problems faced during the construction stage in parts of cut off trench of earth dam
of Sri Komuravelli Mallanna Sagar Reservoir, Kaleshwaram Project, Siddipet District,
Telangana
B. Ajaya Kumar*, Bhushan D Kuthe, S.K. Tripathi
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

A 22.9km long, 61.7m max high earth dam and a saddle dam for storing 50 TMC of water to meet the drinking,
irrigation purpose and industrial purpose in Karimnagar, Medak, Ranga Reddy, and Nalgonda districts of
Telangana state is under construction. The present study deals with the geotechnical assessment and 3-D
geological mapping of parts of the excavated cut-off trench from Ch. 13.850 to Ch. 14.275 km (425m) for the
formation of Mallanasagar Reservoir and its suitability for constructing the earthen bund.

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The project area under investigation lies in the geological domain of the Peninsular Gneissic Complex of the
Archaean age represented by granite/gneiss. Hybrid granite gneiss occurs as enclaves within granite and
represents the older granite-gneiss phase in the southwestern parts of the area. The grey biotite granite
contains plagioclase, K-feldspars, quartz, and biotite and occurs as sheets in younger granite. All these litho-
units are intruded by basic dykes, trending NW-SE. The project site falls in the Seismic Zone II as per the
Seismic Zonation Map of India and Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its Environs – GSI, 2000.

In this reach from Ch. 13.850 to Ch. 14.275 km (425m), the cut-off trench (COT) is aligned in N35° to 40°W -
S35° to 40°E and is excavated in medium to coarse-grained moderately weathered to fresh grey to pink granite
of Peninsular Gneissic Complex of Archean age. The ground levels in this reach are varying from +509.597m
to +510.884m and the depth of excavation varies from 12.07 to 14.43m to accommodate a hydraulic head
ranging from 45.926 to 47.700m. In this reach dark grey to reddish brown, clayey soils to silty soil forms the
overburden for a thickness of 2m to 3m both on upstream and downstream walls of the cut-off trench underlain
by highly weathered granite for a thickness of about 3m to 4m, followed by 5m to 6m moderately weathered
rock. In this reach, the bottom of the cut-off trench is occupied by fresh grey granite which is also exposed on
both the u/s and d/s walls up to a height ranging from 1 to 12m from the bottom of the cut-off trench. Fresh
grey granite is exposed directly below the reddish brown sitly soil between Ch. 14.010 and Ch. 14.190 up to
the bottom of the cut-off trench. At places, small pegmatite veins were also recorded.

The prominent joints present are N50º to 60ºW – S50º to 60ºE/ vertical to sub-vertical dip, N-S/ vertical to
sub-vertical dip, and E-W/ vertical to sub-vertical dip. In general, the joints are tight to slightly open, persistent
to persistence, and widely spaced.

Permeability tests were conducted at Ch. 13.950 km, Ch. 14.150 km, and Ch. 14.350 km up to a depth of 18m
from the bottom of the cut-off trench. As per the permeability test data provided by the project authority, at
Ch. 13.950km, the permeability/lugeon values are ranging from 3.567 to 10.981Lu up to a depth of 9m, and
3.951 to 10.390Lu from 9 to 18m depth from cut-off trench bed level. At Ch. 14.150km, the permeability/
lugeon values are ranging from 3.433 to 11.659Lu up to a depth of 9m, and 4.840 to 11.195Lu from 9 to 18m
depth from cut-off trench bed level.

Based on the site geology, rocks exposed at the proposed cut-off trench, detailed assessment of drill holes, and
permeability data, two rows of grout holes at 6m intervals up to the depth of 12m to 18m in staggered fashion
was suggested with the BIS guidelines. Further, it was suggested to conduct post-grout permeability tests at a
random interval to assess the efficacy of grouting.

Abstract No: 1/047

Construction stage geotechnical assessment of Rock Mass Quality of Irrigation Tunnel,

Package-65, Polavaram Irrigation Project East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh
B. Ajaya Kumar*, Bhushan D Kuthe, B. Venu Gopala Krishna, S.K. Tripathi
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Polavaram Irrigation Project is located on the River Godavari near Ramayyapeta village, Polavaram Mandal,
West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh. The project envisages the formation of a reservoir across the River
Godavari with a live storage capacity of 75.20 TMC. As an integral part of the project, the project authorities
proposed to construct a 919m long 17.70m finished dia. D shape tunnel between RD1.956km and 2.875km for
irrigation.

3D geological mapping of the excavated tunnel between Ch. 2.385m to Ch.2.540m for a length of 155ms
carried out. The area through which the irrigational tunnel passes is predominantly occupied by scattered or
clusters of denudational residual ENE-WSW trending hill ranges with valleys in between. Denudational and the
residual hill are present on the northern side of the saddle. The rocks exposed in the area belong to Khondalite
and Charnockite suites, trending ENE-WSW direction of the Eastern Ghat Mobile belt of the Archaean age.
3-D Geological mapping and geotechnical assessment of the part of the tunnel from crown to spring level was
carried out from Ch. 2.385km to Ch. 2.540km. The tunnel in this stretch is passing through garnetiferous
quartzo- feldspathic gneiss belonging to the Khondalite group of rocks of the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt of the
Archaean age. The rock mass is in the ‘fair’ and ‘good’ categories and is traversed by two prominent sets and
one random set of joints. The joints are predominantly tight, rough, irregular to planar, and discontinuous to
continuous. The trend of the joint set recorded during the tunnel logging are i) N60°W-S60°E/75° southerly to
E-W/vertical; ii) N10°E/vertical to N-S/vertical; iii) N70°E - S70°W /25° towards NW; iv) N70°W-S70°E /55°
towards SW (Random). The tunnel is mostly in Dry condition. Project authorities have been advised to provide
rock bolts as per the design drawing and recommendations.

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At places, wedge formation has been noticed during the mapping. Crushed rock mass due to the intersection
of closely spaced jointed rock has been observed with minor dripping/staining surfaces. In general, most of
the mapped reaches of the tunnel exhibits dry condition. Slabbing/flat roof at the crown has been noticed at a
few places in the tunnel reach due to their disposition to the tunnel axis. To check the further deterioration of
the crown, rock bolting has been suggested. The geotechnical assessment and rock mass characterization of
tunneling media for the mapped reaches have been carried out based on a paper published by Grimstad and
Barton, 1993. To chart for stabilizing the crown and excessive loosening of rock blocks along intersecting joints
as immediate support after excavation.

The ‘Q’ values calculated in this stretch fall under the ‘Fair’ and ‘Good’ categories, value ranging from 8.33 to
10.63. It is suggested to provide rock bolts of 25mm dia., 6m long, with 1.5m spacing throughout the crown
portion up to spring level along the tunnel length and localized shotcreting wherever required.

Abstract No: 1/048

Geotechnical assessment of part of cut off trench of earth dam of Udandapur Reservoir
near Udandapur village, Jadcherla Mandal, Mahabubnagar District, Telangana
B. Venu Gopala Krishna*, Bhushan Dadaji Kuthe, B. Ajaya Kumar, S.K. Tripathi
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

A 15.875Km long and 50m high earth dam is under construction at Udandapur Village of Jadcherla Mandal,
Mahabubnagar District, Telangana with a storage capacity of 15.910 TMC. The project area under investigation
lies in the geological domain of Peninsular Gneissic Complex- II of Archaean age represented by granite/gneiss.
PGC-II (Archaean to Palaeo-Proterozoic) in the investigation area comprises grey granite, pink biotite granite,
and pink granite. The project site falls in the Seismic Zone II as per the Seismic Zonation Map of India and
Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its Environs – GSI, 2000.

The present study deals with the geotechnical assessment and 3-D geological mapping of part of the excavated
cut-off trench (from Ch. 8.375 to Ch. 8.800km and from Ch. 10.600 to 11.000km) and its suitability for
constructing the earthen bund. The study area is characterized by coarse to fine-grained granite (porphyritic,
pink and grey biotite/ hornblende granite) along with intrusives (pegmatites, dolerite & quartz) of Peninsular
Gneissic Complex (PGC) of Archean to Paleo-Proterozoic age. The prominent joint sets recorded are i) E-W/sub-
vertical dipping, 10-100cm spacing, Rough planar to Smoot Planar in nature; ii) N-S to N20°E – S20°W/vertical
iii) N40° to 60°W - 40° to 60°E/80° to 85° towards NE, iv) N30° to 50°E- S30° to 50°W/sub-vertical v) N-S/20°
towards West. In general, these joints are moderately close to widely spaced, continuous to discontinuous, and
tight to slightly open in nature.

i. Geotechnical assessment of cut-off trench from Ch. 8.375km to Ch. 8.800km:

The cut-off trench is excavated for depths ranging from 11.09m to 14.065m with ground level varying from
±582.770m to ±586.625m. The hydraulic head in this reach is ranging from 42.375 to 46.230m. In this reach,
the cut-off profile from the ground level reveals that 1.5m to 3.0m thick reddish brown soils are underlain
by 4.00m to 5.00m thick highly weathered granite, followed by 3.50m to 5.00m thick moderately weathered
granite. Slightly fresh, grey, medium to coarse-grained granite is exposed in the bottom of the cut-off trench
and also on both u/s and d/s walls of the cut off trench.

ii. Geotechnical assessment of Cut off trench from Ch. 10.600km to Ch. 10.800km:
The cut-off trench is excavated for depths ranging from 10.690m to 11.860m with ground levels varying from
±582.255m to ±583.835m with base width from 10.00m to 11.00m. The hydraulic head in this reach is ranging
from 45.165 to 46.745m. In this reach, the cut-off profile below the ground level

reveals that 1.0m to 5.00m thick reddish brown soils underlain by 1.00m to 2.00m thick highly weathered
granite followed by 2.00m to 3.00m moderately weathered granite. Permeability tests were conducted at Ch.
10.675km and Ch. 10.750km.

iii. Geotechnical assessment of Cut off trench from Ch. 10.800km to Ch. 11.000km:
The cut-off trench is excavated for depths ranging from 11.10m to 12.25m with ground level varying from
±581.310m to ±582.255m. The hydraulic head in this reach is ranging from 46.745 to 47.690m. In this reach,
the cut-off profile below the ground level reveals that 2.0m to 3.00m thick reddish brown soil is underlain by
3.00m to 5.00m thick highly weathered granite followed by 4.00m to 6.00m moderately weathered granite.
In this reach, the bottom of the Cut-off trench is occupied by grey, medium to coarse-grained, moderately

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weathered granite which is also exposed on both u/s and d/s walls of the Cut-off trench. Permeability tests were
conducted at Ch. 10.850km and Ch. 10.950km.
Based on the site geology, rocks exposed in the proposed cut-off trench, and permeability data, suggested
drilling two rows of grout holes at a spacing of 3m to 6m in a staggered fashion up to a depth varying from
15m to 18m below the cut off trench bottom to ensure water tightness of the reservoir. It was suggested to
conduct post-grout permeability tests at random intervals after the completion of grouting operations to see
the efficacy of grouting.

Abstract No: 1/049

Problems faced during Construction Stage Geotechnical Investigation of Pippalkoti

Balancing Reservoir under Lower Penganga Project, Bheempur Mandal, Adilabad
District, Telangana
Shailendra Kumar Singh*, B. Venu Gopala Krishna, S.K. Tripathi
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

A 4.250 Km long and 37.5 m high earthen dam in Pippalkoti Area SW of Chanaka- Korata Barrage (part of
Lower Penganga Project) is under construction to create a balancing reservoir to facilitate the irrigation of the
remaining ayacut of Kadem Narayanreddy Project, Penganga Project Division, Adilabad.
The present study deals with the geotechnical assessment and 3-D geological mapping of part of the excavated
cut-off trench (from Ch. 0.850 to 1.700 km and Ch. 2.000 to 2.600 km.) for constructing the earthen bund.
The moderately weathered to fresh massive greenish-grey to light brown Limestone is exposed in the excavated
cut-off trench. The area represents an undulatory topography with the presence of small hillocks and a very thin
soil cover. Black cotton soil had been noticed in the agriculture fields South of the project site around Pippalkoti
village indicating the presence of trap-rocks in the area. The attitude of the bed recorded in grey to greenish
grey massive shale is E-W/5° towards the north (bedding plane). Three sets of prominent joints recorded are
i) J1 = N-S/ Vertical, ii) N 40° E/ Vertical iii) E-W/75° towards South. The joints are predominantly tight with
occasional openings, rough, irregular to planar, stained to unstained, and discontinuous to continuous. Few
thin crushed zone/shear zones (less than 30 cm) have been recorded parallel to the N-S trending vertical joint.

A. Geotechnical assessment of Cut-off trench from Ch. 0.850 to 1.200 km: The ground levels in this
reach vary from 272.82 m to 290.91 and the depth of excavation varies from 2.00 m to 4.00 m. The water
column depth in this stretch varies from 14.09 (Ch. 1.025 km) to 32.18 (Ch. 1.200 km) m. The base width
of the cut-off-trench is ranging from 4.00 m to 6.00 m. In this reach dark grey to reddish brown soil forms
the overburden for a thickness of nearly 1.0 m, both on upstream and downstream walls of the cut-off trench,
underlain by moderately weathered grey to greenish grey limestone for a thickness of about 2m to 3m. Few
thin shear zones and crushed zone have been observed parallel to the N-S trending vertical joint.

B. Geotechnical assessment of Cut off trench from Ch. 1.200 to 1.700 km: The ground level in this reach
varies from +272.82 m to +289.68 m and the depth of excavation varies from 10.00 to 12.00 m. The water
column depth in this stretch varies from 15.23 (Ch. 1.650 km) to 32.18 m (Ch. 1.200 km). The base width of
the cut-off trench is 6.00 m. In this reach dark grey to reddish brown soil with highly weathered rock forms
the overburden for a thickness of nearly 1.0 to 1.5 m, both on upstream and downstream walls of the cut-off
trench, followed by moderately weathered grey limestone for a thickness of about 4.0 m to 5.0 m, underlain by
about 5.0 m to 6.0 m thick by slightly weathered to fresh grey to greenish grey limestone up to cut off trench
bottom.
C. Geotechnical assessment of Cut off trench from Ch. 2.000 to 2.600 km: The cut-off trench in this reach is
aligned in E-W and excavated through medium to coarse-grained moderately weathered greenish grey to light
brown limestone. The ground level in this reach varies from+272.5 m (Ch. 2.600 km) to +281.74 m (Ch. 2.100
km) and the depth of excavation varies from 2.00 m to 5.00 m. The water column depth in this stretch varies
from 23.26 m (Ch. 2.100 km) to 32.51 m (Ch. 2.600 km).
Permeability tests were conducted at Ch. 1.222 km, Ch. 1.318 km, Ch. 1.450 km, and Ch. 1.525 km.

Suggestions:
A. Based on the site geology, rock mass condition exposed at the proposed cut-off trench, and permeability
data, from Ch. 1.200km to Ch. 1.700km the following suggestions are to be followed:
In the reach from 1.200km to 1.275 km, suggested drilling two rows of grout holes in a staggered fashion at
3m intervals up to the depth of 18m below the cut-off trench bed level.
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In the reach from 1.275 km to 1.375km, suggested drilling two rows of grout holes in a staggered fashion at
3m intervals up to the depth of 15m below the cut-off trench bed level.
The reach from Ch. 1.375km to 1.700km, suggested drilling two rows of grout holes in a staggered fashion at
3m intervals up to the depth of 12m below the cut-off trench bed level.
Post-grout permeability tests may be conducted at random intervals to assess the efficacy of grouting.

Abstract No: 1/050

Strength improvement of expansive soil treated with jute fiber reinforcement

Devagya Raman*, Abhishek S. Maury, Anupam Mital
National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Haryana 136118, India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The booming population’s speedy urbanization and further construction of roads, bridges, various metro
projects, and other structures have brought about the depletion of precise, high-quality present resources and
land. As an environmentally friendly additive, Jute could be used as an alternative to deal with the issue of
people who have no choice except to use soft and fragile soils around for building activities. Such soil is weak in
shear strength and possesses high swelling & shrinkage properties. These soils’ geotechnical properties need to
be improved by providing stabilization and reinforcement techniques to make them acceptable for construction
activities. Black cotton soil is one of the critical issues faced by engineers in India. When this soil is subjected
to variation in moisture content, it undergoes high swelling and shrinkage, making it more complicated from
an engineering point of view. In India, annually, Jute production hits 9.98 million bales. Being environmentally
friendly, it supports the labour industry and hence is also known as golden fiber and also it shown tremendous
impact in the field of soil engineering by stabilizing soil improving strength characteristics, and enhancing
subgrade values.
Jute fiber is used to improve the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and CBR of expansive soil and they
are further compared with the virgin soil parameters. Jute fiber is a natural and non-toxic additive. The efficiency
of Jute fiber depends upon the amount of dosage, type of soil, and curing period. Soil samples were prepared
with different percentages of fiber contents and the samples were prepared at the Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC). The compaction test result shows that Jute fiber caused a modest decrease in maximum compacted
density and a slight increase in the OMC. Stabilization of the soil using Jute fiber resulted in a significant
increase in the UCS value of the Black Cotton Soil. The duration of soil treatment with Jute fiber played a vital
role in improving strength and soil treated with 0.6% Jute fiber for 14 days gives higher strength of 160.54
kPa. The effects of Jute fiber have given very positive results for CBR as its value increases from 3.61% for
parent soil to 8.17% for soil treated with 0.6% jute fiber; it is very effective and economically efficient. Also,
this fiber is environment friendly.

Fig. - Failure pattern of the specimen

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Abstract No: 1/051

Load settlement behaviour of bamboo mat reinforced sand bed
Abhishek Singh Maury*, Devagya Raman, Ashwani Jain
National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Haryana 136118, India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Soil improvement has been a key priority in building operations since the beginning of civilization. Much soil-
related distress, which includes excessive settlement, slope failure, slide, and soil erosion, has been addressed
by the engineers. Soil reinforcement is a process in which natural or synthetic additions are used to improve
the strength characteristics of the soil. Over time, the development of geosynthetics has enabled technologists,
in the manufacture of various types of textiles, in addressing such soil reinforcement issues. Soil reinforcement
can be done with a variety of fibers including natural fibers such as jute, sisal, coir, palm, and others. For
improving bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of footings, soil reinforcement is preferred over
other methods due to its cost-effectiveness and simplicity of putting in place. A series of laboratory plate load
tests have been conducted on a square mild steel test plate resting on a reinforced sand bed to determine
the pressure-settlement response of soil reinforced with bamboo mat by varying different parameters such
as depth of placement and number of layers of reinforcement. The effect of the above parameters on bearing
capacity at a particular settlement of square footing resting on the reinforced sand bed has been discussed. For
experiments, a square test plate of 10 cm × 10 cm size has been used, which is made to rest on the surface of
the sand bed of relative density of 60% reinforced with a bamboo mat of size 45 cm × 45 cm. The effect on the
load settlement behavior of the test plate has been studied by taking the number of reinforcing layers varying
from 1 to 3 placed at varying vertical spacing. The test results indicate that for a particular settlement of the
test plate, expressed in terms of settlement to width ratio (s/B), the maximum increase in bearing capacity is
achieved when the depth of the first reinforcing layer from the ground surface is 0.5 times the width of plate
(u/B = 0.5). For multilayer reinforced sand bed, spacing between the reinforcing layers, expressed in terms of
h/B ratio, the optimal value of h/B is 0.5. It has been observed that for the reinforced sand bed load bearing
capacity increases and settlement reduces when the reinforcement layers are placed at a suitable depth leading
to the economy in design.

Fig. - Photograph of load test setup

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Load settlement graph

Combined load vs. settlement at various u/B ratio

Improvement factor vs u/B ratio for various s/B ratio for single layer

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Abstract No: 1/052

Comparative study of investigations of two mega dams of the sub-continent: Tehri

Dam, India and the proposed Kuri-Gongri HEP, Bhutan
D. P. Dangwal*, Ravi S. Chaubey
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The geological and geotechnical investigations for the development of mega dams have been carried out by
application of numerous new and refined methods (viz. SAR Interferometry, advanced GPR, Seismic survey
techniques, etc.) and analogical equations. The application of these modern techniques has been able to solve
almost all the problems and the conclusion drawn is highly reliable, thus reducing the risk factor and increasing
the confidence of planar and designers. Nevertheless, baseline geoscience data are the fundamentals of good
executable design. The present appraisal of Tehri Dam (Bhagirathi River, India) with the proposed Kuri-Gongri
Dam (under investigation in Bhutan) is a comparative study, which enables the geoscientists to set high
standards of dam site investigations, besides enabling the designers to simulate the correct site conditions.
Tehri hydropower complex envisages the construction of a 243m high earth and rock fill Dam across the
Bhagirathi River for impounding of surplus monsoon water of Bhagirathi & Bhilangana Rivers and utilizing it in
a regulated manner for hydropower generation, irrigation, tourism, and various other purposes. It is the first
storage dam in the Garhwal Himalaya and the construction of such a mammoth structure in the Himalayan
region was a challenge to the geologists and engineers to express confidence and the available technological
fete. The dam is located ~1.5km downstream from the confluence of the Bhagirathi & Bhilangana Rivers with
an S-shaped narrow gorge with a broad valley in upstream. Upper proterozoic rocks represented by Chandpur
& Nagthat Formations of Jaunsar Group are exposed in the project area and their contact with the rocks of
Garhwal Group is defined by the Srinagar Thrust located at a distance of ~ 5km upstream from the dam site.
A reconnaissance survey was carried out for Tehri dam in 1949 by the pioneer worker who recommended a high
dam near old Tehri town. However, the investigation has been started in 1961 with the identification of four
alternative sites. The Initial proposal was considered in 1961-62 for the ~222m high straight gravity dam which
was later on reconsidered for both arch and gravity dam in 1962 and the proposal was studied in detail. Finally,
the earth cum rock fill dam has been finalized which is a replica of the world’s highest dam i.e. Nurek dam (300m
high). Earth and rockfill dams are deemed to be the safest structure in the earthquake-prone zone due to their
large inertia, flexibility, and high damping which help in absorbing earthquake shakes, and also their inherent
ability to undergo large strains without cracking. In 1964 GSI raised doubt about the feasibility of either an
arch dam or concrete gravity dam at this site considering the suspected presence of river bed fault inferred from
geological mapping and exploratory drilling data and it became the main concern. However, the project came
under construction in 1978 and during this period also some site-specific investigations were continued for
geotechnical data generation. Investigations were continued by GSI up to 1978 till the pre-construction stage.
To explore the presence of any adverse geological condition in and around the dam area, adequate explorations
like geophysical exploration (22.74 Lkm in 22 profiles), drilling through 173 exploratory drill holes (10566m),
drifting by 31 exploratory drifts (1470m) and 1 under river bed drift (63m) were undertaken. Apprehension of
suspected river bed fault has been disproved by GSI after excavating and logging of the under river bed drift.
Given the doubts raised by the appraisal committee of the Ministry of forest regarding the safety of the dam
against earthquakes, the Govt. of India Dept. of Mines constituted a high-level committee for reviewing the
safety aspects of the dam. The committee after examining all aspects and considering the worst-case scenario
of assuming an earthquake of Magnitude +8 occurring at depth of 15km right under the dam, concluded
that the dam would be safe vis-a’ vis the maximum earthquake potential and due care has been taken in the
designing of the dam. The committee finally concluded in Feb 1998 that the present dam design is expected
to be structurally safe to withstand the MCE (M 8.5) during the economic performance life of the dam reservoir
system. Construction was completed in July 2005 of Stage-I (HPP) having an installed capacity of 1000MW and
the project was commissioned in early 2006. Construction of stage-II (PSP) powerhouse and other appurtenant
structures are underway for generating another 1000MW.
The Kuri-Gongri HEP (under DPR stage investigation) is proposed downstream of the confluence of Kuri Chhu
and Gongri Chhu. The proposed 270 m high dam and with a surface powerhouse to generate 2640 MW power,
lies within the Lesser Himalaya of Bhutan comprising of dolomites, phyllites, and quartzites belonging to
Manas Formation (Buxa Group) and geomorphically the area exhibits second-order immature topography.
Thus, modern and detailed survey techniques are required to simulate the true site condition (geological &
geotechnical parameters) for optimum and feasible design. Initially, out of the five proposed alternative dam
axes, the alternate-II dam axis at 750 m downstream of the confluence of Kuri Chuu and Gongri Chhu was
taken up for detailed investigation. Detailed geological mapping around the alternate-II dam axis and logging
of cores from 33 boreholes (cumulative length~ 4000 m) indicate the presence of bedrock in the river section
below 15-20m thick riverine material upstream of the dam axis, whereas, at the downstream of the axis the
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bedrock is present below 20-30m thick overburden. The same has been also established by a seismic refraction
survey carried out along the Kuri-Gongri River. The apparent change in bedrock level in the river bed may be
due to the folding of the rock strata or may be due to displacement of the rock strata due to faulting (locally)
or even due to change in the competency of the rockmass.

The exposed rocks comprise moderate to highly fractured, folded dolomite with parting/ bands of carbonaceous
phyllite, which are essentially traversed by major and minor shear zones and fracture zones. The rockmass
has poor inherent strength and RQD in general ranges from 5 to 30. The water Permeability Test indicates
that the rockmass at the dam site is highly permeable (Lugeon value ranges from ~10 to ~50) and fractured
up to considerable depth (>50m). The cohesion and angle of internal friction, ‘ϕ’ of carbonaceous phyllite is
0.53 MPa and 28° (determined in the exploratory drift) and contrastingly, the cohesion and angle of internal
friction, ‘ϕ’ of dolomite is 2MPa and 50° (determined in the Laboratory). Prima facie, due to wide variations
in the shear character of the two rock types present below the river bed is also not desirable for constructing
a 270m high concrete dam at this site. Further, the deformability characteristics of rockmass (Goodman Jack
Test) in two drill holes in the dam area were tested, which yielded the average modulus of deformation with
stress application parallel to the dam axis was found to be 3.347 GPa and the corresponding value with stress
application in perpendicular to dam axis was observed as 4.00 GPa at a stress level of 10 Mpa. Deformation
modulus in Phyllite (determined in the roadside drift) is even lower in the range of 0.35 to 0.53 GPA which
is highly insufficient for placing 270m high Concrete Gravity Dam. To evaluate the rockmass condition and
stripping limit for the dam abutments four exploratory drifts have been excavated on the abutments and 3-D
geological logging of the drifts and their crosscuts revealed that mainly class IV (Q: 1.5 - 4.0) and class V (Q:
0.21- 1.0) rockmass is present at the dam abutments. From all the above geological/geotechnical data and
vicinity to major thrusts (MBT, MCT, and Shumar thrust), it has been concluded that the rockmass below the
river bed is not suitable for the construction of a 270m high concrete dam.

In addition, the area falls within Seismic zone–V and experienced frequent high-magnitude earthquakes.
Subsequently, an Earth Core Rockfill dam at 50m upstream of the alternate-II axis has been finalized based on
the above exploration information.

Construction of such mammoth structures in the Himalayan Region required elaborate geological and geotechnical
investigations like the Tehri dam project, before finalization of the design. Tehri dam is an example of well
planned, designed, and executed mega project in the Himalayan region and successfully running since 2005.

Abstract No: 1/053

Ascertaining probable Hazard Scenarios under high cover during excavation of HRTs
with TBM in Himalayan Geology at Pakal Dul HE Project (1000MW), J&K, India
Sharma Vivek*, Ganvir S. J.
NHPC Limited, Faridabad
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Tunnels to be excavated under high cover for greater lengths in complex geological conditions represent significant
challenges such as high in situ stress conditions, groundwater inflow, encountering of sheared/fractured zones,
and geothermal gradient. Therefore, ascertaining probable hazard scenarios before the excavation of deep
tunnels with almost no provision of intermediate adit becomes very important for the optimization of tunnel
support and safety provisions in TBM for short and long-term conditions. The prognosis of probable hazard
scenarios before the excavation of deep tunnels shall also help minimize time and cost overrun. In this paper,
the geological conditions along the 9.35km long twin headrace tunnels of the Pakal Dul HE Project (1000MW)
are assessed. Based on the field observations and laboratory results the tunneling media have been classified
into typical excavation sections viz. excavation section with medium strong rock mass (30-50MPa), excavation
section with very strong rock mass (80-150MPa), excavation section with mixed ground condition comprising
shear seams (10-150MPa), excavation section under high in situ stress and the excavation section in abnormal
groundwater inflow condition.

Pakal Dul Hydroelectric Project envisages the construction of 167m high Concrete Face Rockfill Dam (CFRD) on
river Marusudar, a major tributary of River Chenab. The project shall utilize a gross head of 417m to generate
1000MW of Power and 3330.18MU of energy through trans basin transfer of water from river Marusudar to
Chenab. As such, Twin Head Race Tunnels (HRT) with a finished diameter of 7.2m, length ±9.6 km, and design
discharge ±154.94cumec each is being constructed. From the Dam Site, approximately 2.1km of HRTs are
being excavated by the Drill and Blast Method, and the excavation of the remaining 7.35km of each HRT shall
be done through two completely new independent Double Shield Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM). The HRTs of
Pakal Dul HEP have a maximum super-incumbent cover of 2063m and are located.

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The study area represents a typical lesser Himalayan topography with altitudes ranging between 1000M to
4500M. Geologically the area forms a “Kishtwar Window Zone” and exposes rocks of Salkhalas, Kibar & Dul
Formations belonging to the Precambrian age. Kibar and Dul Formations are considered younger than Salkhalas.

Structurally the area has been subjected to intense folding and faulting after Himalayan Mountain building
activity. The contact of Dul formation and Kibar formation to be encountered in the TBM HRT is marked by
a thrust designated as Daddhar - Bhuzensheru Fault within the Kishtwar Group. This fault lies on the ridge
between Chenab and Marusudar Valley and runs almost along the water divide with a dip of about 45-50° in
the Northerly direction. Along this fault, low-grade schists are abutting against gneisses.

Fig. 1: Aerial view of the Pakal Dul Project showing HRT and Traverse Path
Covered in Sept.2020 & June 2021

Fig. 2: Interpreted Geological Section along HRT of Pakal Dul HE Project

HRTs are passing under a very rugged Himalayan topography, and due to inaccessibility and adverse law and
order conditions in Marusudar Basin, the Head Race Tunnel alignment remained by and large unexplored
at earlier times, especially the area towards Bhuzensheru peak at EL. ±3750m. However, in 2020-21 the
author and his team took a trans basin traverse along the HRT covering approx. 68km of traverse in 8 days
for geological mapping and pass the mountain peak at EL.3939m in Bhuzensheru Peak. However, due to very
steep slopes and rugged terrain it was not possible to follow the exact HRT alignment, but, the team made
all-out efforts to take the traverses nearest to the HRT alignment as well as to cover the nallas above the HRT
alignment in search of rock exposures and weak features. Toposheets of the area, Handheld GPS, and Mobile
apps like MAPinr and google earth software were used to locate on the ground and to trace out the exact

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location of HRT in the field. Based on the geological data collected from the site a geological model of the area
has been prepared and the extent of typical rock types has been marked on the Interpreted Geological Section
along HRT of Pakal Dul HE Project.

NHPC Limited, a premier organization in hydropower development in India has a lingering legacy of successful
negotiation of typical and extraordinary geological conditions during the excavation of HRTs of many projects.
The paper not only highlights the probable Hazard Scenarios under high cover during the excavation of HRTs
with TBM in Himalayan Geology but also discusses the probable challenge and the remedial measures to
overcome the adverse geological conditions in these typical exaction sections. In this paper, authors have also
tried to utilize the experiences gained from TBM Tunneling in Kishanganga HEP, Dulhasti HEP & Parbati HEP
and suggest optimal utilization of modern and updated mechanized tunneling method with upgraded ancillary
equipment in the current machine being utilized for excavation of HRTs of Pakal Dul than the TBMs used in the
excavation of HRTs of the projects stated above.

Abstract No: 1/054

Geological assessment on the failure of part back slope of the powerhouse, Vyasi HEP,
Uttarakhand
Dharmendra Kumar*, Vinay, Neetu Chauhan
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Vyasi Hydro Electric Project envisages the construction of a 93 m (from the deepest foundation) high,
straight concrete gravity dam across Yamuna River near Judo village, a 2.68 km long HRT of 7 m diameter, and
a surface powerhouse on the left bank of Yamuna River near village Hathiyari for generating 120 MW electricity
by utilizing a gross head of ~112m. The rocks of the Jaunsar Group represented by phyllite, quartzite, and
limestone/dolomite are exposed in the area. The project area, lying in the Dehradun district is located in
Seismic Zone IV as per the Seismic Zoning Map of India, (IS.1893 (Part I), 2016.
The proposed back slopes of the powerhouse below road level are modified at steep angles and stabilized as per
the design specification. After excavation/ modification of slopes, slope failures between d/s RD+22m and d/s
RD+25m w.r.t. C/L PH (E-W) and CH. +10m to CH.+15m w.r.t. C/L PH (N-S) between El± 499.8m and El±503m,
in the u/s cut slope between El±503m and El±516m, and d/s RD +8.5m to RD +14m between El±503m and
El±517m w.r.t. C/L of PH have been observed. The geological assessment of failure zones of cut slopes has been
carried out. Geological data such as lithology, joint characteristics, and other surface manifestations of failures
have been collected to characterize the rock mass. The cut slopes expose grey-coloured, highly weathered,
and sheared quartzite with slate partings. The rock mass is traversed by 3 to 4 sets (J1:40º-80º/015º-355º,
J2:50º-55º/200º-210º, J3:55º-65º/90º-115º, J4:60º-82º/290º) of joints including the bedding joint. Besides,
kinematic analysis of discontinuities w.r.t. slope faces has been carried out to understand the cause of failures.
The kinematic analysis shows that both wedge and planar failure occur due to the intersection and disposition
of different sets of joints. The failure has been triggered by the presence of water along the joint surfaces due
to heavy rainfall.
Based on the geological assessment and kinematic analysis suitable treatment measures such as rock bolts/
anchors in the proper direction, chain link shotcrete, concrete cladding, lined drainage, weep holes, etc. have
been suggested to stabilize/treat the failed cut slopes.

Abstract No: 1/055

Geological and geotechnical evaluation of the proposed site of Song Dam Drinking
Water Project, Dehradun, Uttarakhand -A case study
Vinay*, Neetu Chauhan, Dharmendra Kumar
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Project envisages the construction of a 130.6m high concrete gravity dam across Song River, near Sondana
village in Dehradun district, Uttarakhand with a 15 km long water carrier system (concrete pipe canal). It is
proposed to supply drinking water to Dehradun city. The impounded water would be diverted through a water
carrier system to Sahastradhara- Kulhan area and Dehradun city. The project falls in Survey of India T.S.
No.53J/3.
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To decipher the geological feasibility of the proposed dam site, a surface investigation by geological mapping
on a 1:10,000 scale and a subsurface investigation by drilling and drifting have been carried out. Geological
logging of 08 numbers drill holes and 3D geological logging of 04 drifts along with the crosscuts on a 1:100
scale has been carried out for the geological evaluation.

Predominantly, the rocks exposed at the dam site area are fine to medium-grained, at places coarse-grained,
greenish grey, off-white, reddish brown/ purple, banded to massive quartzite belonging to Nagthat Formation
of Jaunsar Group of Neoproterozoic age. The general strike of the beds varies from N035°-055°W to S035°-
055°E with a 35°-45° dip towards the NE direction. The project area falls in Seismic Zone IV as per the Seismic
Zoning Map of India (BIS, 2002).

Based on 3-D geological logging of drifts on either abutment, the stripping limit of the left and right abutment
has been ascertained between 4.5m and 11m. The Q-value calculated in the drifts ranges from 2.82 to 5.68
indicating a poor to a fair category of the rock mass. Drill core logging indicates that foundation-grade rock
will be available at a relatively shallower depth (0-15m) in the right bank whereas at 18-25.5 m depth in the
left bank. Cyclic WPT conducted in drill holes at the dam foundation indicates permeability values ranging from
2.11 Lu to 7.37 Lu indicating low to moderate permeability. Kinematic analysis indicates that potential failure
surfaces are expected on the slopes of both abutments.

This study will help the project authority with proper designing, cost estimation, and safe construction of the
dam.

Abstract No: 1/056

Reservoir rim stability assessment of Vyasi Hydroelectric Project, Dehradun district,
Uttarakhand
Neetu Chauhan*, Vinay
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Vyasi Hydroelectric Project is a part of the water resource development scheme with its dam and surface
powerhouse, located near Judo and Hathiyari villages, respectively in Dehradun district, Uttarakhand. The
project envisages the construction of a 93m high and 207.20m long straight concrete gravity dam on the
Yamuna River. After completion of the 93m high dam the tail water of the reservoir will extend up to 5 km along
Yamuna River, having Full Reservoir Level (FRL) and Minimum Draw Down Level (MDDL) at El ± 631.50 m &
El ± 626.00 m, respectively. Impounding the reservoir and draw-down conditions may cause an impact on the
stability of the slopes.

To assess these changes, a geological assessment was carried out in and around the reservoir rim to understand
the instability problems, seepage through geological discontinuities, and behavior of rock mass after impounding
of the reservoir.

Litho units i.e. phyllite, quartzite, and limestone of Jaunsar Group of Neo-Proterozoic age are exposed on either
bank along Yamuna River in the reservoir area. Dolerite dykes have also intruded into the rocks. The reservoir
area flanking the lower reaches of the valley slope of Yamuna River is characterized by RBM/ overburden
material and in some sections, slopes are covered with slope wash material/ debris apron.

Several nalas, mostly ephemeral, traversing the slopes on either bank have debouched sediment load as fan
material near their confluence with Yamuna River. The rocks on either bank are traversed by three to four
prominent sets of joints. No major structural discontinuity is observed which might adversely affect the storage
capacity of the reservoir. The rocks exposed are competent and water seepage from the reservoir is not
expected. However, some critical slide zones/ locations have been identified i.e. between Ch. 125m to 375m in
the proximity of the intake site, gullies located towards the left bank just above the HRT intake at Ch. 50m, and
slide /subsidence zone on the right bank near dam axis, which may pose slope instability and siltation problems
after the impoundment of the reservoir or during drawdown conditions. Kinematic analysis of the discontinuity
data has been carried out to mark potential failure planes.

Based on the assessment suitable mitigation measures have been suggested to the project authorities like
stabilizing the slide located above the road to Lakhwar just upstream of the HRT intake by providing two high-

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strength cross walls at the accumulation zone (mid portion), removal of muck material slided from the upslope
area and accumulated at the toe of the slope, construction of gabion wall and Catch pit at the toe to arrest
the falling blocks of rock and debris, Concrete cladding/wall, blocks be provided at the back slope of Intake
bulkhead/Service gate with its height raised to at least 2m above the road level at the outer edge of the road
to arrest the fall of big boulders if any, from the upslope area towards Intake bulkhead/Service gate, two
gullies located towards the left bank just above the HRT intake at Ch. 50m needs proper training works and a
chute drain can be designed in this depression which will collect the drainage water from the adjoining benches
located between El. 655m to El. 670m, several small steep gradient ephemeral nalas, bringing down the heavy
amount of sediment load and debouching it at or near the road, needs to be trained and treated by constructing
suitable strength crate wall/concrete wall/gabion wall, etc.

Abstract No: 1/057

Seismic site response study in Port Blair town, Andaman Nicobar Islands, India: a way
for risk resiliency of infrastructure
Bahadur Ram*, Rajni, S. Dasgupta, L. H. Moirangacha
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The seismic site response study is carried out using micro tremors in Port Blair town, Andaman Nicobar Islands.
Micro tremors were recorded at 43 sites with single station and Micro tremor Array Measurements (MAM) were
carried out at 3 sites using triangular arrays with sensors kept at 30-50 m radii in the study area of about
40 sq. km. The evaluation of local site effects is an important parameter to assess seismic hazard using the
single station horizontal to the vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) and the MAM techniques which provide useful
information on the dynamic properties of the subsoil. The observed peak frequency ranges from 1.0 Hz-9.5
Hz. Some patches of the low-frequency range (1.0 Hz – 3.5 Hz) and high-frequency range (6.0 Hz- 9.5 Hz) are
observed in the entire study area. The peak amplification ranges from 0.19 to 8.18. Peak amplification of less
than 3.6 is dominant over the major part of the area. Two high peak amplifications are observed in the west
and northern portion of the area over thick soil while high amplification values of 5.25 and 7.85 are observed
with corresponding frequencies of 3.71 Hz and 7.07 Hz at two locations in the southeastern part respectively.
The maximum vulnerability index is observed in the northern part whereas a comparatively low vulnerability
index is observed over the entire area. The observed shear wave velocity using the MAM technique is varying
between 170 m/s and 300 m/s at the surface and ranges between 400 m/s to 680 m/s and 830 m/s to 960
m/s are associated with Andaman Flysh and basalt in the study area respectively. The results of micro tremor
analysis are corroborated with the results of subsurface mapping using vertical electrical Sounding through
Schlumberger configurations. The maximum vulnerability is observed in the northern part corresponding to a
maximum soil thickness of 19.5 m obtained from Vertical Electrical Sounding where shear wave velocity ranges
from 180 m/s to 230 m/s. The present study may help to estimate requisite factors for building design codes
that can be used to construct risk-resilient infrastructures.

Abstract No: 1/058

Post construction foundation treatment at Bhimsagar Dam, district Jhalawar, Rajasthan

V K Kasliwal*
Director (retd.), Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Construction of the 35m high straight gravity masonry dam across the Ujar River in Jhalawar district had to
be stopped in 1959 due to the presence of a religious shrine in its submergence. When the construction was
resumed after over two decades, it was found that the sub-horizontally dipping sandstones have a downstream
component, which could lead to a sliding failure. Thus, it became necessary to provide a shear plug/trench at
the toe of the already completed blocks without damage to the existing completed blocks. For the excavation
of the key trenches/plugs, a safe blasting procedure was evolved.

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Abstract No: 1/059

Construction stage Geotechnical investigations for the design of Weirs and appurtenant
structures, Kollimalai HEP, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu
Asrar Ahmed, A.*, Gaurav Chand., Vivek kumar Singh. Aravind, K.
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Kollimalai Hydro Electric Project (KHEP) in Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu is under execution by the Tamil Nadu
Generation and Distribution Corporation (TANGEDCO) with a capacity of 1x20 MW.GSI has carried out the
preliminary stage of geotechnical investigation followed by detailed geological studies of five weirs and power
tunnel alignment of KHEP. Subsequently, DPR has been finalised and the project is now in the construction stage.
The project envisages the generation of 20 MW of power by diverting the River Ayyaru near Arapleeswarar
Temple which originates at an elevation of 1362m above mean sea level and drops to an elevation of 200m near
Puliancholai village, where the powerhouse is now under construction along with five weirs and other appurtenant
structures like Forebay, Interconnecting flumes, Diversion Tunnel, Power tunnel, Pipe tunnel, Gate shaft, Surge
shaft, Valve House and Penstock. The predominant rock type in the project area comprises charnockite and its
retrograded variants of hornblende biotite gneiss along with garnetiferous pyroxene granulite and mafic dykes.
At places due to shearing and intense weathering, overburden comprising weathered rock mass with boulders
is deciphered. During the execution of the project, the proposed wier-2 across Kallakkuli Aaru posed problems
in the finalization of its design, as the left flank indicated huge overburden which led to a change in the design
of the originally proposed concrete gravity structure by the project authority.
The subsurface data from the exploratory borehole has deciphered highly weathered/ disintegrated rock mass
with overburden material at the foundation level i.e, 928.5m above m.s.l. whereas, the litholog has indicated,
moderately to highly weathered (W-III) light grey, medium to fine-grained garnetiferious charnockite/ streaky
gneiss 925m above m.s.l. only. It indicates that the foundation level has to be brought down much below 925m
above m.s.l. Moreover, Seismic Refraction Tomography Survey (SRT-6) along the proposed weir alignment has
also indicated lower Primary wave velocity corresponding to poor rock mass. Although, the project authorities
have initiated excavation of overburden for the weir foundation, which has exposed the foundation level rock
mass/overburden indicating a similar setup as inferred from the litholog as well as from the Geophysical
exploration. To ascertain the foundation grade at the proposed level i.e, 928.5 above m.s.l a detailed geological
mapping has been carried out on a 1:100 scale covering the entire excavated level and the along the proposed
flume connecting weir-2 to weir -3. Geological mapping on a close grid has indicated, the W-5 (completely
weathered) weathering stage garnetiferious charnokite, with variations of the W-2 (slightly weathered) stage
in deeply excavated parts at very few places. Whereas, towards the right flank W-1 to W-0, i.e. fresh bedrock
is available above the proposed foundation level.
Further, to evaluate the strength of the foundation medium towards the left flank, a semi-quantitative method
using a Schmidt hammer was utilized to obtain the compressive strength empirically from the rebound number.
The measurements were made in a grid fashion covering the entire stretch of the excavated reaches of the
weir -2 left flank. This has indicated that the compressive strength of the foundation medium ranged from 15
to 35 Mpa only. As the original concrete weir design has demerits due to poor foundation in the left flank, it is
recommended to go for composite rock fill cum concrete weir in place of a monolithic structure, in such a way
that the stability of the structure is not compromised.

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Abstract No: 1/060

Geo investigation & Tunnelling through Clay Rock Formation in middle-upper Siwalik
group of rocks at outer boundary of Himalayan Region-A case history of 2.79 km long
road transport Sungal Tunnel, Located in Jamnu and Kashmir, India
Swetabh Singh1*, D.C Tripathi1, Koteswara Rao.Kusunuri2
1
M/s ALTINOK India Ltd, New Delhi, 2Sungal Tunnel
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Modern day’s tunnels have become important elements of infrastructural projects. Its construction involves
many complexities in terms of different shapes, soil/rock conditions, etc. Himalayan geology is arguably posing
the most challenging & difficult ground conditions for tunneling with compare to the geology of other places
of the world because the prime reason that the Himalayas are the youngest mountain chains. The Himalayas
are demonstrably rising, their composition is also younger and in consequence less consolidated. This Project
location belongs to the outer Himalayan region and contains complex geology. In comparison activity in
this region is suffered from diverse geological problems like difficult terrain and the presence of weak rock
formations in Siwalik. These challenges generally result in time and cost overruns. Nowadays, advancements
have been made in tunneling construction methodology all around the globe. We, in India, are also catching
up with modern tunnel construction technologies. This paper deals with both geo investigation & part of the
progressive execution of under construction tunnel. Geological/Geotechnical investigation & difficulties, better
experienced in tunneling through weak Himalayan clay rock belongs to the Chigi & Nagri Formations of the
middle-upper Siwaliks group of the outer Himalayan region. This Project is currently under construction and the
paper is presented to build up confidence on the execution team by correlating actual geo data investigation
impact in execution.

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International Conference on Engineering

Geology and Geotechniques for
Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures
(EGCON 2022)

THEME-II
Technological advancements in
investigation and monitoring

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Keynote Abstract

KN 2.1
Power of an Engineering Geological Map

Gopal Dhawan
Ex-CMD, MECL & Chairman, DDAG Ltd.

Introduction
Engineering Geological Mapping and Rock Mass Characterization together contribute the bulk of Engineering
Geological Studies. For geological assessment of any civil structure, it is necessary to know the existing
geological set up together with physical and engineering properties of rock mass.
As such, engineering geological mapping followed by sub surface explorations is essential for assessment
of foundations, underground excavations and high cut slopes.
In case the history of mapping is traced, it is really amazing to know that the earliest geological map dates
back to 1150 BC in Egypt which was made for gold mineralization. However, since then a long journey
has bought us from the use of geological maps mainly for mineral exploration to utilization of geological
information for assessment of large civil engineering structures in the late 19th century.
The modern definition of Engineering Geological Mapping is examination of rock outcrops and naturally
occurring unconsolidated / overburden materials followed by systematic recording of geological data from
these outcrops, their analysis and interpolation in two- or three-dimensional format (maps, cross section,
and block diagram). The Engineering Geological Map (EGM) portrays the basic geology incorporating the
lithology, structure and cover characteristics (Shome, 1989).

The EGM,
• Serves as a record of the factual data of the site.
• Presents an overall picture of the conceptual model generated by the Geologist.
• Serves as a tool for solving three- dimensional problems related to design, construction &/ or
maintenance of engineering structures or site characterization.

Preparation of EGM
Gathering engineering geological information and site characterization is a dynamic process of collection,
evaluation and revision of geological data that starts with conception of a project and continues throughout
the construction phase. It is extremely important that the significance of original and subsequent revision
in geological data are realized and it's implications on civil structures as well as further explorations are
continuously evaluated.
Also, the mapping carried out in the initial stages should be structure-centric, i.e. underground or surface,
small or large, etc. For tunnels, it is very important to emphasize on relevant information. For example, a
shallow overburden of 2-5m for a tunnel having 100-200 m of cover shall not be significant. Plotting and
collecting detailed information on rock masses which by virtue of their dip and strike are also expected at
tunnel grade is more useful. Collection of data on contacts, fault zones and ground water is also necessary
for tunnel mapping. A planning regarding judicious use of exploratory holes for tunnel alignment has to
be made by engineering geologist during initial stage only. In case of underground cavern, it is necessary
to fully ascertain the availability of safe cover on all sides together with expected litho-units. The surface
discontinuity data can be projected to desired depths to picture how they will intersect the underground
structures. It also helps in estimating favorability of orientations of various structures.
In case of mapping for dam sites it is necessary to work on overburden details giving sub-division like
terrace deposits, slope wash and tallus, as every material has engineering significance. For concrete dam
it is particularly useful to make the assessment of thickness of overburden so that feasibility of removing
the same can be established.
For assessment of slopes, it is useful to divide the ground with respect to concave and convex breaks in
the slope. The material along with slope angles are to be mentioned. Even though slope angles can be
obtained from the contours, it may be necessary to carry out a new check by actual survey so that reliable
section can be developed. Old landslides in concave slopes constitute vital information for an engineering
geologist.

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There is significant improvement in subsurface explorations with availability of latest geophysical techniques,
drilling equipment, rock testing facilities and new software. However, there is no acceptable substitute
for field mapping by an experienced engineering geologist. Rather a good EGM is helpful in optimizing
subsurface explorations viz., drilling and geophysical surveys. Therefore, necessity of conducting EGM
with high level of accuracy is emphasized. Moreover, the site of an underground excavation or a high
structure is seldom investigated fully as would have liked by geologists and designers due to time, cost
and accessibility constraints. In that scenario, recourse has to be taken to engineering geological mapping
for sub-surface interpretations.
High quality engineering geological maps form the basis of geotechnical assessment. However, there are
a number of hindrances like weather conditions, paucity of time available for field work, law and order
problems, accessibility etc. There is a need to overcome limitations by finding out practical solutions while
deputing mapping teams on ground.
Here is an attempt to standardize the procedure of Engineering Geological Mapping.

The Procedure
For carrying out Engineering Geological Mapping for a particular site or structure we normally follow these
steps-

Pre-mapping Desk Study

• Review of literature, geological reports/maps.
• Preparation of base maps which may be toposheets or contour plans along with control points. In case
of urgency base maps on required scale can be prepared by using satellite imageries.

Field Mapping – Data collection

• Each exposure or outcrop is numbered on the ground and plotted on the map (Fig. 1).
• Various types of overburden, springs, lithological contacts, surface traces of faults, major discontinuities
are presented on the map.
• Collection of data on properties of discontinuities, and scanline surveys along with photographs is
carried out (Table. 1&2).
• The scales of geological mapping as mentioned in IS 15662 may be chosen suitably depending upon
location and size of structure, and mappable units.

Fig.1: A sample Outcrop Map of part of HRT of Goriganga HEP (Choubey, V.D. & Dhawan, G. 1990, b)

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Table 1: Sample of data sheet with recorded properties of discontinuities and rock mass.

Table 2: Proforma for scanline discontinuity survey datasheet

Post-mapping Data Processing

• Plotting of data and development of interpreted engineering geological maps (Fig. 2).
• Identification of zones showing lithological and structural affinity, termed as “Geostructural Unit”.
• For each geostructural unit, discontinuity data to be analyzed and divided into geometrical groups
to assign set number. For each set general range of values for orientation, roughness, persistence,
aperture, spacing and filling to be evaluated. This will serve as input data for rock quality and
geotechnical parameters of rock mass constituting a geostructural unit.

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• Preparation of engineering geological sections by judiciously projecting the surface data to desired
depths (Fig. 2).

Fig 2: Interpreted Engineering Geological Map and Geological Section of Head Race Tunnel of Goriganga
HEP (Choubey, V.D. & Dhawan, G. 1990, a)

Integration of Subsurface Exploration Data

• Data from explorations, such as core drilling, geophysical surveys and drifts to be integrated with EGM
to validate interpretations from field mapping and evolve a geological model of the project site.
• The model of the site should be revised with availability of more and more data from surface mapping
as well as subsurface explorations.

Thus, deliverables of EGM are an outcrop map, interpreted engineering geological map duly integrated
with subsurface data and 2D sections / 3D models.
The above procedure has evolved during my journey as an engineering geologist while working for several
hydropower projects in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Mayanmar. Amongst various components of a power
project viz., dam, various tunnels including head race tunnel and power house (surface/underground),
level of geological uncertainty is maximum for tunnels and these are the least investigated. But examples
are replete with success stories of tunnel construction based on only back up of good geological mapping.
To name a few Chamera Stage 1 (HP), Devighat (Nepal), Parbati III (HP), etc. However, there are examples
of tunnels where there had been geological surprises/ difficulties leading to exceptionally long delays due
to lack of geological understanding of tunnelling media. Therefore, need for systematic EGM has to be
emphasized and procedure of data collection/ analysis needs to be simplified. Now our endeavor is to
develop a mobile app to make the process of data collection and processing more user friendly to exploit
the power of EGM.

GeoTools*Input Data: A mobile application for Engineering Geological Data Collection

DDAG Pvt Ltd is in the process of developing a mobile application – GeoTools*InputData – for collection of
all the relevant geological properties of discontinuities and rock mass during field engineering geological
mapping, and their interpretation. The standard format for collection of data is given in Table.1, however,
these will appear page-wise in the mobile App. Various properties of discontinuities and rock mass are to
be observed in field and correct option from the range given for specific property is to be chosen from drop
down menu in accordance with ISRM (1978) & ISO (2017). Properties of discontinuities may be recorded
through detailed scan line survey at outcrops of large dimensions (Table.2). The App creates list of all the
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discontinuities recorded with their dip direction and dip amount in excel format that can be exported. The
list can be integrated for using other software like Dips for further data processing. For each joint set, the
properties of discontinuities noted in the App will be assessed and general range of values for orientation,
roughness, aperture, filling, persistence, spacing and rock mass parameters are assessed. This may then
be used for determining rock mass characterization by using any empirical method.

Conclusions
• A thoroughly prepared engineering geological map is the first and most important step in project
execution. Such is the power of a well-prepared engineering geological map, that it has direct implications
on cost of the project, by way of lesser and more accurately planned subsurface explorations and
smooth construction of project components, especially underground ones like tunnels.
• Wherever difficult terrain poses constraints in accessibility for carrying out exploratory drilling,
geophysical surveys, etc., extra efforts put in engineering geological mapping can compensate for
lack of exploratory data.
• In recent years, technological advances have been helpful in making the cumbersome job of engineering
geological mapping, easier and more efficient.
• Following the trend, DDAG endeavors to develop a user-friendly mobile application - GeoTools*InputData
- for making the collection of geological data during mapping easier and faster.

References
• Choubey, V.D., Dhawan, G. (1990) a ; Engineering geological mapping for tunnels in the Himalayas A
rock mass classification approach; 6th International IAEG Congress, Rotterdam
• Choubey, V.D., Dhawan, G. (1990) b ; Correlation of rock joints at surface and subsurface for support
assessment in a Himalayan tunnel; Rock Joints, Barton & Stephansson (eds), Rotterdam
• International Association of Engineering Geology (1976); Engineering Geological Maps: A guide to
their preparation, 21 pp UNESCO Press, Paris.
• International Standards, ISO 14689. (2017); Geotechnical investigations and testing – Identification,
description and classification of rock.
• ISRM, (1978); Suggested methods for the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock masses
• Shome, S.K. (1989); What is an engineering geological map (EGM) and how it should be prepared.
Jour. of Engineering Geology (India), 18(3&4), 51-55.

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KN 2.2

Thermal effects on rocks

Louis Wong
University of Hong Kong and Editor-in-Chief, Bull. Engg. Geol. and the Env.

It is well documented that heating rocks at temperatures higher than 400℃ can significantly lower the
rock strength due to thermally induced decomposition and microcracks. However, rock strength increase
under temperatures 25–400℃ has also been reported in several previous laboratory studies. It remains
elusive whether thermal strengthening does exist or it is just an illusion caused by rock heterogeneity.
This keynote presentation starts by reviewing previous laboratory data in the literature and exploring
plausible mechanisms accounting for thermal strengthening in rocks. Towards the end, results of a recent
laboratory study conducted on marble, that explicitly confirm the existence of thermal strengthening, will
be presented. To conclude, the implications of such thermal strengthening phenomena in the engineering
geological regime will be discussed.

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KN 2.3

The Future of Engineering Geology Education

Bhabesh C Sarkar
Former Head, Department of Applied Geology and Founder Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Currently Professor (HAG), Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School
of Mines) Dhanbad

Abstract

It is often said in Engineering Geology that an outcrop in the field is more relevant than many hours of
theoretical lectures. Engineering geology encompasses the interfaces between science and engineering,
the natural and built environments, and the time frames of the past, present, and future. Engineering
geology provides a means to understand and recognize geological features that could have consequenc-
es, both in the short and long term, to the overall performance of engineering structures and projects. It
represents a fundamental link between engineering and geology with fieldwork as an integral part. With
time, the subject field has turned out to be progressively interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and trans-
disciplinary, prompting the requirement for students to have quality in their training and additionally the
capacity to work crosswise over disciplinary limits. For a fruitful future, students should be prepared to
apply a framework-based approach, and in addition, have a comprehension of profound time, including
the earth’s history and development, present-day processes, and future effects. Engineering geology has
much to contribute to obtaining information and understanding of geological structures, materials, and
processes, as needed for engineering analysis and design. For students, extensive fieldwork is crucial to
understand the complex phenomena which include the earth’s sub-surface and surface and its geological
processes. Engineering geology, thus, plays a key role in providing substratum for allied and diverse en-
gineering applications.

Students need abilities for all-round research, by and large, including basic intuition and cognitive think-
ing aptitudes; they should be effective communicators and can take on a similar mindset as a researcher
and keep the learning-curve growing even after completion of a degree. Students of engineering geolo-
gy should have the capacity to think spatially and transiently, inductively, and deductively, mention and
utilize roundabout objective facts, take part in complex open and coupled frameworks, and work with
vulnerability and inadequacies. These abilities, capabilities, and ideas are discussed herewith alongside
systems for execution.

Innovative Thinking

Next-gen graduates should be able to think critically and readily solve problems, especially those requir-
ing spatial and temporal (i.e., 3D and 4D) interpretations. They should possess strong quantitative skills
and an ability to apply cognate sciences to engineering geology problems. Graduates should possess
“geo-intuition”, or the ability to make inferences about the earth system from observations of the natural
world combined with the results of experiments and models. They should be able to integrate data from
different sources and apply analytical thinking, understanding uncertainty and ambiguity. Graduates must
understand the societal relevance of engineering geology coupled with its ethical dimensions. Big Data
and Artificial Intelligence are innovative tools for solving problems in engineering geology. These new
tools will aid in the process of organizing/storing data, generating, detecting, and predicting patterns.

Conceptual Understanding

Next-gen graduates should understand engineering geology as the complex and dynamic link between
Engineering and Geology. The philosophy of engineering geology is based on three simple principles.
Graduates should have an in-depth understanding of the major areas identified in the geoscience literacy
documents, a strong grasp of the basic cognate sciences, and an ability to manage and analyze large
datasets. Graduates must bear in mind that the concepts of engineering geology are changing rapidly and
have an interest in keeping abreast of new dimensions.

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Competency and Aptitude

Next-gen graduates should be able to engage in effective two-way communication with engineering geol-
ogists and engineers. Graduates should be able to solve problems analytically and logically, surmounting
obstacles and accessing available resources. They should have strong field skills and a working knowledge
of remote sensing, GIS, computing, mathematics, and information technology. They should be prepared
to experiment with new and evolving technologies and to work with non-uniqueness, incompleteness,
and indirect observations. Students should work effectively in interdisciplinary teams. Last, but not least,
graduates must understand scientific research methods. These competencies are best developed through
‘scaffolding’: i.e., by defining multiple points in the curriculum where specific adeptness will be continually
strengthened.

Experience

Independent research experience (“doing science”) is one of the best tools for developing the competen-
cies described above. Ideally, experience includes traditional research projects and/or internships, but
shorter non-traditional research opportunities are also an excellent vehicle for obtaining experience: e.g.,
real-time data collection/analysis related to specific projects. Best practices for independent research
and internships are needed to facilitate the broader use of these opportunities. Experience working in
teams is a critical component of a next-gen engineering geology education. Group discussions, including
knowledge sharing of the intended teamwork outcomes, aid students to integrate knowledge and build
confidence. Teamwork is an important vehicle to build “student hubs” that can energize the broader stu-
dent population. Field experience plays a key role in 3D visualization and testing hypotheses. Traditional
field camp is the preferred capstone experience for engineering geology curricula. When field camp is not
a practical option for students (like that during the COVID lockdown period), exposure to engineering ge-
ology in the field can be accomplished through shorter, alternative experiences, augmented with “virtual”
field trips.

Concluding Remarks

Academic departments are required to develop multiple ways to bring in different stakeholders together
for inputs in course curricula. In India, engineering geology has been expanding with ever-increasing
courses, and specialized areas are progressively coming up. In most IITs along with a few other universi-
ties, engineering geology is included either as a subject or as a discipline.

The course curricula require a regular progressive upgradation abreast with emerging technologies. Arti-
ficial Intelligence and Machine Learning will revolutionize the present-day concept of engineering geology
and come out with new concepts known as ‘Smart Engineering Geology’. A few innovative thoughts in
this direction include (i) game-changing innovations requiring collaboration across educational institutions
and industries; (ii) teaming up across organizations and disciplines,and (iii) involvement in cross-industry
innovation projects, among others. In this regard, it would be ideal if an academic department has a blend
of academicians and professional engineering geologists to exchange expertise for informed decisions.

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KN 2.4

Significance of geotechnical investigation for DPR of Hydroelectric projects in Himalaya-a case

study

Timir Baran Ghoshal

Director (Retd.), Geological Survey of India

We need power, industries, irrigation, and potable water to cope with the demand of the fast-growing
populations as well as to achieve all round development of a country. Water resources projects have a
key role to ensure the desired pace of development of a country. Hydro Power is the backbone of the
economy of the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan and constitutes nearly 50% of the gross national revenue
of the country. Adequate geological and geotechnical investigation during the DPR stage is the key to the
success of the development of any mega hydroelectric project, especially in the Himalayas.

In recent times, GSI has been entrusted with the most challenging task of providing geotechnical inputs
towards the preparation of the DPR of the Kuri-Gongri hydroelectric project in Bhutan. The project is aimed
at tapping the immense hydropower potential of the mighty Kuri-Gongri River in Eastern Bhutan through
the construction of a 270m high concrete dam and a powerhouse at the toe of the dam to generate 2640MW
power. The project is located within Lesser Himalaya and is a big challenge to engineering geologists due
to its immature topography, high rainfall, heavy discharge in rivers and tributaries, complex geological
and seismo-tectonic setup, and frequent high magnitude earthquakes in this area.

Moderately to highly fractured and folded dolomitic rockmass with intermittent bands/ partings of
carbonaceous phyllite is present within the project area. The rockmass is traversed by several shear
seams and weak zones/ faults (?) at various locations.

Out of five primarily proposed alternative dam axes, the alternate-II dam axis at 750m downstream of the
junction of Kuri and Gongri River have been taken up for detailed investigation for better topographical,
geological, geotechnical, and hydrological advantages. Detailed geological mapping around the alternate-
II dam axis, logging of cores from 33 boreholes(cumulativelength:4000m), 3-D geological logging of
four exploratory drifts(cumulativelength:350m), in-situ geotechnical tests in the drifts, seismic profiling
along the riverbed have ruled out the possibility for construction of a270mhighconcretedamduetoclass
IV and V rockmass(RMRBasic:20-35), very high secondary permeability(10-50Lugeon), low modulus of
deformation(0.35 to 0.53 GPa) and vicinity to major thrusts(MBT, MCT, and Shumar thrust). Also, the area
comes within the Seismic zone—V and has experienced frequent high magnitude earthquakes. Hence, an
Earth Core Rockfilldam at 50m upstream of the alternate-IIaxis has been finalized instead of a concrete
dam based on the above geological/geotechnical information.

The foundation of the dam has been proposed at EL 218m, where fresh rocks have been encountered
in most of the boreholes. Due to the open nature of the joints, extensive consolidation and curtain
grouting will be required during the construction of the dam. The cut slope angle for the left and right
abutment of the dam has been suggested as ~59o and 50o respectively to minimize planar and wedge
failures, however, spot rock bolting will be required to stitch the adverse /unfavorable discontinuities.
Slope protection measures in the form of rock bolting/ cable anchoring and wire mesh shotcreting will be
required for the uphill/cut slopes of the dam. The stripping limit of the left abutment will vary from 6m to
38m whereas, for the right abutment the stripping limit will be in the range of 6m-42m.

The location of the portals of the diversion tunnels has been marginally modified based on surface and
sub-surface geotechnical investigations. A major portion (~65%) of the diversion tunnels on both banks
will be excavated through poor quality rockmass, ~ 20% of the tunnels will progress through very poor
rockmass whereas at places (~15%) fair & extremely poor rockmass may be encountered. In all the
diversion tunnels rock bursting in dolomite and squeezing/free flowing in carbonaceous phyllite/ sheared
dolomite may take place under high vertical cover (> 400m) zones for which necessary design for the
tunnel support may be adopted.

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The location of all three un-gated vertical shaft spillways (morning glory type) on the left bank and two
gated vertical shaft spillways on the right bank have been shifted at around EL ±500m to avoid construction
of 50 to60m high concrete well over the poor rockmass in the seismic zone -V. The shafts have also been
shifted towards the hillside to enhance their lateral rock covers. All the shafts will be excavated through
poor (~60-70%) &very poor (~20-30%) quality rockmass. However, locally fair (~5%) rockmass may
also be encountered at places. The proposed chute spillway is located on an escarpment slope where
moderately to highly fractured dolomite with bands/partings of carbonaceous phyllite is present under a
thin slope wash cover. Mainly poor to very poor rockmass (RMR: 20-35) will be present along the cut slope
and foundation of the spillway. Extensive slope protection measures like cable anchoring, systematic
rockbolting, and wire mesh shotcreting will be required to stabilize the cut slopes. Extensive consolidation
grouting will be required in the spillway and approach channel area. However, at few locations curtain
grouting may also be required to prevent seepage/leakage in spillway & approach channel areas. At
the proposed stilling basin area thick overburden material is present; hence three boreholes have been
suggested to decipher the bedrock configuration.

Moderately to highly weathered and folded dolomitic rockmass with intermittent bands/ partings of
carbonaceous phyllite will be the tunneling media for all the head race tunnels. The alignments of the
tunnels have been modified to reduce vertical cover so that the chances of the rock bursting may be
minimized. In the initial stretch (up to 1200m) of the HRTs, poor and very poor rockmass may constitute
the tunneling medium ~70% and ~ 20% of the tunnels whereas occasional stretches of fair rockmass
may also present. However, in the later stretch tunnels may be excavated through poor (~ 40%), very
poor (~ 40%), and extremely poor (~ 20%) rockmass. At least in the 40% stretch of the HRTs, steel rib
supports will be required; the rest portion of the tunnels may be supported with rock bolts and SFRS/ wire
mesh shotcrete. There are chances of ingress of water in the HRTs below the nala depression for which
necessary remedial measures should be adopted in the design. In some stretches excavation through
multiple drifting may also be required.

Initially, the project authority suggested one Underground Powerhouse (UGPH-I) on the right bank of
the Kuri-Gongri River. Based on surface geological and subsurface exploration (drilling and drifting), the
possibility of construction of an underground powerhouse has been ruled out due to poor and extremely poor
rockmass conditions. Subsequently, the possibility of a surface powerhouse at three alternative locations
was explored through the surface and subsurface exploration out of which the surface powerhouse at
upstream of the confluence of Gobarichhu and Kuri-Gongri River was finalized. At this location moderately
to highly jointed dolomite with partings/ bands of carbonaceous phyllite are exposed along the entire hill
slope from the river bed to the spur in the uphill. The rockmass condition of the cut slope will be mainly
(~70%) poor with intermittent (~30%) zones of very poor rockmass. The entire uphill slope of the
powerhouse cut-slope should also be protected properly with cable anchors, rock bolts, and shotcrete. It
is desired that the excavation for the powerhouse should be done very carefully with concurrent support.
Extensive protection works for the powerhouse along the right bank of the Kuri-Gongri River and along
the left bank of Gobarichhu will be required.

Thus systematic geological/ geotechnical investigation of the project has drastically changed the location
and type of both the dam and powerhouse along with the locations and layout of the various tunnels which
in turn will considerably reduce the time and cost overrun of the project during its construction as well as
to avoid the post-construction geotechnical problem in future.

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Abstract No: 2/001

Seismic Tomography between exploratory drifts for Dam Projects

Sanjay Rana*, Ashutosh Kaushik, Bhaskar Chendhoor

PARSAN Overseas (Pvt) Limited
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The success and failure of any mega civil engineering project depend on the quality and quantity of site
investigations. Site investigations follow pre-defined stages defined in many codes and standards of
practice. For mega structures like dams, the stages are reconnaissance or pre-feasibility stage, preliminary
investigation, and detailed investigation at the DPR stage. At the preliminary stage, trial pits, trenches,
and drill holes are sufficient for dams of 30m in height. For higher dams, exploratory drifts are required.
Exploratory drifts are typically used for geological assessment of abutment rocks. Due to steep gradients,
standard geophysical methods like SRT and ERT are not used on abutments.
Seismic tomography is an excellent option that can be deployed to get detailed information between the
drifts. For data acquisition, two drifts are used. Upper drift is used as the source and the lower gallery is
used as a receiver. A sledgehammer with a hammer switch is used as a seismic source. In the receiver
gallery, 24 geophones are used as receivers. These geophones are connected to a 24-channel signal
enhancement engineering seismograph.
The investigation provides detailed information on rock conditions between parallel drifts, complimenting
the discrete data obtained at drift locations.
This paper presents the results of seismic tomography conducted between exploratory drifts for a
hydropower project in India.

Abstract No: 2/002

Comparative study of factor of safety of Tunnel segment by adding macro synthetic

fibre using Ansys

Prajakta Nanasaheb Kenjale*, Sanket Tirpude

Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University, Pune
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The fast expansion of subterranean boring tubes in India for metropolitan railroads has raised the dilemma
of how to efficiently build tube structures to prevent collapse. As the liner serves as one of the main
components of a bore tunnel and its cost is directly proportional to its size, it is essential to plan the
liner economically. Due to the enhanced modelling versatility, engineering practice on these systems is
numerical. However, simulation methods may be difficult to comprehend, in contrast to the simplicity
of most analytical and empirical models. In this research, a basic model is utilized to analyze several
tube liner design aspects. Comparisons are made between these simulations and observations and the
findings of more intricate numerical methods. The objective is to demonstrate that tunnel lining behaviour
may be comprehended using very simple models. Simple models have the benefit of being useful for
early development and dominating processes. Usually, equations and analytical answers provide amazing
insight into pertinent situations. To understand the interaction among the complex geometry, geological,
and building process, mathematical models are necessary for the ultimate design. In this work, a basic
model is employed to analyze several tunnel lining design elements. In this work, a comparison was made
by using ANSYS for the safety factor of the tube section by introducing macro synthetic fibers.

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Abstract No: 2/003

Inflatable (Rubber) Dam across Phalgu River, near VishnupadTemple, District Gaya,
Bihar- A Geotechnical Perspective

V.K.Sharma*
Expert/Adviser: Water Resources Department, Bihar &Rted. Dy.DG. , GSI
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Vishnupad Temple on the left flank of River Phalgu (Falgu) in Gaya is an important pilgrimage site for
Hindus and lakhs of pilgrims across the country and overseas visit Gaya every year to perform Pind-
Daan rituals. The RiverPhalgu is subject to high floods during monsoon but at other times of the year, it
dwindles to a stream wandering through a wide expense of sand which causes difficulties in performing
religious rituals. For ensuring the yearly availability of water near Vishnupad Temple for performing
religious rituals, a water storage structure has been planned. The construction of a water storage structure
on River Phalgu poses many geotechnical challenges in view of the highly permeable river borne material
of unknown depth, subterranean flow in the river, high floods during monsoon months, and high hydraulic
conductivity of river sand, etc. The Phalgu River channel, in the vicinity of the temple aligned almost
north-south, constitutes a vast stretch of sand deposits (Recent Alluvium) confined between the present-
day channel’s course.  
Various alternative alignments have been studied (Fig-1) for locating the weir site. Based on the
topographical profile, subsurface geological explorations, and existing settlements, a weir alignment
downstream of the temple was preferred (site-II). The average bed slope (1:850m) of Phalgu River and
river width of 450-700m, a weir structure (2.5-3.00m) would have a pond length of about 1.5 km that
would ensure water availability near the temple and its adjoining areas.
The Phalgu River like its tributary’s Lilajan, Mohane, and MadhuSharva streams (now dead), is subject to
high floods during monsoon, but in other seasons concealed below a wide expanse of coarse sand deposits
of unidentified depth. The Upper part of the river basin is an area of rugged topography exhibiting various
types of landforms such as hillocks, scarps, and hummocks resulting from sub-areal weathering and
denudation. The river bed of Phalgu consists of recent alluvium which ranges from fine to coarse-grained
sand. Phalgu River, originating from Hazaribagh Plateau has approx. 3087sqkm catchment area, 120m
stream length, and stream slope 2.9m/km at the weir site, and Mean Annual rainfall in the catchment is
of the order of 1135mm. The river carries a lot of sediment during the flood season.
The adjoining area of the Vishnupad Temple has isolated hillocks of dark grey, medium to coarse-grained,
strong, slightly weathered granite with intermittent volcanic intrusive. The most prominent geological
feature in the area is NE-SW-trending Munger-Rajgirmetasedimentary belt comprises two distinct quartzite
bands interbedded with phyllites, and these metasedimentary units have been intruded by granite and
basic rocks near Gaya.

Fig.1. Alternative alignments for the Rubber dam axis on R. Phalgu.

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 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Exploratory drill holes along the weir axis (about 400m in downstream of VishnupadTemple) revealed the
depth of bedrock of the order of 15.5m on the left bank, 28m in the centre, and 25m on the right bank,
while 100m upstream of the temple the depth of bedrock encountered at 22.5m. Bedrock is medium to
coarse-grained hard, moderately to highly weathered granite (Fig.2). The Quaternary fill deposits consti-
tute coarse to medium sand, silt, and clay pockets. Water percolation tests performed at regular intervals
of 3m indicate medium to the high permeability of the sand deposits. Permeability values (1.29x10-4 to
8.75x10-7 cm/sec) indicate that the river bed materials are moderate to highly permeable. The perme-
ability value of bedrock is very low (<1.00 Lugeon), hence, seepage through bedrock is not anticipated.
Considering the topography and geology, high sediment flux in the river, and water storage arrangement,
the construction of a rubber dam of 411m in length (Site-II) with six spans of 65m each of 3m height at
crest level 103.50m and pond level of 106.50m in the downstream of Vishnupad Temple has been pre-
ferred. Since the width of Phalgu River is very wide and hence rubber dam with a large span is a better
option in place of a regular gated weir/ barrage. However, from the consideration of fast construction,
easy operation, and low cost of operation & maintenance, it is preferable to use rubber in place of a con-
ventional gated barrage/Weir.
The Inflatable rubber dams are used in a wide variety of applications, including water storage, power
generation, irrigation, flood prevention, erosion control, and groundwater recharge, etc. however, at the
Vishnupad site the dam is planned due to capricious flow in the river, low height required to create water
column, high sediment flux, and round the year storage of water. Such dams are water control structures
that can be inflated by air or water. When the bladder is deflated, impounded water is released and the
bladder becomes virtually flat. The Inflatable rubber dams are cylindrical rubber fabrics placed across
channels, streams, and weir or dam crests to raise the upstream water level when inflated. However,
when deflated these function as flood mitigation devices and provide automatic flushing of sediments. A
rubber dam is a flexible rubber bladder that is permanently anchored to a reinforced concrete foundation.
The membrane is a multi-layer fabric made of synthetic fiber (usual nylon), and this fabric is flexible yet
exhibits good wear-resistance characteristics.
  
1-Coarse-grained sand 2-Medium grained sand 3-silty sand 4-coarse sand with silt 5-clayey-sand 6-clay
7-granite

Fig.2. Geological cross-section along the Rubber dam axis

The geotechnical measures for seepage control and protection works of the 411 m long rubber dam
include the provision of concrete blocks and concrete apron, steel sheet pile across the entire width of
the river up to bedrock level and also along both banks for a distance of 460m to check water seepage
through high permeable coarse sand having high hydraulic conductivity. The sand deposit in Phalgu
River is known to have subterranean flow conditions on account of the coarse sand deposits as river fill
material. The depth of the sheet pile/ diaphragm wall covered the entire length of the weir axis down to
the bedrock that constitutes mainly medium to coarse-grained granite with a permeability range of less
than 1 Lugeon. The geotechnical perspective of the site conditions, geological foundations, simplicity, and
flexibility of the structure remained the key considerations for the longest inflatable dam in India on the
Phalgu River.
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Abstract No: 2/004

Stability assessment, numerical analysis and design of Hydropower Tunnel – a case study
Pranali Salunke*, Rahul Joshi, Rajib Sinharay
MIT world Peace University, Pune
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The support required for the tail race tunnel of the Tehri Hydropower Project, situated in the Sedimentary
Sequence Region of Uttarakhand, is determined by a combination of analytical and numerical analysis.
The Converging Containment Technique is suggested for analytical investigation, while RS2 is used for
the mathematical solution of this double finite element model. Three tube sections, each depicting various
evaluation rockmass, were employed for the investigation. Two of the tunnel sections had low-quality
rockmass and had substantial squeezing, but the other two tunnel sections had very little squeezing
despite having a massive rock cover. Using empirical relations, rock mass parameters were calculated
for numerical analysis. The design of the support system followed RMR principles. This support was
incapable of controlling tunnel deformations; thus, based on a comparison between the developed and
authorized support systems, it may be concluded that the planned support system is safer than the
RMR requirements. The deformations acquired from each kind of support system were calculated, and
it was determined that RMR support produced more elastic deformation than s support. The permitted
support was also used to determine the strain according to the empirical method outlined by Panthi and
Shrestha. Analysis of the current Tail Race Transversal direction, interpretation of metasedimentary rocks,
and evaluation of stability. Utilizing the RocScience phase2 programmer, acquire Stress distributions,
displacements, and produced elements, and then construct a tunnel using Empirical method results. To
achieve these goals, a framework was devised and used to create the theory.

Abstract No: 2/005

A comprehensive review on the recent development of non-destructive empirical techniques in

estimating geo-mechanical properties of shales

Divyanshoo Singh*, Hemant Kumar Singh

Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology, U.P.
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Geo-mechanical properties of rocks (i.e., uniaxial compressive strength, modulus ratios, deformational
characteristics, and poison ratio) are very crucial to design any structures on or within it (Vasconcelos et
al., 2008; Monjezi et al, 2012). These are considered decisive parameters to decide the appropriateness
of rocks for various construction purposes. Traditionally, geo-mechanical properties are determined in
the laboratory using destructive techniques for which researchers always require quality machined core
specimens. It is not always possible to obtain ISRM & ASTM standard core specimens for laboratory tests
due to the presence of significant joints and fractures within rock masses. It has been observed from
existing literature that in the past few decades, researchers studied the said properties for hard and
crystalline rocks (i.e., granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone, dolomite, etc.) to construct many engineering
projects related to dam foundations, tunnels, underground structures, and slopes. Moreover, researchers
also utilized geo-mechanical parameters in the restoration of archaeological sites and monuments present
in various parts of the world (Qurishee et al., 2019).
It may be noted that major engineering constructions and explorations are not only confined within hard
and crystalline rocks but also stretched within weak and anisotropic rocks. Engineers associated with
the construction of foundations, dams, bridges, and tunnels within weak and anisotropic rocks are often
encountered geotechnical complications such that instability of foundations, yielding of rock mass, and
excessive deformation due to squeezing (Singh, 2018). In India, there are various engineering foundation
works and exploration of coal and petroleum are going on generally on these soft and anisotropic rocks
(i.e., Mud rocks (claystone, mudstone, argillite), marl, shale, sandstone, and conglomerates). Weak and
anisotropic rocks can be subjected to a wide variation of their geo-mechanical properties. However,
the extent of investigating the behaviour of these rock types rarely corresponds to their frequency and
to the engineering geological problems they cause. Among, stated weak and anisotropic rocks, shales
characterization is considered extremely difficult on a practical basis for several reasons as shale contains
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hydratable clays that make them water-sensitive and cause them to take up water and swell and their
uncontrolled hydration or drying can cause rapid deterioration of the rock structure, making it very difficult
to obtain or maintain sample integrity. The most important issue in determining the geo-mechanical
properties of shales based on laboratory investigation is the preservation of the core from the moment
of retrieval. Furthermore, the preparation of specimens for shales as per stipulation by ISRM (2007) and
ASTM (2001) to perform unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and deformability tests are typically
difficult, expensive, and time-consuming.
In order to perform a destructive test, a large number of specimens are required, which is quite difficult
to obtain if the rock of interest is weak/low strength, thinly bedded, highly fragile, or densely fractured.
Samples once tested in the destructive type of testing cannot be used for another type of test. The strength
of the rock mass is adversely influenced by the anisotropy and irregular distribution of stresses within
the rock mass. To avoid the above-mentioned problems, non-destructive techniques are becoming very
popular due to their non-destructive nature, cost-effectiveness, and high precision. NDTs are often simple
to use, economically advantageous, and suitable for taking measurements on site and taking continuous
measurements. They are usually associated with each other to improve diagnosis and reduce the number
of tests. Among NDTs, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and Schmidt hammer (rebound hammer) are useful
to estimate the deformational characteristics and modulus ratio in rock engineering.
Therefore, in this study, a comprehensive review of the application of non-destructive tests in estimating
the geo-mechanical properties of rocks, especially in the case of shales has been done. This study will
provide the development of non-destructive empirical techniques in estimating the geo-mechanical
properties of shales in rock engineering environments. This would be a basis for the estimation of geo-
mechanical properties in the ongoing engineering projects or new projects emphasized within shales.

Abstract No: 2/006

Numerical stability analysis of a jointed rock slope in the Sikkim Himalaya

Shubham Chaudhary1, 2*, Suvam Das1,2, Anindya Pain1,2, Shantanu Sarkar 1,2
1
CSIR-Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee,
2
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The network of highways plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of the country. In this
study, the jointed rock slope is analyzed in detail which is located on the Gangtok to Lachung National
Highway in the Sikkim Himalayas. The study area comes under the Central Crystalline Gneissic Complex
Group (CCGC). The main rock types belonging to the Darjeeling and Chungthang formations are mainly
comprised of Gneiss and Quartzite. The present rock slope was identified during a field investigation
(fig.1). The data required to study the geological and geotechnical parameters were recorded during the
detailed field investigation. RMR and GSI are calculated from the field data which was used for rock mass
classification. Kinematics analysis was performed for the slopes using Rockscience DIPS. In this, the
structural data of the joints and the slope surfaces was plotted in stereographic projection to identify the
probable failure modes and zone of failure modes of the studied slope (fig.1). Primarily it is a planar failure
along the joint dipping in the direction of the slope. And the failure was instigated by another steeper joint
set. The joint spacing with respect to the height of the slope depicts the failure of the rockmass was joint
controlled. Joints were characterized using Barton-Bandis criteria. Joint wall compressive strength and
joint roughness coefficients were recorded during the field investigation. Discrete element modelling was
adopted to compute the factor of safety (FOS) of the slope. Universal distinct element code (UDEC) was
used to compute the FOS. The rock between the joint sets was considered to be intact and followed Hoek-
Brown criteria. In the field, the joint spacing was varying between0.3 to 0.5 m. An attempt was made to
incorporate only one joint set with the same joint spacing in the numerical model. But the solution didn’t
converge due to the distorted elements and the computational time was exceptionally high. Hence, the
joint spacing was increased to 1m and the FOS was observed to be 3.04. The values of FOS with the single
joint set are on the very conservative side and couldn’t depict the true field scenario. Then another joint
set with a spacing of 1.5 m was incorporated into the model and the FOS was reduced to 1.40 (fig.1).
The joint spacing and the dimension of the numerical domain play a crucial role in the convergence of
the numerical solution. The incorporation of all the relevant joint sets can only recreate the field scenario
in the numerical domain. The present study shows the importance of field data for selecting the correct
numerical modelling approach for meaningful results.

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Abstract No: 2/007

The role of Geo-physical techniques in enhancing mine planning decision-making for

open cast quarry in Basaltic Terrain
S.N.Patil, B.D.Patil*, A.K.Kadam, N.S.Patil
Kavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari North Maharashtra University
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The main goal of this study is to identify subsurface basement basaltic strata that are suitable for the
supply of building materials to the local quarry industry. Identifying and specifying the sites of the
underlying basaltic rock bodies and the regolith thickness overlain the bedrock unit were achieved during
the study. In order to help the engineers and stockholders learn more about the subsurface geological
features in this region of basaltic terrain situated in northern Maharashtra, 15 vertical electrical soundings
had been implemented covering the entire area understudy and a pseudo cross section along with
resistivity cross section were mapped using IPI2WIN software, to image the subsurface structural units
surrounding this area. The emphasis is on characterizing engineering construction materials suitable for
sitting in the quarry industry, determining the longitudinal conductance and coefficient of anisotropy of
subsurface lithological units that determine the competency of the bedrock beneath the area from geo-
electric parameters obtained through interpretations of the ERT sections. The depth of the bedrock unit
delineated by the results ranged from about 15 m to 100 m, with resistivity values recorded in most of
the profiles exceeding 2000 m. Alongside the basaltic rock unit, groundwater bearing channels that would
serve the factory’s needs were delineated. These findings indicate that the subsurface basaltic bedrock
unit is competent and suitable for the construction of an open cast quarry in the area under study.

Abstract No: 2/008

Reduce Time & Cost Overrun using Geotechnical Investigation during Survey &
Investigation Stage of Hydro Power Projects, Luhri Stage –II (172MW), SJVN Ltd.,
Himachal Pradesh
Sushil Sharma, Akshay Acharya, A.K. Pandey, Naveen Kumar Kanyan*
The affiliation will be: Geology Department, SJVN Limited, Shimla
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Luhri Stage-II run of the river scheme project is proposed to be constructed on the RiverSatluj which
falls in the districts of Shimla and Mandi of Himachal Pradesh. The project proposes for construction of a
concrete gravity dam ± 71m high from the deepest foundation level across river Satluj near Nanj village
for generating 172 MW power. The underground powerhouse and its appurtenant structures are proposed
on the left bank.
At the project area, Kulu Group rocks are represented by Gahr Formation comprising banded gneiss and
quartzite. In the Northeastern part of the project area, the rocks of the Kulu Group lie in thrust contact
with the rocks of the Shali group. The rocks of the Shali Group are exposed in the southwestern part
of the project area and represented by Tattapani and Makri Formation. Tattapani Formation comprises
pink and gray massive dolomite and phyllite shale whereas makri Formation comprises Purple gray shale
with cherty dolomite. The Simla Group is represented in the area by Basantpur Formation and comprises
bedded limestone with sporadic quartzites.
Structural features present in the project area if not recognized during Survey and Investigation stage,
may lead to geological surprises during the construction stage and becomes the cause of Cost and time
overrun. In luhri stage-2, Geophysical methods and subsurface drilling has delineated the Buried channels/
Paleochannel of dimensions (L×W×D= 1013m×236m×64m) during the survey and investigation stage.
In addition to this major thrust in the foundation of the dam and project area has also been identified
during S & I stage by exploratory drill holes.

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Abstract No: 2/009

Shear Strength Behaviour of Weak Rock Mass

D. V. Sarwade*, Senthil. P., K. K. Mishra, Pankaj Kumar and Hari Dev

Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The shear strength of the foundation is one of the primary properties required for the design and safety
analysis of dams. Direct shear tests are used to determine the peak and residual shear strength of the
foundation rock. Weak rock masses normally refer to low strength, highly fractured, and poorly cemented
rocks. Peak and residual values can be obtained in competent rocks whereas progressive failure in weak
rocks results in single values of shear strength parameters. The analysis and interpretation of test data
of weak rocks are challenging tasks. The overall behaviour of rocks depends on the origin and alteration
process. Weak rocks are highly influenced by the alteration and cementation process. In this paper, in-situ
shear tests conducted on weak rocks such as Mudstones, fragile Sandstone, and highly jointed phyllites
have been studied in a comprehensive manner. The shear strength parameters i.e, cohesion ‘c’ & friction
angle ‘f’, derived from in-situ shear tests conducted at seven different locations are given in Table 1. The
normal stress applied in each test location depends on the stress expected due to the proposed structure.
Table 1: Summary of In-situ Shear Test Results for Weak Rocks

Sl. Rock Mass Peak Shear Residual Shear

Rock Type Normal Stress
No Classification Parameters (c, φ) Parameters (c, φ)

RMR –21 to 40
1 Mudstone (Site –I) 0.2 to 0.6 MPa 0.37 MPa, 44o 0.21 MPa, 32o
Poor
RMR - 21 to 40
2 Mudstone (Site –II) 0.2 to 0.6 MPa 0.30 MPa, 35o 0.04 MPa, 33o
Poor

0.08 MPa, 39o

RMR - 25 to 35
3 Fragile Sandstone, 0.2 to 0.8 MPa (Peak and residual
Poor
parameters are same)

0.23 MPa, 40o

Highly jointed phyllites RMR 29 to 40
4 0.4 to 1.0 MPa (Peak and residual
(Site – I) (Poor)
parameters are same)

Highly jointed phyllites Q value 2 to 4

5 0.4 to 0.8 MPa 0.18 MPa, 39o 0.13 MPa, 36o
(Site –II) (Poor)

0.34 MPa, 37o

Highly jointed phyllites RMR 19 to 40
6 0.2 to 0.8 MPa (Peak and residual
(Site – III) (Poor)
parameters are same)

RMR 25 to 30 0.53 MPa, 28o

7 Carbonaceous phyllites (Poor) 0.6 to 1.2 MPa (Peak and residual
Q value 1 to 1.2 parameters are same)

The study shows that peak and residual shear parameters are nearly the same in weak rock masses with
an exception in mudstone at one test location. The majority of the test results revealed progressive failure
and elastic perfectly plastic behaviour of rock mass which means, the rock mass continues to deform at
a constant stress level. This may be due to soft asperities/undulations and poor cementation along the
shear surface. The friction angle ranges from 28° to 40° and cohesion values range from 0.04 MPa to 0.53
MPa among the weak rock mass studied.

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Abstract No: 2/010

Evaluation of Ulusay Block Punch Index Model Efficacy in Predicting Uniaxial

Compressive Strength of Anisotropic Rocks
Kumar Nilankar*, Hemant Kumar Singh
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum technology, U.P.
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In rock engineering, most engineering construction projects require the investigation of physic-mechanical
properties (i.e., porosity, permeability, strengths, modulus ratio, young modulus, Poisson’s ratio, etc.) of
intact rocks or rock masses. Among, mechanical properties, the strength (uniaxial compressive strength)
of rock are very vital in deciding the appropriateness of sites for construction/foundation. It has been
observed that uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) is enormously being used in many rock engineering
application fields such as the construction of deep underground space for storage purposes, geological CO2
sequestration, coal gasification, the whole life cycle of petroleum/natural gas well, and radioactive waste
disposal in the subsurface (deep geological repository) (Zhang et al., 2021). The accurate determination
of UCS is require high quality compression machine and a well-preserved NX size core plug (diameter:
54.7 mm; length 110 mm or diameter to length ratio is 1:2) as per ISRM standard. It should be noted
that it is very challenging to get even the lowest possible recommended size (NX size) core plug in case
of weak, laminated, foliated, and highly jointed rock masses (i.e., slate, phyllite, weathered granite &
basalts, schist, etc). This could be possible due to core disking in densely fractured or foliated rocks during
the drilling process. Therefore, to overcome the stated problem, many engineers/researchers fully reliable
on the indirect methods of estimation of UCS such as the point load strength (Is (50), block punch index
(BPI), and ultrasonic P wave & S wave velocities. Mishra and Basu (2012) mentioned that Is (50) is a very
reliable and suitable method for the estimation of UCS. However, the minimum recommended dimension
required for the point load strength test is nearly 50 mm (diameter to length ratio: 1:1). They indicated
that irregular specimens can also be used for indirect estimation of UCS. However, due to reliable and
accurate estimation, the cylindrical specimen should be preferred. In the case of densely fractured or
thinly bedded/foliated rock masses, it is very complicated to make even the minimum recommended
specimen dimension for point load testing in estimating the UCS of concerning rocks. Therefore, in such
cases, researchers always depend on BPI to estimate the UCS of concerning rocks. The BPI test, which
only requires a flat disc-shaped specimen with a thickness of around 10 to 15 mm, is simple, inexpensive,
quick, and extremely promising for accurately estimating UCS. Over the years, many researchers/rock
engineers utilized BPI in estimating UCS of rocks based on various empirical strength criteria proposed by
various researchers such as Ulusay et al., (2001), Sonmez&Tunusluoglu (2008), Karakul et al., (2010),
and Mishra and Basu, (2012). It is very confusing for researchers to decide the best block punch strength
criteria in estimating UCS for weak and densely fractured rocks or thinly laminated rocks. Because Mishra
and Basu (2012) evaluated the existing criteria considering three different rock types such as granite,
sandstone, and schist. They reported that the Ulusay et al., (2001) criterion overestimates the UCS
values in the case of anisotropic rocks. However, when they estimated UCS values for the same rock
using Karakul et al., (2010) criterion, it provides more promising and closer values to determined UCS.
Mishra and Basu (2012) also combined all three rock types to check the efficacy of existing criteria. They
observed that Ulusay et al (2001) criterion predicted closer UCS values for a larger strength range than
other criteria.
In the present investigation, based on existing literature, the Ulusayet. al., (2001) criterion has been
selected for the estimation of UCS values for concerned problematic rocks such as shale and intercalated
shale. To check the efficacy of the Ulusay criterion in estimating UCS of problematic rocks, a total of 60
specimens (30 specimens of each concerned rock) were tested for BPI and a total of 60 specimens (30
specimens of each concerned rock) were tested for UCS. Subsequently, the determined UCS values were
compared with the estimated UCS value (estimated through Ulusay criteria). Afterward, average errors,
root mean square errors, standard deviation, and slope were calculated to evaluate the efficacy of the
Ulusay block punch index model.

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Abstract No: 2/011

Utilization of geotechnical studies and Electrical Resistivity Tomography for Soil

characterization and Foundation Engineering
Abul Aas*, Satish Kumar Sinha
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum technology, U.P
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Buildings are assets that make a significant contribution to civilization; as a result, developing a
comprehensive plan for long-lasting buildings is critical. One of the major reasons for recurring building
collapse is foundation failure, the knowledge of most developing countries lack. Catastrophic occurrences
include wall fractures, distress, sinking, tilting, and the partial or complete collapse of a structure due to
foundation issues. Consequently, to ensure the protection of human lives and property, thorough near-
surface research and characterization before building construction is a crucial component of foundation
design. To build successful earthworks and structural foundations, heterogeneity and variability in the
subsurface environments require extensive geological and geo-engineering assessments of a building
site. As borehole drilling has become more expensive, several non-invasive geophysical techniques that
provide spatiotemporal information on subsurface structures as well as fluid existence and motion have
become increasingly used in near-surface characterization at engineering and geotechnical sites. At
geotechnical sites, geophysical technologies can precisely map depth to bedrock, depth to the water
tables, and lateral and vertical non-uniformity of sub-soil characteristics. Geophysical data with higher
resolution can reveal more about the subsurface geology and the reasons for foundation collapses.
Groundwater exploration, determining compaction and soil horizon width, engineering site investigations,
archaeological exploration, foundation stability assessment, and evaluation of soil hydrological properties
have all been found to be quite efficient and applicable to the geoelectrical resistivity technique. One
of the most often used geophysical methods for near-surface characterization is electrical resistivity
tomography (ERT). It measures the resistivity of the subsurface, which depends on several factors such
as particle size, water saturation, porosity and permeability of the soil, soil compaction, etc. Subsurface
electrical variation can be best determined by ERT, which will help determine the geotechnical parameter.
It is a non-destructive technique and provides in-situ measurement.
In the present work, we have carried out a geotechnical investigation at 3 (Bore Hole) locations to assess
the nature of sub-strata and to evaluate the soil parameter required for the design of a foundation for
RGIPT Campus, Jais, U.P, India, and 3 ERT profile covering the Geotechnical investigation points. The
resistivity of soil varies with soil strength which is related to saturation, porosity, grain size distribution,
and cementation. The transverse resistance of each layer is obtained from electrical resistivity tomography
and it is correlated with no of blow counts obtained from standard penetration test (Fig. 1). We found
a linear relationship between the plotted SPT-N values from geotechnical investigation and transverse
resistance extracted from ERT data for all three sites. The difference in correlation coefficient between
the three sites is directly related to clay content changes. For determining the strength of soil using SPT
we require drilling a borehole which will take time, is costly, and is never environmentally friendly. Hence
we can conclude that soil strength can be calculated from ERT findings after a relationship has been
established for a specific area. The assessment of the strength of soil using ERT is quick, cost-effective,
and efficient and which makes it particularly beneficial in a geotechnical investigation.

Abstract No: 2/012

Seismic activities in Palghar area of Maharashtra in the western part of Deccan Volcanic
Province
S. K. Bhattacharyya*, A. K. Joshi, O. P. Singh
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]  

Frequent low magnitude (M < 4.9) earthquake events were reported since November, 2018 from the
Talasari, Denwari, Dhundalwari, and Ambesari areas in the northern part of the Palghar district of
Maharashtra that lies in the Western part of Deccan Volcanic Province. Some casualties and loss of property
in the area were also reported. Though the affected area falls in the Zone-III of the seismic zonation map
of India and is not very prone to seismic activities, several swarm activities were reported from some of its
adjoining areas. The National Centre of Seismology (NCS), India reported some tremors from the area of

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magnitude ranging from 2.5 to 4.3 from December, 2018 to July, 2019. The occurrence of six tremors of
magnitude ranging from 3.0 to 4.1 on 1st February, 2019 was widely felt and created more panic among
the people in the area than usual. USGS (earthquake reports, www.usgs.gov) has also reported one 4.0
magnitude earthquake (Lat: 20.230N, Lon: 72.890 E) that occurred on 1st March 2019 in the area. With
that background of the seismic activities, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) carried out earthquake
related studies from 05/08/2019 to 17/08/2019 by establishing a temporary seismic station network
around the epicentral zone in the affected area. The network comprised 06 (Six) numbers 03-component
Short Period (SP) digital seismograph instruments installed at Dapchari, Dhaniwari, Ambesari, Talasari,
Nikane, and Saiwan in the Palghar district. The seismic station network was operational only for 13 days.
Low magnitude seismic events from the area were reported till October 2020 (NCS earthquake reports).
During the study period, a total of 512 events were recorded and out of those, 296 well constrained and
best located events using the multi-station method were used for further detailed analysis. The dataset
was critically examined for estimation of the different earthquake parameters, earthquake statistics,
seismicity trend, magnitude variation, depth variation, fault plane solution, b-value estimation, etc. The
events were of low magnitude (0.6 to 3.3Ml) and confined within latitude 19.960 to 20.130 N and longitude
72.870 to 72.960E. The Epicentral map shows an N-S trending cluster of events, nearly 50 Km east of
the neo-tectonic West-Coast fault, the major geo-fracture of the terrain, and nearly 6-8 Km east of one
unnamed SE-NW trending fault involving the basement. Hypo-central depth profile shows that the events
were confined up to a depth of nearly 8 Km. The area was in the stressed condition as indicated by the
estimated b-value (0.64), which is lower than the normal value of 1.0. The composite fault plane solution
(Strike180.00; Dip: 25.00; Rake: -90.00) exhibits a normal fault mechanism with N-S trending nodal
planes, indicating the N-S strike direction and dipping towards west, comparable to the N-S trending
West-Coast fault and another fault in the west from the epicentral area.
It was observed that in the study area, the events were occurring from November 2018 and were not
confined to the heavy rainfall period or the monsoon spell. The monsoon or heavy rainfall period in the
Maharashtra area generally starts in June and continues up to September. Thus, the possibility of hydro-
seismicity reduces as cavity collapse or increased pore-pressure caused by percolation and movement
of rainwater might not have occurred during off monsoon spell. Except for the small irrigation dam, the
Kurze dam, in the North-East of the distressed area of Palghar, there is no large dam that may cause
reservoir-induced events. Also, there is no local mining activity for any mining events.
Thus, based on the above observations and from our preliminary analysis of the seismic events, it is
inferred that a large number of low magnitude (0.6 to 3.3Ml), shallow depth (~8 Km) localized events
in the northern part of the Palghar area were earthquake swarms. The swarm events may be attributed
to the low strength of the crust (unable to hold tectonic energy) releasing energy or brittle failure in the
weakened crust due to some geothermal activities or tectonic processes in a small area.
However, the inferences have been drawn from the analysis of seismic data over a very short period.
A closure and long-time seismic monitoring and other supporting geophysical studies like Magneto-
Telluric, Electric Sounding, etc. will be required to infer any final conclusion for the possible reason for
the occurrence of the swarm events. Seismic tomographic studies may be carried out to understand the
detailed crustal homogeneity in the area. GPS geodetic observations should also be carried out which can
implicate stress regime in the area due to tectonic deformation. Since some of the major earthquakes in
the Deccan Volcanic Province were preceded by swarm type activity, the Palghar swarm needs monitoring
and detailed analysis.

Abstract No: 2/013

Assessment of subsurface water storage potential zone using geospatial and AHP
technique in alluvial plain North Maharashtra Region, India
Ajaykumar K. Kadam1*, S. N. Patil1, V. M. Wagh2, Bhavesh D. Patil1, Nilesh S. Patil1
1
Kavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari North Maharashtra University, Maharashtra, 2SRTM University,
Maharashtra
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The primary objective of this study is to implementation of geospatial and AHP techniques for the
identification of groundwater storage potential zones in the northern Maharashtra region. Subsurface
water storage potential (SbWSP) is the total volume of groundwater stored that is stored in confined and
Unconfined aquifers. Sb WSP plays a major role in immediately or implicitly helping households, farming,
and trade actions. The present study focuses on the procedure demarcating the subsurface water storage
potential zone by merging geospatial and Analytical hierarchal procedures (AHP) to the obtained feature

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theme using the considerable effect of incidence of groundwater in the alluvial region river basin of
the northern part of Maharashtra, India. The geospatial data such as remote sensing images and other
supplementary data were used to develop different thematic layers viz. slope, lithology surface overland
flow, landform, present land use, soil type, and vadose zone. The result of the study displays that around
69.14 % is having high subsurface water storage potential and 14.86 % of the area is moderate for
storage of subsurface water. While 13.28 is in the low subsurface water storage potential and 2.72% of
the total area comes with poor Subsurface water storage potential. The authentication of the work is done
by superimposing point layer groundwater well yield on the Subsurface water storage potential map it is
having a good agreement with the output map.

Abstract No: 2/014

Evaluation of bond strength between rock surface and sprayed concrete

Narendra Kumar Singh Tomar*, Nitesh Kumar Rai
Larsen & Toubro Limited (HCIIC)
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Shotcrete adhesion Strength assessment between Rock Mass Surface and Sprayed concrete considering
initial support is very much crucial in order to confirm the required adhesion is achieved. The adhesion
strength of sprayed concrete is generally determined by a simple pull-off test known as the tensile bond
strength test. A direct tensile load is applied to a core drilled through the shotcrete into the underlying
substrate. The tensile load at failure is then measured to determine the adhesion or bond strength of the
shotcrete to the underlying substrate. Depending on where the core breaks, the tensile strength at failure
can represent the actual adhesion strength of the shotcrete or an assumed lower limit of this adhesion
strength. If the core fails in the shotcrete or substrate rather than at the bond surface or interface, the
adhesion strength of the shotcrete is then known to at least exceed the measured tensile strength of the
failed core. Shotcrete is a specially blended, cement-based product that is pneumatically sprayed at a high
velocity on the exposed surfaces of underground openings to provide ground support. In underground
hard rock mines, shotcrete is generally used as an integral part of a ground support system consisting of
multiple components.
When ground conditions are poor, and the host rock is weak, as, in many of the underground excavations,
extensive ground support is required. In these situations, shotcrete is typically applied in conjunction with
other ground support elements such as bolts and mesh, but it may also be used with spilling or cemented
rockfill for extremely weak ground. When shotcrete is used as an integral part of a mine’s ground support
system, it is important to know the strength properties of the place shotcrete. Besides conventional
strength parameters, such as the shotcrete’s flexural, compressive, or tensile strength, the adhesion or
bond strength of the shotcrete to the host rock must also be known in order to adequately determine the
shotcrete’s ability to support the immediate ground near the surface of the mine opening. Consequently,
the adhesion strength of the shotcrete is a necessary parameter for ground support design.
The adhesion of sprayed concrete layer over exposed rock surface is governed by many parameters of
Rock Mass and Sprayed Concrete, which need to be ensured while creating underground facilities in the
interest of the safety of structures as well as personnel working in the respective locations. An attempt
has been made in this paper to discuss the method of obtaining in-situ Bond Strength and illustrate the
expected type of failure with substrate experienced. The obtained Bond Strength between Rock Surface
and Shotcrete in in-situ conditions ranges from 0.5 to 1.50 MPa, some locations experienced failure
within the rock mass, expected due to the heterogeneous nature of rock mass. The heterogeneity of Rock
Mass properties enabled to experienced of wide variations of bond strength obtained values within the
testing locations. The Bond Strength test values are further used to correlate with the field parameters
of the Q Value. Shotcrete holds by adhesion, strengthens the rock by preventing relative movements at
the shotcrete/rock interface, and acts as a “super mesh” by providing a stiff retaining component with
substantial bending or flexural capacity.
The test area identification for drilling should be free from any seepage or dampness. The drill should be
free from significant vibration and should not allow lateral movement of the coring bit. Drill with a diamond
coring barrel with an axis at (90±10) to the ground surface (EN 1542: 1999 & EFNARC, GUIDELINES
1992). Remove the core barrel without damaging the test specimen. The diameter of the core should
be greater than 50 mm and less than or equal to 60 mm in diameter (EFNARC, GUIDELINES 1999). The
depth of drilling will be decided in order to ensure the bonding zone is covered in the drilled depth in case
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of testing between Sprayed Concrete to Sprayed Concrete, whereas in case of testing between Sprayed
Concrete to Substrate, the coring will be at least 15 mm into the substrate to avoid stress concentrations
affecting the bond plane (EFNARC, GUIDELINES 1992).
Before applying Dolly/Disc on the core specimen, the surface should be properly cleaned for the deposited
dust, which has accumulated during surface preparation. Clean the dolly and apply a thin layer of adhesive
to the dry surface of the specimen so that the adhesive forms a uniform layer between the dolly and
the specimen. No adhesive shall penetrate into the clearance made by the core barrel (EN 1542: 1999).
Place the dolly on the core face so that the centre of the dolly coincides with the centre of the core. Apply
sufficient pressure to the dolly to expel air, and carefully and immediately remove any extruded adhesive.
Allow the adhesive to harden in accordance with the manufacturer(s) instructions. The dolly diameter
should be equal to the core diameter (±1 mm) and a thickness of at least 0.4 times the dolly diameter
(EN 14488-4:2005 (E).

Abstract No: 2/015

Measurement of hoop stress on Wye section during internal hydrostatic loading- Case history
B.K.Gupta*
SJVNL, Shimla
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Measurement of Strain developed at the circumference of the Wye Section through unidirectional strain
meters during hydrostatic testing is a useful method to calculate the hoop stress at a particular location
on the circumference. In most cases, wye sections are tested without measurement of strain developed
at the circumference. Only Internal pressure is applied and a visual inspection of the section is done. The
relation of applied internal pressure with the development of stress at the surface of the wye section is not
known in this situation. This paper is based on Hydrostatic testing of the wye section of NJHPS in 1999.
During testing, strain meters were installed at eight locations. The Maximum applied internal pressure
was 150% of the design pressure. Applied internal pressure was increased in steps and Strain values were
recorded at each location. Internal pressure was kept constant for 30 minutes. At all locations on the
circumference of the wye section, recorded values of stress are directly proportional to applied internal
pressure. It was observed that recorded values during the test are less than the values observed during
model studies. Observed strain values converted to stress are substantially lower than the Yield strength
of the material. Observed stress values at the circumference of the wye section are directly proportional to
applied internal pressure and depend upon the location of measurement. Comparison of recorded stress
values during the test with values observed during testing gives the opportunity to analyze the closeness
of the model with the actual section. Since recorded stress, values during testing are less substantially to
values recorded during model studies giving the opportunity to design the wye section more economically
for future design purposes.

Abstract No: 2/016

Vegetation as a constrain in landslide change detection using multi-temporal LiDAR

data
Megotsohe Chasie*, P.K. Theophilus & A.K. Mishra
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Identifying the differences in the state of an object/scene by observing it at different timescales forms
the basis of change detection studies. Change detection for the problematic Ambithang landslide in North
district, Sikkim has been carried out through the acquisition of multi-temporal LiDAR (light detection
and ranging) datasets using a ground-based laser scanner. While change detection may be an important
application of laser scanners, a primary challenge always lies in distinguishing real changes on the ground
from differences that may have been caused by measurement and/or data processing errors. The write up
highlights how thick vegetation cover compounds the problem to nearly unmanageable proportions. In this

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study, a set of terrain surfaces prepared from the data acquired during January 2021 and November 2021
for the Ambithang landslide is compared. Determination of shape differences using the two surfaces, the
threshold is set at 0.5 m, has shown a volume change for approx. 14,314.9 m3 during the period (Figure
1a). Material depletion of 5,877.6 m3 occurred while 8,437.3 m3 of material was accumulated. The
presence of shape differences beyond the landslide boundary (Figure 1b) and mismatch in the depleted
and accumulated material is largely attributed to vegetation cover and inconsistent data sampling from
the two datasets during terrain filtering (for removal of vegetation). The exceedingly high error budget
as a result of the thick vegetation cover (Figure 1c)is evidently reflected in the output data and remains
a major constraint in change detection for landslides located over vegetated slopes. The findings of this
study show that LiDAR-based change detection over thickly vegetated slopes may be used with extreme
caution for actual changes on the ground.

Figure 1. Comparison of two surfaces from different time epochs for the Ambithang landslide, North
district, Sikkim; a) Output of the determination of shape differences, b) Overlay of the field-mapped
landslide boundary on the output surface, c) Perspective view of the Ambithang landslide surrounded
by thick vegetation cover.

Abstract No: 2/017

Strategising hydropower generation in Meghalaya-evaluation of neotectonic deterrents
K. Nath1*, D. Gogoi1,B. N. Mahanta1, S. Halder1, T. K. Goswami2, R. K. Sarma2
1
Geological Survey of India
2
Dibrugarh University, Assam
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Meghalaya Plateau with rock records from the Proterozoic to the Quaternary is a cratonic mobile
belt, detached from the Indian Peninsular Shield by the GaroRajmahal depression. It is the only elevated
landform situated in the entire Himalayan Foreland. The plateau is a popup structure bounded by several
well established fault systems. The plateau is bounded by Brahmaputra Fault in the north and the Dawki-
Dapsi Fault system in the south. Kopili Fault System and Haflong–Disang thrust to the east. Dhubri Fault
punctuates the extent of the plateau towards the west. There are several faults and lineament systems
within Meghalaya Plateau, viz. Nongchram Fault, Barapani-Tyrsad Lineament, Umngot Lineament, Oldham
Fault (Fig. 1).
Due to its unique geographic location, elevation, and orographic interaction with the southwest monsoon,
the Meghalaya Plateau is the rainiest place in the world. The average annual rainfall in the plateau
was approximate, 3260mm for the period of 1989-2018. The heavy rainfall during the monsoon season
coupled with the impervious litho assemblages produces a huge volume of surface runoff. The surface
runoff drains through the intricate network of streams, producing recurring floods in both Assam and
Bangladesh (Fig. 1). This huge volume of running water has an immense amount of both kinetic and
potential energy that may be tamed and harnessed for the generation of hydel power. This will also

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mitigate the flood hazards in this part of the subcontinent. The present work attempts to portray the
enormous potential that Meghalaya Plateau has in way of Hydro Power generation. Simultaneously, it also
attempts to establish the role of neotectonic reactivation in the process of setting up infrastructure for
hydel power generation, in the plateau.

Fig.1: Major tectonic lineaments and the regional drainage pattern of eastern part of the Indian
Subcontinent. The studied basins situated in Khasi Hills of Meghalaya. Earthquake epicenters
locations have been superposed.

The East Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive the maximum rainfall and have been selected as a sample
database for the current study. Movement along the fault system bounding the plateau in the north and
south has resulted in an antiformal buckling with an east-west axis. This buckling has also produced
a water divide that runs east-west through the central part of the plateau, dividing the entire set of
drainage streams into the north bound and south bound subsets, to meet Brahmaputra and Surma rivers
respectively (Fig. 1). The river basins namely Umiam, Umkhen (flowing to the Brahmaputra in the north),
Umngi and Umiew (flowing to meet Surma in the south) has been considered for GIS based synthesis of
SRTM-DEM data, morphometric analyses and lineament indicing (Fig. 2). The GIS outputs were verified
with limited field checks at places.
The trellis pattern drainage, high stream number, high stream percentage of the first order, and a trunk
stream of as high as 6th to 7th order indicates that the plateau is not only a mountainous region but
structurally controlled as well. The extracted lineaments have been categorized into four categories (Fig.
2). Lineament indicing confirms the presence of intersecting regional structures.
The morphometric factors, as well as the river profiles (Fig. 3), suggest that each of the river basins are
very potential for the generation of hydel power. Similar projects to Umiam HEP can be successfully set
up in the remaining three river courses also, to meet the power demand of Meghalaya which is about
400 MW. Hydropower generation meets 355 MW, from the ongoing projects in Meghalaya. The analyzed
sample data set enumerates that both the north bound and south bound stream networks have equal
potential for hydel power generation. If all the major stream networks of Meghalaya are harnessed for
hydel power generation, then it has the potential to generate 3000 MW of electricity. Presently only 11-
12% of the total potential of Hydro Power generation is being generated. Detailed Project Report for one
major hydel power project (210MW) is already under preparation along the Umngot River along with 37
other mini and micro hydel power projects in the state.

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Fig.2: The extracted lineaments superimposed on the drainage pattern of the four studied basins
from East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya.

The plateau is situated in a very complex tectonic regime, resulting in the development of high lineament
density and lineament intersection density due to the two orogenic belts flanking it (Fig. 2). GPS studies
indicate that the Indian Plate is undergoing rapid shortening and higher convergent rates, in this part.
Thus, the Meghalaya Plateau is shifting north to the northeast in a counterclockwise direction. The tectonic
activity in the region results in frequent earthquakes, with epicenters within and surrounding the plateau
(Fig. 1). There have been several devastating earthquakes that have affectedthe plateau in the recent
past. The neo-tectonic activity also led to lateral shifting of the river courses, and the development of
knick points (Fig. 3) in a structure-controlled manner. The river terraces become unstable and landslide-
prone, leading to the daming of the rivers at places.
The hydropower potential of the Meghalayan Rivers is challenged by the neo-tectonics-induced reactivation
of faults, terrain modification, river course shifting, and earthquakes. If any major major project is
conceived in the plateau, special emphasis has to be given to the structural engineering point of view,
for making the dam resistant to these factors. Secondly, fractal analyses of lineaments and structural
elements should be carried out to avoid neo-tectonically susceptible sites, in the inception stage of the
dam.

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Fig.3: Longitudinal profiles of (i)Umkhen, (ii)Umiam, (iii)Umngi and (iv)Umiew rivers, H1,H2,H3
and H4 are the river segments with decreasing gradients whereas A,B,C and D are the knick point.
The location just after every knick point has the maximum potential difference for harnessing
hydroelectricity.

Abstract No: 2/018

Prognosis and management of water ingress hazard in mined rock caverns for
hydrocarbon storage
Saikat Pal*, Altaf Usmani, Debasish Biswas & Pavan Chakravarthy
Engineers India Limited
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Hazard: Water ingress is a potential hazard in the risk register of all underground projects and more
so in rock caverns mined for the purpose of storage of hydrocarbons wherein products are contended by
the principle of hydrodynamic containment. In such projects delicate balance between product pressure
inside the storage caverns and the surrounding water pressure is the backbone of the project. Apart from
the instability associated with water pressure, difficulty in rock supports, and their effects on construction
schedule and cost observed in any underground project, there are additional concerns due to the water
ingress in storage cavern projects. Ingress of freshwater may affect the groundwater quality through the
dispersion of saline water in the coastal areas. It may lead to a mismatch of the estimated seepage rate
versus the installed seepage water pump capacity and increase the requirement of water replenishment
during operation. But the greatest risk of excessive ingress during construction is depletion of groundwa-
ter could be desaturation of rockmass and disruption of containment leading to escape of stored products
which in turn can cause groundwater contamination and environmental hazards.
The Prognosis: In hard rock, the main avenues of water are conducive features like open joints, fracture
zones, faults, and contact of different litho units. It is obvious that to regulate the ingress, these avenues
are to be prognosed in advance through investigation campaigns taken up in different phases of the proj-
ect. The downhole geophysical logging in the combination of caliper logs, sonic logs, electrical resistivity
logs, and temperature logs in tandem with borehole televiewer data gives a qualitative scenario of the
waterways network, while water pressure tests different depth intervals, isolated by packer, gives a quan-
titative measure of the hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity of the zones. Predictive modelling of the
conductive features is necessary for possible modification of layout and seepage estimation (by empirical
and numerical methods). This model is further used for planning grouting requirements to reduce hy-
draulic conductivity and for the planning of artificial recharge through water curtain boreholes. There are
limitations to all investigation approaches. Nevertheless, the degree of correctness of the model and its
constant updating throughout the course of construction paves the way toward the success of the project.

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The Management: Taking a clue from the model, the Hydrogeological Design is carried out in terms
of layout, identification of mandatory pre-grouting zones, and frequency & orientation of water curtain
boreholes for artificial recharging. Needless to say, site specific executional adaptations of design are nec-
essary for the successful completion and commissioning of the project. The effect of inflow and efficiency
of grouting are monitored through the hydro-geological monitoring network in place.
The Paper: The paper outlines, in brief, the principle of the storage caverns, various investigations
for identifying water transmitting zones and their geometrical configurations, limitations in the method,
grouting, and monitoring during construction, and a few case specific executional adaptation for the com-
pleted and ongoing projects.  

Figure 1 Schematic principle for mined storage cavern

Figure 3 Adaptation of grout holes

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Abstract No: 2/019

Assessment of in-situ rockmass properties utilizing cross-hole Seismic Tomography

S. L. Kapil*, Vipul Nagar
NHPC Limited, Haryana
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Geotechnical exploration in hydropower investigation plays a very vital role. Precise details of geotechnical
parameters have great implications in the selection of optimum locations, preparation of cost estimates,
and design of major civil structures. Conventional exploration techniques like drilling, drifting, pitting, and
trenching are expensive, time consuming, and provide very limited information with a higher degree of
uncertainties. To minimize these uncertainties in investigations, emerging geophysical techniques are of
immense help. In the last two decades, evolution in software and hardware has considerably improved
the reliability and applicability of geophysical techniques, and now 2D/3D subsurface details can be
generated in a fast, economic and precise way. These techniques are also capable of providing solutions
to some critical problems faced during the construction stage of the project.
Cross-holes seismic tomography is one of the most reliable geophysical tools being applied worldwide
for the exploration of dam sites, powerhouses, tunnelling projects, etc. towards delineating geological
structures, mapping cavities& weak zones, and for evaluating engineering parameters of rockmass, etc.
This technique is being utilized successfully to steer past some of the major construction hurdles.
The cross-hole seismic tomography technique has been successfully utilized in several NHPC project sites
for various objectives. This paper portrays the application of this technique for the assessment of rockmass
in terms of engineering properties at one of the construction projects of NHPC in Sikkim, India. Due to
poor quality rockmass conditions and mechanical breakage of rock cores, as per conventional rules, the
RQD for both fresh and weathered rockmass has been considered very low or NIL for the existing rock
type viz., phyllitic quartzite and quartzite. This leads to heavy protection measures in the area. To further
investigate the area, High resolution Cross-hole seismic tomography had been undertaken between two
drill holes. As per developed relationships between Q, Vp, and RQD. These parameters have been estimated
based on seismic wave velocities. The results obtained through seismic wave velocities suggested the
presence of better rockmass conditions in comparison to RQD delineated through conventional technique.
The suggested values helped in the optimization of the protection measures.

Abstract No: 2/020

Underground hydraulic conductivity measurements in underground structures

importance and new developments
Swetabh Singh1, D.C Tripathi1, Koteswara Rao. Kusunuri2*
1
ALTINOK india Ltd, New Delhi, 2CSCconstruction PVT.LTD
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

This paper aims to explain the underground structure’s hydraulic conductivity measurements and its
importance with new developments. Ground Conductivity Designation (GCD) is the testing method to
determine the ground hydraulic conductivity and solidification quality. Generally ground solidification
quality is the main important element to consider and accordingly conduct a hydraulic conductivity test.
This test is also called the permeability test in general terms. Ground hydraulic conductivity tests can
apply to rock or soil in geotechnical and geomechanical investigations. It is crucial for the design and
planning of civil, mining, and oil and gas projects in the design or construction phase. Lugeon and Lefranc
tests are common tests used by engineers and geologists for the measurement of the permeability of
ground. GCD was first developed in 2013 based on the Lugeon concept, further examined in 2015, and
cited by the author in tunneling papers in 2017, finally developed by Dr.BineshianHoss (2017). This GCD
test was practically used in several underground projects all over India. This paper aims to explain the
GCD and makes it available to engineers and geologists who work in the field of geology, geomechanics,
and geotechnics in tunnelling, dam works, etc., as a quick procedure. GCD is a test method based on a
simple single stage water injection procedure for the examination of the ground’s hydraulic conductivity
(Bineshian, 2017). The procedure uses a simple grouting pump through a naked hole that is drilled

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at any direction, orientation, diameter, or length. Output includes a quantitative measure as well as a
qualitative description obtained by application of the GCD test as a time-and cost-efficient procedure in
the assessment of the ground’s hydraulic conductivity. The productivity of the GCD test is the assessment
of ground quality in terms of 1) permeability, 2) solidification, 3) consolidation, 4) water access reduction,
and/or 5) sealing quality.

Abstract No: 2/021

Resistivity imaging technology for delineation of different structural geological

features
Shweta*, Vipul Nagar, Naveen Pandey
NHPC Limited
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Geophysical Resistivity Imaging is the new age technique for generating continuous 2D/3D resistivity
profiles of the sub-surface. This technique is capable of providing sub-surface geological information
down to ±200m depth by using its property of detection of resistivity contrast in different sub-surface
formations. Due to its high resolving potential, it has been extensively utilized for various purposes such
as the delineation of different structural geological features, assessment of zones of weakness in the
rockmass, overburden & concretes as well as for exploration of probable groundwater bearing formations.
The paper portrays the application of Resistivity Imaging for the delineation of weak features in overburden
comprising sand lenses and exploring probable groundwater formations through two case studies. The
field work had been undertaken using an advanced resistivity meter ABEM LS-2 and data were acquired
utilizing different electrode protocols viz., Dipole-Dipole and Schlumberger.
The study was conducted for PakalDul HE Project, UT of J&K, wherein the technique successfully delineated
sand lenses in the River Borne Material. Thick sand lenses have been resolved in the upstream coffer dam
as well as the plinth of CFRD. Hence, Resistivity Imaging helped in the planning of ground improvement
measures. The technique was also used extensively for exploring promising groundwater formations at
the colony area of the Subansiri Lower HE Project in Arunachal Pradesh. Based on the results of the study,
few locations were identified as potential groundwater bearing formations for sinking the tube well.
These studies suggest resistivity imaging is one of the fast, reliable, and promising techniques for
subsurface investigation for the delineation of a zone of weaknesses in the overburden as well as for the
exploration of probable groundwater bearing formation.

Abstract No: 2/022

Assessment of health parameters for underground structures to evaluate the rock-

mass behaviour
Narendra Kumar Singh Tomar*
Larsen & Toubro Limited (HCIIC)
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Underground excavation is a unique construction field with full of uncertainties and risks. Underground
caverns are nowadays fulfilling several needs of mankind like storage of crude oil, hydropower stations,
and caverns for strategic purposes. These all projects are having intensive capital structures and their
failures can be catastrophic. Geotechnical Instrumentation for monitoring the behavior of these important
structures during construction and in operation is crucial from the structural safety point of view. To
understand the rock mass behavior it is necessary to make a note of all the parameters which need to be
measured in the pre and post-construction stages of the project. Nowadays Instrumentation is considered
an important and integral activity for these projects. This paper specifies certain parameters, which if
monitored can provide an advance warning against any impending failure. The paper also explains the
planning of the type of instrument and place of installation of the instrument in designing any successful
monitoring scheme.

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The measurement of data can be done with an electronic or mechanical device. The present geotechnical
monitoring practices for underground structures involve convergence monitoring with the help of optical
targets and rock mass displacement with help of borehole extensometers. More importantly, it involves
detailed planning to finalize the position of each monitoring instrument based on the location and
orientation of geological features. Further, it is equally important to ensure proper recording of monitoring
data in order to analyze and take immediate action in case of any adverse situation.
This requires dedicated high end automated software, which can record, analyze and produce significant
results out of a large quantity of recorded data which otherwise turns out to be only useless. In general
cases, the deformation of rock mass may be quite less compared to the alarming values which can be
evaluated based on detailed design for different rock classes. It is necessary that the tunnel is monitored
frequently and accurately against any conversance /deformation throughout the construction life cycle.

Abstract No: 2/023

GeoTools*3DLog: An App for estimating weak rock spans along tunnels and for much
more
Yogendra Deva*, Dr. Gopal Dhawan, Mugdha Patwardhan
DDAG Private Limited
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Standard investigation techniques take a back seat when it comes to inaccessible terrains along tunnel
alignments and deep-seated caverns, like in the Himalayas. Well, if finances are no constraint, and the
stakeholders can afford high-end exploration techniques like directional drilling, there is no problem, else,
the acumen and adaptability of the investigating teams to such terrain come to the fore in the assessment
of sub-surface excavation conditions. Considering that the crushed-rock zones like shears, particularly
in the presence of subsurface water, constitute the poorest of tunnelling media, the estimation of their
proportion in the overall length of the tunnel is of primary concern for design and construction teams.
The investigation and assessment of such Rock Class-V zones – the nightmare for tunnellers, therefore,
remains at the core of investigation planning and exploration.
As for the Rock Classes, the ever-evolving classification systems Q (Barton,1974; Anon,2022) and RMR
(Bieniawski, 1973, 1989)have been there as the must-practiced procedures. While systems like Geolog-
ical Strength Index (GSI, Hoek, 1997) and Ground Types (ONORM, 2008) came to be advocated lately,
I-System (Hoss, 2021)is the newest member of the rock mass classification club. All this is the result
of R&D in the field of rock mass classification systems that celebrates its Golden Jubilee in a couple of
years. No matter how the excavation media is defined in terms of Rock Class, at the end of the day, for
the tunnelling crew at the heading it is only good or bad ground. What, therefore, makes the classifica-
tion systems what they are supposed to be? It is none other than the inputs that need to be thoroughly
dependable, and the perception of the corresponding ground condition. A lapse here or there makes the
classification system redundant but the physical condition of the ground at the heading remains the same.
If the design and construction teams have been advised well on that, tunnelling is a success.
The ‘KYG’ – “Know Your Ground”, is the mantra for the stakeholders and engineering team and, maybe
arguably, dependable Engineering Geological Mapping constitutes the backbone of all investigations. It
helps optimize the project layout and paves way for techno-economic investigations and engineering.
Besides defining the litho-structural engineering geological model of the project area, if carried out by a
competent geology team, the engineering geological mapping, coupled with a systematic discontinuity
survey, brings out the fabric of the rock mass and provides dependable inputs for the rock mass classifi-
cation. The desktop processing of the data from mapping, and analysis, help compute the spans of weak
zones along the tunnel alignment and facilitate costing analysis.
The App “GeoTools*3DLog”
Giving due weightage to the cumulative occurrence of weak zones along tunnels and caverns, the R&D
wing of the DDAG Private Limited has brought out a procedure that facilitates estimation of the cumu-
lative span of weak zones, mainly crushed rock or shear along a given tunnel or cavern. The soul of the
procedure lies in projecting the planes of the weak zones belonging to discontinuity sets as a 3D log
and, based on their orientations vis-à-vis that of the tunnel and its dimensions, estimating their spans
along the tunnel. The cumulative spans of each set of weak zones provide the overall percentage of Rock
Class-V and Rock Class-IV along the tunnel. The frequency and thickness of the weak zones are the key to
the estimations and demand diligent engineering geological mapping along with systematic discontinuity
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survey. Barring the physically identifiable weak zones like major shears and faults in the field, that can be
projected at desired levels in the sub-surface, other weak zones are estimated cumulatively. The system-
atic and progressive probe drilling with overlaps from the tunnel heading during construction facilitates
spotting of the weak zone and constitutes an integral part of the overall procedure. The forecast of the
spotted weak zone beyond the heading forms a part of the overall procedure.
The projections of weak zones (discontinuities) as 3D logs involve locating the intersection points of the
plane on the surface of the tunnel, that in turn involves computations based on the relationship between
the orientations of the discontinuity and that of the tunnel (Deva & Gupta, 2008). For obvious reasons,
the manual projection of discontinuities is a cumbersome procedure and the projected traces also turn
out to be only approximate. For accurate and rapid projections, the DDAG has come out with a software-
cum-app named “GeoTools*3DLog” (Fig.1). Besides the projections of discontinuity traces as a 3D log,
the app can also be used for computing orientations of plotted discontinuity in a field 3D log and help
project weak zones from tunnel headings. It is expected to find applications in other engineering geolog-
ical investigations for the estimation of the spans of the weak zones along the tunnel, individually as well
as cumulatively, as illustrated in the following field examples.

Fig.1: The home page of the App GeoTools*3DLog

Chamera Dam Bypass Road Tunnel

The efficacy of the GeoTools*3DLog App has been tested at the 7m span and 300m long bypass road
tunnel for Chamera Dam (Stage 1) in Himachal Pradesh (India), commissioned by NHPC in the eighties.
The tunnel has been constructed across phyllites dipping N087°/67°(Choubey & Dhawan, 1990). Besides
the ruling set of foliation joints (Set J1), the rock is dissected by two other sets of discontinuities; viz.
Set J2: N180°/66° and Set J3: N275°/75°. The tunnel is aligned in N283° direction. The shear zones are
aligned along Sets J1 and J2. Prima facie, the dip direction of Set J1 shears makes a small angle of 16° with
the tunnel direction, and that along Set J2 makes a very large angle of 77°. Consequently, while the Set
J1 shears would have small spans across the tunnel, Set J2 shears would run for longer spans along the
tunnel. The corresponding lengths of poor rock zones are expected to be meager for Set J1 shears and
exceptionally longer for Set J2 shears. Using the App, the traces of the weak zones have been projected as
a 3D Log in Fig.2 that also provides the computed values of their spans and other pertinent parameters.

Fig.2: Projected traces of discontinuity sets along the Chamera bypass tunnel using the GeoTool*3DLogApp

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The projected 3D log has been checked with that of the constructed tunnel (Fig.3). The log confirms
Very Poor rock zone (Q<0.78) for a span of 55m along the Set J2 shear and supports the App findings
discussed above. The variation in weak zone length is attributed to local changes in the dip direction/
amount with respect to the average values considered for computed projections.
The measured orientations of discontinuities (Dip direction/ amount) in the 3D geological log of the tunnel
have also been compared with the computed values using the App. These are also found to be close
enough to the measured values.

Fig.3: The 3D geological log of the Chamera Dam bypass tunnel

A Long HRT in Nepal

The GeoTools*3DLog App has been used for estimating the percentage of weak zones in the updated
feasibility study (UFS) of a 4000m long HRT across banded gneisses under an overwhelming cover of col-
luvium and vegetation. The frequency and thickness of the weak zones (shears) were computed through
a systematic discontinuity survey along the outcrops inaccessible areas nearest possible to the tunnel
alignment, and also from the well exposed rock all along the rocky valley face on the other bank. Only
time shall tell how effective the App results have been.

In Conclusion
The App GeoTools*3DLog has been tested and used not only for the estimation of the overall percentage
of weak rock zones along tunnels but is a handy tool also for the following.
1. Computation of orientations of plotted traces in a 3D geological log. This helps validation of the plotted
data by reviewers as the orientation measurements in tunnels using a compass may lead to incorrect
values.
2. Projection and prediction of the extension of weak zones from tunnel headings. This works as an
effective and ready-to-use tool for meaningful communication between the site geologist and the
tunnelling crew by way of mobile-based instant sharing of drawings.
The Geo Tools*3DLog App caters to different shapes of tunnels (D-shaped, horseshoe, circular), caverns,
and circular shafts. The upgraded versions in due course of the App evolution shall take care of the
demand of the industry.
Finally, the app is expected to prove an easy-to-use desktop and pocket tool for field geologists, both
involved in investigation and construction. It may also save them from cumbersome manual plotting.

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Abstract No: 2/024

High-accuracy long-range seismic prediction during tunnel construction phase using
TSP and correlation with geo technical/geomechanical calculations using I-System; A
recommended prediction technique in (I)-TM
Kripal Choudhary*, H Bineshian
Amberg Engineering, AG
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Advanced knowledge of ground conditions and in-advance prediction of hazardous zone/s is still a major
issue during tunnel advancement. The information achieved from conventional exploration methods like
probe holes, exploratory holes, and/or surface geophysical techniques is incomprehensive due to frequent
changes in geological conditions, high overburden, short range of prediction, low accuracy in prediction,
and low precision in repetition. The seismic survey from inside the tunnel is another option to explore
lithological heterogeneities. Seismic methods are widely used from the surface because of their long
range and high resolution. The seismic investigation is not limited to the surface, but also can be carried
out from inside the tunnel by using methods like Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP). From inside the tunnel,
a series of closely spaced source points are used to generate seismic energy. The seismic source such
as dynamite or hammer can be used depending upon the requirement of the survey and operational
constraints. By capturing the reflected elastic waves and their corresponding travel time, P and S waves’
velocity can be obtained and the important rock mechanical parameters/including dynamic modulus of
elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, shear modulus, and bulk modulus can be estimated. The prediction length
ranges from 100 to 200 m ahead of the tunnel face and up to 50 m in both lateral directions from the
axis of the tunnel; the prediction range may vary depending upon the type of rock mass condition along
the seismic layout. TSP 303 is used in tunnels T01, T05, T13, and T14 of Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla
Rail Link Project (USBRLP) in J&K, India, and achieved a remarkable high accuracy of over 85%. This
prediction helped to prevent potential failure/collapse from the occurrence. This study shall incorporate
the TSP methodology and very good correlation of parameters derived from seismic data with actual rock
mass condition encountered and estimated (I)-Value of I-System.

Abstract No: 2/025

Normal and Shear Stiffness from Field Direct Shear Test

Senthil P*, D.V. Sarwade,K.K.Mishra, Hari Dev
Central soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In-situ direct shear tests are commonly conducted for obtaining shear strength parameters for dam
stability assessment. A minimum of 4 to 6 direct shear tests in concrete-rock and rock-rock interfaces
are conducted at different but constant normal loads for obtaining the shear strength parameters(c&f).
Recently, numerical modelling is extensively used as part of the design, and it requires inputs such as
unit weight, field stress conditions, modulus, Poisson ratio along with shear strength parameters. In case,
modelling and analysis of the dam-foundation interface or any joint in the rockmass is required then,
normal (kn) and shear stiffness (ks) values are also to be provided as input. These values are determined
from laboratory shear tests on the rock joints. In this paper, it is shown that field test data can be used
to determine kn and ks more realistically. The stress-displacement plots in normal and shear directions as
obtained for four concrete-rock interfaces at different normal loads are shown in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1: Plots of Shear Stress-Shear displacement and Normal Stress-Normal placeme

The methods of calculation of kn and ks values from in-situ direct shear test results are similar to
laboratory tests. The slope can be of a linear portion or slope from the origin to a point before considerable
displacement occurs. The calculated average values of ks and kn from the actual field tests are 2100 MPa/m
and 600 MPa/m. In literature, it is generally seen that kn>ks, however, the field test data considered for
the study shows that ks>kn. The details of the calculation for stiffness, the ratio of ks/kn, and discussion
shall be included in the detailed paper.

Abstract No: 2/026

Geotechnical Instrumentation and Monitoring of Excavation of Underground Power
House Caverns of Mangdechhu Hydro-Electric Project
Mishra, A.K.*, Punetha, P.
MHPA
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The 155m long, 23m wide, and 41m high underground powerhouse and 135.5m long, 18m wide, and 23m
high transformer hall caverns of the 720 MW Mangdecchhu Hydro-Electric Project are located on the left
bank of Mangdecchhu River in Trongsa district of Kingdom of Bhutan.
In view of encountering a previously un-envisaged shear/fracture zone of approximate 8m width
intersecting both caverns, it was felt prudent to carry out systematic and progressive numerical modelling
of both caverns while simultaneously also monitoring the cavern’s behaviour with the aid of systematic
geotechnical instrumentation. This paper exclusively elucidates monitoring of the behaviour of the cavern
during excavation based on instrumentation for arriving at a remedial support system.
The behaviour of rock mass during the excavation of underground powerhouse and transformer hall
caverns of MHEP is being closely monitored with aid of an elaborate instrumentation program, which
includes monitoring of change in loads with aid of load cells, displacement of rock mass at different
depth inside the excavated periphery of the structures by single and multi-point borehole extensometers,
while surface displacements are monitored by the aid of tape convergence and survey target points.
Any abnormal behaviour of the rock mass as indicated by the instrumentation is studied and analyzed
and necessary changes in excavation methodology and/or support system are timely implemented.
The instrumentation data is also periodically compared with the predicted deformation as simulated by
progressive 3-DEC numerical analysis of the underground caverns being carried out by the Numerical
Modelling Division of NIRM.
It was observed that the deformation trends in PH during benching from EL. 1043m to EL. 1038.5 were in
close association with those predicted in 3-DEC model studies indicating that during the excavation of the
first bench rock mass behaviour was as expected in the model studies. However during benching down
between EL. 1038.5 to 1030.5m the observed trends of deformation at the crown were marginally higher
than those predicted by 3-DEC modelling.

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Abstract No: 2/027

Mechanical behaviour of Carbonaceous rocks from Lesser Himalayan Region

P.S.K.Murthy*, Dhirendra Kumar, Mahabir Dixit
Central soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The study aimed to investigate the strength and deformation behaviour of four variants of carbonaceous
rocks, namely- massive dolomite, fractured dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and carbonaceous phyllite,
obtained from Himachal Pradesh and Eastern Bhutan locations of the lesser Himalayan region. All these
rocks were investigated in the laboratory, in a saturated condition, for uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS), tangent modulus (E), Poisson’s ratio, indirect tensile strength, and shear strength parameters
(cohesion and angle of internal friction). In addition to the above, durability and density characteristics
were also studied. And failure modes of carbonaceous rocks in compression have been discussed.

Fig. 1 showing the variation of UCS, andtypical stress-strain curves, of Carboneous rocks

Qualitatively, fractured dolomite has shown low density (2500-2600 kg/m3), and high porosity (~10%)
among all the selected variants of rocks. Quantitatively, on saturation, fractured dolomites have resulted
in much lower uniaxial compressive strengths (9-19MPa), tangent modulus (7-15GPa), indirect tensile
strength (1-2MPa), and shear strength parameters (cohesion,1.5oand angle of internal friction of 45o) in
comparison with other variants. It was inferred that on saturation, the opening of fractures caused the
dissolution of the carbonaceous host rock, which might have resulted in lower strengths. The variation in
UCS data (Fig.1) of carbonaceous phyllite was consistent and symmetrical, to other variants of rock. On
saturation, the carbonaceous phyllites were not remarkably influenced by water-weakening properties
than dolomitic limestone. The mode of failure in fractured dolomite was along the chain of fractures, and
in carbonaceous phyllite cracks propagated along foliations, whereas other rocks failed in multi-axial
splitting. The study at best provides a preliminary judgment for assessing the behaviour of carbonaceous
rock mass in nearby regions.

Abstract No: 2/028

An Overview of the Success in Resolving the Years-lasting Problem of USBRLP’s T01

Tunnel in Himalayas’ MBTwithin the RT Zone by Employing I-System and (I)-TM
S Mahi1*, H Bineshian2, S Gupta3, R K Hegde4
1,3
USBRLP, NR, 2Amberg Engineering AG, 4USBRLP, KRCL,
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In this paper, the main problem of the T01 tunnel in USBRLP and the diagnosed ground behaviour, which
stopped the advancement at faces for about 6 years despite several attempts that caused 16 major
failures and a sinkhole is explained. It is also presented in this paper how successfully (I)-TM (Bineshian,
2022) as the tunnelling method is implemented and solved the long-lasting problem of T01. I-System,
the classification and characterization system used for design is briefly provided. GCD, which is used
for assessment of the solidification quality prior to and after PU-2C injection is explained. TSP used
for prediction of ground ahead of faces is demonstrated. Remarks are provided, which help designers,
engineers, and geologists to make the appropriate decision when they face similar condition/s.
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(EGCON 2022)

THEME-III
Geohazards and Disaster Risk Reduction
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Keynote Abstract

KN 3.1
A review of seismic hazard status of the state of Bihar, India
Prabhas Pande
Formerly Additional Director General, GSI

The State of Bihar, spreading over an area of 98,940 sq km and consisting of 38 Districts, can be broadly
divided into two distinct physiographic units of the Ganga Plains in the north and the Chota Nagpur
Plateau in the south. A small patch of Outer Himalaya marks its presence in the northwest fringe of
Paschim Champaran District. The Ganga Plains which have developed as a peripheral foreland basin or
fore-deep on the flexed under-thrusting Indian lithosphere in response to the collisional tectonic processes
of the Himalayas is dissected by several major rivers namely Ghaghara, Gandak, Budhi Gandak, Bagmati,
Kamala Balan, Kosi, Mahananda, etc. These untamed southerly flowing tributaries of Ganga, descending
from the Nepal Himalaya and debouching into the sprawls of North Bihar, flood large tracts of fertile land
year after year. The fluvial sediments, comprising mainly sand, silt, and clay fractions, have attained a
cumulative thickness of more than 1830 m over centuries. South of Ganga, the plains are enveloped with
step-like valley-fill deposits where north and north-east flowing rivers such as Sone, Karmnasa, Punpun,
Phalgu, Kiul, and Sakri drain through the peninsular region. The southern margin of Bihar is dotted with
exposures of rock units belonging to the Archaean, Proterozoic, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Era.
The studies carried out by the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) indicate that the basin floor,
overlain by Neogene-Quaternary sediments, is uneven and appears more as an agglomeration of widely
different accreted terranes rather than an evenly uniform basement. In the Bihar plains, the Bouguer
gravity anomaly and Basement contour maps bring out discrete horst and graben structures bounded by
subsurface faults. Here, the Precambrian basement is formed mostly of Vindhyan rocks except in some
parts where the old cratonic mass has come up and directly underlies the Quaternary-Neogene deposits.
These subsurface faults are disposed of mostly in northeasterly and northwesterly directions. In the Bihar
part of the Gangetic basin, basement structures such as i) Gandak graben, ii) Allahabad-Sitamarhi horst,
iii) Madhubani graben, iv) Munger-Saharsa horst and v) Purnea graben, have been identified.
In the central part of the Bihar plains, NE trending East Patna and West Patna faults demarcate the
margins of a horst structure. To the east, the Munger-Saharsa ridge structure is bounded by NE trending
Munger-Saharsa ridge fault and NW trending Munger-Saharsa ridge marginal fault. South of Shikarpur,
another basement configuration is represented by Gandak Depression, east of which lies the Sitamarhi
high - a wedge-shaped horst encased between NE and NW trending faults. The easternmost part of Bihar
is marked by the N-S trending Malda-Kishanganj fault. These tectonic discontinuities of the foreland
basement are considered the locales of post-collisional strain adjustment near the leading edge of the
Indian shield, and are, thus, likely to be neotectonic in nature. The hot springs of Bihar are located along
the traces of these faults, the latter, however, lacks any recognizable surface expressions. The 138km
long, NNE-SSW trending Judi fault and a few smaller ones also riddle the Bihar plains in its western part.
In addition, major lineaments trending NE-SW; namely Gaurishankar, Everest, Arun, Kanchanchanga, and
Purnia-Everest are shown to extend from Bihar plains right up to the Himalayas in Seismotectonic Atlas,
2000.
Epicentres of only nine, low to moderate-magnitude earthquakes fall within the geographical limits of Bihar.
However, some of the large-magnitude earthquakes originating in the Nepal Himalayas have repeatedly
caused extensive damage in various localities of Bihar, particularly in its northern part. Seismic events
having a profound influence in Bihar include that of i) 1833 Nepal of magnitude 7.5-8.0; ii) 15th January
1934 Bihar-Nepal of Magnitude 8.3; iii) 20th August 1988 Bihar-Nepal of Magnitude (Ms) 6.6 and iv) 25th
April 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) of Magnitude (Mw) 7.8. The 1988 earthquake is an exception in the sense that
its hypocentre was much deeper located at a depth of around 60 km and the mode of deformation was a
sinistral strike-slip along a NE trending plane.
Bihar has been classified into three Seismic Zones V (very high hazard), IV (high hazard), and III (moderate
hazard), which occupy 15.2%, 63.7%, and 21.1% area of the State, respectively. The Seismic Zones, in
reality, closely follow the isoseismal patterns of the 1934 earthquake, as given in GSI Memoire Volume
73, 1939. Six northern Districts of Bihar namely Madhubani, Supaul, Sitamarhi, Araria, Darbhanga, and
Madhepura fall in the highest hazard class, where 20.3% of housing units are located and 18.2% of the
population of the State resides. The southern Districts of Buxar, Kaimur, Arwal, Rohtas, Aurangabad,

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and Gaya with a cumulative population of 1,38,83,325 people as per the 2011 Census (13.4% of Bihar’s
population), lie in Seismic Zone III.
A study carried out by the Bihar State Disaster Management Authority reveals that if the 1934 earthquake
repeats in the present time then, under the worst condition (night hours), the loss of human life could be
as high as 2,22,337 and 45,30,759 buildings shall require re-construction. As per this Report (2014), the
maximum impact would be borne by Patna where the loss of life could be 21,134 persons (0.366% of the
2011 Patna population) and as many as 2,86,163 houses would be seriously impaired.
Liquefaction, manifested mainly in forms of slumping, fissuring, sand venting, lateral spreading, etc., has
been found to occur repeatedly in the event of large magnitude earthquakes in the neighboring region of
Nepal Himalaya, particularly in the active flood plains of north Bihar. The 1934 earthquake caused profuse
liquefaction in seismic intensities X and IX and, in some cases, even in intensity VIII. Similar was the
case in the 1988 and 2015 earthquakes. It is certainly because of the properties of the soil mass (coarse
sand inter-layered with clay horizons) in conjunction with a very shallow groundwater table that provides
a conducive geotechnical environment for liquefaction to take place. It is, therefore, imperative that the
construction of structures of importance be avoided, particularly in active flood plains of North Bihar,
unless adequate soil improvement measures have been adopted. Palaeo-liquefaction studies carried out
in the northern plains of Bihar reveal that the region has been severely shaken several times by large
magnitude earthquakes, at least since 25,000 years BP. The recurrence interval of large earthquakes,
excluding the Great ones like that of 1934, has been estimated to be around 125 years.
The Geological Survey of India has done seismic micro-zonation of a few urban agglomerations of Bihar.
The GSI Patna Report (2014) brings out that 40% area of the city is susceptible to liquefaction. This factor
needs to be kept in mind while designing new structures or retrofitting old ones. Munger is one District
that has repeatedly suffered extensive damage on account of Nepal earthquakes. It is perhaps because
of the high impedance contrast in seismic wave velocities (crystalline bedrock occurring below a thin soil
cover) that amplifies the ground motions many folds, and hence the damage.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the deep seated tectonic discontinuities transverse to the Himalayan
trend, fragment the Indian shield into discrete blocks. These are the planes along which different segments
of the Indian lithosphere creep or lurk northwards with different velocities, thereby keeping the locked
Himalayan crust in a state of constant strain. Underneath the Bihar plains, the northward movements
along the transverse structures sometimes result in low-order strain release in a strike-slip mode.

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KN 3.2
Recent effects of high-altitude geomorphological systems for triggering geodisasters
in the Himalayas
Ranjan Kumar Dahal
Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Nepalese Society of Engineering Geologists, Dhobighat, Lalitpur, Nepal

The Himalayas are exposed to almost all types of major geodisasters including earthquakes, floods,
landslides, debris flows, glacial lake outburst floods, and avalanches. A wide range of physiological,
geological, ecological, meteorological, and demographic factors contribute to the occurrence of these
geodisasters, but more prominent in the Himalayas are rapid population growth, slow economic
development, high degree of temperature, and rainfall variations in the elevated area, and fragility of
the land mass. At the same time, climate change has not only adversely affected the environment and
people’s livelihood but has also led to increased severity, frequency, and scale of geodisasters in the
Himalayas.
In recent years, landslides, land subsidence, debris flows, and floods are also frequent as a result of extreme
weather events in the Himalayas. Glacial lake outburst floods triggered by a wide range of hydrological
and meteorological factors are also common in the Himalayas. All this indicates that geodisasters are
changing their nature and such changes are purely unprecedented. So, enhancing geodisaster adaptation
capacity in communities and infrastructures is a major challenge to all stakeholders of the Himalayas.
On 15th June 2021, extensive rainfall and major landslides in the upper reaches of the Melamchi River
catchment (upper western part of Koshi River basin) of the central Nepal area resulted in a catastrophic
flash flood mixed with debris in the Melamchi River. This event caused 17 causalities and at least 23 have
been reported missing. The flood damaged Melamchi Water Supply Project’s headwork area and buried
many settlements downstream. It took 25 years to complete the water supply project and when it was
ready, the floods damaged all its headwork structures. This 2021 Melamchi flood is a highly alarming
type for the infrastructure projects in the river valley specially installed in snow-fed rivers. The Melamchi
River flood disaster was a result of cascading hazards. Similar issues can appear in the higher elevation
of other parts of the Himalayas as the rainfall is shifting to the northern higher elevation from the river
valleys of lower elevation. It was well observed in the Melamchi, Budhi Gandaki, and Marshyagdi river
basins of the Himalayas already. The Dudh Koshi River and Arun River basins could be another victim of
such geodisasters.
Considering the context of the 2021 Melamchi Disaster presents the vulnerable situation in the Dudh
Koshi river basin, this paper describes the changing pattern of geodisaster scenarios in the Himalayas due
to changes in high-altitude geomorphological systems and associated future challenges to the river basin-
based infrastructure projects, mainly hydropower, irrigation, and drinking water projects.

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KN 3.3
Multi-hazard Disaster Risk Reduction & Resilience: Challenges, Framework &
Technologies
Maneesha V Ramesh
Provost - Research & Innovation, International, Strategic Initiatives, AI+X

The unique geophysical characteristics of India make it vulnerable to many disasters. This is further
amplified by factors like unplanned urban development and land use, shortsightedness in infrastructure
development, ever-increasing demographic pressure, climate change, etc. The incidents of natural disasters
are more frequent and more intense in recent years than ever. These factors, when coupled with disaster
unpreparedness the vulnerable population lead to huge social and economic costs. To mitigate and reduce
the impact of multi-hazards, it is imperative to develop and deploy early warning systems for multi-hazard
monitoring and detection. This demands detailed knowledge of the existing multi-hazard frameworks, the
factors involved in identifying multi-hazards, their probability of event generation, methodologies for
deriving cascaded impacts, and approaches for forecasting the cascaded impacts. This talk will detail the
existing research outcomes and technological solutions for multi-hazard early warning. A few successful
case studies demonstrate the multi-hazard early warning system that has utilized disruptive technologies
such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning, Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles and Drone technology, Big-data, predictive analytics, risk modeling, wireless and remote sensing
will be presented. The existing AI-enabled IoT system for multi-hazard monitoring is deployed in North
Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, which collects continuous data from more than 300 sensors
and informs real-time multi-level early warnings that would provide the opportunity to save human lives.

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KN 3.4
Landslide forecasting and monitoring for disaster risk reduction
Neelima Satyam
IIT-Indore

Our experiences in landslide forecasting started with our work in Kalimpong, in Darjeeling Himalayas,
with a regional scale forecasting system, using multiple rainfall thresholds and real-time field monitoring
observations using Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) tilt sensors installed in the region. The
rainfall thresholds for the study were derived using empirical, probabilistic, process-based, and algorithm-
based approaches. The study emphasized the need for using multiple approaches for determining the
best-suited rainfall threshold and different approaches for enhancing the performance of conventional
rainfall thresholds using ground-based data. For Kalimpong, an algorithm-based approach, SIGMA
integrated with the tilt rates was found to be performing better than all the other methods adopted, with
an efficiency of 0.94, and a likelihood ratio of 20.23.
We have also developed regional-scale landslide forecasting frameworks for Idukki and Wayanad districts
in Kerala, using rainfall thresholds and landslide susceptibility maps. The methodology involves finding
the best-suited rainfall thresholds and landslide susceptibility maps, using both data-driven and process-
based approaches. Similar to Kalimpong, multiple methods were used to determine the best-suited rainfall
thresholds, and due to the vastness of the study area, multiple rain gauges were used. The study indicated
that selecting the rainfall parameters is critical in the definition of rainfall thresholds, and when multiple
rain gauges are available, this selection has to be done carefully, to obtain the best-performing rainfall
threshold. Instead of ground-based soil wetness as used in the case of Kalimpong, satellite-based soil
wetness data was used for enhancing the performance of rainfall thresholds. The probabilistic thresholds
considering both rainfall severity and soil wetness were then combined with the machine learning-based
landslide susceptibility maps, to obtain the Spatio-temporal landslide forecasting framework. The process-
based approaches require precise data collection from the field, and on a regional scale, data-driven
approaches were found to be outperforming the process-based models.
In Uttarakhand, we are working on co-seismic and rainfall-induced landslide hazard assessment. With
experiences from our studies for Kalimpong and the Western Ghats, both regional and local scale studies
are being conducted for Uttarakhand. As the state has a strong network of seismic stations and was made
to develop a seismic signal-based study of landslide dynamics, which can be further extended to early
warning. The recent Dhauliganga event was a massive rockslide event that resulted in over 200 casualties
and an estimated loss of 202 million USD to the infrastructural establishments. A novel methodology
incorporating Short-time Fourier transform (STFT), Band-pass filters (BP filters), Ensemble empirical
mode decomposition (EEMD), and Power spectrum density (PSD) were developed to enhance the quality
of raw seismic waveform data for the rockslide event characterization. The signal data of nine seismic
stations located within a 300 km radius of the Dhauliganga event location were considered for the study.
A detailed signal processing was carried out to obtain a signal with a high Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
The observations were combined with satellite imagery to interpret the event dynamics and understand
the complete hazard chain. This study provides a better insight into hazard event characterization and
interpretation methodology used for post-hazard assessment and emergency response.
80% area of Uttarakhand state is covered by Himalayan Mountain ranges. Therefore, the studies were
further extended to demarcate the region’s most susceptible to slope failures due to earthquake shaking.
A modified Newmark model which incorporates the rock joint properties was employed in the analysis. It
was found that the Joshimath region of the Chamoli district has the highest susceptibility to co-seismic
landslide hazards. After detailed field investigations, the site for installation was selected at Lambhagad,
along Char-Dham yatra road. The selected site is a mixed slope with both soil and rock. Inclinometers,
accelerometers, tensiometers, and piezometers are installed in boreholes around 2 m depth, and cracks
in the rocks are monitored using strain gauges and extensometers. An automatic weather station is also
installed at the location, and all the sensors transfer data every 10 minutes, via VSAT.
The studies indicate that with a strong and dense network of data collection systems, slope failures can
be forecasted, and the dynamics can be simulated, identify the elements exposed to risk. Effective early
warning can be used to inform the public regarding the disaster and can be used to reduce the risk due
to landslides.

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Abstract No: 3/001

Catastrophic rockslides in the upper reaches of the Bhagirathi River valley: their past
and future
Alexander Strom*
Hydroproject Institute, Moscow, Russia
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction
Uniformitarianism, according to which data on the modern geological processes is the key to understanding
what had happened in the past, is one of the basic principles of geology. The study of natural hazards is
based, however, on the inverse proposition: phenomena that took place in the study region in the recent
past (recent in the geological time scale, during Late Pleistocene – Holocene) can occur there in the
future. Such a statement is widely used, for example, for seismic hazard assessment that is based on a
large extent of paleo-seismological data (McCalpin, 2009). A similar approach can be fully applied to the
assessment of hazards posed by catastrophic large-scale rockslides regardless of their triggers. Though
such events occur rather rarely, their direct and secondary effects can be disastrous and represent one of
the most hazardous natural phenomena in mountainous regions, in the Himalayas in particular.
The Bhagirathi River valley in Uttarkhand, India, is used for hydropower production– several hydraulic
power plants have been constructed there, including the Tehri HPP with a 260.5m high earth-fill dam and
a large reservoir containing 4 km3 of water. Besides, the Bhagirathi valley is one of the most important
pilgrimage routes for people confessing Hinduism – several hundred thousand pilgrims pass along it
annually on their way to Gangotri. The stability of the valley banks should be considered a critical issue,
and the study of past rockslides and rock avalanches in the river catchment can help understand, if similar
events could occur here in the future, and what could trigger them.
Spatial distribution of large past rockslides
Several rockslides and rock avalanches tens to hundreds of millions of cubic meters in volume each,
with several kilometers long runout, were identified in the upper reaches of the Bhagirathi River valley
(upstream from the Maneri HPP intake) and in its tributaries’ valleys. Two of them had blocked the main
stream. Judging from the longitudinal profiles compiled from the SRTM 1 sec DEM and ASTER-2 DEM with
ca. 38m spatial resolution (Figure 1), the largest dam at Sukki village, formed by the rockslide 100-150
million cubic meters in volume, could be about 300m high. 10km downstream from it the Bhagirathi valley
had been blocked again by the distal part of a 5.7km long rock avalanche that came out from the small
Kanodia Gad right-side tributary valley. Several other large-scale rock slope failures occurred in the past
in the tributary valleys that merge the Bhagirathi at a distance of ca. 30km downstream from Sukki village
(see Figure 1-A). A wide distribution of such features indicates that geological and geomorphic conditions
typical of the Bhagirathi River valley section, where it passes through the gneiss and schists of the
Munsiari and Vikrita Groups of Higher Himalayan Crystallines with well pronounced foliation (Mukherjee
et al., 2019), are favourable for such catastrophic rock slope failures. Though the direct triggers of
slope failures are unknown they could be triggered by extreme climatic events or earthquakes or by a
combination of both.

Figure 1. A - Longitudinal profile of the Bhagirathi River valley from its source to Tehri dam
(TD); Tehri reservoir up to full level of 830 m a.s.l. is shown by blue. B – Section of the profile
from Gangotri village to Maneri HPP dam compiled from SRTM 1 sec DEM only.
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 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

G – Gangotri village, LB – Lanka bridge, M – Maneri HPP dam,L – Lata village, U – Uttarkashi town. Wide
orange arrows – knick points formed by the Sukki (S) and the Kanodia Gad (K) rockslide dams; red
arrows – mouths of the tributaries with large rockslides in their catchments. Bold line – generalized profile
of the river; its dashed section – assumed original thalweg.

Role of large rockslides in river valley evolution

The overall longitudinal profile of the Bhagirathi River fits well to the stream equilibrium profile typical
of mountainous rivers, except its 40 km long section between Lanka Bridge and Lata village with well
pronounced knick points and flattened parts upstream corresponding to the former dammed lakes (see
Figure 1-B). Such valley shape was described by K. Hewitt (2006) as the “disturbance regime landscape”
typical of mountain drainage systems interrupted by large rockslides. The anomalous profile could not
be caused by sedimentary supply from the glaciers, widely distributed in the upper parts of the tributary
catchments, since upstream from the Lanka bridge, where glaciers are widespread too, the longitudinal
profile has been disturbed much less, just by the alluvial fans of the tributary valleys.

Potential hazards
Several sites with distinct geomorphic evidence of the large-scale ongoing deformations of rock massifs
that can evolve into catastrophic rockslides and rock avalanches, able to block the tributary valleys or
even the main stream of the Bhagirathi River (Figure 2) were identified within the same area.

Conclusions - necessary future studies

The presence of the numerous past rockslides and the potential future failures highlights the necessity of
their complex study. Past events have to be dated, likely by use of the cosmogenic 10Be method. It should
be combined with paleo-climate studies (pollen analysis) that could reveal the role of a climatic factor in
slope processes. Sites with evidence of modern deformations should be studied in detail and monitored
using the InSAR technology.

Figure 2. Oblique
view of more than
2 km high left-
bank slope of the
Bhagirathi River
valley opposite the
Bhatwari village.
Zoomed plan view of
its crest with distinct
scarps marked by red
arrows is shown in
the inset

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Abstract No: 3/002

6th July 1988 Naina Peak Landslide, Nainital, Uttarakhand: Reminiscences

G. C. Kandpal*
Geological Survey of India (Dy.D.G.,(Retd.)
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Nainital town was affected by a landslide disaster in the morning hours on 6th July 1988. A landslide got
activated from SE facing spur located ( Fig-1) in the southwest of Naina Peak hill point (2610m) due
to heavy rains. The spur had already been affected by a landslide in the previous year in 1987. In the
previous year, a part of the area of Malrose Compounds located on the right bank of the drain (named
26 No. Drain) was affected by a landslide. The landslide debris overflowed from the right side of the said
drain and damaged a few houses located there (Fig-1).

Fig – 1: Schematic map showing areas affected by Naina

Peak landslide in Malrose Compounds

The people residing in Melrose Compounds and adjoining area were in panic although protection work
was being undertaken by the local administration in the area. My parents and other family members were
residing in a house located just on the left side of 26 No. Drain. Two neighbours were also residing in other
two sets of the same building. I was posted at Bhopal and had come on holiday in June 1988. My parents
and neighbours were also in panic and asked me for my opinion about the danger of the landslide.
To have a prima facie assessment of the anticipated danger due to landslide, I visited the location affected
by instability along with my two neighbours. SE facing spur located in the southwest of Naina Peak hill
point (2610m) was affected by instability and was in a critical state. Debris material developed on the
weathered Lower Krol Shale with limestone boulders was found critically exposed on the unstable spur
(Photo-1 & 2). Trees and vegetation were there on the debris material. As there was a steep scarp at the
toe of the spur, it was not possible to assess the depth and height of the unstable slope portion. The length
of the affected spur was about 50 to 60m. A steep scarp of about 100 to 125m was there from the visible
toe portion of the critical slope. The 26 No. drain was lined after a certain distance down below originating
from the bottom of the scarp face.
Based on the visit to the site and discussions with the neighbours about the previous year i.e 1987
incidence when the debris material had damaged a few houses on the right side of the 26 No. drain, I

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could make out that the landslide was a debris fall- cum - debris flow type of phenomenon. The debris
material after falling from the spur located about 100-125m height was accumulating at the originating
point of the 26 No. Drain (Fig-1). The loose debris material was getting mobilized with the rainwater and
flowing down the drain in the form of debris flow. When the debris material exceeded the capacity of 26
No. drain, the debris material overflowed in the right bank of the drain and caused damage to the houses
located in Melrose compounds.

Photo-1 & 2:Debris material with weathered Lower

Krol Shales with limestone boulders critically exposed
on the spur face.(Photos taken during site visit in the
mid of June 1988)

After visiting the site, I anticipated that during heavy rains the condition in the area may be hazardous.
The landslide debris after falling from the spur may get mobilized with rain water and would flow along the
26 No. drain. If debris flow material exceeded the capacity of Drain No. 26 (at that time in July 1988, the
flanks of 26 No. drain were not high enough to accommodate the anticipated debris material to flow from
the drain), that may cause damage to the building where my family members and two neighbours were
residing. I requested my parents and other neighbours to vacate the houses for the 1988 monsoon month
period. I made alternative arrangements for my family members and left for Bhopal in the last week of
June 1988. Based on my request my parents and the other two neighbours vacated the house by 30th
June 1988. It was learned a few other families residing in the surrounding area also vacated their houses.
On 6th July 1988, a landslide occurred from the spur portion of Naina Pak ridge and the debris material
charged with water flowed along the 26 No. drain. I was informed that our and our neighbours’ houses
were damaged by the debris material flowing along the drain (Fig-2). It was reported that tree trunks
sided down during debris fall from the spur and flowed along with the water charged debris material.
The tree trunks got struck at the point where the 26 No. drain was passing below the culvert located
on Nainital- Pangot road (Fig-2). As the drain got choked, the debris material got diverted towards the
left side of the drain. The debris charged with water flowing down at a high speed after flowing over the
Nainital - Pangot road. As the debris got diverted away from the main course of Drain No. 26, the house
located just below the road was saved and no damage was caused to that house. The diverted debris
material flowed down at high speed and severely damaged the house of our second neighbour (Fig-2).
The store and toilet constructed on the side of the house were completely washed away. After getting
obstructed from the wall of the house, debris material got diverted and entered into the rooms of all
three houses located in the building after breaking the wooden doors located on the backyard side. As the
houses had been vacated temporarily the left over material kept in the rooms was severely damaged by
the debris flow.

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Fig-2: Sketch showing damage caused by the debris material that flowed along 26 no. drain

Although there had been damages and loss to the property due to the landslide debris no loss to human
life was caused as the houses were vacant. Had the building not been vacant; there could have been a
chance of human causality during that incident. I still feel a sense of satisfaction with my assessment by
which perhaps few human lives could be saved.
It is reported that the debris flowed down the slope and caused damage to Brook Hill Boys Hostel of
Kumaon University and other houses located there (Dilip Awasthi 1988, India Today htpp/www.indiatoday.
in >magazine >environment).
Since the spurs located on either side of Naina Peak hill point are vulnerable to slope instability and dense
settlement is there in the downslope, it is suggested to have yearly monitoring of the area to avert such
landslide disasters.

Abstract No: 3/003

Assessment of the various slope stabilization initiatives undertaken along the pathways of Shri
Mata Vaishno Deviji of Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya, India
A.K. Naithani*, P.C. Nawani
National Institute of Rock Mechanics
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Holy Shrine of Shri Mata Vaishno Deviji is one of the most popular pilgrimages in the Country, being
visited by thousands of pilgrims every day of the year. The Shrine is located at an altitude of 1765m in
the Reasi District of Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya, India. The pilgrimage to the holy Shrine involves
trekking about 13.5km from Katra through hilly terrain. Many portions of this track experience landslides
and also falling shooting stones originating from uphill slopes injuring the Yatris because geologically this
terrain is very complex and fragile. The rocks exposed in this area consist of Jammu limestone, which
has been brought in juxtaposition with the Siwalik Group of rocks on the southern side and the contact
is faulted. The Siwalik Group of rocks consists of various types of sandstones, claystones, and siltstones,
which have been classified into Lower, Middle, and Upper Siwalik Formations. These rocks are exposed in
Katra and further south. To the north of Katra, Jammu limestones are exposed with a faulted contact. The
pathway from Banganga passes through debris in the initial reaches. Later it passes through a mixture of
debris and rock exposures up to Ardhkuwari. The debris materials are comparatively stable in most of the

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locations due to secondary cementation. Further ahead, the pathway passes through mostly limestone
rocks with minor debris. Twenty-four numbers of potential landslide prone areas have been identified
both along the old and new pathways. All the landslides and shooting stone areas will be treated in a
phased manner. In Phase-I, at five locations slopes/shooting protection measures were taken and the
Durga Bhawan slope area was also treated. The aim of the study was also to examine the executed slope
stabilization work with respect to achieving the objectives and further replication of the same in other
identified locations. In this paper, slope stabilization measure initiatives at five locations and the Durga
Bhawan slope area are discussed. Landslide number 3, which is located between Katra and Ardhkuwari
Track was treated with high tensile steel rolled cable net with anchors, high tensile steel wire mesh with
anchors, concrete cladding with anchors, shotcrete, drainage holes, and consolidation grouting. Landslide
number 7, which is located between Ardhkuwari and Mata Bhawan (new track) at chainage 0.925 to
1.000 km was treated with rock bolt anchors, high energy absorption rockfall barriers, shotcrete, drainage
holes, and consolidation grouting. Landslide/stone shooting area number-14, which is located between
Ardhkuwari and Mata Bhawan (new track), just before Panchhi staff colony at chainage 3.850 to 4.250km
was treated with high energy absorption rockfall barriers and high tensile rolled cable net with anchors.
This area was treated with high tensile steel rolled cable net (Quarox) for treatment of slopes to hold the
fractured rockmass on the cliff of rock. Below Quarox, chain link fabric (secondary mesh) made of G.I. wire
of dia 2.4 to 3mm (mesh size 25 x 25 mm) was also placed. Landslide/stone shooting area number-16,
which is located between Ardhkuwari and Mata Bhawan (new track), before battery car stands at chainage
5.075 to 5.375km was treated with high energy absorption rockfall barriers, high tensile rolled cable net
with anchors, rock bolt anchors, and drainage holes. Stone shooting location no. 17, located between
Ardhkuwari and Mata Bhawan (new track), 100m from Manokamna Bhawan & 50m from Junction of Old
and New Track at chainage 5.450 to 5.525km was protected with two high energy absorption rockfall
barriers. In the slope failure area near the dismantled Durga Bhawan, intensive consolidation grouting
was done and a plain concrete cladding wall over which an RCC wall was constructed. In the RCC wall,
pre-stressed cable anchors, depths varying from 26.5 to 30.5m were installed. The cost of the protection
measures for five landslide/shooting stone areas, treated in Phase-I was around 18 crores.

Abstract No: 3/004

Geological cues from frequent earth tremors in Dakshin Kannada- Kodagu border
areas of Southern Karnataka, India
R Sajeev* & Rahul V
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Dakshin Kannada-Kodagu district border areas of Southern Karnataka have experienced frequent
earth tremors and associated subterranean sounds during the last week of June 2022 and the first week
of July 2022. The repeated occurrence of such mild tremors has created panic among the local population,
and a study has been carried out to understand the possible reasons for such frequent earth tremors in
this area. The study area falls in Zone II of the seismic hazard map of India. A field study was carried
out in and around Sampaje, Thodikaana, and Aranthodu villages where the local population has felt the
tremor impact and the cracks have developed in houses during the earth tremor events. During the
study, no ground cracks have been noticed in the area due to earth tremors. However, since the area is
having dense forest cover, if any ground cracks are there, it is difficult to identify. Such cracks may lead to
higher water infiltration and trigger land failures in the future. The study area is part of Western Dharwar
Craton and is occupied by Gneisses of Peninsular Gneissic Complex and Charnockite and Khondalite of
Southen Granulite Terrain. The antecedent rainfall of the areas near the epicentre was studied in detail
to assess the possibility of hydro-seismicity in the area. The possibility of hydro-seismicity appears to
be remote in this case due to the absence of any significant antecedent rainfall event along with the
absence of any major water reservoir in the vicinity and also considering the fact the focal depth of the
earthquakes is in the range of 10-15km. The study area is traversed by many tectonic lineaments. The
series of low-intensity tremors in the area from 25.06.2022 to 02.07.2022 appears to be a part of an
energy release of the accumulated tectonic stress in the area. Similar events have also been reported
from Vijaypura, and Kalaburgi districts from September to November 2021, Hassan district on 23.06.2022
and Chikkaballapura district on 28.06.2022, and 29.06.2022. The analysis of the spatial distribution
of earth tremor epicentre data of the present event reveals that they cluster near the NW-SE trending
regional lineament which coincides with the southern margin of the Mercara shear zone, which separates
the Coorg block from the Dharwar Craton. The Payaswini River, flowing north of the epicentres also shows
evidence of structural control. The spatial correlation between the clustering of earth tremor epicentre
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with the existing lineaments in the state of Karnataka points to the exigent need to undertake detailed
studies on reactivation and stress built up along these lineaments as they pass through several districts
of Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Crustal deformation studies
might be important in this context as the high-stress rate observed on the surface is likely to translate
to a high-stress rate at depths where earthquakes typically nucleate. So, understanding the stress rate
might help understand the seismic hazard of the area in the future.

Abstract No: 3/005

Relationship between Structural Damage zone and Rockmass Classification for natural
slope stability-Hardiya Nala Landslide, Inner Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India
Priya Joshi*1, Mohit Kumar Puniya2, Pitamber Dutt Pant3, Rajeev Upadhyay1
1
Kumaun University Nainital, Uttarakhand
2
Survey of India, Dehradun
3
Uttarakhand Open University Haldwani
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Landslide is a common phenomenon in mountainous regions, exclusively in engineering slopes along

highways and road cuts. Structural mapping along with rockmass classification systems are used to
delineate the weak and vulnerable zones for rock failure, known as structural damage zone. The study
area falls in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya near Thal township. In this study, the Hardiya Nala landslide has
been mapped, and outcrop scale structural damage zones are marked. Different classification systems,
Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Slope Mass Rating (SMR), Q-System, and Factor of Safety (FOS), have been
applied to classify rocks. Ductile and Brittle-Ductile damage zones are marked during the field mapping.
The rocks in this Geological Structural Damage Zone (GSDZ) fall in class III to class V in RMR and SMR
classification systems; also, kinematics analysis correlates with the FOS. The Q value ranges from 0.04
to 3.27. This study presents that the various classification system gives similar results; also, it can be
correlated with damage zones. Thus, geological and geotechnical investigations can be used for better
evaluation of landslides and for providing stability measures.

Abstract No: 3/006

Hysteretic damping of sands under cyclic loading and its relation to Shear Modulus by
Cyclic Simple Shear Testing
Uday Bhanu Chakraborty*, Suresh Maurya, N. P. Honkanadavar
Central Soil and Materials Station, New Delhi
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The dynamic properties of soils such as shear modulus and damping ratio are important in the design of
geotechnical engineering problems involving cyclic loading. These dynamic properties of soils are strongly
affected by the magnitude of shear strain amplitude induced in the soil deposits during strong earthquake
motions. Therefore in performing earthquake response analyses of grounds and soil structures, the damping
capacities of soils as well as their shear moduli should be evaluated for a wide range of shear strains. For
the measurements of strain dependent dynamic properties, several laboratory and field techniques are
being used. At low strain levels, the resonant column test, ultrasonic pulse test, and piezoelectric bender
element tests are being used. However, at large strain levels, the cyclic triaxial test, cyclic direct simple
shear test, and cyclic torsional shear test devices are used.
A series of strain-controlled, undrained, cyclic simple shear tests were performed at different relative
densities (Dr) on samples of loose (Dr =30%), medium dense (Dr= 40%, 50%, and 60%), and dense
sand (Dr=70%). Excess pore water pressure generation was evaluated experimentally in terms of the
number of loading cycles. Each specimen was subjected to loading cycles of a constant frequency of 0.5
Hz, and shear strain level and amplitude (P-P) of 4mm were applied to the specimens. Hysteretic shear
stress-strain curves for different densities for 5 cycles were also analyzed. Under the above conditions
degradation behaviour in terms of shear modulus was also determined and presented in this study. The
experiments show that by increasing sand density the shear modulus increases and the damping ratio
decreases. Tends are more significant on the application of higher applied energy.
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Abstract No: 3/007

Stability analysis of lateritic soil slopes exposed near Rajapuri village, Mahabaleshwar,
Maharashtra, India using limit equilibrium approach
Bhushan D. Kuthe*, Saikat Roy & Prakash K. Gajbhiye
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Lateritic soils have the characteristics of losing their shear strength with time and saturation. These
properties vary from place to place depending upon the topography, climate, and also protolith over
which it develops. The slope failures in lateritic soil of western Maharashtra are particularly observed
along hill cut slopes made for road construction, development of agriculture terraces, construction of
civil structures, etc., which are creating danger for commuters passing along road sectors and human
lives in these areas. For the present study, a lateritic profile (Photo:2) exposed along the hill slopes
(17’54”35.39°N, 73’50”32.31°E, Toposheet No. 47G/13) near Rajapuri village, Mahabaleshwar, India, has
been considered. This study is performed to assess the stability of the slopes with the material having
a tendency to deteriorate in strength with time under dry and wet conditions. The slope gradient in this
location is steep at the top, moderately steep at the middle part, and gentle towards the foot slope (10°-
15°). This lateritic profile comprising in-situ soil at the top, followed by vermicular laterite, mottled zone,
and saprolite is exposed as capping over the basaltic rocks of Mahabaleshwar formation of Sahyadri Group
of Deccan Trap Supergroup (Photo: 1). The samples for estimation of geotechnical properties required
for stability analysis are collected from the mottled zone and saprolite zone. The estimated geotechnical
properties indicate that the cohesion (kN/m²) is 17.70 (mottled zone) and 18.60 (Saprolite zone), and
the angle of friction is 27° (mottled zone) and 29°. The analyses were carried out in Soil Works software
using the limit equilibrium method.
The study revealed that the stability of the slope decreases (Factor of safety for the dry condition:
1.121 and wet condition: 0.726) with increasing water content against the standard factor of safety
1.30 (software derived). The factor of safety (FOS) for the dry season can be increased to a standard
FOS i.e., 1.3 by deploying suitable slope strengthening measures such as easing of slope, prohibition
of impounding water within the modified agriculture fields located along the slopes, providing proper
drainage and strengthening of topsoil by artificial means like a plantation. However, in case of the wet
season, it may be very difficult to upgrade the FOS, as the genetic properties i.e., grain zize, Atterberg
limits, cohesion, and angle of internal friction play important role in such cases. The element at risk is
village settlement located along the slope in the southern part, agriculture fields along the modified
slopes, and school buildings in the mid-slope of the hill in the south-western part of the area. Presently,
no such slope instability incidences were recorded and the slope is stable. Considering the slope, the
proximity of the village settlement, school, and agriculture field on the modified slope, in worst case
scenario, the possibility of debris slide cannot be ruled out in the event of heavy rainfall which may cause
damage to the village settlement, school and agriculture field located along the slopes.

Photo 1: Laterite profile exposed near Photo 2: Laterite profile section

Rajapuri village

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Abstract No: 3/008

Understanding the effect of discontinuities on the slope instability along NH-03,

Himachal Pradesh, India
Prateek Sharma*, Rajesh Singh, Rahul Kumar Verma, Kumar, Pranshu Mishra
University of Lucknow
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Landslides are frequent and widespread geomorphological and hazardous natural phenomena that threaten
human life and property. Every year several persons lost their lives due to landslides or slope failures.
Therefore, a better and qualitative understanding of landslides is very essential for adopting mitigation
strategies for this type of natural hazard. The information on landslides from the different climatic and
geological setups is very essential for a better understanding of the influence of weathering, rainfall,
or topography on slope failure. There are varying conditions that lead to their emergence in different
regions. The construction and widening of the highways are accelerating landslides due to steepening and
removal of the support of the slope. The factors involved in slope failure are the angle of the slope, the
lithology of the bedrock, the topography, the type of vegetation, and also the construction process of the
road. In this work, a slope stability analysis was carried out in and around the Manali area at a selected
location on the National Highway 03 (NH-03) considering some important parameters to its probable roles
of geo-factors that induces slope failure. It has been observed recently in this region that there have been
landslides causing more casualties and damages. The jointed rocks, highly weathered rockmass, and
unconsolidated overburden material of the studied locations were analyzed after undertaking both field
and laboratory studies. The rockmass classification and slope mass classification systems are frequently
used as the basics for evaluating slope stability conditions and further stability analysis and calculations
provided factor of safety. The variability of parameters and their effects on the stability of the natural
slope has been studied by incorporating the conventional stability analysis. The study also includes the
need for reliable studies to identify the different causative factors that may contribute to the development
and mitigation of slope failures.

Abstract No: 3/009

Effect of water content, initial volume, and grain size distribution on debris flow runout
and deposition: an experimental study
Rajesh Kumar Dash*, Manojit Samanta, Debi Prasanna Kanungo
CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Debris flows are one of the destructive forms of mass movement which are frequently reported from
Indian Himalayas. The destructive potential of debris flows depends upon its runout and deposition.
The direct observation of debris flows in the field during the event is the most precise way to study the
debris flow mechanism and dynamics which is practically difficult. Therefore, experimental studies are
considered a suitable approach for studying debris flows in the laboratory. Debris flow runout defines
the distance travelled by the debris flow in the post mobilization stage and the areas being affected. It
depends upon various factors such as slope angle, types of materials, water content, etc. In India, debris
flows are a less focused area of research, and the lack of historical data as well as the absence of debris
flow monitoring stations restricts the researchers. The present paper deals with the experimental study
of the runout and deposition of an active debris flow in Garhwal Himalaya, India. In this study, a series
of experiments were carried out in a newly developed experimental facility at CSIR-Central Building
Research Institute, Roorkee, India to explore the runout behaviour of debris flow in the Indian Himalayas.
The influence of water content, initial volume, and grain size distribution on debris flow runout and
deposition were examined through experiments. It is observed that the runout increases with increasing
water content and initial volume but the presence of finer content reduce the runout. This study will help
understand the Indian Himalayan debris flows with global scenarios.

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Abstract No: 3/010

Terrain specific conditioning factors for Landslides in Western Maharashtra

Prakash K. Gajbhiye*
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

A landslide is a mass movement process in which rocks or sediments move down a slope under gravity.
They become more severe when interfering with human activity. In India, the Western Ghats is the second
most area prone to landslides after the Himalayas. In Maharashtra State, the landslides are common
in the Western Ghats and adjoining Konkan region and have caused excessive loss of life and property
in recent times, especially during the rainy season. The rainfall has been the main triggering factor in
causing the landslides. Geologically, the Western Ghats of Maharashtra expose basaltic lava flows of the
Deccan Trap Supergroup with laterites as cappings over basalt. The overburden comprises regolith, in-situ
soil, slope wash/transported soil, and colluvium skirting the hill slopes.
Earlier disaster management policies in India were limited to post disaster studies and rescue operations.
The new disaster management policy (NDMA, 2009) encompasses a paradigm shift from post disaster
relief centric response to proactive prevention, mitigation, and preparedness drives approach to minimize
loss of lives and property. Landsliding is not a sudden phenomenon; rather it is a complex interplay
of various factors and involves proper conditioning processes and mechanisms before triggering actual
incidence. This signifies the role of various conditioning factor/s (natural and anthropogenic) as a single
or in combination and they differ from terrain to terrain. Hence, by and large, a proper understanding
of the conditioning/preparatory factors by systematic studies is very much necessary to understand the
root cause for generation of the slope failures and hazard assessment. In Western Maharashtra, several
pre and post disaster landslide studies, like rapid assessment, landslide inventory along Ghat roads, site
specific study, susceptibility mapping, and vulnerability assessment, were undertaken and a correlation
of the landslide data with the terrain factors has been attempted. These studies suggest that though the
rainfall is main triggering factor for causing landslides in Western Maharashtra, at the same time area
specific topography, geomorphology, geology, hydrology, drainage, relative relief, slope aspect, land use
land cover, etc. play a significant role in conditioning/preparing the hill slopes for failures and controlling
their magnitude, dimension, spatial distribution, types, etc. The steep slopes/escarpments & narrow
valleys in western Ghat; lava flow morphology (aa & pahoehoe), erratic jointing, spheroidal weathering
& interflow horizons in basalt; inverse weathering profile, typical jointing & soil types in laterites; varying
development of regolith over different lava flows; differing hydraulic conductivity & drainage patterns in
different lava flows or laterites; varied moisture & vegetation pattern/cover due to southwestern monsoon
and slope modifications for developmental/agricultural purposes are some of the important factors which
need to be studied properly to understand the slope failures and their effects in western Maharashtra.
Unlike Himalayan terrain, the slope failures in Western Maharashtra are smaller in dimension and not
recurring (one-time events) but affect the mankind and environment significantly. Debris slide/fall/flow,
rock slide/fall, and ground cracks/subsidence are common slope failures observed in this terrain. Out of
these, debris slides/flows are found to be more devastating as far as loss of life and property is concerned.
Landslides in western Maharashtra are not random in distribution; they tend to occur in certain areas
indicating the control of certain conditioning factors or their combination as mentioned above. Moreover,
the frequency and number of landslide incidences have increased considerably in recent times. Identifying
the conditioning/controlling factors responsible for slope failures is the first step for effective landslide
hazard assessment and should be understood properly so that significant amounts of losses due to
landslides can be reduced by adopting sustainable prevention and mitigation measures well in advance.
This necessitates the proper identification of preparatory/conditioning factors responsible for causing
slope failures. The present paper discusses various conditioning factors responsible for landslides with
special reference to Western Ghat and its adjoining Konkan areas of western Maharashtra using historical
database and field investigations.

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Abstract No: 3/011

Preliminary slope stability appraisal of Landslide in Amagarh Hill, Jaipur, Rajasthan- a

serious concern for the adjacent densely populated area
P.K. Sharma, Mohd. Ahmad*, Debasish Bhattacharya
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Sliding of rock blocks from Amagarh Hill resulted in the loss of life and property in Transport Nagar area
of Jaipur, though such hazards have rarely taken place earlier in this city. The incident took place on
19/08/2018 due to incessant rainfall. As a part of the necessary geotechnical investigation of the incidence,
a preliminary slope stability appraisal of the affected area was undertaken to assess the condition and its
failure mechanism.
The area is characterized by undulatory topography with prominent NNE-SSW to NE-SW trending parallel
ridges rising at an elevation of about 100-120 m from the surrounding pediplain covered by Quaternary
sediments. Fresh to slightly weathered quartzite of Pratapgarh Formation of Alwar Group of Delhi Super
Group is exposed in the ridges. The rockmass is dissected by three prominent and consistent sets of joints
- J1 (BJ): N30°E-S30°W/42° →NW, J2: E-W/vertical, and J3: N30°E-S30°W/35°→SE. Field investigation
has revealed that the northwest facing slope earlier which was moderately sloping (35-40°), but due to
anthropogenic activities such as quarrying and mining for building stone (along the northwest face for
a length of about ~300 m) has rendered the slope steeper. The steepness of the slope after quarrying/
mining activity has daylighted the bedding parallel joint dipping towards the northwest direction. The
percolation of water along the bedding joints (J1) might have reduced the shearing strength along the
joint planes and resulted in slope (planar) failure during heavy rainfall.
Joint set 42°/N60°W is getting day-lighted on a north-west facing slope (45°/N50°W). It was apprehended
that rock blocks (along the discontinuity getting day-lighted on the slope) may give rise to slope instability
problems (due to the presence of hanging/undercut blocks on the slope) against along the slope, especially
during the rainy season. A preliminary assessment with the Markland test for NW facing slope was carried
out to identify the potential failure planes based on the geometrical relationship between slope and
structural discontinuities and accordingly, unfavorable planes were identified. Stability appraisal of the
slope has been attempted for planar conditions following the Slope Mass Rating (SMR) technique which is
a standard method of assessing instability in rock slopes. Considering planar failure (with respect to joint
set BJ), the SMR study has indicated that the slope is in a vulnerable condition (Class-IV) and is unstable.
Slope protective measures like rock bolting(perpendicular to the vulnerable plane) for seizing the joint
planes along with catch fences for preventing the boulder shooting etc. have been suggested to stabilize
the rock blocks with the vulnerable plane and to protect the houses lying adjacent to the foothills.

Abstract No: 3/012

Landslides and slope stability assessment on Tarki-Tau Mountain (Eastern Caucasus,

Russia)
O.V. Zerkal*1, I.V. Averin2, I.K. Fomenko3, D.D. Shubina3
1
Moscow State University, Russia
2
Engineering Geology Ltd. Company, Moscow, Russia
3
Russian State Geological Prospecting University, Moscow, Russia
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction
The Caucasus mountain system is located between the Black and Caspian Seas (Fig. 1). The mountain
system extends in a sub-latitudinal direction (from northwest to southeast) for 1500km and has a width
of up to 200 km. The Caucasus is part of the advanced mountain chain of fold-thrust structures of the
Alpine-Himalayan belt, stretching along the southern border of the Eurasian lithospheric plate (Khain,
1998). The infrastructure created along the Northern foothills of the Caucasus is important for trans-
regional transportation.
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Figure 1. Location of the study area

Tectonic and geological conditions

Tectonically the area under study is situated on the north-east framing of Dagestansky ledge in the
Naratubinskaya thrust zone, which is bounded northward by the Tersky deep fault and southward – by
the Pshekish-Tyrnyauzskaya structure zone sector. The present state of tectonic structures was formed in
the Alpine folding stage in the modern period of North Caucasus orogenic development.
The Eastern Caucasus is located in the conjugation zone of the southern structures of the Eurasian
lithospheric plate and the deep-water depression of the Caspian Sea. The Tarki-Tau mountain massif
is located in the North-Eastern part of the Eastern Caucasus, representing a part of the fold-thrust
structure. The territory is characterized by intensive horizontal tectonic movements (up to 31 mm per
year (Bulayeva et al, 2008)) and high seismicity (up to M=6.9).
The lower and middle part of the slopes of the Tarki-Tau mountain massif is composed of argillite-like clays
of the Karangate horizon (Serravallian age, Middle Miocene). In the upper part of the Tarki-Tau mountain,
they are overlain by sandstones and shell limestones of the Sarmatian horizon (Tortonian age, Upper
Miocene). Rocks compose the wing of the monocline, inclined in the Northeast direction. Features of the
geological structure determine the appearance of the Tarki-Tau mountain massif, which is cuesta with
a northeastern gentle slope (up to 100) and a south-western steep slope - from 200 – 400. The upper
part of the south-western slope is a sub-vertical rock cornice 30 – 100m high. The surface of the south-
western slope, in the lower part of which the highway “Caucasus” is laid, has a hummocky character
because of landslide activity.
The landslides of the Tarki-Tauand slope stability assessment
Two main types of landslides are typical for the southwest slope of the Tarki-Tau mountain massif:
1) Ancient large-scale block slides or rock avalanches and
2) Modern earth flows.
An ancient large-scale block slide «Agachaul» occupies the southern slope of Tarki-Tau mountain, which
has a total height of 520m. The landslide body forms a series of three chains of landslide blocks (Fig. 2).
Landslide blocks represent the breakaway arrays of Sarmatian sandstones and limestones, displaced on
Karangate clays. The total volume of the ancient block slide “Agachaul” is more than 150 mln m3. It can
be assumed that the formation of a large-scale landslide “Agachaul” is associated with intense seismic
impact.

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Figure 2. The view of the ancient large-scale landslide "Agachaul"

After intense precipitation in 2017, several modern earths flows with volumes from 20 000 m3 to 350 000
m3 were formed in the lower part of the landslide “Agachaul”. In the largest landslide bodies, the depth
of deformation reaches 15 m (according to inclinometric observations).
An ancient rock avalanche was discovered on the south-western slope of the Tarki-Tau mountain massif.
The length of the rock avalanche is up to 1.5 km. The rock avalanche is composed of landslide breccia,
in which angular fragments of sandstones and limestones are placed in a clay matrix. The composition of
the landslide breccia indicates that the escarp of the rock avalanche is located in the area of distribution
of Sarmatian sandstones and limestones.
The complex landslide “Pricarierny” is located in the lower part of the South-western slope of the Tarki-
Tau mountain massif in the area of distribution of argillite-like clays. Landslide “Pricarierny” was formed
on the slope of the local ridge height of 85 m. The total volume of this complex landslide is more than
1.6mln m3. The highway “Caucasus” crosses the landslide in its middle part. After intense precipitation in
2017, eight modern landslides with volumes from 20 000 m3 to 105 000 m3 were formed in the middle
part of the landslide “Pricarierny”.
For managing and solving problems of landslide danger the slope stability assessment was performed.
On the southeast slope of Tarki-Tau mountain, some areas were localized which are in a limit equilibrium
state (SF≥1.0).

Conclusions
Landslide activity in 2017-2018 was accompanied by deformations of the highway “Caucasus”. This
required the study of modern landslide activity and the development of measures for the engineering
protection of the highway.

Abstract No: 3/013

Landslide evaluation on the planetary bodies with special reference to the Earth
Pranshu Mishra*, Rajesh Singh
University of Lucknow
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Geo-dynamically active Himalaya, the youngest mountain belt in the world is always getting so much
attention from scientists and researchers throughout the globe, because of its unique geo-dynamics,
landscape, geographic position as well as its complex geological setup in the world. It is observed that
approximately 80% of the economic loss that happened in the last two decades is due to the occurrence of
geo-environmental hazards like earthquakes, landslides, droughts, floods, cyclones, tsunamis, volcanism,
meteoritic-impact as well as man-made or anthropogenic activities. Out of them, landslides are considered
to be the most damaging geological hazard in mountainous regions causing a geo-environmental
imbalance with the loss of lives and billions of dollars annually worldwide. Though natural hazards cannot
be prevented from occurring, their impact can be minimized by reducing their severity, frequency, and
possibly their area of recurrence if effective measures could be taken during or before the occurrence
of such catastrophes however the landsides are predictable hazards. Landslides in mountainous terrains

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are continuously triggered by certain geo-environmental factors such as seismicity, tectonics, lithology,
climate, drainage, vegetation, slope, and structures as well as the intervention of anthropogenic activities
like deforestation, slope-cutting, uncontrolled outlets, etc.
Landslides play an important role in the evolution of landscapes on Earth as well as on the other solid
planets of the Solar System. On Earth, landslides have been recognized in all continents, and sub-aerial
and submarine environments while other hand landslides have been also observed in different terrestrial
environments such as the Moon, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and some icy satellites in the outer Solar System.
To recognize and map the landslides on other planetary bodies, we adopt the same failure as well as visual
criteria commonly used by geomorphologists to identify terrestrial slope failures in aerial photographs or
satellite images on the earth. Through visual inspections of high-resolution imagery, scientists compiled
an inventory of 60 landslides on the Moon, 58 landslides on Mercury as well as 3,118 landslides on Mars.
Landslide morphologies are also getting used as the indicator of the paleo-environmental conditions at
any planetary body. For example, the Nilosyrt is Mensae landslide on Mars is suggestive of the presence
of water.
Predicting the occurrence of a landslide event, both where and when it will occur remains a challenge.
However, using remote sensing techniques, satellite data and numerical simulation, broad predictions
about the day and path of landslides can be estimated, which can assist with disaster management and
subsequent recovery. The movement of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates puts continuous stress
on the Himalayan Mountains, rendering certain areas weak and making them prone to landslides. The
area’s monsoon season compounds the issue as heavy rains contribute to subsidence, leading to slope
erosion that when triggered by tectonic plate movement, results in landslides. Some of the mountains,
such as the Siwalik range, are still in the process of folding. All in all, the region’s steep slopes, rugged
topography, high seismic vulnerability, and rainfall make this one of the most disaster-prone areas in the
world. Due to the lack of knowledge or planning, urbanization along and on the hilly terrain is getting
much more dangerous day by day. That is why, there is an urgent need on part of the scientific as
well as administrative bodies to formulate strategies collectively for minimizing damage potential, risk,
susceptibility, and vulnerability rate of the hazardous zone in which urbanization is going on.
Few site-specific strategies on earth are like early warning systems, Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ)
maps, bio-stabilization of slopes, construction of retaining walls, anchors and rock-bolting, maintenance
of drainage, detailed analysis of potential zones, and most importantly social-awareness programs at
ground level could be implemented.

Abstract No: 3/014

Slope Mass Rating (SMR) of the vulnerable slopes near Khairna, Uttarakhand, India
Rahul Kumar Verma*, Rajesh Singh, Prateek Sharma, and Pranshu Mishra
University of Lucknow
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The imbalanced climatic condition leads to the unpredictability of natural phenomena such as maximum
temperature in that area or time of maximum rainfall. Due to intensive rainfall, the chance of landslide
occurrence has increased and affects the population living in hilly regions and tourists. Landsides affect
big areas within the Indian region of the Himalayan belt in the country. Different kinds of landslides occur
frequently in the tectonically and Geo-dynamically active regions of the Himalayas. Transportation, public
network, and all kinds of socio-economic activities that occur in the high hills are entirely dependent upon
the local road and highway networks in this region. Any kind of slope failure can lead to disruption of
traffic, losses of property and lives, injuries as well as environmental degradation.
The kinematic analysis of slope stability is one of the basic, economical, and less time-consuming
methods in comparison to other methods like Limit Equilibrium Methods, Numerical Analysis Methods,
Landslide Hazard Zonation, etc. The type of failure was identified based on the stereographic projection of
discontinuities present within the slope mass. The rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR)
provides a quick and legible standard rating system in which the values can be used either for comparing
the slope characteristics or to design the support system. In the present study, a slope stability analysis
was performed for road-cut slopes near Khairna along the highway in Uttarakhand, India. The current
work shows the excellency of the basic methods for slope stability analysis.

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Abstract No: 3/015

Assessment of road–cut slope stability as a function of geo-mechanical slope mass

category, rock microstructure and geomorphic indices of ongoing tectonic activity: An
example from Dharasu-Uttarkashi roadway (NH-108) section, Uttarakhand, Northern
India
Mrinal Kanti Mukherjee*
University of Lucknow
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Slope failures in road-cut sections of transport ways in hilly terrains can be severely hazardous and
can frequently inflict heavy life and property loss caused by moving rock and soil masses. Therefore
assessment of topographic natural slopes and cut-slopes is vital for designing safe transport-way in hilly
terrain.
Natural and cut slopes fail due to sudden loss of shear strength of rocks and soil masses, along one or
more discontinuity planes that were either existing or newly generated during failure. Numerous factors
either in isolation or jointly contribute to slope failures. These include rainfall threshold, the intensity of
erosional by surficial drained water, rock types, rock structure and its heterogeneities, locked–up stress
and strain in rocks, geo-mechanical slope mass category, engineering properties of slope rocks and soils,
rock microstructure, earthquakes, climate change, and neo-tectonic activity.
In this study, the natural and cut slopes of a segment of the Dharasu-Uttarkashi Roadway (NH-108),
located in the Lesser Himalayan Zone in India (Fig.1) have been studied for the first time adopting a
multi-parametric integrated approach in terms of (1) distribution of the magnitude of a natural slope
(2) engineering geological properties of intact rocks and rock masses, (3) kinematic analysis of slopes,
(4) documentation of existing slope failures (5) rock- micro-structural implications and (6) multiple
geomechanical classifications of slopes. Assessment of the stability of slopes based on the combined
study of the above parameters has been performed for twelve locations (L1−L12) on the road-cut sections
where the slopes mostly have not yet failed. The magnitude of natural slopes overlooking the road section
attains a peak slope class of 41°−50°. Kinematic analysis characterizes the intact slopes in the above
locations to possess conditions of wedge and toppling modes of failure, either single or combined. Existing
failed slopes conform to combinations of planar, wedge, toppling, and shallow circular failures. Rock
micro-structural study reveals the development of strong shear-strength-weakening foliation anisotropy
in the phyllites and schistose quartzites of the slopes that serve as avenues of groundwater percolation
and seepage and can promote failure along water soaked foliation planes that ‘day-light’ on the road-
cut slopes at locations L1, L8 L9 and L10. Based on Geomechanical classification systems applied to
slopes including Continuous Slope Mass Rating, Q-Slope, and Hazard Index, new stability charts have
been developed that classify the slopes at each location to be one of the three types: severely unstable,
unstable, or stable. Based on the new stability charts, road-cut slopes at all twelve locations were found
to be unstable, and slopes at three locations−L7, L8, and L10 were observed to be severely unstable,
particularly hazardous and require immediate mitigation.
A study on the state of active tectonics using geomorphic indices of the watershed of the Bhagirathi River
in the studied sector has also been performed. The linear, aerial, relief and morphotectonic parameters
of the watershed of the study area have been determined for the calculation of Indices of active tectonics
(Iat). The mean Stream Length (SL), Hypsometric Integral (Hi), valley–floor width-to-height ratio (Vf),
and Basin Assymmetry factor (Af) were calculated as 546.35, 0.51, 0.1 and, 43.45 respectively. The
overall Iat with a value of 1.50, represents the high class (1.5 to 2.0) of tectonic activity. This corresponds
to the tectonic uplift of the Himalayas and also intermittent activation of the several thrust-faults to
generate earthquakes in the study area. Slow uplift causes deep undercutting by the Bhagirathi River and
its tributaries leading to high ruggedness and steepness of the slopes of the area leading to increased
chances of failure of natural and road-cut slopes.

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Fig. 1. Geological Map of the study area. Studied slope locations are marked as L1, L2… etc.
on the Dharasu-Uttarkashi Road section (NH 108). The Dharasu bend (indicated by arrow)
is a junction between the two road sections: one leading to Yamunotri Glacier through
Khumla Gad in the north-west and the other one leading to Uttarkashi in the northeast.
Shallow landslides occur at locations LS1 and LS2 on the road near Dharasu bend.

Abstract No: 3/016

Seismic hazard microzonation study in and around Kalyan, Dombivli and Badlapur
area, Maharashtra
Bhupesh B. Urkude*, Harsharaj L. Wankhade & D. Chakraborty
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Seismic Hazard Micro-zonation (SHMZ) is the process of subdividing a potential seismic or earthquake-
prone area into zones concerning ground motion characteristics taking into account source and site
conditions. Seismic risk for large and rapidly growing urban areas, particularly in developing countries like
India, is a problem that needs to be addressed. In this regard, SHMZ can be considered the preliminary
stage of earthquake risk mitigation studies. Cities like Kalyan, Dombivli, Ulhas Nagar, Ambernath, Badlapur,
and Titwala fall in Seismic Zone III (after, IS 1893-2001) with vicinity to seismically active faults like West
Coast Fault, Chipalun Fault, North Godawari Fault and Ghod River Fault. Considering the seismo-tectonic
set-up as well as ever increasing urban population of the Mumbai sub-urban area, the SHMZ study for
the KDMC area was conducted after receiving a request from the stakeholder. The study area, covering
+400 sq km, (refer Fig.1) is bounded by N 19°08’00”- 19°20’00” and E73°05’00”-73°15’35”. A seismic
hazard micro-zone map (1:25,000 scale) of the study area is generated after integrating surface geology
(including isopach map), water table depth, Micro-earthquake (MEQ) survey, Site Response/ Ambient Noise
Surveys, Shear wave velocity, Resistivity survey, and geotechnical data on GIS platform. Geologically, the
study area comprises hard massive to weathered Deccan Basalts belonging to Salher, Lower, and Upper
Ratangarh Formations (Sahyadri Group) with thin in-situ soil cover, overburden material is mainly confined
along major drainage courses. In general, soil thickness within the study area from 1-3m with shallow
ground water table depth (within 4m from GL). Bulk soil samples collected from 41 locations across
indicate silty clay as the dominant soil type (cohesive soil) implying less chance of liquefaction potential in
the area. MEQ survey of the study area exhibits low seismicity with the majority of earthquakes having a
magnitude in the range of 2.5-3.5 ML with hypocentres in the range of 5.4km-26.4km below MSL. Overall

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variation of peak frequencies at the KDMC area ranges between 10-20 Hz, whereas most of the sites have
values towards the higher side within this range indicating thin overburden. The peak soil amplification
has a general variation of 1- 2.6. Most of the area is very less vulnerable to earthquake hazards it falls in
a higher predominant frequency zone i.e. f0>16.0 Hz and low peak amplification (A0 <2.0) and this was
well supported by the shear wave velocity map of the area (~70% study area has Shear Wave velocity
(VS30) > 760 m/s and between 1100m/s – 1400m/s, indicating competent strata (rock) condition as
per NHERP classification. In addition, the derived SPT ‘N’> 50 for the area, contributes to less possibility
of liquefaction potential (for scenario earthquake of 7 ML) indicating a high factor of safety values. The
probabilistic earthquake event considered here is more than 250 km distance, and hence the PGA value
here is considered in a range of 1 to 0.8 (close to 1). The peak soil amplification has an overall variation
of 1.0-11 and in general, most of the area lies in the range of 1.0-3.0 i.e. low amplification factors.
These two results show that the area is occupied by firm soil and/or shallow bedrock depth. This means
a low vulnerability area with an earthquake point of view. The Resistivity sounding results show that the
maximum overburden thickness is towards the south of the Porsi area (Southern part of the study area)
which is around 17.5m. Most of the area has low overburden thickness i.e. less than 5m and bedrock
exposure is also present over much of the area. The resistivity-sounding results directly show the bedrock
depth, so, it is matching well with the Noise and Shear wave velocity outcome. An integrated SHMZ map
of the study area has been generated following a pair-wise comparison of the Analytical Hierarchy Process
(AHP), wherein each thematic map is assigned a weight in the 9-1 scale, depending on its contribution
towards the seismic hazard to generate Hazard Index (HI). Based on HI value, SHMZ (refer Fig.2) of
the study area has been classified into four broad zones of vulnerability to the seismic hazard viz. Low,
Moderate, High, and Very High Hazard zones. As per the generated map, most of the study area falls
under the first two categories and only 1.32% (~5 sq.km) of the study area falls under the high hazard
zone while 0.2% (<1 sq.km) study area (located towards North of Shahad) fall under very high hazard
zone. Thus the attended SHMZ study indicates a general safer scenario against earthquake hazard for the
overall study area.

Fig.1 Location map of Kalyan, Dombivli, Badalapur and Titwala area.

Fig. 2 Location cum Seismic Hazard Microzonation map of Kalyan, Dombivli,

Badalapur and Titwala area.

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Fig. 3 Overburden thickness map along with Shear wave velocity

contours of the Kalyan, Dombivli, Titwala and Badalapur area.

Abstract No: 3/017

Review of trigger thresholds for landslides in tropical residual soils

Nikhil Nedumpallile Vasu*, Vanessa Banks, Christian Arnhardt, Majdi Mansour, Audrey Ougier-Simonin
British Geological Survey
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Tropics make up about 40% of the earth’s surface area and are home to approximately 40% of the
world’s population [1]. Significant and variable depths of residual soils occur across tropical regions for
instance southern India, South-West China, Malaysia, Africa, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
the Philippines, and Northern Brazil. Rapid development in these countries, coupled with changing climate,
results in an increasing number of landslides affecting people, property, and livelihoods. Step changes in
landslide risk management can be achieved through landslide susceptibility mapping in conjunction with
the determination of thresholds at which landslides might be initiated. The landslide trigger thresholds can
be defined as a condition that when overcome can cause a change in the state of a system or landscape
resulting in one or more landslides [2]. These thresholds can be developed at different spatial scales
using approaches such as process-based, conceptual, empirical, statistical, or probabilistic methods [3].
The existing review of studies on trigger thresholds by [2] highlights the challenges of limited landslide
inventories, the quality of datasets, the need for objectivity and reproducibility, and validation. The
landslide trigger threshold in tropical countries mostly uses empirical or data-driven methods, which
are usually based on incomplete and/or impact-biased landslide inventories. The incomplete or limited
landslide inventory further limits the development of the threshold considering the regional or domain-
specific ground-based information such as geology, geomorphology, climate, and hydrology. Therefore,
the resulting trigger thresholds at the regional scale in a tropical setting are less reliable for landslide
forecasting-based applications. The landslides in tropical residual soils may not always directly correlate
to rainfall amount or rainfall intensity owing to the importance of soil properties [4], derived from the
underlying geology and anthropogenic interventions. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of land use and
climate change means that trigger thresholds need to account for these processes to be more effective in
tropical regions, and not just be reliant on the historical landslide record.
This review study aims to address the current gap in trigger threshold research for tropical residual soils
and put forward the case to consider approaches that integrate the ground information. The current
review forms part of the “Landslide trigger thresholds for tropical residual soils” project funded by the

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BGS International Geoscience Research and Development (IGRD) programme. The project aims to benefit
community resilience against landslide risk in tropical residual soil regions through better forecasting
of rainfall-induced landslides. Pilot studies will be conducted in Southern India and research outputs
transferred to comparable sites in Southeast Asia.

Abstract No: 3/018

Mapping Earthquake Induced Ground Rupture through Interferometric Synthetic

Aperture Radar (InSAR): A case study of the 22ndJune 2022 Afghanistan earthquake
(Mw 5.9)
Snehasis Bhattacharya*, Mrinmoy Kumar Das and Soumitra Dasgupta
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

An earthquake of Mw 5.9 struck about 47 km SW of Khōst province, Afghanistan (33.06°N, 69.54°E) on

June 22, 2022, at 02:24:37 IST. Seismic instruments of USGS and NCS detected the event and indicate
that the earthquake originated at a depth of 10 km. Over 1,000 fatalities have been reported in the
earthquake. The event occurred in the plate boundary zone between Eurasia and Indian plates, along the
western margin of the Tibetan plateau.
The surface deformation caused by an earthquake can be studied and quantified by various advanced
tools and techniques; one of the most prominent
tools is the Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
(InSAR). It calculates the difference between two
radar images acquired by an orbiting satellite taken
at different times but looking at the same place on
Earth. The purpose of this study is to detect and
illustrate crustal changes caused by an earthquake
by generating an interferogram (difference) along
the satellite line-of-sight using two TOPS SLCs from
before (pre-seismic) and after (post-seismic) an
earthquake.
The Sentinel-1ascending images acquired on 18/06/22
and 30/06/22 and descending images acquired on
19/06/22 and 01/07/22 have been processed and
analyzed in SNAP 8.0 open source software. The
co-seismic interferogram show development of
fringes indicating co-seismic surface deformation.
The fringe pattern shows shifting, interruption, or
discontinuation, and such breaks are sharp and
consistent in both the ascending and descending
interferograms for the same location. Such features
may indicate ground rupture or activation of already
existing strike-slip faults. The different colors in the
interferogram show changes in the phase of radar
waves before and after an earthquake. The colored
contours represent the interference fringes between
the two sets of data.
The fault plane solution published by USGS has
two nodal planes NP1 (Strike 295°, Dip 79°, Rake
-177°) and NP2 (Strike 204°, Dip 87°, Rake -11°).
Correlating the fault plane solution with the INSAR
interferograms put NP2 as the probable rupture fault
plane. SENTINEL Ascending (18/06/22 & 30/06/22)
Differential interferogram showing the co-
Interferograms help to determine the location, seismic deformation associated with the
magnitude, and nature of an earthquake. They also 21/06/2022, M5.9 Afghanistan Earthquake;
help to improve earthquake models and investigate fault shapefile from USGS
the future seismic hazard for an area.
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SENTINEL Descending (19/06/22 & 01/07/22)

Differential interferogram showing the co-seismic deformation associated with
the 21/06/2022, M5.9 Afghanistan Earthquake; fault shapefile from USGS

Abstract No: 3/019

Classification of slope forming mass along the proposed cut slope between Goilkera
and Posoita, Chakradharpur division, SE Railway, Jharkhand
Debasish Bhattacharya*, Sudipto Nath, N.R. Bhattacharjee
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Rail Vikas Nigam Limited (RVNL) envisaged the construction of a third railway track between stations
Goilkera and Posoita in Chakradharpur Division of South Eastern Railway, West Singbhum District,
Jharkhand to ease the traffic movement. In this stretch, the proposed construction involves the excavation
of a slope over a section having a length of the order of about 5650m (Chainage 5350m-11,000m).
This also includes driving a 680m long tunnel between Chainage 6120m and 6800m. The geotechnical
investigation for the field classification of the slope forming mass (hard and soft rock) was carried out in
the aforesaid excavation work along with the examination of the portal face of the proposed tunnel.
Between Chainage 5360m and Chainage 5540m, overburden thickness is of the order of 1.3m-1.5m. Fresh
to moderately weathered thinly laminated phyllite/quartzitic phyllite, having three sets of prominent joints
are exposed. Highly weathered (W3-W4) to disintegrated rock mass (W5) belonging to the Singhbhum
Group of rocks, intruded by quartz vein, at places, is observed between Ch 5520 and Ch 5540m. The
quartzitic phyllite exposed from chainage 5800m to chainage 5840m is partially weathered (W1) but hard
due to its quartzitic nature. Highly weathered (W4-W5 ) to disintegrated rock mass observed between
Ch 5520 and Ch 5540m shows signs of slope stability requiring supportive measures in the form of a
high retaining wall. From chainage 9800m up to chainage of 9980m fresh, hard meta-basic rocks are
present in the excavated stretch with a 2-3m cover of regolith. From chainage 10700m up to chainage
10750m very soft (as it crumbles in hand) phyllitic rocks are seen with reasonable regolith soil cover.
Representative rock samples were collected from different chainages where there is an apparent change
in the overall quality of rock, for estimating the strength of the rock towards its classification in terms of
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strength. Point load indexes were determined which gave values varying from 0.03 to 16.1 respectively
which fall in the low to extremely high category as per standard point load index classification. Since the
discontinuity planes (foliation and joints) are generally obliquely disposed, it appears that the cut slope,
in general, is stable and requires minimum support. Proper lined drainage system along all the benches is
suggested. From chainage 10760m to chainage 10770m provision for a retaining wall may be considered
in view of the presence of a soil patch in this stretch.
The diameter of the proposed modified horseshoe-shaped tunnel at the Goelkhera end is 7.5m. The
excavated cut slopes above the portal face are covered with chain link shotcrete and 4m long rock bolts.
The portal face exposes partially weathered and thinly foliated phyllite with three prominent joint sets.
The strength of the rock near the inlet portal face (chainage 6110m) gave a point load index value of
15.2 MN/m2 (very high). The Q value of the rock mass calculated at the portal face works out to be 2.8
(Class IV) and can be taken as 1.4 considering a minimum 2Jn as the portal factor. An open synformal
fold is present at the portal face the axis of which is located 4m from the Central Line of the Tunnel axis
on the right side. It is not desirable to drive a tunnel along a synformal fold as there are chances of huge
over breaks above the crown due to the release of stress. Considering the poor rock mass condition it is
suggested that the heading and benching methodology of tunneling as suggested in the design should be
adopted at the initial stretch. Since the rock mass shows antiformal and synformal folds along the tunnel
alignment, there are chances of accumulation of water along the synformal fold. Therefore, shifting the
tunnel from the synformal fold axis may be considered. Low pressure grouting from the surface along the
tunnel may be undertaken to avoid seepage at the tunnel grade.
The cut-slopes above the portal face at Posoita are covered with wire net, shotcrete along with rock bolts.
The portal face exposes thinly foliated highly weathered phyllite (W3-W4) with three prominent joints. The
vertical cover from the crown of the proposed portal is 15 m of which 3.5m from the top is overburden and
thereafter medium to highly weathered rock mass is exposed up to the excavated depth. The lateral cover
w.r.t existing track towards the northern side is 17m as reported. The Q value as calculated on the rock
mass at the portal face works out to be 0.63 (Class V) and with a 2Jn portal factor, it is 0.31. Tunneling
in a very poor rock mass (Class V) for a tunnel dia 7.5m is hazardous and should be tackled carefully. An
adequate support system including grouting, forepoling, etc should be kept in the design. If necessary
multiple drifting of tunneling may be required depending on rock mass condition.

Abstract No: 3/020

Stability analysis of rock slopes along Manali-Marhi road corridor using Kinematic
Analysis and Rock Mass Classification
Jina Mandal*, Kundan D. Rangari, Prashant T. Ilamkar
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Rock falls and rock slope failures in fragile hilly terrain along cut slopes of highways pose a high risk
to vehicular traffic that may cause causalities with increasing frequency during monsoons. Manali-Leh
Highway is one of the famous tourist attraction as well as a strategically important road corridor that
links the border areas of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Leh& Ladakh. Geologically the area
comprises high grade Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) gneisses and granite rocks of Kharo Formation
and phyllite, schist, and quartzite rocks of Morang Formation of Vaikrita Group having general trend
NW-SE dipping north-easterly. Due to fragile geology and rock mass condition, the hillslope from Manali
to Marhi experiences frequent slope failure/landslides during every monsoon. The present study deals
with the identification of potentially-unstable hill slopes with a special focus on stability analysis of rock
slopes along the 35km Manali-Marhi road corridor, a part of the Manali-Leh Highway. The selection of the
locations was done according to the structural attitude and inherent parameters of the rock mass i.e.
strength, hydrological condition, and condition of discontinuities. For the present study, RMR (Rock Mass
Rating), SMR (Slope Mass Rating), and kinematic analysis have been undertaken at different locations
on rocky slopes along the stretch. It also briefly describes assessments on the quality of hill slope mass,
their stability factor, possible mode of failures, and required temporary remedial measures. The rock slope
quality and stability were investigated based on RMR (1989) and SMR parameters. The study reveals that
along the Manali-Marhi road stretch, RMR values range from 37 to 65 (Poor to Good) and results of the
kinematic analysis suggest that the study area is vulnerable to both planar and wedge failures with any
inherent or external triggering factors. Similarly, rock slopes in and around Palchan, Nehru Kund, and
Vashisth are partially stable posing a risk of planar failure with SMR class III having a failure probability
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of 0.4. The rock exposed near the Kothi iron bridge and along the stretch from ChumbakMor to Marhi is
unstable having a failure probability of 0.6 and forming critical intersections that result in many planar
and wedge failures.

Abstract No: 3/021

Bank erosion in the largest inhabited river island Majuli: Neotectonic factors for
protection strategies
Bashab N. Mahanta*, Mansoom P. Kashyap, Baba M. Mahapatra
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Majuli is the largest inhabited river island in the world bounded by the Brahmaputra River on the south
and southwest, the Subansiri River on the northwest, and the Kherkatia River on the northeast. The island
was formed due to a river piracy event in the 15th century where the Brahmaputra shifted its course from
north to south. The island is not a sensustricto sandbar but is a part of the mainland surrounded by rivers
that have come into existence due to river dynamics. The island area has been reduced to 352 sq.km on
date from 880 sq.km at the beginning of the 20th century, due to erosion. Annual floods and perennial
erosion are the challenges faced by this island for its existence. Protection measures taken up by agencies
so far could not prevent bank erosion completely. The banking migration of the Brahmaputra is considered
to be the main factor for the erosion menace affecting the island. Though the banking composition is
almost uniform throughout, it has been observed that few areas along the bank are more prone to
erosion. To understand the rationale behind this selective erosion, spatio-temporal analysis followed by
ground surveys with bathymetry has been conducted in two areas on the banks of the Brahmaputra and
Subansiri rivers. In this paper, the role of underlying tectonic elements in the problem of erosion suffered
by the island is presented.
The island is an integral part of the Brahmaputra alluvium squeezed between Himalayan and Indo-
Burmese orogenic belts. Due to these two active orogenies, there is a development of a complicated
tectonic regime manifested by numerous thrusts and cross faults. The three rivers contributing to the
progressive modification of the island are also governed by the tectonic elements namely, the Brahmaputra
fault (E-W) and Dibrugarh, Simen lineaments (NE-SW). In addition, there are NW-SE as well as NE-SW
trending Himalayan cross faults traversing the island. Interestingly, it has been observed that the River
Brahmaputra develops some peculiar kinks along its path trending NW-SE and NE-SW through which the
anabranches try to flow while maintaining an overall E-W trending path. A similar anabranching has been
observed in River Subansiri too near the island where it tries to cut through the southern bank along a
south-easterly direction.
Analysis of the satellite imageries of the study area (Bhakatchapori village) on the banks of Brahmaputra
for the last 30 years indicates the rate of erosion as 0.13 sq.km per year. Geologically the bankline in the
study area is composed of silty clay, fine sand, and medium sand. The particular portion of eroded land
is restricted to a lobe growing north-westerly in the western part of the village (Fig 1). The average flow
direction was found to be along WNW and ENE directions with an average velocity of 1.01m/s during the
peak monsoon which changes to westerly after hitting the lobe directly, aggravating the erosion.
The erosion pattern in and around Kulichapori village on the banks of Subansiri indicates a worse situation
than the case of Brahmaputra with an erosion rate of 0.45 sqkm per year. Overall the bankline has been
found shifting south-easterly but a similar type of lobe formation is evident towards SW. The total loss of
land in the area has been observed as 14.31 sq. km. The dominant water flow direction was found to be
south-easterly with an average velocity of 0.5 m/s however the river flows in a south-westerly direction
in general. The path of this river in the foothills corresponds to a NE-SW lineament and near Majuli, it
follows an NNE-SSW path governed by another lineament originating from Simen fault which is an active
Himalayan cross fault. Development of Pene-contemporaneous deformation structures (PCD) restricted to
the lobe of erosion falling on the trace of the fault in the area has been observed (Fig 2). There is another
small stream flowing towards NE meeting the lobe along the trace of the fault.
The path of Brahmaputra is governed by major tectonic elements from its place of origin in the Himalayas
and is undergoing the continuous process of river reorganization. The reorganization is not restricted to
the main channel which is evident by the migrating courses of the tributaries including Subansiri. The
formation of Majuli was also a result of this process of reorganization in this unstable region. Generally,
the migration of a channel is dependent more on the bank morphology but, in the case of the study
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areas of the island, the situation was found to be slightly different. It was observed that a lobate-shaped
erosion is active irrespective of the bank morphology, growing along a particular direction. Though the
Brahmaputra flows westerly, in Bhakatchapori, the river is trying to attain a north-westerly path forming
the lobe. The erosive nature of Subansiri is also found to be controlled by the Himalayan cross faults
giving rise to lobes along a particular trend (Fig 3) and also the process of anabranching.
This study identifies probable areas with a higher rate of erosion along the banks with a monotonous
lithology otherwise. It was observed that a higher rate of erosion is prevalent along the traces of these
major as well minor tectonic elements. For suitable bank protection measures to be put in place, these
underlying tectonic elements to be identified and taken into consideration. The identification of these
zones will also assist in the preparation of a proper flood management plan for Majuli Island in particular
and the densely populated basin of the mighty Brahmaputra in general.

Fig2: Pene-contemporaneous
Fig1: Lobe shaped erosion on the banks of
deformation structures in the bank of
Brahmaputra
Subansiri within the lobe of erosion

Fig3: 3D bathymetry of the River Subansiri in Kulichapori area as generated from

Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler survey

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Abstract No: 3/022

Study on implementable remedial measure for Landslide due to climate change and
anthropogenic activities
Joyita Golder*, Koushik Shankhary, Gupinath Bhandari
Jadavpur University, Kolkata
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

For the fulfillment of increased population and entertainment tourism, the development of infrastructure
as tourist spots in hilly terrain became a common practice nowadays. This construction is going on by
destroying the forests and by cutting off slopes. On the other hand, due to Climate Change, nowadays,
untimely randomized precipitation is observed. The increased heavy precipitation with the combination
of exposed slopes becomes vulnerable and due to improper slope management, catastrophic landslides
are occurring.
It has already been predicted that due to the continuation of Global Warming, landslides are expected
to be increased (Chang and Chiang, 2011). According to Crozier (2010) increased quantity of total
precipitation, and increased rainfall intensity is the impact of Climate Change. Nowadays untimely heavy
precipitation is observed because the moisture-holding capacity of air decreased due to the increase
in global temperature. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, Global
Warming is responsible for the increase of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and the water vapor in the
lower tropospheres, which are the responsible factors for the frequent Tropical Cyclones. The probability of
occurrence of Tropical Cyclones comes into the picture when the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) crosses
the value of about 26oC. According to historical records and simulation records, it is clear about the
relationship between Global Warming and increased typhoon activity and intensity. Tropical Cyclones and
increased rainfall intensity are the results of climate change (Chang and Chiang, 2011). Landslides have a
link with Climate Change, primarily through precipitation and in some cases through temperature (Saez et
al., 2013). With the increase of heavy precipitation, the seepage of water towards the subsurface occurs,
which develops pore water pressure, which makes the slope vulnerable and landslides may occur (Collins
and Znidarcic, 2004). Increased total precipitation can cause wetter antecedent conditions, hence even
in lesser rainfall, the soil can reach critical conditions, and hence there may be a reduction of effective
normal stress and shear strength, which is responsible for the instability of slopes (Garino and Guzzetti,
2016). In some other literature, Dixon and Brook (2007) considered changing patterns of rainfall and
worked on the negative impact of Climate Change on a landslide. Chang and Chiang (2011) prepared a
model to predict landslides by considering the changed precipitation pattern.
Pangthang, located at Latitude 27.3727960 N and Longitude 88.5855340 E, East Sikkim, is recently
developing as a tourist spot, which has been taken as the study area for the present study. The considered
study area is located within a Forest Block of East Sikkim. The developers/ investors have carried out the
Soil Investigation, Geological study, and field survey work to observe the stability of the slope and suitability
of construction. According to these mentioned aspects, this area was not susceptible to landslides still
landslides occurred in March 2022, after untimely heavy precipitation. Immediately after the landslide, a
field visit was carried out to investigate the landslide. During the field visit, it was observed that different
infrastructures have been constructed in a non-engineered way, at the end of the slope, which gives a
huge load on the slope.
Geospatial Technology has been used to compare the changed anthropogenic activities within the study
area. After analysis, it has been observed that huge anthropogenic activities started, and multiple roads
and buildings have been constructed in recent years within this area.
Rainfall trend analysis has been performed through the Theil-Sen approach and Mann-Kendall test (Patra
et al. 2012, Kundu et al. 2014, Da Silva et al. 2015; Bari et al. 2016, Nyikadzino et al. 2020). The
trend analysis reflects that the rainfall pattern has changed in recent years, which become an important
parameter for this landslide.
Implementable cost-effective remedial measure by the implementation of the Bio-Engineering Technique
has been provided to stabilize the slope. The slope with the recommended remedial measure shows the
slope as a stable one, observed by analyzing through Bishop’s (1955) method. The result concludes that
the slope becomes stable after providing the remedial measure.

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Abstract No: 3/023

A simple, quasi-quantitative approach for rapid landslide risk assessment to support

regional landslide forecast in India
Gargi Singh*, Sumit Kumar
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In India, about a 0.42million sq. km (12.6% of land area), excluding snow-covered areas, is prone to
landslide hazards. The prevailing susceptibility condition has been identified under the National Programme
of GSI on a macro scale. But the scarcity of data on landslide impact, temporal landslide inventory, and
quantifying elements at risk has been a challenge to develop a suitable risk map on landslide hazard
for such a large area. Therefore, the importance of methodology for rapid mapping of the area with
available information is essential and might be used by disaster management authorities to strengthen
and mainstream landslide disaster preparedness.
In this research, a complete susceptibility scenario of the area including landslide initiation and runout
(debris flow) susceptibility has been used to evaluate landslide risk. Hence, selecting highly susceptible
areas, representing the susceptibility condition of initiation and runout, a combined susceptibility map
has been prepared. The combined susceptibility map in conjunction with physical and social parameters
from census data has been used to rank the Mauza (administrative boundary) in respect of the elements
exposed to the landslide hazard in Darjeeling district, West Bengal, India. A total of 118 mauzes were
ranked based on the elements at risk exposed to the landslide. Social parameters viz. population,
household, literacy, population below 06 years, and working population have been used along with the
road network. In terms of landslide vulnerability, the road passing in South Sibakhola tea garden has
maximum risk. Then followed by Cart Road (CT), Punkhabari, Hill Cart Road, and others. Concerning the
social parameters, the risk for the population household, literacy rate, and working population is more
in Darjeeling mauza, followed by Kurseong, Giddapahar, and others. The risk for the population below 6
years is more in Kurseong mauza, followed by Darjeeling, Giddapahar, and others.
This quasi-quantitative rapid assessment ranking of the administrative units will help the administration in
resource management and planning. This product will also be useful in landslide forecasting for providing
informed decision support.

Abstract No: 3/024

Assessing the Landslide susceptibility of the Shri Amarnath Yatra route corridor along
Pahalgam-Poshpatri track, Anantnag District, Jammu and Kashmir
Mohd. Ibrahim*, Abdul Q. Paul, Harish Bahuguna
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Amarnath valley and its trekking routes fall in the highly elevated NW Higher Himalayan physiographic
belt to the northeastern side of Kashmir valley. The Holy Cave of Shri Amarnath Ji is an important
pilgrimage destination located in the Amarnath valley of the Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir and
is visited by lakhs of devotees between June to August each year. The recent spate of heavy downpours/
repeated cloud bursts in 2021 and 2022, have inflicted heavy damage to the infrastructure facilities
and also had a heavy toll on human lives. In view of the importance of the Amarnath trek route, Meso-
scale (1:10000) landslide susceptibility mapping was carried out from Pahalgam to Poshpathri covering
31L Km. The study is intended to bring out different landslide susceptibility classes based on a heuristic
cum deterministic model where different thematic maps of the intrinsic factors are prepared and rated
as Landslide Susceptibility Estimated Rating (LSER). The cumulative susceptibility values are calculated
by integrating the LSER which gives different Total Estimated Susceptibility Values (TESV) for different
domains of the area. The domain-based TESV was calculated for cut slope, overburden, and rock domains.
The study was carried out using CARTOSAT Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data (10m) for the generation
of domain-based DEM derivative maps which include Base Map (Facet Map), Slope Aspect, Slope Angle,
Relative Relief, Drainage, Stream Power Index (SPI), Landform (Geomophon) and Landuse-Landcover
(LULC) maps using Arc GIS 10.8, GRASS GIS 7.6 and Google Earth Pro.
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The Amarnath valley and surrounding areas including its trekking routes are located in delicate and fragile
permafrost cryospheric mountainous environment which makes the area highly sensitive to climatic
disasters. The relative relief map of the area shows >500m difference in most of the study area. The
area shows very high rugged topography indicated by very high relative relief and a very steep slope
which is also very well supported by a roughness map of the area with most of the area showing in very
rough surface. The topography, narrow valley profile, and the irregular but sudden precipitation during
the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), present an ideal setting for an orographic climb and adiabatic cooling
which in turn results in heavy concentrated downpour/cloudburst in this valley. Such event in recent years
has posed a serious challenge for the geoscientific community, in terms of assessing the vulnerability of
the pilgrimage track and assessing the vulnerability of the slopes above the yatra tracks.
The study area forms a part eastern fringe of Kashmir nappee adjacent to the Suru crystallines. Regionally,
the area belongs to the Tethyan Himalayan Sequence consisting of permo-carboniferous Panjal volcanics
of the Panjal Group and sedimentary sequences of Panjal and Vihi groups of Paleozoic-Mesozoic age
(GSI, 2012). Further, the area exposes the rocks of Sind, Guguldhar, Lidder, Pir Panjal, and Vihi Group
along with the Wumuh Formation of the Jurassic age besides undifferentiated Quarternary sediments.
Limestone, slates, phyllites, and quartzites of the Vihi Group and basic volcanic rocks of the Pir Panjal
Group are exposed.
During the study, different aspects of the area were studied and it revealed that from Pisho Top to Zojibal
the trek route is having dominant loose glacio-fluvial material at the foot and mid slope, while the upslope
is having rocky cliffs of limestone, the slope angles are in the range of 15° to >45° with the dominant
aspect being in SE direction. Zojibal to Sheeshnag Lake trek route is dominated presence of rock and
scree talus, the slopes are in the range of 0̊ to 45̊ with the dominant aspect being in the SE direction. From
Sheeshnag lake to Poshpahri the trek route is having dominant loose glacio-fluvial material at the foot and
mid-slope, while the upslope is having rocky cliffs of limestone, the slope angles in the range of 0° to 45°
with the dominant aspect being in NW direction. The thickness of the overburden is varying from 10m to
30m at a few places the thickness of the overburden is > 30m. The stretch shows variable damp to wet
hydrological conditions with occasional wet to flowing conditions. The stretch from Pisho Top to Poshpathri
is mainly barren with a thin veneer of grass also present at some places.
During the study along the Shri Amarnath JiTrek route, some spots have been identified as vulnerable.
The stretch between Chandanwari and Pisho top presence of unstable to metastable scree/talus occupying
moderate to steep slopes has been delineated. The defacing of the slope and surface erosion of the scree/
talus, clearly denote ensuing instability along these zones, which in turn present a high risk element for
the pilgrims during the yatra season. In addition, the potential river damming sites have been identified
between Chamdanwari and Pisho Top stretch. These sites are characterized by narrow valley profiles and
leaps of palaeo-slides/glacial dumps (having large size boulders). It is assessed that a heavy downpour in
this area may lead to the roll of these leaps of debris, which eventually may cause temporary damming
of the river. The cascading effect of such damming may result in deluging the yatra track and may pose
threat to the safety of the pilgrims. The perennial stream at the mid slope of PishoTop is vulnerable to
shooting stone during the high and torrential rainfall. Two to three landslides have been identified along
the trek route on the right bank of Sheeshnag Lake, which is vulnerable during snow melt and heavy
rainfall. The stretch from Lidder River (Wavbal) to MG Top is vulnerable to debris slide, as the area is
having many springs and having loss of fluvio-glacial material and the water from the streams/ springs
intercepting on the foot track which may cause sliding in the future. The course assessment brought out a
strange but important spot near Laripora village. Here a stretch of 920m of road and the nearby habitation
lies very close to the river bed level (hardly 1-5m above the water level). It is assessed that any heavy
discharge along the Lidder River at this location may result in the truncation of the road and flooding of
human habitation.
This paper aims at bringing out the vulnerable stretches, and potential risk zones/ factors along this
famous and important yatra track and also in bringing out suitable remedial measures for different sites,
so that the stakeholders i.e. state government agencies and the authorities of Shri Amaranath Shrine
Board (SASB) may plan and adopt the appropriate mitigation and management strategies.

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Abstract No: 3/025

Domain-based meso-scale Landslide Susceptibility Zonation with special emphasis on

landslide management map: A case study from Darjeeling Himalaya
Sunandan Basu*, Suman Saha, Prithwiraj Maiti, Timir Baran Ghoshal
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Landslide is a perennial problem in the Darjeeling Himalayas due to high to very high rainfall, high relief,
immature topography, poor rock condition, presence of adverse discontinuity, proximity to major thrust
zones, etc., and every year it causes huge losses of life and property. Landslide susceptibility zonation is
a major step towards preventive mitigation of landslide hazards which in turn will help in the reduction of
loss of life, the limitedly available agricultural land, and major infrastructures like buildings, roads, railway
lines, hydroelectric projects, etc. in the fragile geo environment of Eastern Himalaya.
The landslide susceptibility map of macro-scale (1:≥25000) generated through the mapping of various
qualitative factors is a useful tool for regional planning purposes. But to define the detailed landslide
dynamics on a local scale, preparation of a meso scale (1: ≥5000 - ≤ 10000) landslide susceptibility map
with site-specific quantitative inputs is essential. This landslide susceptibility zonation on the meso scale
requires mapping of various qualitative factors and site-specific qualitative determination of geotechnical
properties of rock (RMR basic) and overburden material (cohesion (c), angle of internal friction (ϕ), grain
size analysis, liquid and plastic limit, etc.).
Previously, only a few meso-scale landslide susceptibility zonation studies have been attempted and
mainly knowledge-based rating systems have been adopted (Sengupta and Ghoshal, 2001; Casagli,
2004; Fell, 2008). During these studies, the geotechnical properties of the slope-forming materials were
not considered due to a lack of geo-mechanical data on rocks and soils. Ghoshal et. al, 2013; attempted a
semi-quantitative approach for landslide meso zonation, and based on the response of different materials
to the landslide, the rocks, and the overburden-covered slope was classified separately. Moreover,
site-specific geo-mechanical properties of rocks and overburden materials were used along with other
qualitative and quantitative factors. The present study has been carried out following the standard
operating procedure (SOP) for meso scale (1:10,000/ 5000) landslide susceptibility mapping, 2021 of
GSI, where, the concept of the landslide domain has been introduced in addition to the semi-quantitative
approach of Ghoshal et. al., 2013. The landslide domain is a spatial extent having similar physiographic
and geological characteristics that control the type of landslide (Varnes, 1978) occurring within it.
Domain-specific landslide initiation zone susceptibility maps were generated by using the weighted multi-
class index overlay method. Further, to make the output products more user-friendly, one combined
susceptibility map for the entire area was prepared by combining domain-specific landslide initiation zone
susceptibility maps. But the risk from the landslides is not only from the initiation zone and areas at the
downslope of the landslide initiation zone can be severely affected by landslide runouts. Hence, a debris
flow impact probability map of the area was prepared from the DEM in Arc GIS platform as a separate
susceptibility map showing the potential areas that can be impacted by the landslide runouts. Besides, for
effective mitigation of the critical landslide-affected areas, site-specific landslide management maps were
prepared as value addition to the project. These landslide management maps have information about the
landslide and its generic mitigation measures, alternative new road alignment or diversion of the existing
road alignment through tunnels/bridges, escape routes, safe shelter locations, etc. These maps were
prepared mainly for the stakeholders so that the stakeholders find this information more meaningful and
may use for landslide management purposes.
Domain-based semi-quantitate landslide susceptibility zonation on a meso scale (1:10,000) was carried
out for a 55 line km road stretch along NH - 10, from Sevok, Darjeeling district to Rongpo, Kalimpong
district of West Bengal. The study area lies within the Lesser Himalayas and belongs to the fold-thrust
belt of Darjeeling Himalaya. The area comprises rocks belonging to sedimentary sequences of Siwalik
and Gondwana followed by meta-sedimentaries of the Proterozoic Daling Group. The study area falls
within Zone IV of the Seismic Zonation Map of India. During the study, different thematic geo-factor maps
such as slope forming material, landform, drainage, slope morphometry (slope angle, slope aspect, and
relative relief), element at risk (EatR) along with derivative maps such as geotechnical and kinematic
failure were prepared. Detailed inventory databases of 91 landslides were prepared to understand the
landslide dynamics of the area. Based on the landslide material and types, the area was divided into
five landslide domains, viz. rock slide, rock fall, debris slide, cut slope (rock slide & debris slide), and no
landslide domain. Domain-specific geo-factors were selected and domain-specific landslide initiation zone
susceptibility maps were generated by the integration of the rated geo-factors. The combined landslide
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initiation zone susceptibility map reveals, ~20% of the area falls under low, ~ 41% area falls under
moderate whereas ~ 33% area falls under high susceptibility class. No landslide domain occupies ~
6% area where no landslide initiation is expected. Most of the prominent localities within the study
area like Sevok Kalibari, Sweti Jhora, 18th Mile, Rayeng, 27th Mile, 29th Mile, GeilKhola, Chitrey, Melli,
Kirney, TarKhola falls under high susceptibility class. Localities like Sevok, Suntaley, Rambi, Teesta Bazar,
Andheri, and Rongpo fall under the moderate susceptibility class while very few localities like Kalijhoa and
Birik (settlement areas near road hairpin) fall under the low susceptibility class. Along the NH - 10 road
corridor, as per the combined susceptibility map, ~ 16% area falls under the low susceptibility class, ~
40% area falls under the moderate susceptibility class and ~ 44% area falls under the high susceptibility
class. As per the debris flow impact probability map, ~ 26% area falls under the low impact susceptibility
class, ~ 36 % area falls under the moderate impact susceptibility class whereas ~ 38% area falls under
the high impact susceptibility class. The majority of the prominent localities within the study area like
Sevok Kalibari, Coronation Bridge, Hatisur, Kalijhora, Sweti Jhora, Suntaley, 29th Mile, GeilKhola, Teesta
Bazar, Chitrey, Melli and Andheri falls under high impact susceptibility class whereas Sevok, 18th Mile, Birik,
Rayeng, 27th Mile and Tar Khola fall under moderate impact susceptibility class. Only a few localities like
Rambi, Kirney, and Rongpo fall under the low-impact susceptibility class. Seven landslide management
maps for critical areas such as Sevok Kalibari, Hatisur, Sweti Jhora, 18th Mile, Birik, 29th Mile, etc., were
prepared where details of the landslide and its management have been indicated.

Abstract No: 3/026

Site-specific geological and geotechnical investigation of Landslide incidences along

road cut slopes from Dolwas to Peera road section, Jammu-Srinagar National Highway,
District Ramban, Jammu and Kashmir
Varun Mandotra*, Parveen Kumar, Ajay Kumar
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Himalayas is one of the most highly prone regions to landslide disasters in the world. The development
of roads in the Himalayan region is a daunting task due to steep slope angles, topography, unfavorable
geological condition, heavy precipitation, hydrological condition, and anthropogenic activities. Unfavorable
geological conditions and unplanned infrastructure developmental activities often make the slope
vulnerable, bound to slide along the slope due to the influence of gravity. The existing National Highway-44
between Udhampur to Banihal is under reconstruction and widening by the National Highway Authority of
India. Every year this road section experiences several mega landslides both in the rock masses as well
as overburden causing a lot of distress to locals and commuters.
Detailed geological mapping on a 1:1000 scale and geotechnical investigation has been carried out to
evaluate the triggering factors, and slope stability and to purpose the possible mitigation measures of the
landslides between RD 134.260 km to RD 135.50 km (1.24km stretch) along Dolwas–Peera road stretch
of Nashri-Ramban road section of the NH-44. The area represents mountainous, undulatory topography
mainly controlled by lithology. The terrain is rugged and cut by nallas. Chenab is the major river in the
area, numerous rills and small rivulets drain the area. Geologically the rocks of the Foreland basin (Murree
Group) and Para-utochthonous zone are exposed in the area, tectonically separated by Main Boundary
Thrust (MBT). The rocks of the para-autochthonous zone include Sauni volcanic, Gamir, Baila, Ramban,
and Sincha Formations Meso-Proterozoic to Neo-Proterozoic age. The study area occupied by the rocks
of the Lower Murree Formation comprises alternates bands of claystone, siltstone, and sandstone. Due
to the presence of MBT in close proximity the rock mass is weak and deformed. Excavation of the slopes
without proper mitigation measures has caused slope instability. The study area has been demarcated
into 07 zones based on the slope forming material in which 03nos. the debris slide, 03nos. rockslide and
01 no. extensive cut slope. Debris slides occupied by the overburden and debris material exhibit sinking,
subsidence, and slope movement. Rocky slides are characterized in the form of planner failure and wedge
failure. The extensive cut slope identified in the rock and gentle which appears to be a stable zone.
The geotechnical properties of the material reveal that the soil is composed of clay content which is
impermeable and plastic. The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) of exposed rockmass falls under the poor to fair
rockmass quality (Class III to Class IV). According to Slope Mass Rating (SMR), slopes fall under the

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partial stable to completely unstable categories (Class III to Class V). Kinematic analysis of rocky slopes
reveals that the slopes are vulnerable to planar and wedge failure. The short-term and possible long-term
mitigation measures based on site conditions and geotechnical investigations have been suggested.
In this paper, the challenges faced due to the occurrence of landslides, their impact on construction
activities, and damages viz. residential houses, retaining structures, agriculture land, and collapse of high
tension towers due to widening of the road are discussed. The findings of the study will provide a very
important and crucial database to Road construction agencies, Planners, Developers, and State/Central
Government agencies for planning activities like road construction/ widening and infrastructure projects
in the area.

Abstract No: 3/027

Slope instability Management around Batote town, District Ramban, Jammu and
Kashmir
Abdul Qayoom Paul *, Pankaj Kumar, Ajay Kumar
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In view of the recurrence of landslides in Batote town, and its surroundings in Ramban district, Jammu
and Kashmir, Meso Scale (1:10000) Landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) was carried out in 7.7 sq.
km area around Batote, on the footwall of Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), NW Himalaya. The study was
taken to categorize the area into various landslide susceptibility classes based on the heuristic cum
deterministic model where different thematic maps of the intrinsic factors are prepared and rated as
Landslide Susceptibility Estimated Rating (LSER). During the field work, thirty minor to major recent
landslides and slope instabilities were recorded and evaluated for their causative mechanisms. Their
disposition was found mainly over the 04 small to large old and pre-historic landslides, mainly along the
western slope of Chakwa Nala, indicating their large scale reactivation. The slope failures are mainly
of debris slides type having substantial clay components. In most of the landslides, natural and urban
runoff water was found to be associated with clay-rich pre-historic landslides. The area has a dominance
of thick overburden material up to 20m on moderate slopes. Further, the association of mudstone with
highly fractured sandstone also made the area fragile under wet conditions. The various intrinsic factors
evaluated and rated for landslide susceptibility during the present study include DEM derivative and field
based parameters. The DEM derivative thematic factors of Slope Aspect, Slope angle, Relative Relief,
Stream Power Index (SPI), and Landform (Geomorphon). Whereas, the field based thematic maps
prepared includes Land Use Land Cover (LULC) map, Lithological Map, Structural map, Slope Forming
Material (SMF), SFM thickness, Hydrological and Geotechnical map.
The Mesoscale Landslide Susceptibility map, prepared by raster overlay analysis of LSER based thematic
maps, categorized the entire study area into three susceptibility zones of low to high classes, which
respectively cover 63%, 33.6%, and 3.3% area. The Susceptibility Map revealed high and moderate
susceptibility classes have 70.6% and 23.5% knowledge-based validation respectively. Based on Mesoscale
LSM and risk Map, critical areas were identified for further necessary remedial measures to stabilize the
slopes and reduce the landslide risk in the area. A Landslide Management Map was prepared along with
04 profile cross sections across the critical High Susceptibility Zones for demonstrating the remedial
measures.
The Landslide Management Map was prepared as per the debris slide domain, which is the prima facie
for most of the landslides in the area. The given suggestions focus on surface water management,
soil bioengineering & biotechnical stabilization. The contour drainage at the crest slope, concrete step
drainage along existing streams, herringbone drainage in cultivated land, bush forests in headward gully
erosion areas, and crib wall with live cuttings are recommended. Native varieties of shrubs & trees, like
willow, are suggested for crib walls and controlling toe erosion. The French drains are recommended to
control the creep around the buildings. The mechanical stabilization and earthwork techniques are not
recommended as the same do not seem economically viable and friendly for the area. The recommendations
if implemented after due designing and consultation with a geotechnical engineer will be much helpful to
the general public and stakeholders for planning purposes.

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Abstract No: 3/028

Impact of rockmass characteristics in inducing slope instability/ subsidence along

Namol to Dhanti Road, block Pancheri, District Udhampur, Jammu and Kashmir
Parveen Kumar*, Imran Khan, Harish Bahuguna
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Developing countries are more affected due to landslide incidences and slope instability issues. About
95% of landslide incidences have been recorded in developing countries and per year 0.5% of the gross
national product has been lost to landslides (Chung and Fabbri 1999). The pan India data reveals that
landslides have generally occurred during intense rainfall periods and Jammu and Kashmir are no exception
as far as vulnerability to landslide hazards is concerned. Every year, the monsoon season is witnessed
by the activation and reactivation of both small and large landslides. Most of the landslides that affect
human lives are along road corridors and settlements where slope modifications have been carried out
without providing immediate/timely suitable remedial measures. Reactivation of old landslides mostly
along Highways is also a very common phenomenon where the already destabilized slopes fail after the
oversaturation of material during rainfall/snowfall or due to any kind of anthropogenic activities.
An incidence of landslide/road subsidence occurred on the intervening night of 27th and 28th March 2021
between RD 3/100 and RD 3/750 on the road from Namol to Dhanti which is being constructed by PMGSY,
Division of PWD in Block Panchari of Udhampur District, UT: Jammu and Kashmir. The slide area is situated
at a distance of about 55 km from Udhampur and about 100kms from Jammu.
The study area forms the parts Sub Himalayan zone and is characterized by rugged topography with steep
slopes of high ridges and deep cut deflies. Chenab river and its tributaries drain the area and in general
exhibit a dendritic drainage pattern. The area is constituted by the rocks of two tectonic units namely, (i)
Foreland zone and (ii) Para- autochthonous zone, separated by the important tectonic plane of Murree
thrust.
Geologically, the study area represents the rocks of the Lower Murree Formation of the Murree Group of
the Late Eocene to Early Miocene age. It is dominantly an argillaceous assemblage. Low vegetation cover
aggravates the erosion of the hill slope which results in the dissection of the hill slopes.
As per the recent analysis of the landslide incidences (Bahuguna and Khan 2022), it has been indicated
that the rocks of Murree Group occupy 4927 sq. km area in UT J&K which is nearly 12.15% of the
total geographical area of UT J&K and a total of1590 number of landslide incidences (out of a total
of 6934 incidences in UT J&K) have been recorded in these rocks which are about 22.97 of the total
recorded incidences (Bahuguna and Khan 2022). It thus amply reflects that the rocks of Murree Group
are susceptible to the incidences of slope failures and they also commonly witness incidences of sinking
and ground subsidence.
The affected road stretch can be divided into 04 nos. of zones depending upon the material occupying the
slopes and of these Zone-1 and Zone-4 are characterized by rock failure whereas Zone-2 and Zone-3 are
the debris slides exhibiting sinking and subsidence in the ground as well. The geological and geotechnical
appraisal of these different zones has been carried out to understand the impact of the characteristics
of the rockmass and slope-forming material in inducing the instability on the hill slopes in the form of
structurally controlled failures or sinking/subsidence in the ground.
As stated, zone-1 and zone-4 represent the failures in the rock, hence the focus at these locations
was on characterizing the rock mass and analyzing the stability of the slopes above the road section,
through kinematic checks and slope mass rating (SMR). As per visual estimation, the zone-1 is occupied
by predominantly an alternate sequence of inherently weak and incompetent clay or shale, siltstone,
exhibiting W2 to W3 grade of weathering, UCS of R3 grade (Deerie – Miller), Jv as 11 and RQD as 78%.
The rocks in zone-4 are claystone (70%) and siltstone (25%) and sandstone (5%) and are characterized
by W2 to W4 grade of weathering, UCS of R3 grade (Deerie – Miller), Jv as 21, and RQD of 48%. RMR
value 41 for zone-1 and 27 for zone-4 indicates class III and class IV respectively. As per SMR values 36
for zone-1 and 39 for zone-4, slopes fall under the unstable category. The kinematic check and schematic
geological section suggest the probability of planar failure and wedge failures in the case of zone-1 and
zone-4.  
In zone 2 the approximate distribution of coarse and fine material is 30% (boulders/cobbles) and 70%
(silty, clay matrix). The zone-3, on the other hand, is constituted of the big angular boulders of sandstone
and siltstone with an approximate thickness of 8-10m. At Zone-2 and Zone-3 the overburden material
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consisting of rock blocks, mixed with the debris is very much susceptible to further sliding under conditions
of incessant heavy downpours. The heterogeneous and unconsolidated overburden material and low-
strength rockmass have little or no coherence. Infiltration/ingress of surface runoff during rains has
played a vital role in the development of pore water pressure and swelling of clay that exerts outward
active stress on the slope-forming material. The characteristics of the poor rock mass had a direct bearing
in inducing the slope instability which was further aggravated by the cutting-off road stretch through
the middle part of the old landslide. The short-term and long-term measures for all four zones along the
affected stretch have been suggested which guide the course of possible mitigation will measure specific
to the different zones.

Abstract No: 3/030

Influence of topography on landslide occurrence in and around Kodaikanal hills, Dindigul
District, Tamil Nadu
Souvik Acharya*, Balaji B.
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The various causative factors for the occurrence of landslides in hilly areas have been used as independent
variables for deriving the propensity of locales for future landslides. To evaluate the association of the
DEM-derived topographic indices on the past landslide occurrences that can provide an insight into the
influence of the sub-factors in an area with sparse distribution of landslides. In the present study, 37
natural landslides (total landslides 148 out of which 111 were anthropogenic in origin), in about 2395
sq.km. area in and around Kodaikanal hills, Tamil Nadu were used to characterize the relationship of
topographic elements on the occurrence of landslides using Frequency Ratio. The topographic parameters
were derived from ASTER DEM of 30m resolution of the study area. Analysis of the data was conducted
in Arc GIS 10.4 environment. The relationship between landslides and topographic conditioning factors
(slope angle, aspect, curvature, and altitude) was analyzed. The results revealed that most landslides
initiated at an altitudinal range between 1500 to 2100m a.s.l (above sea level) (F.R varying from 3.2 to
6.7). With respect to slope angle, the class ranging from 25°- 45° (F.R varying from 3.1 to 3.4) showed
the highest association with the landslides, while the association of landslides was observed both in
concave (having F.R 1.14) and convex (F.R value 1.02) slopes. The results revealed that most of the
landslides were associated with the northwest aspect class (having F.R 2.61), while northerly and north
easterly slope aspects (F.R varying from 0.9 to 1.53) also showed a good correlation with the landslides.
In the present study, the influence of other landslide-controlling factors like lithology, land use, etc. was
not considered to highlight only the influence of topographic indices (slope, aspect, curvature, altitude) on
the landslides. It is observed that the moderately steep slopes facing towards Northerly direction (N-NE-
NW) are relatively more landslide prone.

Abstract No: 3/031

Post-disaster Assessment of Catastrophic Karincholamala Landslide in Kerala, India

Sulal N. L., Vishnu C. S. *, Archana K. G., Praveen K.R., Thrideep Kumar, N.
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The heavy downpour in the second week of June 2018 triggered several landslides in the Kozhikode district
of Kerala. Karincholamala landslide which occurred in the early hours of 14th June 2018 in Kattipara
Panchayat was the most devastating one with the loss of 14 lives. The landslide was initiated in the upper
reach of Karincholamala ridge at the toe of an escarpment. The length and gradient of the depleted zone
are approx. 135m and 35° respectively. Out of the 135m long stretch, the initial 35m (appx.) was covered
with highly jointed rock mass forming discrete rock blocks measuring up to 15m x 12m x 7m in size with
negligible soil cover; whereas, the remaining stretch was having uniform soil thickness of appx. 2.5m
(reddish silt loam). The rock blocks were at equilibrium with the availability of lateral support from the soil
mass. An unscientific vertical cut aligned parallel to the contour was made mechanically for storing water
in the middle of the otherwise uniform slope. Field evidence indicates that the depleted zone is limited
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by this cut which is having at least 5 m in height. In the absence of any lateral support, the soil mass
failed with a gradual reduction of its shear strength to critical levels under extreme and continuous rainfall
conditions. Overburden mass probably failed at the cut face first along the rock-overburden interface
leading to failure of material further up-slope (retrogressive). The discrete rock blocks at the head area
dislodged and moved down ultimately following the loss of support. The event further turned catastrophic
as water breached the pit on the impact of debris/rock blocks. This is evident from the scouring of gullies
limited only below the pit’s level. The length of the transportation zone is approximately 250 m and the
debris accumulated at the foot slope and in the valley present beyond it. The soil-covered stretch of the
affected slope was subjected to two-dimensional numerical analysis using the Finite Element Method
(FEM) software packageRS2. The material properties of soil required for the studies were identified from
the laboratory test and literature; whereas it is mostly field data for the bedrock. The Shear Strength
Reduction (SSR) technique used for identifying the critical Stress Reduction Factor (SRF) on the slope
modified by the excavation suggests it is only marginally stable with an SRF value of just 1.15. A kinematic
check is done for the part of the slope with rock blocks that also satisfies the geometric conditions required
for the planar failure in the absence of any lateral support. The numerical studies also indicate that the
deformation and displacement that occurred within the soil mass are maximum near the excavation.

Abstract No: 3/032

Stress studies with special reference to coal mine planning

D.N.Sharma*
The Singareni Collieries Company Ltd
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In underground excavations of coal mining, horizontal stress plays a vital role in the stability of the mine
workings. High horizontal stress values have a profound impact on the overall stability of coal mine
roadways.
The instability caused due to high horizontal stress is aggravated where thin beds exist in the roof of coal
mine roadways. Increasing magnitude of horizontal stress may lead to buckling causing the roof strata to
collapse. Buckling behavior, if left uncorrected, can lead to dome-like features, as a result of which, the
intermediate roof detaches in the manner of a cantilever beam aligned in the direction of major horizontal
principal stress direction. At depths greater than 200 m, lateral compressive forces cause fracturing along
the laminations of the roof beds.

Coal mining operations in Godavari Valley coalfields of Telangana state, India are by Singareni Collieries
Co Ltd and catering the needs of coal for thermal plants for a large part of south India.
• Considering the significance and importance of the Stress orientation in the mine layout, Stress
measurement studies through Hydrofracturing studies were taken up in advance in some of the
mine blocks at the planning stage itself to help in lay and disposition of panels.
• The directional influence of high horizontal stress was observed in the mine Development stage.
Based on the underground Geotechnical mapping conducted, it is found that after reorientation of
dip galleries closer to the mapped minimum principal horizontal stress direction, no bed dilation
was observed in the roof strata of the dip galleries, with improvement in working conditions.
• Overcoring measurements across a graben fault system in a coal mine in Utah, US showed the
occurrence of abnormally high horizontal and vertical stresses. Based on the geological & structural
set-up and the nature of the lithic fill, Godavari Valley Coalfield is also a Gondwana Graben (Fig-1).

SATELLITE IMAGERY STUDIES

Detailed studies using LANDSAT imagery reported a total of 110 lineaments ranging in extent from 10
km to over 200 km. From the rose diagram plot, it was inferred two preferred directions, that is NW–SE
and NE–SW.  
The coal-bearing Barakar Formation in the Godavari Valley coalfield exhibits predominant lineaments
in the NE-SW direction, as seen from satellite imagery. Trends of the majority of the lineaments vary
between N15°E–S15°W. In the Barakar Formation, the faults also trend more or less in the NE–SW, and
NW–SE directions. The NE–SW trending faults are more frequent compared to the NW–SE trending faults;
the majority of them are in the N35°E–S35°W direction.
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Fig-1: Geographical map of Godavari Valley coalfield showing the

major lineaments and mine locations.

STRESS MAPPING TECHNIQUE

The stress mapping technique is extensively used in many countries to avoid heavy expenditure on
conducting in-situ stress measurements. Procedures have been developed to estimate the orientation
of the maximum principal stress (s1). Features such as roof “guttering” or roof “pots” are mapped
along with structural discontinuities (i.e., fault, slip, joint, cleat) in underground workings, and the stress
direction is inferred from their orientation and severity.
The author investigated the orientation of the joints of the roof rocks and their bearing on the roof falls
in the level galleries in VK-7 Incl. It was found that the most prominent tensional joints J1 aligned to the
greatest s1 are normal to the level galleries. At the same time, compressive forces also act perpendicular
to the level galleries and hence the roof instability prevails only in level galleries. Conversely, the dip
galleries were very stable.
Further, the above findings were considered to be valid in practical field operations. Mine Management
found that the performance of the strike face is better than the dip rise face. They described that “strata
behaviour in strike face was more favourable, as the periodic weighting interval was 12–15 m, unlike
16–20m in dip rise faces and breaker line during weighting is formed near to the face is stronger (Cleats
are perpendicular to the face) unlike the dip rise face where the breaker line is formed away from the face
as cleats are almost parallel to the face”.
A similar stress mapping technique was used in GDK-11A by conducting underground mapping to determine
the reasons for roof instability in dip galleries. These studies, together with mechanical properties and Rock
Mass Rating as input data, three-dimensional numerical modeling was done using FLAC3D to estimate the
optimum orientation of the development roadways vis-à-vis in-situ stresses by CIMFR, Dhanbad.
Similar studies were conducted in the Queen Seam of Padmavathi Khani, in the middle seam of the
Goleti-1 incline, in the GDK-10A mine. In the King Seam of Padmavathi Khani mine, Continuous Miner
Panel in GDK-11 Incl based on detailed field investigations, geotechnical mapping, and underground
observations of development roadways, the orientation of the major and minor horizontal stresses were
established. A numerical model was used to estimate the magnitude of major and minor in-situ horizontal
stresses. The conclusions and recommendations of the scientific study were summarized below:
• The magnitude of major and minor in situ horizontal stresses in the King seam of Padmavathi Khani
mine is found to be 7.15 and 3.68 MPa, respectively (i.e., major in-situ horizontal stress is almost
double minor in-situ horizontal stress).
• The direction of the major in situ horizontal stress is found to be along N 45E for the King seam of
the mine, which is almost perpendicular to the level galleries.

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Based on detailed studies of the Stress regime of the Godavari Valley Coalfield, it was inferred that the
Major trend of lineaments, faults, and Cleat are in NE–SW and tallying with the trend of sH in NE and sh in
NW. Further, it was inferred that the general trend of sH and h derived from the underground geotechnical
mapping is in good agreement with that of the Hydro fracture test results.

Abstract No: 3/033

A qualitative approach in landslide susceptibility along Gauchar-Nandprayag Road,

Chamoli District, Uttarakhand
Ritu Chauhan*, Sandeep Sharma, M.K. Kaistha
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Himalayas remains affected by adverse landslides and it is a persisting problem in every monsoon.
The rapid development of infrastructures in Himalayan terrain in recent times such as railway lines,
roads, storage dams, transportation tunnels, hydroelectric projects, and townships advocates detailed
investigation of landslide-affected zones and their vulnerability. The Chartham route in Kumaun Himalaya
is severely affected by frequent slides, rockfall, subsidence, etc. every year. The present work was focused
on the Gauchar-Nandprayag sector along Rishikesh-Badrinath National Highway (NH-58) (Fig.1), which is
one of the most important pilgrimage routes leading to the famous Badrinath temple in Chamoli district,
Uttarakhand. Physiographically, the area falls in the Lesser Himalayas and forms rugged mountainous
terrain represented by ridges, spurs, and deep valleys with steep slopes. The area is drained by the
Alaknanda River and its tributaries Nandakini and Pinder, which confluence with the Alaknanda River at
Nandprayag and Karnprayag, respectively.

The area comprises rocks of Berinag Formation of Meso-proterozoic Garhwal Group, Meso-Proterozoic
Baijnath Formation/Group, and undifferentiated Quaternary deposits of Pleistocene to Holocene. The
presence of mylonitic rocks, S-C fabrics, folds, and highly sheared rocks, referred to as the Baijnath Thrust
indicates a tectonic contact between the rocks of the Berinag Formation and the Baijnath Formation in the
Nandprayag area along the Gauchar-Nandprayag road.
Lithologically, the area is characterized by quartzite with bands of phyllite, chlorite schist, and pene-
contemporaneous basic flows with large dolerite sills and dykes (now metamorphosed to epidiorite) of

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the Berinag Formation. Whereas, quartz biotite gneiss, quartzite, and granite gneiss of the Baijnath
Formation/Group, as well as bands of mylonite and phyllonite in the vicinity of the Baijnath thrust plane,
are well exposed near Nandprayag. The lithologies on both sides of Baijnath Thrust are highly sheared,
folded, and jointed. The Baijnath Thrust is primarily responsible for high-susceptibility landslide zones in
the Nanadprayag area.
The number of landslide zones has been demarcated with the presence of highly crushed and pulverized
rocks, where rock masses have become friable due to high strain and deformation. Besides, it is the
pervasive weak planes (i.e., joints, foliations, fractures, and fault planes) show poor geotechnical
characteristics, especially in terms of slope stability in the area.
The area along the road is also characterized by the presence of various types of thick overburden materials.
In places, the overburden material is highly prone to debris slide, debris flow, and mudflow in the area. It
is mainly used for agricultural activities, forestry, horticulture, livestock, and off-farm activities. The major
portion of the area is covered by rocky terrain and has sparse and moderate vegetation. A Landslide
study along the road revealed that several zones along the route have been reported to have severe
slope instability and have been the site of numerous landslides in the past and recent past. Wedge failure
and planer failure along the valley dipping open joint planes/ bedding in quartzite have been noticed
and are vulnerable to huge mass movements in between Nandprayag and Langasu areas. Karnaprayag
area due to thick overburden (debris) and a lack of proper drainage outlet systems in villages, making
it highly susceptible to subsidence. For example, the Bahuguna village settlement in the Karnprayag
area is highly vulnerable to subsidence and debris slides due to thick overburden, an improper drainage
outlet system, and road cutting in the downslope portion of the village. The area between Nandprayag
and Pursari village has a number of huge landslides due to the presence of highly crushed rocks in the
vicinity of the Baijnath Thrust Zone and water saturation in the overburden. Big trees and electric poles
are falling in these landslides. The areas near Langasu and Chatuwa Pipal are also vulnerable to intense
mass movement as the rocks are extremely deformed, causing a lowering of the geomechanical strength
of the rocks. Landslide susceptibility assessment in the present study is based on a deterministic cum
heuristic approach to mesoscale (1; 10,000) landslide study. This includes mapping of various qualitative
factors and site-specific, determination of geotechnical properties/ RMR and overburden material (C&
ϕ, grain size analysis, liquid and plastic limit, etc. This integrated basic study is capable to classify the
road stretch in terms of detailed landslide susceptibility. The susceptibility map has been prepared on a
GIS platform using a knowledge-based rating system considering the above quantitative and qualitative
geofactors. LSER rating has been provided to all prepared thematic maps after detailed analysis and
field input. The sum of LSER assigned to various causative factors was considered to calculate the Total
Estimated Susceptibility Values (TESV).

Table no.1: Categorization of TESV into susceptibility classes.

Susceptibility classes Condition when TESV is 10.0 Condition when TESV is 12.0

Low susceptibility TESV< 4.5 TESV< 5.5

Moderate susceptibility 4.5≤ TESV< 6.0 5.5≤ TESV< 7.5

High susceptibility TESV≥ 6.0 TESV ≥ 7.5

The study reveals that 21.65% area falls in the high to very high susceptible category (TESV>6.0), 38.87%
area falls in the moderate susceptible category (4.5≤TESV< 6.0), and the rest 39.48% of area falls in low
to very low susceptible category(TESV< 4.5). The susceptibility map also indicates that 12% of the road
stretch falls within the high to very high susceptibility zone and <8% of the road stretch falls within the
low susceptibility zone. Further, the model has been vetted through the detailed mapping of vulnerable
zones along the road corridor. Based on the detailed study along the road corridor, tentative mitigation
measures (such as the use of retaining walls, wire mesh, shotcrete, plantation, slope modification, proper
drainage, etc.) have been suggested for the vulnerable zones. These will help the stakeholders to design
necessary remedial measures for enhancing the stability of the slopes along the road in the future.

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Abstract No: 3/034

Factors influencing the design seismic coefficient of Shahpurkandi Dam Project, district
Pathankot, Punjab, India
Prashant Tukaram Ilamkar*, Jina Mandal
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Shahpurkandi Dam Project is a multipurpose project under execution across River Ravi, near Pathankot
in Punjab. It envisages a 55.50m high concrete gravity dam with a live storage capacity of 1538 Hec.m.
The water from the dam shall be carried through an open hydel channel with a design discharge capacity
of 385cumecs to the two powerhouses located about 3km and 6km downstream on the left bank of Ravi
with an installed capacity of 205MW. The project is under active construction stage and located about
11 KM downstream of Ranjit Sagar Dam and 7.8km upstream of Madhopur Headworks. Besides power
generation, it will provide a balancing Reservoir to ensure Uniform supply at Madhopur Headworks and to
enable Ranjit Sagar Powerplant to work as a peaking station.
The project area comprises the Upper Siwalik Subgroup boulder bed with sand pockets /lenses. The
Boulder Bed is soft, poorly cemented (calcareous at places) rock and constitutes a heterogeneous mixture
of rounded to sub-rounded boulders of sandstone, gneisses, basic rocks, and quartzite in the clay-silt
matrix. At the top (Non Over Flow Section), it is generally covered by a 14m thick river terrace deposits.
The Project is located on the western fringe of Kangra Seismic Block, which witnesses the historical Kangra
earthquake in the year 1905 and since then this area has been considered in the active tectonic zone.
The Quaternary sequence exposed near the Project shows evidence of neo-tectonism during the late
Quaternary period. The River borne sediments occurred at different levels ie., in the overflow section at El
357.5m, at El381m, and El 391.5m, and different soft sedimentary deformation features like sand dykes,
flame structures, and convolute bedding/lamination in Quaternary sediments exposed in the upstream of
the dam axis indicates that the area is inactive tectonics zone.
The release of stress along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), and Jwalamukhi
Thrust (JMT) may have been responsible for inducing seismicity in the area during the late Quaternary
times which may have caused liquefaction as a direct consequence of permanent deformation of the
ground surface due to earthquakes of large magnitudes (>5 intensity).
The studies carried out based on the local and regional geological conditions, earthquake occurrence,
and seismo-tectonic setup of the region, the horizontal seismic coefficients have been worked out in the
overflow section was 0.2g and for the non-overflow section 0.21g. The vertical acceleration values had
taken as two third of these values.

Abstract No: 3/035

Reactivation of an Old Landslide Zone at Piyakul in the Higher Himalayan Zone of

Jammu and Kashmir: Caveat for the Future Planning
Imran Khan*, Harish Bahuguna
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The southern slopes of the Higher Himalayan Zone are a cradle for heavy summer monsoon peaks
(Bookhagen 2005) and the steep topographic profile provides a steep gradient to the perennial rivers.
This terrain is thus characterized by a high ruggedness, a high wetness, a high relative relief, and a high
stream power index. All these parameters provide a favourable locale for a faster rate of erosion and a
higher rate of landscape lowering and hence the southern slopes of higher Himalayas are dotted with
several landslide incidences, particularly in the vicinity of the influence zone of the Main Central Thrust
(MCT).
An old landslide zone (as identified based on toposheets, imageries, and ground survey) in and around
Piyakul village is located on the right bank of the Kagoni Nala at a distance of around 9.5km from the
Thathri along Thathri-Gandoh road, Doda district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. In the recent past, the
reactivation of this landslide zone has been reported in March 1983, March 2019, and April 2019 which
caused damage to the houses located on the upslope, the Thathri – Gandoh road, agricultural land, forest
land, and loss of human life (5 dead and 7 injured).

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It has an extremely wide distribution area, covering an area of 0.12km2 with a maximum width of 350m
at road level and an estimated volume of 315×104 m3. The landslide area is sandwiched in the splays
of Main Central Thrust (MCT) and comprises higher-grade metamorphic rocks (schist and gneiss) of the
Higher Himalayan Zone.
This paper aims at bringing out the characteristics and failure mechanism of landslides and to evolve/suggest
suitable remedial measures and mitigation strategies. The methodology involved the study of toposheets,
satellite imagery, carrying out topographical surveys and large-scale geological mapping (1:1000 scale),
and collection of bedrock and soil samples for determination of geomechanical/geotechnical properties
to discern the nature, shape, dimension, and other related morphometric features of the landslide and
delineation of lithologies and carrying out stability analysis.
From the analysis of the above-mentioned factors, it is observed that the area is represented by the
moderate slope, west-northwest slope aspect, concave-convex slope curvature, medium to high stream
power index (SPI), topographic ruggedness index (TRI) and topographic wetness index (TWI). The
landslide-affected area is mainly represented by a concave slope indicating that the slope has a high
ability to retain moisture which is supported by the moderate to high TWI of the area.
The entire affected slope is covered by thick overburden material (up to 20m thick) and consists mainly of
angular to sub-angular rock boulders of schist and granite-gneiss embedded in the soil matrix. Numerous
ground cracks of transverse and longitudinal nature have been observed in overburden material and are
subject to severe erosion during rain or snow melt water, resulting in dislodging of rock boulders and
debris material.
This landslide zone exposes rocks (W1 to W2 grade) at road level with scanty rock exposures above the
road level, the primary foliation in the rock which is also the prominent master joint, is moderately dipping
(45°) in the average direction of N210° and has oblique relation with the slope (N280°). The strength of
the rockmass derived through the Deere –Miller approach and by the use of an N-type Schmidt hammer,
indicates that the average uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of schistose belongs to R3 to R4 category
(50 - 100 Mpa) whereas RQD of the rock mass varies from 42 to 75. The rockmass rating indicates poor
to very poor category (Class IV –V) rock mass whereas as per Slope mass rating the rockmass belongs to
the normal to very bad category (Class III –V).
The geogenic contributory factors have been identified as i) huge palaeo landslide dump material (up
to 20m), ii) unconsolidated overburden material, iii) severe erosion by surface/sub-surface water, iv)
presence of several ground cracks and v) de-stressing towards the free face of the slope. The geogenic
causative factors include i) Palaeo landslide dump comprises of loose assorted rock boulders embedded in
the soil matrix, ii) pore water pressure, iii) washing away of the fines due to piping action, and iv) absence
of drains causing percolation of surface runoff in the slope forming material resulting oversaturation of
material. The presence of a vertical cliff on the left fringe and in the crown portion of the landslide is also
supporting evidence, indicating slope failure in the past. The above causative factors play a significant
role in the failure of slope-forming material. Therefore, the combination of all these factors along with any
triggering factors (rainfall, snow water, and earthquakes) has affected the slope stability of the region.
The triggering mechanism for the recent reactivation in palaeo- landslide dump material was mainly
rainfall which continued for two to three days.
The element of risk is the habitation at the mid-slope range and the Thathri – Gandoh road at the lower
reach. This study enriches the researcher’s understanding of the identification of old landslide zones in the
Himalayan belt and spells out a certain caveat to deal with such slopes in the Himalayan region.

Abstract No: 3/036

Geological and geotechnical apprisal of Kuligarh-Drabshalla Landslide, Kishtwar

District, UT: Jammu and Kashmir, Jammu
Tarsam Kumar *, Harish Bahuguna
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Landslides are one of the major disasters in the Himalayan terrain and they always put human habitations
and infrastructural facilities at a high element of risk. The construction of roads in the Himalayan region
and particularly in Jammu and Kashmir has always been a tedious and challenging task.
National Highway (NH-244) links Udhampur with the far-flung areas of the Doda and Kishtwar district and
it got affected at Kuligarh due to a landslide zone known as Kuligarh-Drabshalla landslide. The reactivation
of this landslide zone in the past few years has severally affected the famous pilgrimage to Machail Mata
and connections to the rural areas, thus, hampering the socio-economics of the region.
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Physiographically, the area lies in the Lesser Himalayan zone, characterized by high ridges of the Salkhala
Formation. The topography of the area exhibits a distinct control of structural features and lithological
variations. The area is drained by the Chenab River and its tributaries.
The rock types exposed at the site are schistose gneiss and schist, which are slightly to moderately
weathered (W1-W2) and are strong (Gneiss-R4) to moderately strong (Schist-R3).
Detailed geological mapping on the 1:1000 scale was carried out to bring out the different morphological
details of the slide zone. Bedrocks and undisturbed soil samples were collected from the various parts to
determine the geotechnical /geomechanical properties of SFM to carry out the geotechnical appraisal of
this slide zone.
The upper part of the head portion is occupied by overburden material and the rest part of the head
portion wherein in situ rocks are exposures are seen. A part of the overburden has already failed in the
previous years in this part and it has left a vertical slip face. The rock mass exposed in the head portion
is moderately weathered W2-W3, which has an adverse effect on the strength of the rock mass. The open
joints provide avenues for the entry of the surface water along them and present an adverse condition for
the stability of the slope. Joint sets (J3 &J4) are making structural wedges on the slope of the head portion.
So, the head reach is assessed as an unstable zone.
In the belly portion, mostly rock exposures are seen, except for the part between EL±1025m and
EL±1105m wherein accumulation of slide debris with rock boulders is seen. The rock mass exposed in
the belly portion is slightly to moderately weathered W1-W2. As per RMR, the rockmass falls in Class IV
(poor category) to Class III (fair category), whereas SMR indicates the rock mass is in a bad category.
Kinematic analysis reveals that the failure patterns in the belly part are mainly structurally controlled.
Therefore, the belly portion of the side zone is appraised as an unstable zone.
The toe portion between NH-244 and Chenab River is mostly occupied by slide debris material with
intermittent exposures of the rock mass on either side of it. The heap of debris at the bottom acts as
the toe support for part of this zone, particularly in the active scar portion. This is a favourable condition
for stability in upslope reach. Signatures of the earlier wedge failures are explicitly discernible in the
toe portion of this slide zone. Therefore, the toe portion of the slide zone is evaluated as meta-stable to
unstable.
The upstream part of this slide zone has a rugged profile, which is indicative of past failures from this
zone, which appears to be structurally controlled wedges failures. This part is occupied by an in-situ rock
near the river bed level and also near the NH-244, whereas the remaining part is occupied by overburden/
slopewash material with intermittent exposures of in-situ rock peeping through it. The exposures of schist
exhibit a moderate grade of weathering (W3). As per RMR the mass in this zone is poor to fair category
(RMR= Class-III to Class–IV) and SMR reveals rock mass is of a bad category (SMR= Class–IV). The
strength of the rock mass is also in the range of 31 and 57 Mpa. This part of the slide is assessed as
meta-stable.
The downstream flank of the slide zone is occupied by overburden/slope wash material. The intermittent
rock exposures are seen only near the margin with the active scar or at the level of the NH-244. No sign
of slope movement or ground crack has been observed, which is a favourable condition for this part of the
slide zone. Palaeo-slide dump has been noticed at ±El 1210m in this zone, from where boulders may roll
down during the heavy and prolonged rainfall, which can cause untoward incidents at the lower level i.e
at NH-244. Hence, the downstream part of the slide zone is appraised as meta-stable.
The presence of debris/slopewash material and cracks near the active slide scar on the upstream flank of
the slide zone might have contributed to the overall instability. The sub-parallel orientation of the beds
vis-à-vis the slope direction has been identified as a major contributing factor to slope failure. The open
joints are providing an avenue for the entrance of surface water along them and which could have led to
the development of active stress in the form of piezometric head/stress. The erosion of the Chenab River
is identified as one of the major geogenic causative factors. Anthropogenic interference such as road
widening might have contributed to the failure of this slope. As far as the failure mechanism is concerned
this slide zone, is a structurally controlled failure triggered by toe erosion and road widening activities
along NH-244. Two modes of failure are ascertained at the site viz. planar failure along the J1 plane and
wedge failure by the intersection of joint J1, J2, J3, and J4.
This paper is an attempt to decipher the geotechnical aspects which might have attributed to the frequent
recurrence of landsliding at Kuligarh-Drabshalla. Grading of the slope, rock bolting, and suitably designed
cable anchors, etc are some of the suggested remedial measures to stabilise or mitigate this slide
zone. Hence, the findings of this investigation will help the stakeholders in planning the mitigation and
management strategies for this major slide zone.
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Abstract No: 3/037

Landslide hazard studies using bivariate statistical method in the Geo-environs of Chamba
Township, Northwestern Himalayas
Wangshitula Ozukum*, Manisha Biswal, Atul Kohli
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Landslide constitutes the most frequently occurring geo-environmental hazard in the state of Himachal
Pradesh in the North-western Himalayas. Immature Geology and various geofactors coupled with heavy
rainfall and anthropogenic activities cause instability to hill slopes resulting in landslides/slope failures
presenting a risk to life and property. In the study area, the slope instability is usually controlled by
geological causes viz. unstable steep slopes, weak rock mass, and intense precipitation, and further
enhanced by unplanned urbanization, extended deforestation, changes in land use pattern, road
construction, and widening activities. It is, therefore, essential to understanding landslide susceptibility
in the area to understand landslide susceptible zones of varying intensities. In the present study, an
application of the Geographic Information System (GIS) for landslide hazard assessment in and around
Chamba township in Ravi River Valley, North-western Himalaya, using a bivariate statistical method is
attempted. In this method, the binary association between landslides/slope failures and their possible
geo-environmental causes like slope gradient, slope aspect, Land Use Land Cover, Slope Forming Material,
Regolith Thickness, Geomorphology, and Drainage, is calculated using GIS Frequency ratio and Yule
Coefficient (Yc). Out of the total of 279 landslides mapped during field and satellite-based studies, 209
landslides (75%) were used for preparing the landslide susceptibility model while 70 landslides (25%)
were used for validation of the landslide susceptibility model. Based on the results of the analysis, it
is observed that X (24.63%), y (33.35%), and Z (42.02%) landslides fall in High, Moderate, and Low
susceptibility zones respectively. From the point of view of the accuracy of the model, it is stated that
the Landslide Susceptibility Map (LSM) generated was validated by the receiver operating characteristic
(ROC) curve that shows the results of the area under the curve (AUC) are 77.7% and 77.2% for Yule
Coefficient and Frequency ratio model, which in turn signifies good accuracy in identification of landslide
susceptibility zones for the study area based on the present study. The present LSM studies can lead to
the identification of slopes that are vulnerable to landslides/slope failures. It would always be better to
study the vulnerable slopes analytically based on select geotechnical properties of the susceptible slopes
and that way would be useful to plan for suitable remedial measures. It is to further state here that
based on the present study, appropriate measures were suggested for failure affected/prone slopes and
areas. Nevertheless, the present study would be useful while planning for developmental activities in the
study area like the construction of roads, bridges, buildings, etc. as it presents a first-hand idea about
various zones of landslide susceptibility on the present scale. The study can also be useful for similar
geoenvironments.

List of Figures:
1. Location Map

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2. Landslide Susceptibility Map

3. Field Photographs (Subsidence near Chamba bus stand in T.S. No. 52D/02
(Lat: 32.553434N, Long: 76.122010E)

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Abstract No: 3/038

Reappraisal of landslides catastrophe and mitigation with special emphasis on

geotechnical inputs for restoration of the distressed sites, Nilgiris district, Tamil Nadu
K. Jayabalan1*, P. Jeevanantham2
1
Geological Survey of India (Dy. DG (Retd.)), Disaster Management Department, Collectorate, Tamil Nadu
2
Disaster Management Department, Collectorate, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The Nilgiris (Queen of Hills) is located in the southwestern parts of India on the Western Ghats and
is prone to high hazards as per the landslide hazard zonation map of India. Landslide is an enigmatic
problem in the Nilgiris district, Tamil Nadu, occurs mostly as debris/earth slides, debris flow slides, and
cut slope failures, triggered by high-intensity of rainfall during southwest and northeast monsoons from
June to December, though they are individually smaller in dimension but occurs with a high frequency
causes substantial damages to the loss of lives and properties. In addition, slope modification for cash
crops cultivations, rapid urbanization, improper drainage systems, vertical cuts for civil constructions,
widening of roads, deforestation, and other anthropogenic activities are the other causative factors for
the inducement of landslides in the Nilgiris.

Geologically the study areas comprise charnockite and its retrograded product of variegated gneisses
with enclaves of mafic and ultramafic rocks traversed by both acid and basic intrusive of the Archaean
age. Hard duricrust is underlain by saprolite, lithomarge, and weathered rocks of various grades exhibits
along the hill slope. The charnockite and quartzo-feldspathic gneiss ± garnet exhibit as scarp faces, at
places. Laterite is predominant and extensively covered the higher reaches of the massifs. High intensity
of weathering due to unprecedented rainfall and drought leads to thick overburden lying over the bedrock
along the hill slope and becomes unstable under wet conditions. Available subsurface data reveals that
the overburden thickness ranges from 0.5m to 30m. Massive charnockite shows faint foliation rather than
weathered rock. The regional foliation trend shows ENE-WSW with steep to moderate dips on either side.
Many lineaments are transecting the Nilgiris hills and several of them are compatible with the fracture
zones and multiple thin shear zones on the ground.

Landslide studies in Nilgiris were initiated way back in the 18th Century (Banza et al 1824). In the recent
past, unprecedented monsoon rains due to climate resilience have triggered numerous landslides in
Nilgiris since 1979, as a result, damages to the properties, loss of lives, interruption of the transportation
corridors, etc. Considering the techno-Econo and tourist importance of the Nilgiris, several organizations
including the Nodal agency (GSI) for landslide studies and academic institutions were carrying out landslide
investigations on various scales and classified the Nilgiris massifs into different susceptible zones (more
to least susceptible) and also suggested mitigative measures where geotechnical inputs for suggesting
appropriate support measures were lacking, hence the problems in Nilgiris persist. The landslides may be a
Global phenomenon in the hilly terrain but the support measures need to be provided as per the prevailing
site condition based on the geotechnical parameters for restoration of the distressed vulnerable sites as
a permanent solution. Therefore, the present paper deals with the reassessments of identified vulnerable
hot spots which are prone to landslides, chief triggering factors, slope stability analysis to find out the
factor of safety under wet and dry conditions, hydrology and its impact on slope stability for restoration
based on different geo-parameters with significant geotechnical inputs which would undoubtedly help
the state and district administrations for proper planning and execution and also help the stakeholders,
academicians, and user agencies for sustainable development of the Nilgiris.

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Abstract No: 3/039

Geological assessment and geotechnical appraisal of the proposed National Institute

of Technology at Sumari in Srinagar, Garhwal, Uttarakhand
Sebabrata Das *, Harsharaj L. Wankhade, Neetu Chauhan, Vinay
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Landslides and slope failures are a very common phenomenon in the Himalayan terrain causing loss of
lives and infrastructures. Recent disasters like the Kedarnath disaster, Chamoli flash floods, etc. in the
Himalayas made geological vis-a-vis geotechnical investigation a mandate prior to infrastructural planning
in the Himalayas. National Institute of Technology (NIT), Srinagar Garhwal, an institute of national
importance, is located in the flood plains of the Alaknanda River and possess a threat to natural hazards
like flash floods. Hence, Govt. agencies have opined to shift NIT from its present location to Sumari village
for which geological assessment and geotechnical appraisal of the proposed site have been carried out.
The proposed area is comprised of 300 acres of land wherein various infrastructures like academic blocks,
hostels, departments, libraries, etc. are proposed.
The area comprises rocks of the Neo-proterozoic Jaunsar Group belonging to Chandpur and Nagthat
Formation consisting mainly of phyllites, schists, and quartzites along with undifferentiated Quaternary
deposits of Pleistocene to Holocene age. The contact of Chandpur formation and Nagthat formation is
gradational and passes through the area. The rocks of the Jaunsar Group are folded into an asymmetrical
synform. The axial trace of the synform trends WNW-ESE direction and is parallel to the North Almora
Thrust. The axial trace of the synform passes through the Nala located in the south of the study area.
The general trend of the rock is 40⁰-60⁰ dipping towards 50⁰-70⁰ into the hill. The area is represented by
subdued topography having relative relief of 343m where the lowest elevation is 909m and the highest
elevation is 1252m. There is a prominent NE-SW trending ridge passing to the north of Govt. Inter College
(GIC) lies in the north-eastern part of the proposed area and is composed of phyllites. The ground slope
of the area varies from gentle to steep with some escarpments at places. The southern and south-eastern
part of the area represents gentle to moderate slopes (0°-30°) with some patchy areas of steep slopes
(30⁰-45⁰). The north-western and south-western part of the area is dominated by steep slopes and
escarpments >45⁰. These areas are composed mainly of quartzites. The area is dissected by many 1st
order drains/nalas which are mostly seasonal and originate from the slopes. The nalas originating from
the slopes in the northern part meet an E-W trending Nala downstream. There are numerous 1st order
streams finally originating from the southern slopes that flow all along the slope length and finally meet
the main (E-W) trending stream further downslope beyond the study area. The slope-forming material is
mostly slope wash and regolith with a thickness of 0.5 to 1 meter near the ridge and 4-5 meters in the
downslope.
Stability assessments along various slopes covering the proposed layout plan were carried out to
understand the behaviour of various joints along different slopes. Potential failure planes along various
slope profiles were identified which may cause slope instability problems during construction. Moreover, it
is apprehended that the excavation during the construction of various amenities/blocks and the approach
road between various blocks may change the existing slope profile and equilibrium, which may lead to
instability in places.

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Abstract No: 3/040

Surface deformation monitoring in and around Mangan area, North Sikkim with
coherent point target interferometry
Mrinmoy Kr Das*, Dhananjai Verma, P. K. Theophilus, M. Chasie, S. K. Das and A. K. Mishra
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Several large to very large, prominent, and recurring landslides have impacted life in and around
Manganarea, North Sikkim district, Sikkim. During the last few years, the slope instability including
landslides and subsidences along North Sikkim Highway (NSH) has been posing threat to human life,
infrastructure, and communication. Recurring rockslides, debris slides, and ground subsidence zones
such as the Lanta Khola landslide, Mayang Chu rockslide, Manul landslide, Ambithang landslide, Dzongu
rockslide, etc., and zones of ground subsidence in and around Mangan town, Singhik, etc. often disrupt
and cut off communication to rest of the country.
InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) is a robust remote sensing technique, used worldwide
to study ground displacement and monitoring of landslide movement. The main advantage of using InSAR
is that a single SAR scene has wide aerial coverage, (e.g.Sentinel-1 (IW mode) extends up to 250km ×
250km area) and high temporal frequency with 12 days repetivity enabling monitoring of landslides in real-
time. In IPTA (Interferometric Point Target Analysis) InSAR technique, numerous coherent point targets
are generated by applying a threshold and an interferogram has to be generated from these coherent
targets. The measurement in centimeters/millimeters is generated for these coherent interferogram
points.
A field study carried out during 2020-2022 has helped to identify 03 nos of active debris slides and
01 no of rockslide in the study area. These landslides along with other probable slides/ subsidence
have been studied using the freely available Sentinel-1A SAR data downloaded from Copernicus Hub.
The data downloaded consists of 89 ascending pass scenes and 91 descending pass scenes ranging
from January 2019 to December 2021. In the IPTA processing in GAMMA software, these datasets were
selected pass-wise (both ascending and descending) to generate single master interferograms. The point
targets/ permanent scatterers (PS) in the form of pixels were identified using the criteria of amplitude
dispersion and spectral diversity. The PS pixels were unwrapped iteratively, considering a linear model
for the deformation behaviour. The residual atmospheric contributions and topographical errors were
estimated and subtracted from the PS pixels phases. The IPTA results show 93 target points falling in 04
nos of active landslides for the ascending pass datasets (Fig. 1) and 05 target points falling in one active
landslide for the descending pass datasets (Fig. 2). The IPTA results generated also show target points
showing movement in the urban areas near to Ambithang landslide, Old Mangan Bazaar Debris slide,
Singhik area, etc. The IPTA-derived deformation estimates and their correlation with the deformations
on the ground can be used in constraining the input data (ascending, descending) and effective areas for
monitoring potential are as using a procedure based on the IPTA technique.

Abstract No: 3/041

Detailed geological investigation of Pulinda Landslide, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand

Ravi Negi*, Sebabrata Das
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The higher reaches of Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas of Uttarakhand experienced unprecedented
rainfall (~ 590mm) within two days from 15th to 17th June 2013. The incessant rainfall triggered a large
number of landslides and debris flows leading to slope instability affecting several communication routes
and damming the trunk river systems. Besides this, the catastrophe reactivated several old landslides
overwhelming habitations and took a heavy toll on life and property. The vicious Pulinda landslide, located
15km from Kotdwar town along the Kotdwar-Ramriroad in the Pauri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand,
was reactivated during the period causing subsidence of Pulinda village. The slide was first reported in
the early 1970s, which in the due course of time took a huge shape. Located at the elevation of 97 m to
1151m AMSL, the slide almost reaches the ridge of the hill. The Pulinda village situated on the opposite
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side of the ridge is confined within the elevation of 1115m to 1095m. A first-order nala originates within
the village at an elevation of 1102m and flows towards the east which joins the Bahera Gad to the North
of the village.
The ill-famed Pulinda slide is a huge rock slide with a funnel shape and is conspicuously widening in
nature. The area exposes sandstones of the Siwalik Group interlayered with claystone and mudstone. The
compact and indurated sandstone of Lower Siwaliks is thrusted over by relatively less compact coarse-
grained sandstone of Middle Siwalik along the Pulinda thrust which passes through the Pulinda landslide.
The presence of Pulinda thrust in the area led to the intense crushing of rocks and the development of
discontinuities. The crown of the slide is located at the El±1112m and is marked by a prominent scarp
and the toe of the slide is located at EL±975m. The length of the slide is 205 m with a width of 238m and
a height of 137m. The sliding face is barren and rocky dissected by innumerable deep gullies exposing
several seepage sites in the contact zone of clay/mudstone with sandstone.
Of the ten slope classes defined in the vicinity of the slide area, the higher slope class (40-90⁰) is
dominantly occupied with barren rocky slopes and scree material whereas the lower slope classes (0-
35⁰) are occupied by settlements, cultivated land, and thick vegetation. The main slide faces towards the
south and maximum failure were observed along the west and northwest-facing slopes which is due to
the daylighting of the conjugate joints. The valley-facing joints exposed in the area show planar failure at
critical slope inclination. The slide area is dominated by a highly concave and highly convex slope. While
the former facilitates the movement of surface runoff resulting in the reduction of shear stress, the latter
leads to an increase in the pore pressure of the material. Numerous dry gullies present within the slide
face corroborate the fact that the effect of surface runoff on the slope plays a vital role in its failure. Grain
sizes analysis and coefficient of uniformity; indicate the soils to be classified as poorly sorted gravelly
sand with low fines. Grain size distribution indicates that the void ratio is less as compared to uniformly
graded soil and has low permeability. The plasticity index (Ip) and the values of the Atterberg limit reflect
clayey nature with a low plasticity index and liquid limit. The density of the rock samples varies from 2.50
to 2.54 g/cm3 and the UCS of the rock samples ranges between 79.06 to 77.81N/m3. One of the samples
shows an abnormally low value of UCS, i.e. 14.33N/m3 whereas its specific gravity remains comparable
with the other samples. This is interpreted to be due to the impact of thrusting in the area.
Detailed geological investigation of 0.25 sq. km subsidence-affected areas of Pulinda village was carried
out on a 1:1000 scale. Three longitudinal profiles were delineated for slope stability assessment along the
profile sections. Planar and wedge failure analyses were carried out using stereographic projection and
Factor of Safety (FOS) to evaluate the causative factors of landslide incidence and to suggest site-specific
mitigation and remedial measures. Kinematic analysis of joints along three different profile sections (A-
B, C-D, and E-F) was carried out to understand the behaviour of different joint sets vis-a-vis demarcated
slope profiles. In profile A-B, the upper slope is very unstable and prone to planar and wedge failures.
The middle part appears to be stable due to the shallower slope acting as a zone of accumulation for the
failed slope material. The lower slope segment remains stable in dry conditions but becomes progressively
unstable during the rainy season. During periodic rain, the FOS value of the lower slope segment may
substantially decrease leading to slope failure which in turn will destabilize the middle slope resulting
in the failure of the entire slope. In profile C-D, no joints pass through the critical zone, indicating little
chance of planar and wedge failure along this section. However, the probability of planar and wedge failure
may increase with the increase in slope angle owing to intense gully erosion or ongoing anthropogenic
activities. Along profile E-F, the intersection of joints falls in the critical zone indicating the wedge to be
unstable and prone to failure.
The causative factors of the slide include reactivation of the slide due to saturation and erosion of slopes
by the gullies within the slide area; the presence of Pulinda Thrust within the slide zone; the presence
of alternating clay/mudstone within the sandstone acting as a fissile plane for sliding; and presence of
numerous gullies within the slope face that accentuate erosion during monsoon leading to the removal
of a substantial amount of slope material resulting in destabilizing the slope. Moreover, the rocks are
intensely jointed and their daylighting along various slopes causes planar and wedge failures, particularly
on the slopes with higher inclinations. In addition, internal seepage reduces the normal stress to the
effective stress which in turn further reduces the shear stress of the material leading to slope failure. It
has been observed that the steeper slopes, with a slope angle of more than 45°, are more vulnerable to
failures in all conditions, which is true for the entire Himalayan areas.
The remedial and mitigation measures to be resorted to include the removal of overhangs and precarious
rock blocks along the slope; implanting joint-specific rock bolts; applying shotcrete with wire mesh on the
freshly exposed rock face to seal the opened joints and prevent percolation of water; training and lining
of gullies on slide face and the nala flowing through the village to prevent side scouring; usage of geo-
textiles for slope stabilization; and promoting plantation along the slope.

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Abstract No: 3/042

Three dimensional numerical simulation using Strength Reduction Technique of

Ambithang Landslide, Mangan, North Sikkim district, Sikkim, India
Verma D*., Chasie M., Rajkumar M., Kumar M. D., Theophilus P. K., Mishra A., K.
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Landslide mapping and assessment of slope stability are essential components of mitigation planning and
execution, instrumentation for monitoring, and site-specific Early Warning. Mapping a landslide on the
ground is a tedious exercise and requires high-level expertise to define its geometry, identify the causative
factors, mechanism of failure, and field-based stability assessment. The stability analysis provides
quantitative parameters for defining the stability of the slopes. A stability analysis model output is directly
related to the goodness of the mapped landslide on the ground. The Ambithang landslide is situated on
the upslope of the E-W trending Ambithang Nala, which is located on the North Sikkim Highway between
Rangrang and Mangan in Sikkim along NH-310A that passes through the active slide area. The area lies
near the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and is characterized by highly undulating and rugged topography.
Researchers use two-dimensional numerical models to simulate the FOS using the Limit Equilibrium
Method (LEM). Wherein failure surface is assumed and the Factor of safety (FS) is calculated along pre-
defined longitudinal sections along assumed zones or areas of expected failure surfaces. Whereas, three-
dimensional FEM-based slope stability analysis studies provide a better understanding and visualization
of the mechanism of slope failure if the selection of area for modelling is well defined.
In this study, an evaluation of the 3D FEM numerical analysis for the assessed unstable areas at Ambhithang
has been carried out. The geological mapping along with site characterization of the Ambithang landslide
was carried out through the mapping of various identifiable geomorphic and geologic features, using
the 3D TLS point cloud and DGPS survey in RTK mode. The slope forming material at the site comprises
garnetiferous mica schist interbanded with quartzite, paleo-slide debris material, loose slide debris
material, colluviums, and boulder-laden debris. The numerical modelling has been done using Midas
(GTS NX software), using the topographic contour representing the entire slide area including NH310A,
to derive the instability zones. The simulation indicates strain built up near NH 310A, showing a possible
circular failure surface (Fig1a), with a FOS value of 2.1 in dry condition and 1.47 in saturated condition
showing a 30% reduced value. The output showed maximum displacement at the crown part (Fig1b)
in comparison to the toe part. It is inferred that the crown is susceptible to failure in the case of an
increase in the saturation of slope forming material due to the percolation of water. Proper drainage and
channelizing the water from the slope can be helpful in reducing the driving force during monsoons for
improving the stability condition.

Fig. 1a. Showing the surface of Fig. 1b. Showing the possible circular
strain accumulation failure surface

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Abstract No: 3/043

Geological investigation of Balianala Landslide: an altered perspective and

engineering geological solution
Mridul Srivastava*, Sebabrata Das, Adrija Chatterjee
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The slopes around Nainital township is vulnerable to failure since the 1890s during which a massive
landslide, particularly in the Sher-ka-Danda hill, caused havoc to the settlements. Balianala landslide
is one of the landslides initiated in the early decades of 1890 which continues to fail and becomes
a sensation for geologists and geotechnical engineers worldwide. Balianala landslide is located on the
right bank of Balia nala and is situated in the south of Nainital lake on Nainital-Haldwani road. Balianala
landslide is a huge rock slide having a length of 300 m, a width of 223m, and a height of 233m in height.
The crown of the slide is located at about El±1865m and is marked by a prominent scarp whereas the
toe lies at about El±1632m near the Balianala bed. The slide faces East with an average slope of about
55°. The slide is retrogressive in nature and the slide face is barren. The crown portion of the slide
comprises massive weathered dolomite of Jarassi formation of Krol Group whereas the toe part consists
of greenish grey shale of Mahi formation of Krol Group. Overall the rocks have a dip of about 45°-50°
dipping towards 315°-325°. Due to the presence of the Balianala Fault, the rocks in the area are intensely
crushed, jointed, and fractured. Apart from that number of faults is present in the Balia Nala section and
they have an overall varying attitude between 15°-30° towards 305°-315°. The contact of dolomite and
shale passes through the landslide and lies within the slide body. Two seepages were observed in the slide
face which is located at a distance of about 120m and lies at El±1782m. Surprisingly both the seepages
are located at the contact of dolomite and shale. The area behind the crown of the slide is occupied with
dense habitation and a portion of the GIC (Govt. Inter College) playground got damaged during the
landslide in the year 2018. The evidence of subsidence in the area is manifested by the cracks developed
in the houses. Balianala originates at El±1937m at the outfall of the Nainital Lake and has a flow length
of approx. 2.7 km up to Brewery bridge at El±1410m (approx.). The nala flows with a steep gradient
(~40°) and causes deep incisions on the slopes along both banks. Intense scouring by the nala is evident
all through the course of the Balianala. As per the Survey of India topographic map (1:5000 scale), the
nala bed near the slide zone was at about 1750m in the year 1978-79 and at present, the nala bed lies
at El±1730m, which indicates a rapid down-cutting of the nala bed. The average rate of scouring is about
0.5m per year.

Few Causative factors of the slide

The shale (soft rock) is overlain by dolomite (hard and resistant rock) in the area. The specific gravity
of dolomite is higher than that of shale. The incompetent shale does not seem to bear the load of the
overlying dolomite and creates instability in the slope. Moreover, the habitations in the crown portion also
add load to the crown portion of the slide.
• The presence of a major tectonic feature namely, the Balianala Fault associated with several minor
sympathetic faults in the area worsens the quality of the rock mass resulting in very poor quality
of slope forming material (RMR value ranges between 35-40).
• The disposition of the joint sets present in the rock mass facilitates planar and wedge failure in
the area.
• The spring points and the flow of water along undefined channels saturate the slope forming
material and facilitate a reduction in the shear parameters of the slope forming material and turn
add to the slope instability.
• Balianala flows with a steep gradient (more than 40°) causing intense erosion of the slopes on
both banks as well as the nala bed due to the high velocity of the water. Shale on the nala bed and
lower portion of the slopes on either bank gets eroded more rapidly and intensely due to its soft
nature. As such the remedial measures provided in the recent past, in the form of retaining walls
get redundant due to the scouring of the nala bed.
• The slope particularly on the right bank of the Balianala below the GIC ground is very steep (>55°)
and the toe of the slope is also being eroded by the nala also adds to the slope instability problem.

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Tentative remedial measures may be adopted to contain the slide.

1. The velocity of the flow of Balianala is reduced by proper maintenance of the existing check dams
or construction of new check dams across the nala, particularly in the slide-affected area. This will
resist the erosion of the nala bed as well as the toe of the slopes on either bank.
2. The nala bed for about 500m stretches particularly in the slide-affected zone may be lined with
high-strength material to prevent scouring of the nala bed and bank erosion.
3. High scouring areas of the nala bed may be filled with some impervious material to stop further
scouring.
4. The toe of the slope may be supported with a properly designed retaining structure. These
structures should be founded on bedrock. If in-situ firm rock is not available at a reasonable depth,
the retaining wall should be designed in such a way that the unit load on the foundation is as low
as possible.
5. A properly designed lined contour drain may be provided to keep the slope well drained and dry.
6. The retaining structures in the form of boulder crates, boulder pitching, or dry masonry retaining
wall will provide proper passage to the water during rains and avoid the development of pore
pressure.
7. Fast growing plants with deep and well branching network roots may be planted on the benches to
reduce the surface erosion of the slope forming material.
8. All the tension cracks and fissures in the area are to be sealed with low weight properly designed
material.
9. The excess water of the lake which passes into the Balianala through the sluices may be diverted
through lined contour drainage so that the amount of water passing through Balianala may be
reduced.

Abstract No: 3/044

Remote sensing and GIS based Landslide mapping for the assessment of the impact
of hydropower projects on landslides in Himalayas
Anish Mohan*, Vipul Nagar, Naveen Kumar Pandey
NHPC
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Landslides are one of the recurrent natural phenomena that are widespread throughout the world, especially
in mountainous areas. The Himalayan range is the youngest chain of mountains occupied by a complex
geological setup. Natural reasons such as complex geology, drainage pattern, eroding hydraulic regimes,
groundwater conditions, and many anthropogenic reasons make the Himalayas vulnerable to landslides
and associated disasters. Landslide mapping and assessment of the impact of infrastructure projects on
landslides is essential to understand the causative effect towards mitigating associated disasters.
Geographic Information systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing based landslide mapping and assessment of
the impact of infrastructure and hydropower projects on landslides have proven to be a reliable and fast
technique that can cover large study areas for a considerable period.
The paper portrays the utilization of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing for the
mapping of landslides and assessment of the triggering impact of a hydropower project on landslides
in the Himalayas. Few case studies of hydropower projects are presented to represent the impact of a
hydropower project on landslides. To carry out the study, satellite imageries from various agencies of the
considerable period; viz. before construction as well as after the commissioning of projects have been
utilized. Corona Declass, Landsat 4 & 5 MSS, Landsat 7 (ETM+), Landsat 8 (OLI) Sentinel-2, IRS series
Cartosat PAN and LISS-IV satellite imageries have been utilized as per requirement.
The landslide mapping and assessment of the impact of hydropower projects on landslides utilizing
Geographical Information System and Remote Sensing suggest that this is one of the fast & reliable, cost-
effective, and promising tools to carry out such studies in the Himalayan region.

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Abstract No: 3/045

Geological problems encountered in Diversion tunnel of Arun-3 HEP Nepal (900MW)

during excavation in Himalayan Geology
Arun Dhiman, Rakesh Sehgal*, R. K. Chauhan
SAPDC Limited, Nepal
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Arun-3HEP (900MW) is located in Sankuwasabha Dist. of Eastern Nepal. This project is planned on the
Arun river and is under construction by the SAPDC company (Solely owned Govt company of SJVN ltd
India) working in Nepal. This project has an 80m high concrete dam, 12 km long and 9.5 m dia of head
race tunnel for design discharge of 344.68 cumecs, 149m deep and 24m dia surge shaft, two horizontal
and vertical steel lined shafts, underground powerhouse and TRT compleX, etc. Excavation of various
types of tunnels in Himalayan geology is a very tough task for the development of projects in India, Nepal,
and Bhutan as experienced from tunnel excavation in various hydropower projects during last 35years.

Various types of problems like cavity formation, chimney formation, reveling of ground, high ingress
of water, hot water zones, squeezing conditions, swelling conditions, and high-stress problems are
encountered during the excavation of tunnels in Himalayan geology. Such types of problems not only
delayed the projects but caused cost overruns of the projects. Out of above mentioned problems,
geological problems were encountered in the Diversion tunnel of Arun-3 HEP in Nepal. Subsidence of the
surface took place above the diversion tunnel and huge debris flow in the tunnel for 100m length toward
the outlet portal with debris, soil, clay, boulders rock fragments, and ingress of water, etc. The face of the
tunnel was blocked and it took about one year to tackle this problem. This paper is focused on the problem
encountered, the geology of the diversion tunnel, the methodology adopted to tackle this problem and
lesson learned.

Abstract No: 3/046

Seismic Hazard Microzonationin in and around Kozhikode, Kerala, India- An

integrated approach
Rahul Dhiman*, Animesh Thakur, Ali Asger, Sasmita Naik, Kunal Kumar Singh,
A. B. Ekka, B.P. Rawat, D. Livingston, R. Balaji, S. K. Tripathi
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Seismic Hazard Micro-Zonation (SHMZ) deals with the classification of the area into discrete zones, which
are likely to respond similarly in case of any impending earthquake, based on the probability of manifestation
of earthquake related hazards. In general, such a societal scientific programme has become a mandate
after the continuous occurrences of several moderate to large devastating earthquakes in the recent past
within the Indian Peninsular Shield, which was once considered a Seismically Stable Continental Region.
Further, most of the coastal part of peninsular India comprises unconsolidated Quaternary sediments,
falling in the seismic zone III of the seismic zonation map of India (IS: 1893-Part-1, 2002). SHMZ study
of Kozhikode Urban Agglomeration has been carried out covering an area of 300 sq. km. located between
latitude N11°07ʹ20ʺ to N11°23ʹ00ʺ and longitude E75°43ʹ23ʺ to E75°55ʹ00ʺ. Geologically, the Kozhikode
area comprises Quaternary sediments/laterite (Upper Tertiary) which are underlain by crystalline rocks
of Archaean age with varied geomorphological landforms of coastal, denudational, and fluvial origins.
Surface geological mapping on a 1:25,000 scale reveals that 2% of the area is covered by hard rocks
such as charnockite and hornblende biotite gneiss, about 43% of the area comprises lateritic hill, 40%
of the study area is covered by Quaternary sediments (both marine and fluvial, where the shaking may
accelerate in case of near/ far - source earthquakes). The remaining 15% area is covered by lateritic clay,
an admixture of yellowish to reddish brown silty/sandy clay with fragments of laterite, mostly found along
the slope and the valley area between lateritic hills.

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To understand the seismicity of this region the earthquake catalog and seismotectonic map have been
prepared by collecting the data within a 300km radial distance from the study area. Including offshore
seismic events, a total of 135 events of magnitude > 3.0Mw within this area, have been recorded since
1823. Out of these, 102 events were in the magnitude range of 3.0 to 4.0Mw, 31 events were in the
magnitude range of 4.1 to 5.0Mw, and 2 events were recorded in the magnitude range of 5.0 to 5.7Mw.
Analysis of seismotectonic data carried out to arrive at the seismic parameters as relevant to the study
revealed, b = 0.8651, a = 4.9489 with r2 = 0.9692, indicating the Return Period (RP or T) of 182 years
for a seismic event of magnitude 5.7Mw. PGA value of 0.363g associated with a proximal major lineament
having an MCE of 7.65M and an observed earthquake of magnitude 5.5Mw was used for the determination
of liquefaction hazard potential. Further, a scenario for an MCE of 6M was also ideally considered which
returned a PGA (g) value of 0.095. Local site conditions in terms of its geotechnical competency were
assessed by drilling 30 boreholes and conducting SPT tests at every 2m interval in each borehole, after
an initial depth of 3m. The location of boreholes was judiciously selected to represent geological and
geomorphological units of the study area, except the hard rocks and lateritic hills. The SPT data has been
used for correction of N value i.e., determination of (N1) 60 and determination of liquefaction susceptibility.
The depth wise classified soil type obtained from each borehole was interpolated to obtain a seamless
depth wise geo-material map of the study area. Geophysical investigations have also been carried out to
evaluate various site characteristics by conducting site response, vertical electrical sounding, and shallow
seismic refraction surveys. The predominant frequency in the survey area is spatially varying from 1.27
to 13.8 Hz with the peak amplification values ranging from 1.17 to 15.08. The estimated average shear
wave velocity (Vs30) in the area varies from 62m/sec to 880m/sec, whereas, the bedrock depth is
spatially varying between 2.5m to 30m and above. As all the parameters of site characterization such as
(N1)60, liquefaction potential, shear wave velocity, etc. directly depends on the material/soil present at
that particular depth, all such interpolations are done using the extent of the depth wise geo-material as
a barrier. Integration of all the thematic maps viz., Geomorphological, Geological, Land use-Land cover,
Factor of Safety against liquefaction, Predominant Frequency (in Hz), Sediment Thickness (m), and Shear
wave velocity (m/s) was carried out using Analytical Hierarchy Process in a Geographic Information
System platform and an SHMZ map of the Kozhikode urban agglomeration, Kerala was prepared based
on FOS against liquefaction for Scenario A (hypothetical situation, occurrence of high magnitude event of
7.65M) and Scenario B (hypothetical situation, occurrence of moderately high magnitude event of 6M).
The study area has been classified into four seismic microzones based on its estimated seismic hazard indices
viz., low, moderate, high, and very high hazard zones. The very high hazard zone is spatially distributed
in patches near Karuvanthiruthy, Ramanattukara, Naduvttam, Beypore, Chaliyam, Kotinattumukku, and
Panniyankara. Conclusively, under Scenario A, approximately 5.33%area (16 sq.km.) out of a total of
about 300 sq.km., occupied by Quaternary sediments of marine to the fluvio-marine origin, falls under
the very high hazard zone category. The high hazard zone areas constitute about 25 % (75 sq.km.) area
and are majorly restricted to the southern part of the area extending up to 3-4 km inland from shore. The
areas around Elathur, Chettikulam, Puthur, etc. though situated near the coastline have relatively lowest
hazard indices. These areas are occupied by hard crystalline rocks capped by thick, hard, and compact
laterite successions. In contrast to Scenario A, the areas around Ramanattukara, Kuttikattur, Puthur, and
Velliparamba have yielded moderate to low hazard indices under Scenario B. Considerable 13% reduction
in the areal extent of the high hazard zones has been inferred under Scenario B disposed of restrictedly
as a polygonal patch surrounding the zones of very high hazard around Feroke, Kundayithode, Marad,
and surrounding areas. The final integrated map indicating seismic hazard zones is quite significant for
societal use and can be utilized for proper town planning, retrofitting, and expansion/ management of the
urban infrastructure, so that damages to the property and human lives can be mitigated in the unlikely
event of any significant damaging earthquake occurring in the vicinity in future.

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Abstract No: 3/047

Factors affecting slope stability for triggering rainfall induced landslide: A case study
of Bhakra Dam, India
Arpita Pankaj*, Pankaj Kumar
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

The rainfall-induced landslide has become a common phenomenon in the North-West Himalayas, especially
in Himachal Pradesh like the Bhakra-Nangal area causing huge damage to roads and properties almost
every year after or during monsoon season. As the landslide phenomenon in Bhakra i.e surrounding
Govind Sagar reservoir commonly takes place in the rainy season, it is worth finding out other factors
that affect slope stability. The objective of this study is to reveal the spatio-temporal characteristics of the
landslide hazards occurring in and around the Govind Sagar reservoir, especially occurring nearby Bhakra
Dam, and identify their major controlling factors in this area, with the help of comprehensive ground-
survey-based hazard inventory dataset from 2018 to 2022.
The present study emphasizes the spatiotemporal characteristics of the hazards and quantified the
relationship between the occurrence rate of the hazards and their influencing factors, including five
years rainfall amount, rainfall duration, rainfall intensity, terrain slope, land cover type, soil type along
with geology, geomorphology of the area. It also investigated some engineering parameters like grain
size, cohesion, and angle of internal friction of slope materials where the devastating landslides occurred
during 2018-2022.
Grain size analysis revealed that the slope material is composed of 40-78% sand, 20-57% silt, and 2
-13% or little clay particle. Results from the direct shear test showed that the cohesion of slope materials
is very low ranging from 0.05 to 0.28 kg/cm2, whereas the internal friction angle varies from 32° to 43°.
But, the original slope angle of that particular site, just the left side of the Bhakra Dam is much higher
extending up to 85°. NMC, Specific gravity, and density range from 6.19-13.84 %, 2.56-2.66, and 1.67-
1.97 gm/cm3 with no swelling properties of the soil. Hence, a higher percentage of sandy materials, low
cohesion value, non-plastic, and greater original slope angle than internal friction angle were the main
attributes that severely affected the slope stability that, in turn, triggered landslides in the study area due
to heavy rainfall (more than 600 mm in the year of 2018, 2019 and 2022).
The results also show that landslide has a higher occurrence rate and more extensive distribution in the
form of rock cum debris slides in this region, while the hazard is concentrated on the left side of Bhakra
Dam, upstream of River Satluj with ample rainfall and steep terrain blocked the road connecting from
Bhakra to Naina Devi Temple in monsoon season and also affects the road connected from the Bhakra
Dam to Garib Nath Temple, Raipur Maidan.
Landslide hazard shows clear seasonality from July–September for landslide (456.2 mm in July 2022,
601.6 mm in August 2022, and 199.8 mm in September) in the year 2022. Though in the monsoon
season rainfall triggered landslide occurs in the Himalayan Region but in the years 2018, 2019, and
2022 due to heavy rainfall, the maximum number of rock cum debris slides occurred, as compared to
the previous year. Rainfall characteristics (amount, duration, and intensity) and slope are the dominant
factors controlling slope stability across this region and another main characteristics factor is the geology
of the area. The Bhakra reservoir area is covered mainly by the NW-SE trending hills of the Siwalik Group
of rocks. Shali and Sirmour groups of rocks are also exposed in the north-eastern part of the Govind Sagar
Reservoir. The rocks are steep to gentle, dipping, jointed, faulted, and folded, resulting in the repetitions
of beds. Geomorphologically, two distinct morphological units are observed in the area, one is structural
hills-valleys and another is a fluvial landform. The trends of the structural hills are NW-SE and the slope
varies from 15° to 42°. Sub-trellis to trellis drainage patterns are observed in the area. Land cover as well
as soil type does appear to impose consistent impacts on the occurrence of the above-mentioned hazard.
This study not only provides important inventory data for studying the landslide, especially rock cum
debris slides but also adds valuable information for modelling and predicting the hazard which may create
problems in the two roads connected to the Bhakra Dam. Moreover, different human activities like hill
cutting for terrace farming that make the slopes more vulnerable were also responsible for landslide
hazards in and around the Govind Sagar reservoir near Bhakra Dam.

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Abstract No: 3/048

Morpho-tectonics of Chamba Basin: A relation with Landslide occurrences

Pankaj Kumar*1, Arpita Pankaj1, Ajai Mishra2
1
Geological Survey of India
2
Lucknow University
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Landslide occurrences are common phenomena in the Himalayan region and the magnitude of annual
damages on account of the hazard is always huge. The objective, however, is to develop the relationship
between the morphotectonics and landslide of the Chamba basin. The present study discusses the
morphometric parameters, as well as the Geological setting and landslide incidence along with the
technique for a landslide mitigation strategy. Chamba basin is a part of Ravi basin covering 1450 sq. km in
the western fringe of Himachal Pradesh, comprising a huge succession of Proterozoic-Mesozoic formations
and fall in toposheet nos. 52D/1, D/2, 43P/13, and 43P/14. The field traverses revealed that out of 78
landslide incidences, 37 falls in Chamba Formation, 10 in the Kullu Group, 6 in the Manjir Formation, 7 in
the Katarigali Formation, and 2 each in Kalhel Formation, 3 in Dhauladhar Granite and 2 in Darla-Mandi
Volcanic group of rocks.
The communication networks in the area are frequently disrupted every year due to the activation of several
landslides as also the schedule of construction of hydel projects and other developmental activities. The
three sub-watersheds present in the study area, are Suel Nadi, Chanju Nadi, and Taraila Nadi.  Area of
Taraila Nadi is more than Suel Nadi and Chanju Nadi. The general drainage pattern in the area generally
matches the trends of major joint/fracture patterns and conspicuous ‘drags’ and ‘off-sets’ may be associated
with neotectonic manifestations. All three sub-watersheds Suel Nadi, Chanju Nadi, and Taraila Nadi meet
the river Ravi, which originates from the Dhauladhar ranges in the western part of Himachal Pradesh.
It flows in a generally southwesterly direction, making an incision in the rugged topography of the area
falling in Chamba district in parts of degree sheet 52D and 43P up to Sharper village, from where it takes
a northwesterly course up to the confluence with Seul Nadi, which marks the border of Himachal Pradesh
with Jammu and Kashmir. Suel Nadi is the 4th order having 68 nos. of stream, Chanju Nadi is the 5th
order having 352 nos. of the stream and the Taralla Nadi is also the 5th order having 431 nos. of the
stream.
In the Chamba Formation, 37 nos. of landslides are present, of which 35 are present in bedrock and 2
are present in the overburden. Out of 35 landslides present in the bedrock they are classified into five
slope categories namely Cataclinal, Ortho-Cataclinal, Orthoclinal, Ortho-Anaclinal, and Anaclinal based
on the Critical angle of failed slope (V/H). In this way, all the formations are classified into different slope
categories.
Finally, it is observed that the Taraila Nadi watershed has a large number of landslides observed and
covered the maximum part of the Chamba Formation. Present observation recommended that large-scale
micro-zonation of high-hazard areas be carried out in the event of pressing development activities in such
zones. Site-specific landslide investigations in high or moderate zones are recommended for erecting any
civil constructions to plan the control measures of the landslides. Also, it is recommended that real-time
instrument-based monitoring of major landslides in the area is advisable to know the behaviour in the
future /advancement of landslides in the area.

Abstract No: 3/049

Assessment of Landslide Susceptibility and event based rockfall modelling in parts of
Shimla and adjoining area: An Earth Observation Initiative
Mohit Singh, Shovan L. Chattoraj*,Suresh Kannaujiya
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing-ISRO
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Landslides have posed one of the greatest geological (hazard) threats to humankind living in the vulnerable
areas of the North Western Himalayas. Shimla and adjoining areas, off late, have remained one of the
major hot spots in this regard and recurrent landslides including debris flows and rock fall/ topples in
this area have aggravated since the monsoon of 2021. Pertinently, the area is close to NH 05 connecting
Kinnaur and Shimla, which not only serves as a major lifeline for carrying basic amenities to higher

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reaches of Himachal Pradesh but, at the same time, is strategically important due to its terminal, close
to Indo-Sino border. The available literature, albeit, indicates a dearth of reliable data to analyze and
understand the landslide hazard potential of the area. This work, thus, grouts the knowledge gap by
preparation of a susceptibility map taking cues mainly from satellite-derived and ancillary products. The
idea of utilization of Earth Observation-based data is often fuelled by advancements in space technology
and high-resolution multispectral and panchromatic sensors which can provide tell-tale signatures of
mass wasting at a substantially fine temporal gap.
For GIS operation of several causatives and triggering mechanisms viz. aspect, slope, plan curvature,
topographic wetness index (TWI), stream density, lineament density, distance from the road, land use
land cover (LULC), lithology, geomorphology, relative relief, normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI), the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), a multi-criteria decision-making process of measurement
through pairwise comparisons and relies on the judgments of the experts to derive priority scales have
been utilized here. The multivariate analysis technique is uniquely suitable for this area due to its semi-
heuristic nature within the control of the operator. The susceptibility map, thus produced, helps in locating
potential zones of landslide occurrence. However, with the availability of advanced technology in the field
of landslides, stakeholders find it intriguing to know about the predictive aspects of landslides. To satisfy
this issue, a numerical simulation was adopted to model one important rockfall event close to Shimla
town on the Dhalli bypass, which is precarious enough to pose a substantial danger in terms of damage to
property and blockade of the road. Maximum jump height of 3m, 400 kJ kinetic energy and up to 15m/s
of maximum simulated velocity along the trajectory of the rockfall has been modelled for future rockfall
at this location (Fig. 1). This kind of process-based physical modelling selected landslides in high-risk
zones has emerged to support mitigation and remedial measures in a big way. The simulated models
provide critical outputs viz. kinetic energy, jump height, and rock velocity based on rheological, slope, and
geotechnical inputs throwing light to enrich the existing practice in the management of slope instability
and thereby, strengthening comprehensive assessment of landslide hazard, holistically.

Fig. 1: Numerically simulated velocity in ms-1of the rockfall at Dhalli bypass, Shimla in
perspective view obtained from ALOS PALSAR (12.5m) DEM (Inset: Graphical variation
of altitude and velocity vis-à-vis projected distance of the runout/fall trajectory)

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Abstract No: 3/050

Identification of river bank failures in the erosion vulnerable areas of world’s largest
river island: Majuli
Mansum P. Kashyap*, Baba Mrutyunjay Mahapatra., Bashab N. Mahanta
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Majuli is the largest River Island in India as well as in the world surrounded by the Brahmaputra River in
the south, the Subansiri River in the North West, and the KherxutiaXuti River in the North East. Over the
decades Majuli Island has lost its area by 206.7 sq km from 1949 to 2004 due to erosion. Erosion in its
banks has always been a big socio-economic and geo-environmental problem of the Majuli district which
is habitable with about 1.3 million people. To understand the erosion of the river banks, identification and
causes of the river bank failures are necessarily based on the output of the study to suggest appropriate
mitigation measures. The Detail mapping at the 1:1000 scale was done in the River bank areas to further
study the bank failures. The bathymetric data of the River part done by the Acoustic Doppler Current
Profiler (ADCP) was combined with the DM data and profile sections were made along all three River bank
failures. This helped to further study the river bank profiles beneath the water level and along with the
other geotechnical properties of the River bank further remedial measures were given to overcome the
erosion problem.

The present study consists of selection criteria of the erosion hit areas for the entire island which includes
the interpretation of satellite spatio-temporal changes of the island over the last 30 years. Accordingly,
three areas were identified based on severe erosion. To identify the nature of river bank failures in these
areas, sections of approx.1.5 m height was measured in the slope of the river banks to understand the
nature of sediments. Three types of failures were observed in these areas which were further related to
the nature of the sediments to support the type of failures.

The river bank areas which are dominated by thick clay layers with thin intercalations of fine/medium
sands were termed as Geotechnical failures. In these types of failures the water level in high flood/
monsoon times gets percolated through the intercalations of sand layers and the whole bank gets water
saturated. Due to impermeable clay layers, the water-saturated areas become intact within the whole
river bank and the amount of stress to accommodate the river banks gets exceeded beyond the limit
which results in the developing of cracks and the whole river bank gets collapsed.

Hydraulic failures or Hydraulic induced failures are observed in the meandering channel areas. In these
types of failures, the thick clay layers are underlain by medium to fine sand layered sediments. In
high flood/monsoon times the underlying sand layers get scooped out as basal cleanout resulting in
the hanging of the upper-lying heavy clay layers. In due course of time, these clay layers get collapsed
due to the absence of any supporting underlying layers. Hydraulic induced failures were observed in the
Bhokotsapori area of Majuli.

River bank failures with steep gradients and with a dominance of fine to medium sands/silts are termed
Gravity failures. These failures are developed due to the gravity of their sediments in the steep slope
along the weak planes. Gravity failures are further classified as rotational failures in which the loose
sediments are detached in a rotational slide pattern.

The study of the fluvial dynamics, geological interpretation of the river bank failures, and the SPT analysis
indicated that both structural and non-structural remedial measures will be required for an effective bank
protection plan. The non-structural methods will be dredging of mid-channel bars to increase the area
of flow resulting in the divergence of the water flow directions avoiding the bank areas and plantation of
mangroves near the highly prone river banks. The structural methods are based on the pile load capacity
and the scouring depth. Concrete revetments, stones till the scouring depth, and permeable spurs are
suggested as remedial measures.

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Fig.1.The River Bank failures observed in the study area along with elevation. The three Profiles
measured (P1, P2 and P3) were drawn in the vicinity of the bank failures.

Abstract No: 3/051

Impact Assessment of 2016 Pakistan Earthquake (Mw5.5) Around Gulistan Region

Shivam Saxena, Sandeep Kumar Mondal*, Rishikesh Bharti
IIT, Guwahati
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Earthquakes can be considered a sudden phenomenon that is highly destructive and unpredictable.
According to the Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes for Response (PAGER) system, an initiative of
the United States Geological Survey (USGS), there have been more than 20000 seismic tremors (M>4.5)
since 1968 (Marano et al., 2010). Especially when an earthquake is triggered close to a city, its impact
on the infrastructure results in more devastation. Since seismic impact assessment needs investigation
over a large area from the epicenter, satellite remote sensing serves as a potent tool to monitor post-
earthquake impacts such as subsidence, liquefaction, building damage, etc. (Mondal and Bharti, 2022).

The present study investigates the effects of the Pakistan earthquake (Mw 5.5) triggered on 13th May
2016 close to the Gulistan region around the human settlement areas and infrastructures (Fig. 1). The
thermal anomaly was captured before and after the earthquake, using the MODIS (Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectro radiometer) MOD11A1 land surface temperature (LST) product. To assess the impact of
earthquakes around the infrastructures, the temporal difference liquefaction index (TDLI) has been used
to identify potential areas affected due to liquefaction/cyclic mobility. Liquefaction due to earthquakes is
associated with a sudden hike in the soil moisture content. Therefore, in support of the TDLI technique,
tasseled cap transformation (TCT) has been employed in the pre-and post-earthquake satellite datasets of
Landsat-8 operational land imager (OLI) to detect the increase in soil moisture after the seismic tremor.  

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Figure 1: Study area map showing earthquake epicenter and the Gulistan infrastructures

Datasets and Methodology

In this study, MOD11A1 LST product has been used just before (12th May 2016), on, and after (14th May
2016) the earthquake. The MOD11A1 v6.1 product (1 Km spatial resolution) delivers daily emissivity
and LST values in a 1200 × 1200km grid. Landsat-8 OLI datasets of 27th April 2016 (pre-event) and
29th May 2016 (post-event) have been used to estimate liquefaction susceptibility and soil moisture
changes. The Landsat-8 OLI consists of 11 bands between 0.43μm and 12.51μm, providing data with a
spatial resolution of 30m (0.43-1.38μm) and 100m (10.60-12.51μm), respectively. The geometry of the
infrastructures within the Gulistan region has been extracted from the Google Earth Pro imagery. The
USGS earthquake catalog has been used to gather information such as magnitude, epicenter location
(30.659°N, 66.388°E), and hypocenter depth (10km).
Results and Discussion
Earthquakes are associated with the prolonged accumulation and sudden release of stresses within the
lithology. Such accumulation and relaxation process is expected to be reflected around the epicenter as
anomalous changes in surface temperatures. Fig. 2 represents a sudden reduction in the LST of the area
in the range of 2.4 - 4.3°C after the earthquake event. Even though the mean LST (46°C) does not show
significant fluctuation after the earthquake, there is an anomalous reduction of LST around the epicenter
after the seismic tremor. Fig. 3 shows positive values of TDLI in some areas around infrastructures
within the Gulistan region. A larger index value (red pixels) represents a hike in moisture content on the
surface after an earthquake, creating the possibility of liquefaction/cyclic mobility. Earthquake-triggered
liquefaction leads to reduced soil stiffness and shear strength, which might indicate structural instability
and damage. The findings from TCT-based wetness maps also support this. Increased wetness has been
observed after the earthquake around the areas showing larger TDLI values. This confirms the finding
that the earthquake has resulted in a sudden rise in the soil moisture content that might be alarming in
terms of soil stability around infrastructures. If the soil around buildings loses its stiffness and strength,
that can have a tremendous impact on the stability of the buildings, thus resulting in general/shear failure
and/or complete collapse. TDLI has been calculated using eq. 1 given as follows:

(1)

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Here, SWIR-IIPre-eventis Band-7 of pre-earthquake and SWIR-IIPost-eventis Band-7 of post-earthquake. For

calculating soil moisture change, Tasseled Cap Transformation-based wetness has been used as shown in
eq. 2:

(2)

Wetness Difference = WetnessPost-event – WetnessPre-event (3)

Here, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7 represents spectral channels of Landsat-8 OLI from 0.43µm to 2.29µm
respectively (Baig et al.,2014). Eq. 3 shows the wetness difference calculated for the seismic event.

Figure 2: MOD11A1 LST (°C) of (A) one day before and (B) one day after the earthquake

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Figure 3: Map showing (A) distance of Gulistan infrastructures from

earthquake epicenter (16-25 Km) along with (B) TDLI and (C) TCT-based wetness difference.

Conclusion
Earthquakes deliver severe challenges to civil engineering structures such as buildings, dams, etc.
Due to its large-scale impacts (over kilometers), performing field-based investigations is a tedious and
time-consuming task. Satellite remote sensing effectively provides a first-hand impact assessment of
earthquakes, especially around infrastructures. A detailed investigation of the 2016 Pakistan earthquake
(Mw 5.5) shows reduced LST just after the earthquake the next day. This indicates a stress relaxation
phenomenon that is reflected over the Earth’s surface as LST. The results obtained from TDLI and TCT-
based wetness show a sudden increase in the soil moisture content around buildings after the earthquake,
indicating the possibility of cyclic mobility/liquefaction. Liquefaction results in reduced strength of soil that
may lead to damage and/or infrastructure failure.

Abstract No: 3/052

Drained triaxial experimental behaviour of some Landslide Hazard Site Soils of

Ukhiya, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
Khan PA*, Hossain ATMS, Sayem HM, Haque ME, Mahabub MS, Khatu M, Imam MH, Jafrin SJ, Dutta T,
Bakali R, Hasan M
Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Lying in the monsoonal tropical region, Bangladesh faces monsoonal landslides every year. The sub-
district Ukhiya under Cox’s Bazar district lies in the south-eastern hilly region of Bangladesh and this
hilly side of the country is more prone to landslides than any other portion of the country. The factor of
safety of the hill slopes in this region gets influenced by the monsoonal rainfall dominantly. Currently,
this region hosts more than 10, 00000 fled Rohingya people from Myanmar and which makes it the
world’s largest refugee camp. Hence, the evaluation of triaxial shear strength parameters to evaluate the
landslide potentiality is extremely important to assess the possibilities of community living in the world’s

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largest refugee camp area. The shear strength of soil is one of the significant mechanical properties which
is thoroughly used to assess the landslide & liquefaction potentiality of the soil. To determine the shear
strength parameters Triaxial test has become worldwide more accepted. However, this method better
represents the field stress condition. So the stress-strain behaviour including the volume change of the
Soil can be observed more effectively. For this study, undisturbed tube samples (from 4.11m to 4.57m
depths) from four different boreholes have been used. The tested samples are mainly composed of very
loose to loose sands with some silts and a negligible amount of clay. The samples have been consolidated
with effective confining pressures from 50kPa to 600kPa before shearing. All the test results are discussed
in terms of deviator stress versus axial strain, mean effective stress versus deviator curves, stress ratio
versus axial strain & volumetric strain versus axial strain curves. A failure envelope has been constructed.
It has been observed that the maximum deviator stress has been attended within 2.6% to 10.2% axial
strain for all the samples. The overall stress ratio lies between 0.54 to 1.63 ranges. The stress ratio values
close to 1 might suggest that some of the drained triaxial samples might reach a critical state. These
samples failed with bulging during shearing with the development of a distinct shear plane, in general,
low effective consolidation pressure samples show a high-stress ratio. The stress path shows sample
immediately fails as soon as they reach the maximum deviator stress after attending a maximum value.
The constructed stress path shows after reaching a definite failure point, few of the stress paths ended
back. From the drawn failure line shear strength parameter values are determined. These values can be
used in modelling the slopes of the camp Hills to identify risks.

Abstract No: 3/053

A Geotechnical appraisal on the stability of slopes along the road section from Kanthan
to Khanikot, district Reasi, Jammu
Parveen Kumar*, Harish Bahuguna
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Construction work for the USBRL railway line in Jammu and Kashmir is being done by the northern railway.
For the construction of bridges and tunnels, the approach road is the basic requirement to facilitate
construction activities and to provide access to the machinery at the sites. One such approach road had
been constructed from Khanthan to Khanikot to expedite the construction of the rail line. This road is
about 37km long and has been excavated through the low strength and geological weak rockmass i.e.
interbands of claystone, siltstone and sandstone belong the Lower Murree Formation of Murree Group. On
a regional scale, the area exposes rocks of the Foreland Zone comprising to Trikuta Formation of Sirban
Group of Meso-Proterozoic age, Jangalgali Formation of Cretaceous to Eocene age, Subathu Formation
of Palaeocene to Eocene age, Murree Group of Late Eocene to Early Miocene age, Siwalik Supergroup
of Middle Miocene to Early Pleistocene age and undifferentiated Quaternary deposits of Pleistocene to
Holocene age. To the south of the study area, Riasi Thrust separates the Middle Siwaliks rocks and Trikuta
Formation rocks. In the Riasi-Katra inlier, Sirban Group rocks occur in the core, and younger Tertiaries
fringing it. The area represents mountainous, undulated topography mainly controlled by lithology. The
high peaks and deep gullies are the important physiographic features of the area. The area is drained by
the Chenab river and its tributaries.
The construction of the road has had a distinct impact on the natural profile of the slope and has disturbed
the natural angle of repose of the slope, thus inducing instability on the slopes along this road stretch.
Geological appraisal of the potential zones along the road section has been carried out by studying the
satellite imageries, and topographic sheets and preparation and interpretation of DEM-derived thematic
maps to understand the vulnerability, causative, and triggering factors. Geo-parametric data for 10 critical
landslide zones (06 debris landslides and 04 rock slides), covering 42 different geo parameters, has been
collected. All the landslides are confined in the Lower Murree rocks. In terms of failure mechanism one
slide is deep rotational, 02 slides are shallow rotational and the rest of the slides are categorized as
shallow translation.
A volumetric joint count has been applied (A. Palmstrom) to obtain the RQD i.e from 55 to 75%. Impact
of Geological hammer (Deere-Miller) indicates R3 (claystone, siltstone) to R4 (sandstone) grade of rocks.
The geological appraisal and analysis of the collected data reveal that these slope failures are the result
of anthropogenic activities in combination with the inherent low strength of rockmass and rainfall. This
paper attempts to categorize the different slope stretches landslides based on the State of Activity,
Distribution of the activity, and Styles of activity.
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Abstract No: 3/054

Predicting landslide susceptibility zones and its controlling factors along NH44 of
UT: J&K, a northwest Himalayan region
Riyaz Ahmad Mir*, Zahid Habib, Ajay Kumar
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

The Northwest Himalayan region is quite vulnerable to landslide disasters and hazards, frequently triggered
due to heavy precipitation events, seismic and other anthropogenic activities. In this study, an updated
landslide inventory and susceptibility prediction and evaluation of its major controlling factors along
NH44, UT: J&K has been carried out using high-resolution Cartsat-DEM (10m), Google Earth images, SoI
toposheets supplemented with extensive field survey. The study area covers the highly elevated, rugged,
and steep slopes of the Pir-Panjal and Lesser Himalayan mountain ranges, covered partly with dense and
mixed vegetation. The area exposes different assemblages of rock types which are highly folded, faulted,
and Teutonized. It comprises several major discontinuities/thrusts (Panjal Thrust and Digdole Thrust)
and several other minor tectonic fabrics (joint, faults, and shear zones). In this study, more than 15 geo-
factor maps were prepared and integrated per domain-specific slope facet to calculate the Total Estimated
Susceptibility Values (TESV) and to classify them into several High, Moderate, and Low susceptibility
classes in a GIS platform. An inventory of 117 landslides incidences was generated which comprises 50
debris slides, 34 rockfall, 20 rock slide, 5 rock topple, 2 debris flow, and 6 old slides. Out of the 2470 slope
facets, ~800 (34.2%) facets were overburden covered and 1600 (65.7%) were rocky. Detailed rock mass
estimation and determination of geotechnical properties of bedrock and soil samples were also determined
to evaluate the nature and slope stability scenarios and modes of failures of rocky as well as debris-
covered slopes. The study predicted that about 39.8% of the area falls under the High Susceptibility Zone
(HSZ) followed by an area of 40.0% and 20.1% falling under the Moderate Susceptibility Zone (MSZ)
and Low Susceptibility Zone (LSZ) respectively. About 80.0% of landslide incidences coincided with the
HSZ whereas; about 10.4% and 9.6% of slides coincided with MSZ and LSZ. Nevertheless, a preliminary
Element at Risk (EatR) map indicated that the human settlements, agricultural land, road and bridges,
locally established stone crushers, and other strategic civil structures (i.e., tunnels, power line poles, and
towers, etc) may be at risk during any landslide activity in the area.

Abstract No: 3/055

Influence of Mineralogy on the Geotechnical properties of some soil samples of the

Rohingya Refugee Camps of Ukhiya-Teknaf, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
Bakali R.*, Hossain Md. Sayem, Hossain ATMS., Imam H., Haque M.E., Khatun M., Dutta T., Jafrin S.J.,
Khan P.A., Mahabub M.S., Hasan M.
Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

The purpose of this study is to investigate and relate the geotechnical parameters with the mineralogical
properties of some soil samples of the Rohingya Refugee Camps of Ukhiya-Teknaf, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.
This area is situated in the tectonically active tertiary hilly terrain. The mineralogical information on
soils in Bangladesh is limited. Samples were collected from the upper, middle, and lower slope surfaces
totaling 25 samples of Balukhali Rohingya Refugee Camp and Kutubpalong Rohingya Refugee camp,
and were analyzed mineralogically. Mineralogical analysis by using XRD (X-ray Diffractometer) and
the identified main primary minerals are quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, and biotite and the secondary
minerals are Kaolinite, illite, and chlorite. It is found that the samples are medium to fine grained sandy
soils. The moisture content is higher in clay minerals than in non-clay minerals. Soil behaviour becomes
more brittle when clay or moisture content decreases due to weathering. The cohesion and angle of
internal friction between soils are also influenced by mineralogy. It is found that with increasing clay
percentage, the cohesion increases and the angle of internal fraction decreases which might be due to the
weathering effects of the soil. Finally, it was identified that the geotechnical properties of sandy soils can
be approximated and more reliably determined by the mineralogical character and composition of clay is
accurately investigated and well developed.

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Abstract No: 3/056

Evaluation of the ground response of the Rangamati Landslide Hazard Sites, Bangladesh
using field SPT & grain size data
Mahmuda Khatun*, A.T.M. Shakhawat Hossain, Hossain Md. Sayem
Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

The research area Rangamati lies between 23°40′ to 21°50′ North latitude and 91°40′ to 92°50′ East
longitude in the south-eastern folded part of Bangladesh. The present research aims to evaluate the
ground response based on SPT data and grain size properties of the soil. This evaluation will help to
determine the causes and vulnerability of the landslide hazard in the studied area. In this research work,
the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) tests & grain size analyses of the soils have been carried out. SPT is
used to evaluate the sub-surface condition and soil material properties and density of the soils. Moreover,
SPT is an established technique to determine soil properties for various testing. Disturbed soil samples
were collected up to depths of 15m depth in every 1.5m interval to perform a grain size analysis. The
graphical presentation of the SPT-N value was plotted with various functions of Python software (version
3.7.4). The SPT value of the study area ranges from 6 to 50 in the area up to 15m depth and shows
that the values are higher at greater depths and comparatively lower at the near-surface which is very
consistent with the lithology of the individual units. The studied soil is broadly divided into cohesive and
non-cohesive soils and the SPT values increase with increasing depth. The field SPT values suggest that
the ground condition of the studied cohesive soil is mainly stiff to hard silty clay (CL-ML) and non-cohesive
soils are medium dense to densely compacted sandy (SM) soil. The values of Cu and Cg suggest that the
studied soil is well-graded. The uppermost part of cohesive soil up to 3m is mainly composed of silty clay
with low SPT values which is highly vulnerable to landslides. The non-cohesive soil sand up to 7.5m is also
highly vulnerable to landslides. These outputs from this research will certainly help the geo-engineers,
and policymakers reduce rainfall-induced landslide risks in the Rangamati Sadar area of, Bangladesh.

Abstract No: 3/057

Direct shear box testing on some sand samples of Balukhali Rohingya Refugee
Camp, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
Sheikh Jafia Jafrin*, Atm Shakhawat Hossain, Hossain Md. Sayem, Md. Hasan Imam, Md. Emdadul Haque,
Mahmuda khatun, Ruma Bakali, Tanmoy dutta, Purba AninditaKhan, Md. Shakil Mahbub
Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Direct shear box tests are commonly used to determine the shear strength parameters of granular soils.
This paper deals with the shear strength parameters of the soils of the Balukhali Rohingya Refugee
Camp area, Cox’s Bazar region. These soils are classified as SM & SP type according to the unified soil
classification system. Four samples collected from two different boreholes were tested. The direct shear
test measures operated by a shear box containing a mold outer diameter of 6.9 cm and inner diameter
of 6.4 cm and height of 1.9 cm. The shear strength parameters viz. cohesion (c) and angle of internal
friction (φ) have been determined. A Cohesion value ranging from 4.48 kPa and 17.40 kPa was estimated
for borehole (BH) 5 samples and a value ranging from 13.43 kPa and 8.96 kPa were obtained for borehole
3 &6 samples. An angle of internal friction value ranging from 34.29° and 16.75° were estimated for
BH-5 samples and 23.46° to 32.42° for BH-3 &6 samples. It has been observed that the cohesion and
angle of internal friction vary with depth. The observed values are higher than the typical sandy soils. The
higher values might be due to the presence of fine silts, high cohesion, and associated clays. These values
might have a significant influence on the stability of soils in the Balukhali camp area. It is recommended
to compare the obtained values with triaxial testing results for establishing any slope model of the
investigated area.

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Abstract No: 3/058

ML based Ensemble Spatial Landslide Initiation Forecasting in Darjeeling Himalayas,

India
Sumit Kumar*1, Mauro Rossi2, A.K.Mishra1, Gargi Singh1, Rabisankar Karmakar1, Rajkumar M1
1
Geological Survey of India
2
Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Madonna Alta
126, Perugia, Italy
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

In the present work, an ML-based LAND-SUITE tool (Rossi et al., 2016) programmed in R was used
to prepare initiation susceptibility zonations based on three statistical multivariate models: Logistic
Regression (LR), Quadratic Discriminant analysis (QDA) and Linear Discriminant analysis (LDA). The
ensemble model, a combined zonation prepared by applying a Logistic Regression on the outcomes of the
three models.
The study was carried out at a catchment scale (1:25,000) covering a 400 km2 area in parts of Darjeeling
District. An Inventory of 1356 landslides having 1035 debris slides and 261 rock slides/falls was prepared
for this analysis. The factors responsible for landslide thematic factors of the slope, aspect, land use, land
cover, landform, and slope forming material (SFM) were determined to construct the spatial database.
The models were trained using a random selection of 70% of the landslide data and 30% of the landslide
pixels were used for the validation. The thematic variables were compared using Pearson correlation.
The LRM, LDA, QDA, and Ensemble models could map 23-24% of areas under a high probability value
(P>0.55). The models were evaluated using multiple statistical metrics including fourfold plots, ROC plots,
Cohen Kappa coefficients, and prediction rate curves. The area under the curve (AUC) of ROC of the LRM,
LDA, QDA, and ensemble model are 0.77, 0.77, 0.77, and 0.78 respectively. The overall accuracy of the
LRM, LDA, QDA and Ensemble models are 0.69, 0.68, 0.66 and 0.69 respectively.
The statistical metrics show that the performance of the susceptibility analysis is enhanced by preparing
the Ensemble model. The Ensemble landslide initiation susceptibility map prepared at the catchment scale
using machine learning has the ability to enhance the spatial forecasting of landslides.

Abstract No: 3/059

Occurrences of creeping, sinking, and subsidence incidences in Himachal Himalaya-

Generalized geoscientific and geomorphic causes
Kundan Digambar Rangari*, Jina Mandal, Prashant T. Ilamkar
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

The Himachal Himalaya encompasses high sub-aerial maximum relief, steep slopes, immense saturation,
turbulent rivers, and enormous glaciers leading to intense weathering and erosion. Ages of immense
weathering and erosion by natural agencies continuously contributed to the deposition of overburden
on slopes, which formed glacial, glacio-fluvial, and colluvial geomorphic landforms on higher and lower
reaches. They are also related to lithological assemblages and poly-phase deformation. Furthermore,
denudation, reworking, and anthropogenic processes on geomorphic landforms contribute to natural and
human-induced slope instabilities/landslides. Tectonically active Himachal Himalaya witnessed a manifold
increase in urban and infrastructure development by modification of slopes where slope instability/slope
failure is the outcome of anthropogenic activities. Failure of a steep slope in the form of landslides in the
Himachal Himalaya caused losses to life, property, agricultural land, and state exchequer every year.
In Himachal Himalaya, mass wasting of overburden in the form of ground destabilization (creeping,
sinking, and subsidence) is a major geo-environmental and geogenic hazard. Under the National
Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM) program, the landslide inventory was generated from FS 2015
to 2020 by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) to understand and recognize landslide disasters in
Himachal Pradesh. During fieldwork of NLSM in the Himachal Himalaya, 6 subsidence zones (Pat, Shah-
Majehwali section, Mane, Mebar, Village, Chakimor-Bhojnagar road section, and Manali Leh Highway), 3

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sinking zones (Dophda-Shaha-Mashnu- Uchhi village section, Radiana-Kharsipul road section and Manali-
Leh Highway section) and 2 creeping zones (Reckong Peo town and Manali-Leh Highway section) were
observed in and around villages/town/road. Above mentioned creeping, sinking, and subsidence incidences
occurred due to excessive side and toe erosion of overburden by river/nala/streams because of their high
gradient and rigorous flow. In these zones creeping, sinking, and subsidence incidences are related to
the water circulation of slopes in which excessive water overflow on saturated overburden tends to give
downward movement of unconsolidated and erratic material. Triggering of these incidences was linked
to anthropogenic aggravating factors such as deforestation, haphazard settlement growth, unscientific
slope cuts, extensive slope modifications, barriers along the streams, diversion of streams for agriculture
practices, and inadequate drainage outlet systems for managing wastewater, etc. with the duration and
cumulative effects of several events of oversaturation of slope overburden. In these incidences, the
thickness and nature of overburden play a crucial role in the stability of the slope, where the increased
tendency of absorption and excessive runoff is directly related to incoherence and cohesion for creating
failure on the slope surface. These activities on the overburden-clad topography reveal the slow movement
along the slope and onward transformed into the mass movement of overburden. Creeping, sinking, and
subsidence occurrences lead to evidence of circular to linear cracks in the overburden, frequent damage of
colonial constructions, continuous water oozes/springs from the overburden, irregular wet surfaces on the
overburden, bulging of supporting structure and tilting of trees on the slopes. These signs were observed
along the aforesaid creeping, sinking, and subsidence zones where overburden movement along the slope
frequently damaged human settlements, roads, and agricultural lands during the past few years. Due to
mass wasting of overburden in the form of ground destabilization, these thickly inhabited villages and
roads may face slope instability problems/landslides and destructions in the forthcoming years.

Abstract No: 3/060

Regional rainfall threshold for shallow Landslide forecast in Rudraprayag district,

Uttarakhand -a step towards disaster risk reduction
Rabisankar Karmakar*, Sumit Kumar, Ankur Kumar Srivastava, Adrija Chatterjee
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Uttarakhand is one of the most landslide-prone states in India. The presence of several important road
corridors leading to important religious sites such as Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, and
connections to many hill stations scattered throughout, has led to the necessity of landslide forecasting
to minimize the losses, damages, etc. Rudraprayag district with an area of around 2000 sq. km with21%
area of the district falling in a high landslide susceptible zone is one of the most vulnerable districts
(National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping, Geological Survey of India). The majority of the landslides
in the area are triggered by rainfall and correlating the rainfall conditions, the spatial likelihood of the
occurrence of landslides can be predicted. The study is made to build a precipitation threshold for shallow
landslides for the Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand to provide the inputs in the decision support system
of the district disaster management authority during the monsoon season.
The analysis of 92 events from a validated database of 500 landslides and daily rainfall data for the last 10
years (2010 to 2020) from three rain gauge stations was used during the study for estimating an empirical
rainfall threshold. The 67 rainfall events reconstructed have been used to derive the non-exceedance
probability at different probabilities by having CTRL-T (Calculation of Thresholds for Rainfall-induced
Landslides-Tool). The threshold at 50% probability is estimated to be T50-E= (76.9±4.5) D0.64±.07where
E defines the cumulative rainfall and “D” the duration of rainfall. The derived probabilistic threshold values
are constrained by the availability of data. The constraint on the right data density with respect to the
landslide events and rainfall represents a more realistic rainfall condition that rapidly varies spatially in
the Himalayan terrains. Thus it is concluded that the importance of building inventories and enhancing the
density of representative rain gauge stations can help to build domain based/class-based rainfall-induced
landslide forecasts for the area. Currently, the derived threshold was integrated with the rainfall forecast
system to generate landslide forecasts in the Rudraprayag district. The same is being disseminated to the
state and district disaster management authority to validate the generated landslide forecast.

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Abstract No: 3/061

Establishing a pan-India network of GPS-Geodetic Observatories: An Overview,

Objective and Perspective
Soumitra Bhargab Dasgupta*, Snehasis Bhattacharya, L.H. Moirangcha, A. K. Mishra
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

India has a diverse seismo-tectonic domain. The Indian plate is bordered by the Eurasian plate to its north
and east; the Arabian plate to the west and the Somalian, and Australian plates to the south. The Himalayan
Mountain belt stretches over 2400 km and is characterized by several thrust faults. Peninsular India lies
in the intra-plate region and is traversed by several transverse faults, some of which are tectonically
active. The vast stretch of the Indo-Gangetic plain between Extra-Peninsular and Peninsular India shows
the influence of neotectonic activity on alluvial sedimentation. The Andaman Nicobar Accretionary Ridge
is located at the boundary of the Indian plate and the Burmese Micro-plate and tectonically forms part of
an accretionary prism.
All of these tectonic domains require long-term monitoring for present-day crustal dynamics using the
network of GPS-Geodetic observatories to delineate the strain built-up for understanding earthquake
hazards. The Geological Survey of India (GSI) being the primary and fundamental geoscientific data
generation agency in the country has been continuously endeavoring to create such a national-level
geodetic network. In addition to strain delineation, GSI being a survey organization is continuously
preparing different field maps by GPS RTK (Real Time Kinematic) survey which needs a base station with
precise coordinates. The GPS permanent stations established will cater to the need for precise coordinates
to RTK survey for the generation of accurate maps.
GSI has envisioned establishing a network of GPS-Geodetic observatories or GNSS (Global Navigation
Satellite System) permanent stations across India, covering all tectonic domains and major faults. To
date, GSI has commissioned 34 stations (Fig. 1) in Jammu, Agartala, Mangan, Nagpur, Lucknow, Jabalpur
(Fig. 2), Chennai, Kolkata, Jaipur, Thiruvananthapuram, Pune, Dehradun, Gandhinagar, Raipur, Bhopal,
Chandigarh, Patna, Bhubaneswar, Visakhapatnam, Shillong, Aizawl, Imphal, Zawar, Faridabad, Mangalore,
Chitradurga, Uttarkashi, Pithoragarh, Hutbay (Little Andaman), Port Blair (South Andaman), Rangat
(Middle Andaman), Diglipur (North Andaman), Siliguri and Ranchi.
The GNSS permanent stations are capable of capturing signals from multiple satellite constellations of
GPS (US), GLONASS (Russia), GALILEO (EU), and BEIDOU (China). The raw data are being acquired at
30-sec and 1-sec frequency and archived. The 30-sec data are processed using the GAMIT/GLOBK suite
of software for generating a-priory coordinates for RTK surveys and velocity solutions for geodynamic
studies. The high frequency is 1 Hz. data are used for GPS-based seismological studies by using the
Precise Point Positioning technique.
A total of 81 selected GPS stations are being post-processed regularly starting from 2015. It includes
permanent stations of the IGS network, the UNAVCO network installed in the Indian subcontinent as well
as in neighboring tectonic plates along with the GSI’s network. The selected stations include the IGS
stations installed on the Eurasian plate(KIT3, TALA, POL2, CHUM, KMTR, KRTV, URUM, TEHN, and LHAZ);
the Arabian plate (YIBL and BHR4); Somalian plate (VACS, REUN, MAL2, MAYG, SEY1, SEYG andABPO);
Australian plate (COCO and KARR) and the Sunda plate (NTUS, CIBG andCUSV). In Addition, the Nepal
GPS network of the UNAVCO (DNSG, CHLM, KUGE, RMJT, SYBC, NPGJ, JMSM, LMJG, NAST, HETA, DNC4,
and JIR2), the Bangladesh GPS network of the UNAVCO (ICPS, DCPS, CHNR, KGPS, SSPS, and JURI) and
the MyanmarGPS network of UNAVCO (THKG, THKK, KALW, KLAY, and TEDM) are also being processed
along with GSI’s stations. As on date velocity solutions of 28 stations of the installed 34 stations of the
GSI’s permanent GPS network have been generated. The velocity solutions of the remaining 06 stations
are pending as these stations have been installed recently.
The time series of a few of the stations are presented in Fig. 3. The derived velocities (Fig. 4) are used for
calculating intra and inter-plate strain. From the analysis done so far, it is observed that the average Indian
plate velocity with respect to the ITRF14 reference frame is 51.04 mm/yr. in the N40.76°E direction. This
value has been derived taking into account the stations located in the stable intra-plate region.

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Fig 1: GSI’s GPS-Geodetic Observatories Fig 2: GNSS Permanent Station at GSI, Jabalpur (GS07)

Fig 3: Time-series analysis

of few of the GPS stations

Fig 4: Site velocities

with respect to ITRF14

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Abstract No: 3/062

Slope stability assessment of rock slide using empirical method in Nigulsari, District
Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Tripti Baba*, Wangshitula Ozukum, Prashant T Ilamkar
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Landslides are one of the most devastating and recurring natural disasters and have affected several
mountainous regions across the globe. The Himachal Himalayan region is no exception to landslide
incidences affecting key economic sectors such as transportation and agriculture and often leading to
loss of lives. The Nigulsari rock slide took place on 11 August 2021 which has to lead to the burial of 1
Himachal road & transport communication bus (HRTC), 2 cars, 1 passenger vehicle, and one truck under
the debris and causing major casualties leading to the death of 28 peoples. A detailed geological mapping
on the 1:1000 scale has been carried out in the Nigulsari slide area which suggests that it is a translational
slide. The slide zone exposes streaky gneiss, augen gneiss, and coarse-grained porphyritic granite of the
Jeori-Wangtu Gneissic Complex (JWGC) and with younger phases of pegmatite and quartz veins. The
total length of this slide is 550 m and the width varies from 254-288.5 m. The Markland test carried out
using all the structural details along the slide zone reveals planar as well as a wedge are the dominant
mode of failure. The rock mass rating (RMR) and Slope mass rating (SMR) assessment indicate that the
rock mass falls in the Class-III to IV category and is slightly weathered to moderately weathered (W2-
W3) grade. The geogenic cause of the landslide is mainly attributed to the structural disposition of the
rockmass which was accompanied by intense rainfall. Based on the rock mass characterization using the
empirical method, site-specific rock bolting, shotcrete and wire mesh, and installation of inclinometers,
piezometers and Borehole extensometers were some of the remedial measures suggested to the state
disaster management authorities.

Abstract No: 3/063

Impacts of landslide hazards on society and sustainable development in Bangladesh
Mohammad Feruj Alam1*, ATM Shakhawat Hossain2, Mohammad Ashraful Kamal1
1
Geological Survey of Bangladesh
2
Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

In the hilly areas of Bangladesh, the landslides randomly impact people and society. Due to landslides
people and domestic animals are dying and injured; infrastructures, settlements with internal and external
utilities, and factories are collapsing and damaged; losses of soil slope; damages to zoom cultivation and
crops; loss of environmental and natural panoramic beauty. Due to the landslides, ~ 1000 people were
died and injured in Bangladesh from 1970 to 2022. However, it is alarming that the number of deaths
and injuries is gradually increasing. The deaths and injuries also directly impact the affected families. In
many cases, the main incoming people are dead or injured. In that case, the dependent family members
are struggling for their survival. Injured people or family members have also created another burden
on their families and also a society for a long time. Therefore, these deaths and injuries are dismantling
human and social life. The landslide hazards also impact agricultural land and industrial farming activities
in the hilly areas which are linked to the food supply of the affected areas. It also causes loss of soil
fertility, interrupted drainage network, and loss of biodiversity of floral and faunal species, and other
resources. Power systems, telecommunication systems, local and national road communication systems,
utility systems, and community infrastructures are disrupted and dysfunctional by some major landslide
events also. These disruptions impacted a long time in society and the local and national economies.
Tourists are not attracted due to the loss of the natural scenic beauty of the hilly environment, particularly
at landslide sites and surrounding areas, which also impacts the economy of the area. Therefore,
landslide hazards significantly impact society and the economy and consequently impact the sustainable
development of the country. Though the occurrence of many landslides cannot be eliminated due to
the geological characteristics of the hilly deposits, some mitigation measures with proper slope study
and awareness development of the local people can reduce impacts on society, and finally sustainable
management of the area.
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Abstract No: 3/064

A comparison of Landslide Susceptibility map of Munnar area, Idukki district, Kerala

State developed from three different models on GIS platform
Rakhi Gopal R*1. Athira S.G1., Rajaneesh A.2
1
Geological Survey of India
2
University of Kerala
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Landslides are one of the most destructive phenomena in the Western Ghats that cause damage to both
life and property during the rainy season. This warrants the creation of a landslide susceptibility map
(LSM), which is an essential component for planning future developmental activities in hilly terrains. Many
techniques have been used for susceptibility modelling worldwide. This study focuses on correlating three
different techniques in LSM in a hilly region in the Western Ghats, covering an area of 1867 km2. The area
has been selected, as nearly 718 landslides occurred in this area during the 2018 anomalous rainfall in
the Western Ghat. Here the three techniques adopted for the preparation of a landslide susceptibility map
are the knowledge-driven model, a data-driven model, and an infinite slope stability model i.e.GIS Tool
for Infinite Slope Stability Analysis (GIS-TISSA). The input factor maps considered for knowledge driven
model and data-driven models were slope gradient, aspect, curvature (all derived from Aster DEM of
30m resolution), geomorphology, land use-land cover (generated from Google imageries), slope forming
material and regolith depth map (based on field observation).In the knowledge driven model, Analytical
Hierarchy Process (AHP) is used and the weightage is assigned to each factor by an expert. In the data-
driven model, the bivariate statistical Yule Coefficient (YC) method is used and the weightage is derived
from the spatial associations of individual factors with historic landslides. Then landslide occurrence
favourability score (LOFS) of each class of thematic layer was formulated and landslide susceptibility
maps were prepared by the weighted index overlay method in a GIS environment. GIS-TISSA develops
a factor of safety map based on an infinite slope model and the inputs are a digital elevation model
from ASTER GDEM, soil data from the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS &
LUP), and vegetation data from 30 m resolution Landsat images. The landslide inventory map has also
been prepared in the GIS environment from the available inventory data and new inventory from field
observation for training and validation purposes. The susceptibility map derived by AHP marked 312.79
km2 areas as highly susceptible, YC marked 447.34 km2 and GIS-TISSA marked 482.54 km2. The medium
susceptible area represented by AHP is 782.13 km2, 648.17 km2 by YC and it is 316.67 km2 by GIS-
TISSA. Low susceptible areas of 771.52 km2, 770.92 km2 and 1067.20 km2 were delineated by AHP, YC,
and GIS-TISSA, respectively. The validation of these susceptibility maps was done by using the Receiver
operating characteristic (ROC) curve which shows AHP has an accuracy of 67%, YC has 69% and GIS-
TISSA has 70%. Three models have more or less similar accuracies. It is difficult to suggest one model
is better than the other. But their output map is different in the spatial distribution of susceptible zones.
From this study, it is found that different methods possibly do not produce the same LSMs, even with
the same input factor and also with different input factors. The susceptibility maps generated through Yc
model demonstrate that highly susceptible areas are concentrated in the eastern part of the area, while
landslides in the western area are less prone to occur. The other two maps are more or less similar in
spatial distribution but the area of each zone is different. The high and low landslide susceptible zone
in the AHP model is high and low in the TISSA model also. The moderate susceptible zone in AHP falls
in the high, moderate, and low susceptible zone of TISSA. From this study, it is highly encouraged to
prepare two to three landslide-susceptible maps of an area using different models of good accuracy and
causative factors and then produce a final landslide susceptible map by qualitative comparing of individual
susceptible maps. The model and causative factors can be decided by the decision maker based on their
objectives and study area.

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Geology and Geotechniques for
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THEME-IV
Climate Change and Environmental Impact
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Keynote Abstract

KN 4.1
Climate Change and Imperatives for Safe and Sustainable Infrastructures
Sudesh Kumar Wadhawan
School of Sustainable Development, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam, Kerala

Our lifestyles and quest for comfortable and improved standards of urbanized living have a profound
impact on our planet. Ever since the industrial revolution, the world has been warming faster than at any
point in recorded history due mainly to greenhouse gas emissions: carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide, that blanket the Earth and trap the Sun’s heat. Warmer temperatures over time are changing
weather patterns and disrupting the usual balance of nature which exacerbates extreme rainfalls resulting
in landslides and flooding. This poses many risks to human beings and all other forms of life on Earth.
Ranging from fires in the Amazon and in Australia, to flash flooding in Europe, right across the globe, we
are witnessing the impact of climate change on the environment. It is widely predicted that periods of
abrupt environmental modifications in response to the rapidly changing processes on the earth’s surface,
especially related to climate change, are expected to increase in frequency, duration and magnitude.
Urban slums have shown a propensity to be swept away during floods, destroying homes and livelihoods.
Heat can make it difficult to work in outdoor jobs. On the contrary, water scarcity may affect crops. Over
the past decade (2010–2019), weather-related events displaced an estimated 23.1 million people on
average each year, leaving much more vulnerable to poverty. Most refugees come from countries that
are most vulnerable and least ready to adapt to the impacts of climate change. Devastating flooding in
Germany and Belgium in July 2021 completely washed away buildings and cars, and more than 1,000
people remain missing. Whereas hundreds died in flooding in China. The U.S. Pacific Northwest, known
for its cool climate, hit over 100 degrees F for several days. Besides, the Arctic lost a large mass of area
of sea ice between June and mid-July 2021. The Kedarnath tragedy in June 2013 in India has been one
of the most devastating in recent history. Other parts of India also experienced abnormal behaviour of
monsoon and rains and caused intense floods, similar extreme weather events caused multiple hazards of
landslides and floods in Kerala in 2018 and again in 2019 and 2020 inflicting huge loss of life, properties,
and livelihoods. Maharashtra is the most adversely affected state during 2021, which reportedly claimed
more than 340 deaths mainly due to extremely heavy rainfall, floods, landslide, lightning, cyclonic storms,
and intense cold-wave events.
Climate changes are observed to bring various impacts to water resources and their infrastructures
such as domestic water supply networks, wastewater systems, irrigation systems, and hydroelectric
or micro-hydro systems. Engineered structures, communication networks, and roads bind communities
together. Bridges are a vital link to the road infrastructure. Transport corridors in mountainous terrain
get frequently blocked by rain-induced debris flows and damages owing to over-land flows of rainwater
through improper and inadequate designing of drainage ditches, culverts, etc. Extreme heat can cause
road buckling and freeze-thaw cycles cause pavement cracking and potholes. Climate change may have
multidimensional adverse impacts on the safety, performance, and longevity of existing bridges and in
extreme cases could even result in the loss of some bridges due to extreme temperatures, wild bush fires,
and higher flood levels and flow-velocities.
Infrastructure around the country has been compromised by extreme weather events and rising sea
levels. Power outages and road and bridge damages are among the infrastructure failures that have
occurred during these extreme events. A disruption in any one system affects others. Some case studies
are enumerated here to illustrate how changing climate affects the safety of key infrastructure.
The Vajont Landslide, Italy is significant from the geotechnical viewpoint where experts erred in the risk
perception and inadequate assessment of the possible consequences of damming the valley. It occurred
on 9th October 1963 at 10:39 pm local time, a mass of approximately 270–300 million m3 of rock and
debris detached from Mount Toc, Dolomites, northeast Italy, and collapsed into the artificial lake created
by the 262 m high double-curved arch dam built across the Vajont valley. The wave overtopped the dam,
destroying seven villages in the Piave River Valley and killing almost 2000 people.
In contrast, there have been excellent instances such as the Tehri Dam on the Bhagirathi River in
Uttarakhand, where the building of a large dam contained flood waters during the Kedarnath tragedy

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extreme weather event of June 2013, thus saved lives and damages to property. Nevertheless, detailed
investigations on terrain response to such extreme rainfall and flooding events in Mandakini and Alaknanda
valleys led some experts to hold partly built dams/ barrages as responsible for larger debris entrainment
and increased magnitude of destruction during the increased discharge. Ensuring that engineered
infrastructure is climate resilient will help to reduce direct losses and reduce the indirect costs of disruption.
New infrastructure assets should be prioritized, planned, designed, built, and operated to account for the
climate changes that may occur over their lifetimes. Again, in view of emergent climate changes existing
infrastructure may need to be retrofitted or managed differently to make it safe and sustainable.
The distinctive characteristics of climate-resilient infrastructure include that it is planned, designed, built,
and operated in ways that anticipate, prepare for, and adapt to changing climate conditions. It can also
withstand, respond to, and recover rapidly from disruptions caused by these climate conditions. Ensuring
climate resilience is a continual process throughout the life of the asset. Efforts to achieve climate
resilience can be mutually reinforcing with efforts to increase resilience to natural hazards. Climate-
resilient infrastructure reduces, but may not fully eliminate, the risk of climate-related disruptions. The
extent to which climate change translates into risks for infrastructure depends upon the interaction of
changing climate hazards with exposure (the location of assets) and vulnerability (“the propensity or
predisposition to be adversely affected”). Climate risks to infrastructure can be reduced by locating assets
in areas that are less exposed to climate hazards (e.g., avoiding new construction in flood plains), and by
making the assets better able to cope with climate impacts when they materialize. The development of
infrastructure should also consider the impacts on risk elsewhere: for example, the potential contribution
to flood risk resulting from increases in paved surfaces retarding infiltration of water, etc.
Furthermore, sustainable infrastructure involves developing roads, buildings, energy, and water
infrastructure with due consideration to economic, social, and environmental implications. Such assets
have lower carbon and environmental footprints, and for enhanced safety, these are designed to act
resilient to changing climates. For lessening the impacts of extreme climate events, it is imperative to
map and avoid high-risk zones; build hazard-resistant structures and houses; protect and develop hazard
buffers (forests, reefs, etc.); develop a culture of prevention and resilience; improve early warning and
response systems and additionally build institutions, and development policies and plans for sustainable
development of infrastructure and resilient community for safe and sustainable development.
It is imperative to recognize gaps between geotechnical research and practice. There is a need to coordinate
the research efforts by academic research organizations and practicing professionals for adopting and
implementing evolving modern technologies for mitigation and building sustainable infrastructure.
Building climate-resilient infrastructure can involve a package of management measures (such as changing
maintenance schedules and including adaptive management to account for uncertainty in the future) and
structural measures, e.g., raising the height of bridges, judicious siting of barrages, and training of river
valleys, etc. Engineering geologists and civil engineers ought to take a more creative, collaborative,
and holistic approach to address the problems presented by the climate emergency, e.g., implementing
precast / pre-assembled foundation solutions (constructed offsite), which can be quickly assembled and
easily deployed and can be quickly dissembled and moved to a new substation for reuse in future. Civil
engineers are encouraged to be working with and adopting alternatives to the conventional concrete
usage in areas such as reinforced concrete, foundations, general and paving concrete; use of recycled
aggregates and low carbon cement replacements and promote scientific and engineering development
of geotextiles, geomembranes, related products, and associated technologies pertaining to synthetic
materials for increased durability.
Nature-based solutions (NbS) with a core focus on biodiversity, and water resources management address
societal challenges effectively and adaptively. NbS can make a difference, that can harness the power of
nature to adapt to climate impacts, e.g., coastal wetlands can defend communities from storm surges
and sea level rise; well-managed forests can protect water supplies, reduce wildfire risk and prevent
landslides; green space in cities can alleviate heat stress and reduce the impact of flooding. However, NbS
often work best when people use them at larger scales — across whole landscapes, ecosystems, or urban
spaces. Given their access to resources and ability to make policy and coordinate among multiple actors,
Governments are perhaps best placed to plan climate adaptation at this scale. To be successful in the long
run, they should include nature-based solutions in their adaptation planning from the start.

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KN 4.2
Climate Variability & Geohazards –A Threat for Sustainable Development In The
Rohingya Refugee Camps of Ukhiya, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
ATM Shakhawat Hossain
Geological Engineering, Geohazards & Disaster Sciences Research Group, Department of Geological
Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a tropical monsoonal South Asian country and has been dealing with one of the world’s
largest refugee crisis along its border with Myanmar (especially in the rough wooded zone of Ukhiya
sub-district, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh) due to a massive influx of Rohingya refugees, particularly since
25 August 2017. The humanitarian crisis due to the ethnic cleansing of Rohingya citizens from Myanmar
to Bangladesh since 2017 has been creating a major environmental crisis for Bangladesh. Due to this
cleansing, more than one million people (which is more than the total population of Bhutan) have fled
from Myanmar to Ukhia, Teknaf, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. These refugees have been forced to build
temporary shelters on the steep, deforested slopes of sand and clay hills of Kutupalong –Balukhali camps
of Ukhiya, Cox’sbazar. Thousands of hand-built tarpaulin (heavy-waterproof sheet used as a covering) and
bamboo shelters on hill slopes are threatened by earthquakes, slope failures, slumping, sliding, strong
winds, rains, and cyclones during monsoon season. This low-cost adaptation system with waterproof
sheets for Rohingya refugees housing helps more than one million refugees in the camp area to survive
during monsoon, however in an unsustainable way (without light and air passing facilities) in addition to
the risk of slope failure and earthquake-induced liquefaction. The birth of more than 60,000 children each
year is increasing the total number of Rohingya in the camps.
Resultant adverse impacts threaten the sustainability of the ecological zones and forests of Ukhiya. This
talk will highlight some of the hidden geohazards in the Rohingya camp area due to the change of climate
& extreme events in the Ukhiya sub-district where Rohingyas constructed temporary shelters. The talk
will also focus on the significant impact of changes in the physical landscape of the Ukhiya hills due to
landslides during rainfall events. The forests loss due to anthropogenic activities, for instance, cutting hill
slopes & trees is significantly increasing the risks of landslides, earthquakes, and floods in several camps.
A large proportion of Rohingyas use tree branches
as fuel, therefore creating more risks and threatening sustainability in the Ukhiya Cox’s Bazar region. We
have analyzed 32 years of rainfall data to see the variations of the recent change in precipitation pattern
by analyzing the last few years’ rainfall and slope failures event data of the investigated area. In 2019,
more than 5000 camp houses on the risky hill slopes were washed out due to torrential rain. Hillside slope
failures in the Rohingya refugee camps might turn into a humanitarian disaster mainly during monsoon
and also a threat to sustainable community living in the Rohingya refugee camps. From the numerical
stability results, some risk zones have been identified. Based on liquefaction potentiality Index (LPI)
analysis at higher earthquake magnitudes (M= 5 or above), these soils are susceptible to liquefy up to a
depth of 8m. An integrated rainwater harvesting system with other sustainable solutions is recommended
to reduce the risks. Two risk maps & training manuals were prepared based on analyzed results and
distributed to the Rohingya refugees and local communities to understand the severity of the risks during
rainfall and during high-magnitude earthquakes by involving public representatives, officials NGO and
other concerned authorities to build up motivation and awareness among the communities. Some geo-
engineering solutions have also been recommended for these communities.
Every year the intensity of geo-hazards is increasing with the increasing loss of causalities and properties.
Awareness, adaptation & actions plan based on 3A’s concept has been introduced in the refugee camp
area by the IAEG_Bangladesh National Group members & ANSO (Alliance of International Science
Organizations) China to reduce the hazards in the camp area. An alarm-based EWS (Early Warning
System) has been established to monitor the rainfall-induced landslide hazards in the investigated area
by sending SMS alerts & continuous alarms to communities to evacuate the site during disasters and also
to save lives and properties. Based on the observed factor of safety (Fs) values, a landslide risk map has
been prepared to mitigate the problems and attain sustainability in the camp areas. LPI-based risk maps
of the camp area were also produced. It is established that these hills are at risk of earthquake magnitude

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(M) 5 or above. Based on observed LPI values four risk zones are identified in the Rohigya refugee camp
area of Ukhiya, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. Sustainable geotechnical & geological engineering solutions
have been recommended for the Rohingya victims and local communities to reduce the risks related to
the hidden geo-hazards.
Immediate measures must be taken by the concerned authorities including the United Nations (UN),
UNHCR, NGO, and the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) for alternate sustainable housing to relocate
the Rohingya refugee camps from these risky hill slopes to safer ground as a short-term solution. Some
Rohingyas have been relocated temporally to Bhashan Char, located at a distance of 130 km from Cox’s
Bazar. All concerned authorities must need to ensure Rohingya’s return immediately to Myanmar to save
lives and properties during landslides & earthquakes and to attain sustainability in the whole Asian region,
particularly in the Ukhiya, Teknaf, Cox’s Bazar area of Bangladesh as a long-term solution. These research
findings may inspire locals, nationals, public representatives, and international donor agencies to ensure
sustainable hill management, hazard management (including mitigation), and environmental protection
and to contribute to the society in attaining sustainability in the region.

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Abstract No: 4/001

Sustainability Assessment of Passive House Retrofits of Residential Buildings in India

- A Life Cycle Carbon Balance
Bhanu Sowmya Andraju*
L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]
*

The built environment generates nearly 50% of annual global CO2 emissions. Of those total emissions,
building operations are responsible for 27% annually, while building materials and construction (typically
referred to as embodied carbon) are responsible for an additional 20% annually. Approximately 2/3 of
the global building area that exists today will still exist in 2040. Without widespread existing building
decarbonisation across the globe, these buildings will still be emitting CO2 emissions in 2040.

Passive house is a highly energy-efficient building standard that also promotes indoor comfort and
acoustic insulation. It is a construction concept made to build comfortable, environmentally friendly, and
affordable homes and buildings. Passive House buildings save energy and reduce greenhouse gases - not
just a little but a great deal. And these savings do not only exist on paper but also in real life - passive
house buildings do deliver. Passive House buildings are eco-friendly by definition: They use extremely
little primary energy, leaving sufficient energy resources for all future generations without causing any
environmental damage. The additional energy required for the construction (embodied carbon) is rather
insignificant compared with the energy they save later on.
Retrofitting an existing building can oftentimes be more cost-effective than building a new facility. Since
buildings consume a significant amount of energy, particularly in heating and cooling, and because
existing buildings comprise the largest segment of the built environment, it is important to initiate energy
conservation retrofits to reduce the energy consumption and the cost of heating, cooling and lighting
buildings. This includes the usage of energy, water, and other environmental resources like sunlight
efficiently to a maximum extent.
Together, building and construction are responsible for 39% of all carbon emissions in the world, with
operational emissions (from energy used to heat, cool and light buildings) accounting for 27%. These

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carbon emissions get entrapped in the atmosphere causing Global Warming which is a large-scale
environmental hazard affecting almost every element of the Earth. Hence it is necessary to adopt suitable
methods for the reduction of carbon emissions.
In recent years, a tremendous amount of methods have come to produce electricity without using coal
as a source. Wind and solar energy, with these methods we can reduce the number of carbon emissions
that are emitted while producing electricity with coal. If we use wood and glass as major construction
materials then we can reduce the maximum carbon emissions that are emitted from the construction sites
and for the entire life span. But for the existing buildings, no care is taken to reduce carbon emissions.
This can be countered by retrofitting.
This study involves the calculation of life cycle carbon emissions and energy analysis of a typical retrofitted
residential building in India. This paper outlines Case Study of Passive Retrofitted buildings in Sweden
- The energy retrofit of existing buildings by using different building materials for thermal insulation,
building facades and windows, which reduces CO2 emission.

Abstract No: 4/002

Utilization of GGBS and Quarry Sand for Application as a Partial Replacement to Natural
Sand in Construction: A Case Study
S. B. Bhavsar1*, D. L. Chavan1, N. S. Patil2, S. N. Patil1
1
Department of Applied Geology, School of Environment and Earth Sciences, North Maharashtra University,
Jalgaon 425 001, India; 2Department of Applied Geography, School of Environment and Earth Sciences,
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon - 425001, India
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]
*

The non-perennial Girna River is a significant source of natural sand available for the construction
sector for the production of concrete and mortar in Jalgaon city. Jalgaon is a major urban center in the
Jalgaon District of the North Maharashtra Region. Natural sand is still the major raw material used in the
preparation of conventional concrete and mortar to fulfill the ever-increasing demand of the construction
sector. In this view, during the financial years 2016-17, 2017-18, 2018-19, 2020-21, and 2021-22 the
amount of natural sand scooped from Girna River was 245182, 208530, 255928, 837495, and 995220
tonnes respectively. To accomplish the rising demand unscientific and indiscriminate exploitation of sand
from the Girna riverbed is affecting the river morphology and other vital functions of the river such as
transportation of nutrients and sediments, also are the cause of depletion of the groundwater table
in nearby villages along the river channel, and environment. Considering these harmful effects of the
mining of natural sand, there is an urgent necessity to find an alternative source of raw material as a
replacement for the natural sand in the preparation of conventional concrete and mortar. Jalna city is a
steel manufacturing zone in Maharashtra near Jalgaon city, it generates about 1000 MT/day of Iron slag
as waste material during the extraction of Iron from Iron ores. Effective management of this voluminous
amount of slag generated during ore processing is important for the protection of the environment. As
the generated waste i.e., slag harms the environment. To achieve sustainable growth, various reuses of
different slags have been suggested by the available literature. The glassy granulates of slag are ground to
the required size fractions known as Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), so that it can be used
for various applications. Along with these few stone quarries are located at nearby Jalgaon city. During the
financial year 2020-21, 5199887 tonnes of Gitty/Building stones from Basalt rock were produced. Hence,
the cost-effective, abundantly available GGBS and locally available Quarry Sand can be used together as a
partial replacement for the natural sand at the regional level. With the addition of GGBS and Quarry sand
in a certain percentage along with the natural sand, standard strength to the conventional concrete and
mortar can be achieved. The use of slag for various purposes can be beneficial in different ways like the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, also minimizing the use of raw materials. The use of GGBS and
Quarry sand as an alternative to the natural sand can help to mitigate the stress on the Girna River to a
certain scale and degradation of the river can be minimized to some extent.

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Abstract No: 4/003

Understanding climate change impact on sustainable development of environmental

resources in lower parts of Mandakini River valley, Rudraprayag District, Uttarakhand,
India
Fernanda Imada de Lima, Sudesh Kumar Wadhawan*
School of Sustainable Development, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kollam, Kerala
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The extreme hydro-meteorological event that caused the Kedarnath tragedy during 16-17 June 2013
created havoc and immense damage, particularly to the Mandakini and Alaknanda River basins in
Rudraprayag district in central parts of Uttarakhand. The Mandakini River valley suffered severe and
multiple hazards of flash flooding, land sliding with long run-outs, channel deviations and excessive
erosion along the riverbanks, etc. Sediments derived from the glacial moraines and alluvial fans in its
upper catchment reportedly supercharged the river. The mass movements created debris flows that
contributed to large boulders as bed loads and assorted sediments as traction and suspension loads to
the flooded Mandakini River.

The present study reasoned on field observations and interactive socio-economic surveys amongst the
local inhabitants and affected communities that aimed essentially to record and synthesize the impacts of
climate change on environmental resources and sustainable development in lower parts of the Mandakini
River valley in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand, India. Key questions contributed to understanding the
human-landscape interactions and linked mechanisms to address issues related to climate change and the
sustainable development of the communities. Among the questions raised are:

Which mechanisms do societies adapt to cope with the changes on Earth’s surface?

How traditional wisdom governs the value systems for building resilient communities better equipped
to meet the emerging changes of unpredictable extreme hydro-meteorological events and reduce the
disaster risks;

What are the effects of improved connectivity and infrastructural development on crisis management?

Which are the possible consequences of long-term engineering projects such as dams, watershed
management constructions, and treatments for soil conservation on safe, hazard minimization, and
natural resources protection?

What integrated agricultural practices need to be promoted or encouraged in hilly areas to dampen the
adverse effects of climate change?

What are the skill level improvements and capacity-building measures necessary to obtain climate-resilient
practices, alternative livelihoods, and overall economic prosperity?

Some contextual initial results considered a bottom-up human-centric approach in the area under
consideration. Regarding the environmental characteristics in the area, it was observed that water sources,
both surface and groundwater in the form of perennial rivers and springs locally called ‘Dhara’ or ‘sttrota’
are present. The local vegetation comprises agricultural fields and forest covers, while the soil provides
resources for biodiversity; sand, and rock boulders for construction purposes. In the geomorphic setting
and landscapes, the natural spectacular scenic beauty of high hills and deep valleys draws the attention
of visitors and has great potential for planned ecotourism. Religious tourism is also a potential source of
income, due to the many temples and pilgrimage routes found in the region.

Some field evidence of climate change in the Mandakini River valley includes the erratic behavior of rains,
irregular duration, and intensity of monsoon rainfall season, reduced flow/drying-up of the springs, higher
and irregular temperature variations resulting in early ripening and reduced crop productivity, cumulative
effects on changes in soil fertility and erodibility, etc.

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Expansion and intensification of farming, along with climate change, are among the most discussed
environmental issues today. The use of high-yielding crop varieties, fertilization, irrigation, and pesticides
has contributed substantially to increasing food production. Land conversion and intensification, however,
also alter the biotic interactions and patterns of resource availability in ecosystems and can have serious
local, regional, and global environmental consequences.

Environmental changes arising from human activities evidenced the need to adopt land-use options that
increase food security and reduce vulnerability to ecological impacts. Traditional resource management
adaptations, such as agroforestry systems, may potentially provide alternatives for the enhancement of
livelihoods through the simultaneous production of crops, fodder, and firewood as well as mitigation of
the impact of climate change. Agroforestry is known as both traditional and modern land use system,
which integrates trees and shrubs on farmlands and rural landscapes to enhance productivity, diversity,
and ecosystem sustainability. Agroforestry enables agricultural land to withstand extreme weather events
such as floods, droughts, and mass wasting induced by climate change.

In India, agroforestry is widespread in all ecological and geographical regions. The systems and
practices vary in structural complexity, species diversity, productive and protective attributes, as well as
socioeconomic benefits due to local conditions along with traditions. They range from apparently ‘simple’
forms of shifting cultivation, observed especially in the northeast, to the complex multi-storeyed home
gardens of the horticultural plantations in humid rainfed or irrigated areas. Some agroforestry systems
include the deliberate growing of trees on field bunds, their sporadic distribution in agricultural fields,
for instance, the systematic retention of shade trees in tea and coffee plantations. It is also common to
cultivate crops for 2/3 years in the open interspaces in newly planted orchards and forests and, later,
to interplant shade-tolerant crops such as turmeric and ginger. Agroforestry species are known to have
the potential to mitigate climate change effects through microclimate moderation and natural resource
conservation in the short run and better carbon sequestration (far greater and larger than the normal
crops and grass systems) in the long run.

However, a marked decline in such agroforestry practices is observed in different parts of the Mandakini
River valley, owing mostly to a lack of awareness and modern technical guidance, incentives, institutional
support, and above all increased wildlife (monkeys and wild boars) menace. It is recognized that
agroforestry can become an important tool to build the resilience of farmers and rural communities
against threats of climate change and natural calamities. Some pragmatic suggestions are offered to
mitigate the situation and create a conducive environment for the adoption of agroforestry in the area.
These include improved storage and marketing infrastructure, the introduction of processing technology
for fast-growing timber and fodder species, and proper implementations of government-funded integrated
watershed management programs, etc.

Further, it is envisaged to generate a long-term data bank through systematic remote-sensing interpretations
and application of GIS techniques on aspects of changes in Land Use-Land Cover and water resources
in the areas of investigation for assessing and improved understanding of effects of climate change and
vice versa, for comprehensive thematic research and modeling for natural resources conservation and
sustainable development.

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Abstract No: 4/004

Decoding the recurrence of extreme weather events and their consequences vis-a-vis
exogenic processes from Amarnath Ji Cave area, Kashmir Himalaya
Abdul Qayoom Paul*, Imran Khan, Harish Bahuguna
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

On 8th July 2022 an extreme weather event (EWE) in the form of rainfall-induced flash flood and debris
flow was witnessed in Amarnath valley, Jammu and Kashmir at17:30 hrs, which resulted in 15 causalities
and more than 50 injuries along with damage to the temporary infrastructure. The incidence occurred
along the 2nd order tributary stream flowing immediately to the western side of Holy Amarnath cave and
meeting the Amravati Nala from the right bank. It was a recurrence of a similar EWE at the same location
on 28th July 2021 (15:30 hrs) and also later on 15th August 2022 (morning). The events of July 2021 and
that on 15th August 2022 only damaged infrastructural facilities without any loss of human lives, because
the yatra was at abeyance due to the Covid-19 pandemic in the former case, whereas, the yatra was over
in the latter case. In all three cases, heavy concentrated downpours spanned over a short time interval
(less than 30 minutes for a major amount of precipitation), brought a huge debris material from the
steep upslope catchment and dumped at the gentle foot slope break along narrow U-shaped Amarnath
valley, which has limited accommodating space. The huge debris material, dominantly coarse to large
boulder sizes, filled the constricted stream channel, which follows near parallel to the stairs and footpath
to the holy cave. The temporary infrastructural and commercial tents also remain established along the
banks of the affected stream, having crowded footfall during peak season. The area, falling in Kashmir
Himalayas, mainly consists of upper Triassic limestone rocks with interbedded very thin shale bands of
Wuyan Formation having NW-SE strike for bedding (S0) and dipping moderately to steeply westward. The
area around Amarnath cave and the adjacent affected stream are part of an isoclinal synformal structure
plunging gently towards NE, with the holy cave lying in the normal limb dipping moderately westward.
Its complimentary western limb is overturned dipping steeply westward. The isoclinal folding, indicating
intense structural deformation, has resulted in the formation of bedding parallel foliation (S0//S1).

This paper aims at deciphering the role of the hydro meteorological and geological factors that might be
influencing the recurrence of such EWE at this location. The rainfall data on 28th July 2021 from Climateserv,
8th July and 15th August 2022 from Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and Climateserv sources
respectively show 18-19 mm and 31mm rainfall. The eyewitnesses on all three occasions reveal heavy
downpours for brief periods of up to 30 minutes. Further, the basin catchment area of the affected stream
has a limited areal extent (0.25 km2) but still resulted in a flash flood and debris flow. The Physiography,
topography, and valley profile reveal that the location, the upper Amarnath valley, presents a favourable
locale for orographic climb coupled with adiabatic cooling which results in the sudden downpour. The
affected stream flows nearly along the synformal structure against the plunge, developing constricted and
steep channel along with a cascade waterfall. The supplies for huge debris material during the reported
events are strongly controlled by geological and geomorphological factors and are attributed to three such
sediment production sources: 1. Abundance of loose unconsolidated sediments by frost weathering, 2.
Karst and chemical weathering, 3. Rock slides (Planar & Topping failure). The Amarnath valley remains
under very thick snow cover and experiences cryospheric permafrost conditions for most of the year
(October-May). This results in the cyclicity of ice formation and melting in the joints and fractures of rocks,
thereby, disintegrating the rock. Huge supplies of such loose sediments are readily available on moderate
slopes, left bank of the affected stream, in the upper catchment area upslope of Amarnath cave. The
main rock type present, limestone, is highly affected by chemical weathering resulting in the formation
of the Karst landscape, of which the Amarnath cave is a part. The upslope area of Amarnath cave shows
extensive development of Karst topography in the form of natural caves, arcs, depressions, and vertical
pinnacles. The rocks also show extensive seepage and flowing conditions. Chemical weathering has highly
reduced the RMR of rocks in the poor to very poor (10-30) category. The weak Karst landscape by

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chemical dissolution has contributed to the weak landscape. The highly chemically weathered arcs, vertical
pinnacles, and towers standing on moderate to steep slopes are extremely susceptible to collapse, even
under the gravitational influence. The collapse of a single pinnacle can contribute to hundreds of tons of
debris material and are posing a constant threat to the safety of pilgrims even in dry weather conditions.
The poor to very poor limestone beds in the eastern limb of the isoclinal fold in the upslope of Amarnath
cave shows day lighting towards the affected stream and is susceptible to planar failure. Whereas, the
limestone beds on the western limb show steepening resulting in the toppling failure towards the eastern
side into the affected stream. Numbers of karst pinnacles are falling in the trajectory of toppling failure
blocks. The SMR of the affected upslope area falls in the bad to very bad (15-35) category. The chemical
weathering-induced karst topography, frost action caused by physical weathering, and highly unfavorable
RMR and SMR categories are the prima facie for the huge sediment source for debris flow in the event of
heavy downpours. The profile of the affected stream is steep to very steep in the upper catchment area
above the waterfall adjacent to the holy cave. The constricted nature of the stream could not cater to the
huge debris material brought by instant heavy downpours in the catchment area. The stream downslope
along the footpath is gentle which got filled and choked by huge debris material followed by its diversion
and dumping of debris around the infrastructural tent area.

Abstract No: 4/005

Potential of Flow Irrigation Scheme and Small Hydropower in South-Eastern part of

Mikir massif, Assam, India
Manash Protim Baruah1*, D. Bezbaruaha1, T, K, Goswami2
1
Geological Survey of India,
2
Department of Applied Geology, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, 786004, India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The southeastern part of Mikir massif falling in Karbi Anglong and Golaghat Districts of Assam (Figure 1)
has been studied through an integrated approach incorporating geology, hydrology, and seismotectonic to
identify potential sites for multipurpose Small Hydropower Projects (SHP). Using canal networks attached
to these multipurpose projects, the natural gradient available in the hilly watershed can best utilize to
irrigate downstream areas at a lower cost. A gravity/flow-based irrigation system has been suggested as
an alternative to the currently operated lift irrigation-based system. There are eight numbers of ungauged
catchments present in the study area, namely Kaliyani, Daigurung, Nambar, Barneuria, Deopani, Jabrajan,
Neperpatti, and Harihajan. Based on the longitudinal profiles, a total of 46 sites could be identified as a
potential locations for hydropower generation in the studied watershed. To determine the flow of these
ungauged streams Area Ratio method has been adopted and the estimated discharge is used to construct
the Flow Duration Curve (FDC) for each catchment. The discharge measured for the streams varied from
15.18 m3/s to 0.12 m3/s for the pre-monsoon period and from 23.71 m3/s to 0.32 m3/s for the post-
monsoon period. The maximum discharge has been shown by the Kaliyani River and the minimum by the
Jabrajan stream. From the results of hydrological studies, it has been found that the eight numbers of
watersheds present in the study area can able to generate 48.4 MW of power and thus have enormous
potential for small to mini multipurpose hydro projects.

The study area is considered one of the deformed zones of the northeastern region (NER) of India and
lies in the most active zone V of the Indian seismic code. The results of active tectonic studies based
on seismotectonic parameters reveal that the identified SHP sites present downstream of the Kaliyani,
Daigurung, Nambar, and Barneuria stream falls in low seismic zones and are thus safe for any civil
engineering construction.

Four sites have been selected as favorable locations for SHP in the area based on the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis. Geo-mechanical characterization of rocks at the proposed

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Figure 1: Location map of the study area showing 46 numbers of identified sites on
eight river basins present in the southeastern part of Mikir massif.

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weir sites at Kaliyani, Daigurung, and Nambar rivers shows higher values for strength parameters and
falls in Class-II, i.e., Good rock category in the Rock Mass Rating class. The site on the Barneuria river
has been located on the older alluviums and the analysis of soil mechanical properties indicates that the
proposed weir should be placed on the T1 level of terrace having a low liquid limit (26.75-30.14), low
compressibility index (0.15-0.18), and high shear strength parameters (φ: 11.4˚-20.5˚; c: 6.5-19.02
KPa) and hence suitable for the foundation. For all four sites, alternate plans for both storage type and
Run of River (RoR) type have been proposed and feasibility analysis is done. The proposed storage type
layout plan for the site located on Kaliyani river can able to produce a maximum of 3.98 MW of power,
whereas the RoR type can able to generate 1.59 MW. This will also be able to irrigate 1041.5 hectares of
cropland and 703.5 hectares of barren land. The RoR scheme for the Daigurung River site will generate
287.5 kW and that for Nambar River will be 82.8 kW. Likewise, the storage type scheme will produce
826.7 kW and 215.3 kW for Daigurung and Nambar sites, respectively, which also have good irrigation
potential. The irrigation-based RoR plan for the Barneuria stream can generate 41.6 kW of power output
and irrigate 1952.49 Hectares of land, including 1008.2 Hectares of cropland, 571.76 Hectares of tea
garden areas, and 372.49 Hectares of barren lands. These irrigation-based multipurpose projects will
boost the agriculture activity in the plain areas of Karbi Anglong and Golaghat districts and also be able
to meet the captive requirement of power.

Abstract No: 4/007

Shear Strength of Unsaturated Granite Residual Soils under Multiple Drying-Wetting

Cycles
Hossain Md. Sayem1*, Ling-Wei Kong2
1
Department of Geological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh;
2
State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China.
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Climatic variability, namely the drying-wetting cycle, is regarded as one of the most destructive
environmental factors that can dramatically affect soil moisture distribution and hydro-mechanical
behaviors and may induce damage to foundations or infrastructures. Moreover, the studied granite residual
soils collected in areas around Jiangmen city (Kaiping), Gaungdong Province, China are usually subjected
to periodical drying-wetting cycles because of seasonal fluctuations and the formational environment.
That’s why, it is necessary to evaluate the effects of multiple drying–wetting cycles on shear strength
behaviours of unsaturated granite residual soils. For this purpose, A series of consolidated drained (CD)
tri-axial tests and matric suction tests using pressure plate apparatus are conducted on saturated samples
experienced by drying-wetting cycles (zero, one, two, four, and eight) to analyse the saturated and
unsaturated shear strength.

The CD tri-axial test results indicate that more significant volume contraction occurred during the first
drying–wetting cycle as compared with the subsequent drying–wetting cycles. The saturated shear strength
decreases with drying-wetting cycles i.e., the cohesion (cd) and internal friction angle (φd) decrease with
increasing cycle number (N) but the attenuation rate of φd is less than cd. On the other hand, matric
suction test results show that the water retention capacity of undisturbed granite residual soils decreases
with increasing drying-wetting cycles, i.e., the initial saturated water content, residual water content, and
air-entry value decrease. The pores become more uniform with increasing drying-wetting cycles. Both
tests indicate that the effect is more significant for the first cycle and decreases with subsequent cycles
and finally reaches a nearly constant state after 4 drying-wetting cycles. Finally, it is said that the overall
shear strength behaviour of residual soil is degraded with increasing drying-wetting cycles i.e., repeated
drying and wetting cycles not only decrease the triaxial shear coefficient φd but also have an effect on
coefficient φb with respect to matric suction to a certain extent. This reduction of shear strength with
drying-wetting cycles might be due to the changes in particle arrangement, a decrease in pore volume and

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water-holding capacity, or due to the formation of cracks as well as the development of fissures in soils,
which significantly increase soil compressibility and hydraulic conductivity and consequently decrease the
overall structural strength and stability. Such studies are useful to understand the possible changes in the
shear strength behaviour of residual soils below the engineering structures that are subject to periodic
drying and wetting from climatic variations.

Abstract No: 4/008

Arsenic, posing water security issues for urban infrastructure in Bihar

Akhouri Bishwariya*, Shreya Singh, Divya.
Geological Survey of India
*Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The state of Bihar is blessed with the availability of groundwater resources and the same extensively cater
to irrigation and domestic needs of a sizeable population in the second most populated state of India. But
the availability is doomed with the increasing concentration of contaminant named Arsenic, particularly in
younger aquifers. With the first few cases of Arsenic induced health manifestations in early 2002-2003, in
less than a decade and a half, nearly 20 million people are staring at a problem that is only getting worse
with time owing to increased consumption of groundwater infested with Arsenic.
Arsenic is a harmful groundwater pollutant responsible for a high mortality rate because of its toxicity.
Over 300 million people are affected by the use of water contaminated with Arsenic worldwide, out of
which India and Bangladesh alone contribute 180 million people (Kumar et.al, 2018). Bihar stands third in
the “Top five Arsenic Affected States” with 1.023% of affected habitations to total habitations (Data from
DDWS, April 2011, UNICEF Report on “Water in India: Situation and Prospects”, 2013). The maximum
concentration of arsenic in the state has been reported from Buxar, Bhojpur, Patna, and Bhagalpur.
(Dipankar Saha; 2009).
This study involves the district of Bhagalpur which along with Patna, Biharsharif and Muzzafarpur have
been identified as contenders for smart city development by the Government of India. Thus, a detailed
assessment of the groundwater availability and suitability became imperative in tune with the requirement
of potable water for drinking purposes. The territorial boundaries of the district of Bhagalpur interspersed
on either bank of River Ganga have been identified as a potential hotspot for Arsenic in groundwater
which necessitated its reassessment.
The Quaternary succession mainly along the course of the Ganga river in the state of Bihar has a distinctly
high Arsenic incidence and is responsible for health-related problems for the masses. Based on the high
values of arsenic concentration in groundwater reported by the Ministry of Jalshakti from Bhagalpur
district, Bihar, as high as 240 ppb against the 10 ppb (acceptable limit of arsenic in groundwater by BIS
& permissible limit by WHO), has been reported. The speciation test has not been carried out by the state
government. This study did attempt a speciation study for five samples on an outsourced basis. Out of the
five samples, four samples indicated pentavalent as but the results were largely inconclusive.
An interdisciplinary approach to the investigation involving resistivity survey (vertical electrical sounding),
spatial distribution and control, depth-centric sampling, drilling, and application of fundamental engineering
geological profiling along the longitudinal section of the drainages were applied to derive information
on the propensity of contamination along and across the bank of Ganga river to arrive at the possible
geogenic reasons for anomalous concentration.
The traverse along the course of Gerua Nadi and Katharia nala- Ghoga River (peninsular Bound River)
was taken to carry out close spaced sampling of water samples from dug wells of all the villages located
immediately on the banks of these rivers. The arsenic contamination if any along the flow regime of
rivers draining from the peninsular region would be a significant indicator to understand the agents of
contamination and the depth control. Accordingly, a L-profile (longitudinal) of the river (Fig II) (1:50,000
scale) was prepared with the X axis representing the length of the river and the Y axis representing the
elevation in meters. Considering the fact, that the gradient along the river is not appreciable, the scale
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along the Y axis has been kept at 1cm= 1 m to pick up even minor variations in gradient. This L- section
provides information on the gradient of the river and arsenic contamination along the banks.
The study was accentuated with drilling up to a depth of 60m at six different locations to establish the
morphostratigraphic control for contamination in residue water and sediments (Fig I and III). The drilling
data provided valuable information on existing tiers of aquifer up to 60m (180 ft) depth and the resistivity
survey helped in aquifer modeling i.e establishing spatial continuity of the aquifer level. Borehole data and
tubewell data plotted along preferred profile lines gave a vivid account of the contamination distribution
pattern and helped in establishing the spatial control on a 3-dimensional face.
Out of the 858 samples, 368 samples were collected from the left bank of the Ganga and the remaining
490 samples were collected from the south bank. Out of the total samples collected, 29.15% of samples
indicate As values exceeding the acceptable limit (> 10ppb).
Altogether, 490 water samples from the surface, as well as groundwater, have been analysed from the
right bank of River Ganga. Nearly, 85% of the samples are safe with less than 10ppb of arsenic. The
contamination range of 10-49 ppb is uniformly distributed along the southern bank of the river Ganga.
The southern part of the study area is largely free from arsenic contamination.
Part of the study area falling towards the left bank of the river Ganga shows a relatively high range of
contamination. 368 water samples were collected from this part of the study area and 145 nos of samples
were found to be contaminated with > 10 ppb As constituting ~39% of samples. The contamination
range of 10-35 ppb (56 nos.) is uniformly distributed throughout the area. Out of 39%, ~9% are falling
in the contamination range between 50-200 ppb and 5% samples have values > 200ppb. Higher As
concentration (>100ppb) is observed in pockets along the leftover channels or where the lower order
drainages are coalescing to form higher order drainages.
The paper deals with the tight rope walking in arriving at the best spatial control for arsenic contamination
considering its rather uneven disposition in nature, accentuated by engineering geological approach,
drilling, and existing practices for mitigation purposes. The investigation has been able to achieve the
objectives of arriving at the geo-genic source and also demarcating the areas with high contamination of
as in groundwater and food chain through a spatial zonation map.

Fig: I Aquifer depths based on borehole study

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Fig II: L- Profile section of Kathria nala and Ghoga river

(up to confluence with Ganga river)

Fig III: Cross-section along A-A’ along with As value in ppb and tube well depth

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Abstract No: 4/009

Fluoride contamination in groundwater in parts of Yadadri-Bhuvanagiri and Nalgonda

districts, Telangana- Causes & long term remedial measures
Satish B Chavan*, Ramesh Guguloth, T. Vaideswaran, S.K.Tripathi.
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Geo-environmental studies were carried out to understand the occurrence, distribution, vulnerability, and
source of fluoride in groundwater of parts of the Yadadri-Bhuvanagiri and Nalgonda districts, Telangana.
The study area comprises granitoids belonging to the Peninsular Gneissic Complex PGC)-II. The high
Fluoride concentration (up to 13.50 ppm) was recorded from the groundwater, rock (up to 18.22%), and
soil samples (up to 2228 ppm) as well. More than half of the samples have recorded Fluoride concentration
beyond the desirable/prescribed limit in groundwater. High fluoride concentration is recorded in 53% of
pre-monsoon water samples and 51% of post-monsoon water samples as compared with the World Health
Organization tolerance limit of 1.5 mg/l. The occurrence of fluoride in groundwater is due to weathering
and leaching of fluoride-bearing minerals from rocks. The fluorine-bearing minerals fluorite (up to 46
wt %), bastnasite (9 wt %), and fluorapatite (8%) are the most important source minerals identified in
monzogranite, syenogranite and alkali feldspar granitoids of Peninsular Gneissic complex-II. The fluoride
distribution pattern in the area is not uniform and this could be plausible due to the control of typical
hydro-geological conditions of the study area and water-rock interaction span (i.e., residence time). The
fluoride-enriched areas are mostly associated with pediplain and alluvium tracks underlain by granitoids.
Fluoride in groundwater varies significantly spatially within the catchments, with low concentrations on
hill slopes and progressively increasing concentrations down the gradient into valley bottoms. A positive
correlation between Sodium, Bicarbonate, pH (median 7.62) and fluoride indicates that the highly alkaline
nature of the water promotes the leaching of fluoride in groundwater. The interpretation of plots for
different major ions suggests that weathering of silicate rocks and water-rock interaction is responsible
for the major ion chemistry of groundwater. Dental and Skeletal fluorosis marked by yellowish teeth and
crippled legs is prevalent in the study area as many people are exposed to fluoride-contaminated water.
Onsite treatment includes artificial recharge methods such as rainwater harvesting, constructing check
dams, and percolation ponds, facilitating recharge of rainwater through existing wells, etc. Adopting a
particular method depends on the initial fluoride concentration, source, and cost-effectiveness in an area.
Supplying treated surface water to fluoride-infested villages and renovating surface ponds, tanks, and
other water bodies will be long-term mitigation measures to reduce the high concentration of fluoride.

Abstract No: 4/010

Shared Himalayan Geotourism & Research: Panacea for Safety, Peace and affluence
Arun Deep Ahluwalia*
Professor of Eminence (Honorary), School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Shoolini University,
Solan, Himachal Pradesh
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Harnessing the Himalayas across borders in the Himalayan Ecology sharing nations for research, tourism,
disaster management, geological exploration by all available means, conserving glaciers, landscapes
beauty, and greenery may sound utopian but is the panacea for lasting peace and prosperity in the
region. Speaker is inspired by his prolonged involvement in Earth & Environmental Sciences Outreach
over two decades in general and the UN Programm International Year of Planet Earth (IYPE) 2007-2009
in particular exhorting the use of Geosciences for society and by the society. The TYPE triennium did
not touch enough of our region in South Asia because of overall poor Geo and Eco literacy in system
managers and the public. It was realized during IYPE years that the number of Earth Scientists across

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the world was much lesser than required. In our poor countries where the teaching of Earth Sciences
is quite scarce even today, outreach and informal education by personal and offline interactions using
student volunteers, retired and serving teachers, and professional geologists, we may strive to establish
Earth Talks hubs online and across the villages. All efforts at educating officials and politicians would be
more effective if we focus on our primary schools and parent-teacher associations. Best minerals and
fossil discoveries were often made by or through the help of a shepherd or a village chief. During the
Asian Tsunami of December 26, 2004 stories of school kids or village heads in coastal areas raising alarms
were common place while the experts were sleeping literally that early morning and also metaphorically.
Lay persons were aware through the National Geographic Channel program, not text books. Our literacy
missions in Geosciences are most likely to succeed informally and casually. Even if we are allowed to
introduce Geoscience teaching at all levels in schools,

colleges, and universities, we don’t have trained manpower nor shall we have for many decades.
Creating awakened masses and school kids is possible through mini museums at village and city levels.
The tsunami museum experience of the Pacific nations is a shining example. Disasters in our country
come in news during relief work but acquaintance with elementary knowledge is easy to disseminate in
personal chats, social media, etc. Such interactions become more effective if we cocktail Geological and
Environmental Sciences. Pure Geological chats are dismissed quickly but mixed chats are more effective
and people are more receptive. My own experience of my Earth Talks on YouTube Channel is an example
of families and kids being more receptive to Himalayan Geoheritage and Geodiversity interactions which
they would never see in routine. The beginning is made on Facebook Live Group called Social Substance.
Such low-key casual efforts succeed more easily at official and people’s levels. Our efforts at Himalayan
Geoconservation should be seen as efforts in making human lives happier and healthier rather than boring
lectures. Our own families and kids are always interested in volcanoes, quakes, the beauty of landscapes,
dinosaurs, etc. There are huge toys and books industry on these topics. The time is ripe for Himalayan
efforts like never before.

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THEME-V
Emerging Challenges in Urban Infrastructures
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Keynote Abstract

KN 5.1
(I)-TM; The Tunnelling Method that Solved the Years-lasting Problem of USBRLP’s T01
in Lower Himalayas’ Main Boundary Thrust
H Bineshian
PhD, Principal Technical Director, Amberg Engineering AG, [email protected]

In this keynote lecture, over-critical wedge of lower Himalayas including Main Boundary Thrust and its
Reasi Thrust is briefly explained, where T01 tunnel of USBRLP is located; a tunnel, which faced with
several major failures that challenged the project in the last six years with no advancement. The main
focus of this lecture is on (I)-TM (Bineshian, 2022); the tunnelling method, which successfully resolved
the issues and helped to overcome the challenges in one of the most critical conditions in Himalayas.
Also, I-System (Bineshian, 2019, 2020, 2021), the classification and characterisation system that is
employed for design of T01 is briefly explained. GCD (Bineshian, 2020, 2022); an advancement criterion
that assists in assessing the solidification quality prior and after PU-2C injection is provided. Finally, TSP;
a recommended forecast technique by I-System and (I)-TM, which is applied for prediction of ground
ahead of the faces is explained.
Keywords: (I)-TM, GCD, Himalayas, I-System, MBT, T01, TSP, USBRLP

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KN 5.2
MINIMIZING GEOLOGICAL UNCERTAINTIES THROUGH ADVANCED GEOPHYSICAL
TECHNOLOGIES
S. L. Kapil
Executive Director (R&D/Geotech.)
NHPC Limited, Faridabad, India
Email : [email protected]

Geotechnical exploration in hydro power investigation is very vital especially in Himalayan terrain and
has been a challenging task due to complex geological conditions. Extremely rugged, densely forested,
and inaccessible topography provide limited scope for investigations, which becomes a cause of concern
for developers during execution of these projects. Often these unexpected conditions are termed as
“Geological Surprise or Geological Uncertainties” which refers to sudden occurrence of extraordinary
adverse geological conditions during construction which were not anticipated at the time of investigation.
Assessment of subsurface geological conditions along tunnel alignment is the most challenging task for
hydropower projects owing to inaccessibility, thick vegetation cover, high super incumbent cover and
geological complexity of the terrain etc. resulting into time and cost overrun due to unforeseen geological
conditions during execution. Therefore, realistic Geological prognosis based on comprehensive survey
and investigation is the backbone of any successful hydroelectric project. Acquiring precise details of
geotechnical parameters in the investigation stage of project development have great implication in
selection of optimum location, preparation of cost estimate and design of major civil structures.

The conventional exploration techniques like drilling, drifting, pitting and trenching are expensive,
time consuming and provide very limited information. On the other hand, geophysical investigations
are fast, economic and capable of continuous coverage of large area. To minimize the uncertainties in
investigations, emerging geophysical techniques are of immense help. These techniques provide precise
details of subsurface rockmass and can minimize uncertainties during construction. These are also capable
in providing solutions of some critical problems faced during construction.

Two decades back, due to lack of technological advancements, the geophysical instruments and technologies
were in development stage and relied on basic theories of homogeneous isotropic and sub-horizontal
layered earth and it was difficult to undertake geophysical surveys under undulated terrain and high
slope areas. In the last two decades, evolution in software and hardware has considerably improved the
reliability and applicability of geophysical techniques and now 2D/3D subsurface details can be generated
in a fast, economic and precise way. Now it is possible to apply advanced geophysical investigation tools
in rugged topography as well as under high slope conditions (>45°). These non-

invasive advanced geophysical investigation techniques (Resistivity Imaging, Seismic Tomography,

Tunnel Seismic Prediction, etc.) have come up recently to fulfil the gaps and proved to be effective in
more accurate prognosis of sub surface geological conditions down to considerable depth with greater
resolution. These techniques are extremely useful in optimizing and minimizing quantity and locations
of direct investigations like drilling and can complement the conventional investigation techniques in
developing more accurate sub surface geological model of the project components. Some of the new
emerging technologies utilized for subsurface investigations are briefed hereunder:

RESISTIVITY IMAGING: Resistivity Imaging is a newly developed advance technique for generating
2D/3D resistivity image of the subsurface geology and is capable of identifying the location and geometry
of shear/fracture zones in a precise way. The technique can also be used on uneven topography and
slope overcoming the limitations of the conventional systems. In 2-D imaging, large number of electrodes
planted on the ground surface in a linear array is connected to the main resistivity imaging system
through a special multichannel cable. This technique can be utilized on any type of ground condition and
capable to penetrate up to about 200m depth. The technique has been successfully utilized for detection
of prominent geological features at various stages of project development.

Case Study-I

Resistivity Imaging for delineation of Shear Zone at Sengulam Augmentation Scheme of KSEB,
Kerala - The technique was utilized at one of the consultancy projects for Kerala State Electricity Board
(KSEB), Sengulam Augmentation Scheme where construction of a 6.7 km long tunnel was held up for
more than two years due to tunnel collapse after encountering adverse geological conditions.

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Fig. 1: Resistivity Imaging Section along Diversion Tunnel of Sengulam Augmentation Scheme

Resistivity Imaging was utilized for precisely defining the geometry and location of shear zone within
the rockmass along the remaining tunnel stretch of about 2.6 km up to tunnel grade and along the
construction adit in a faster and economical manner. Geological section along the HRT was developed on
the basis of imaging results without any drilling.

Case Study -II

Resistivity Imaging for delineation of Faults/Thrusts – The technique has been successfully utilized
for delineation of geological structures in a precise way.

Fig. 2: Delineation of Kishtwar Fault utilizing Resistivity Imaging.

As indicated in Fig. 2 geometry and location of Kishtwar fault is clearly visible in Resistivity Imaging
section. Kishtwar fault is the contact between Schist (Higher Himalayas) and Phyllites (Lesser Himalayas)
of Higher and Lower Himalayas

Case Study -III

In Uri HEP Stage-II project due to Panjal Thrust, Tanawals and traps are in direct contact with Nummulitic
Series. The resistivity imaging profile taken across Panjal Thrust zone shows significant outcomes wherein
two different rock types are observed with subsurface interfaces at about chainage 340m. The results are
corroborating well with the GSI’s map as well as features encountered during excavation of the existing
TRT of Uri-1 Stage-II HE Project.

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Fig. 3 : Delineation of Panjal Thrust utilizing Resistivity Imaging.

Case Study -IV

During the investigation work of Seri Nala diversion work a low resistivity zone extending down to probing
depth of 170m was observed between chainage 360m to 440m, inferred as Seri Nala fault zone. This
fault is reported to be most complex and complicated, N50E-S50W trending fault with vertical to sub-
vertical dip. The fault zone inferred in the imaging lines indicates that this zone may have sufficient aerial
extension and appears to be major source of seepage in the tunnel.

Fig. 4: Delineation of Seri Nala Fault utilizing Resistivity Imaging

SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY: Seismic Tomography is similar to CAT Scanning used in medical science. The
CT scan was invented in 1972 by two scientists working independently. British engineer Godfrey Hounsfield
of EMI laboratories invented the CT scan in England, and South African-born physicist Allan Cormack of
Tufts University invented it in the United States. Both shared the 1979 Nobel Prize for Medicine for this
invention. Similar mathematical modelling and interpretation is used in seismic tomography.

This technique can be used for scanning the entire rock mass between two drill holes, drill hole and
surface and in between two tunnels, etc. The technique if utilized judiciously can optimize the drilling
requirement and minimize the investigation time to a great extent. The advantage of tomography is that
it does not require predefined structure and this feature makes the technique very feasible even for the

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analysis of highly complicated structures, for which simpler methods like seismic refraction/reflection
hardly work. Moreover, it gives the complete map of the scanned area, which is not possible by refraction/
reflection studies.

Case Study -I

Seismic Tomography at Parbati-II HE Project – In TBM bored HRT of Parbati II HE Project, at RD

4123m seismic tomography was conducted which helped in assessment of Geological conditions and fault
geometry ahead of tunnel face. Innovative approach was applied for data collection in upward direction
drill holes by a special arrangement. Bore holes were drilled in upward & downward directions at an angle
of 30°. These findings indicated good rock mass quality at invert level and highly weathered rock mass in
a small portion at crown level. ig. 4: Delineation of eri Nala ault utilizing Reitivity Imaging

Moreover, the results indicated that apprehended fault zone was not crossing the tunnel as envisaged
earlier in the geological model.

Fig. 5: eimic Tomographic canning in HRT of arbati-II HE roject.

The results provided confidence in project team for further progression of TBM and a decision was taken
for advancing the TBM. The apprehended fault zone was crossed successfully and till date more than
2890m tunnel has been excavated.

Case Study -II

Seismic Tomography at Intake Area of Teesta-VI HE Project: Cross-hole seismic tomography had
been undertaken between drill holes located at Intake area of Teesta-VI HE Project, Sikkim for assessment
of quality & engineering parameter of rockmass.

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Fig. 6: Seismic Tomographic Scanning at Intake area of Teesta-VI HE Project

Total area of 890 m2 between two drill holes has been scanned with very dense ray coverage of 1235
rays. As per Seismic tomography results, in general, seismic P-wave velocity is varying from 2500 m/s to
3500m/sec in most of the scanned area and represents fair quality rockmass. The results are corroborated
well with the drilling data.

Case Study -III

Seismic Tomography at Proposed Powerhouse area of Dulhasti-II HE Project, J&K: Geophysical survey
involving P-wave seismic tomography scanning was undertaken at Dulhasti Hydroelectric Project, Stage-
II (260 MW) for assessment of rockmass conditions at the proposed powerhouse cavern.

Fig. 7: Seismic Tomographic Scanning at proposed PH area of Dulhasti-II HE Project.

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Adequate ray coverage of 1210 rays. About 2907 Sq.M. area was scanned in the plane. Seismic velocities
varied from 2.4 Km/sec to 5.4 Km/sec. The study suggested that the overall quality of rockmass is
competent with some moderately jointed rockmass throughout entire scanned area of powerhouse cavern.
MAT and CVT of the powerhouse shall be driven in competent media except few small fractured rockmass
at places. Careful excavating of cavern within weak zones having low seismic velocity is recommended
besides utilizing suitable support system for the safeguard of structure.

Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP):

Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) is a very effective tool in order to assess rock mass conditions as well
as presence of any weak / water bearing zone ahead of tunnel face upto about hundred meter. In a TSP
field survey, seismic waves are generated by small blasts into small holes at one of the tunnel walls. Any
change in lithology ahead of the tunnel face can be predicted by observed contrast between seismic wave
velocity and resulting dynamic elastic modulus & other parameters.

Fig. 6: Schematic Diagram showing Layout and Basic Principal of TSP.

Application of TSP in Parbati-II HRT, Himachal Pradesh – In Parbati II this is being utilized regularly
in TBM excavation and successfully detected probable water saturated zones and also predicted absence
of many shear zones which were apprehended on the basis of geological mapping. The results of TSP
corroborating well with the actual excavation data.

Fig. 7: TSP at Parbati-II HE Project.

Presently TSP is being used for continuous geological conditions assessment ahead of tunnel face-4 (TBM
stretch) of HRT.

New age geophysical investigation techniques have come up in the last two decades and proved to be
effective in more accurate prognosis of sub surface geological condition down to considerable depth with the
limitations of observable physical contrast in the material properties of the subsurface. These techniques
are extremely useful in optimizing and minimizing quantity and locations of direct investigations like
drilling and can complement the conventional investigation techniques in developing more accurate sub
surface geological model of the project components. This technique can be very helpful for investigation
of a project in a faster and economic way & can minimize the geological uncertainties during construction.

NHPC has understood the importance of state-of-the-art investigation techniques and developed a strong
in-house survey and investigation team comprising of survey experts, geologists, geophysicists and
construction material experts capable of carrying out almost all types of investigation in-house utilizing
both conventional and latest techniques.
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KN 5.3
Static and Dynamic Stability Analyses of Chenab Bridge Abutments: Technical and
Social Challenges
Dr. K. S. Rao, Emeritus Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi, Pin-110016, India, [email protected]

The most critical static and dynamic rock slope stability analyses of the left and right abutments of the
proposed Chenab (J & K, India) railway bridge of 359 m high were performed using the distinct element
code UDEC for rock slopes. The analyses have been carried out in three stages for predicting the behaviour
of the rock slope. First, an initial static loading is applied in the numerical model. Second, weathered, and
interlocking conditions are modelled. Third, dynamic loading is applied to simulate dynamic earthquake
conditions. Various monitoring points were installed in the model for critical observations. The observed
displacements and velocity values confirm the stability of the rock slopes. The study provides an illustration
of how the geo-mechanical properties of a rock mass can be integrated into a discontinuum rock slope
model. This model has helped to better understand the dynamics of the rockslide when subjected to static
and dynamic loads.

Apart from the technical evaluation of the stability of the Chenab Bridge, other important social challenges
are also discussed in the paper.

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KN 5.4
Shear behaviour of natural rock discontinuities - insights from laboratory studies
Arindam Basu
Department of Geology & Geophysics, IIT Kharagpur

Rockmass failure commonly occurs along discontinuities in the shear mode under constant normal
load conditions at a shallow depth where the failure of intact rock materials is minimal because of low
stresses. The evaluation of the shear behaviour of rock discontinuities under this loading condition,
therefore, has remained an important research topic over several decades. Many researchers explored
this issue in the laboratory either by inducing fractures in rocks or by fabricating artificial/mimicked rock
discontinuities made up of different materials like plaster of Paris or concrete–sand–cement. A limited
number of experimental studies also explored the shear behavior of natural rock discontinuities. As far
as shear strength criteria are concerned, a number of equations were proposed by various researchers.
Consequently, the questions arise i) if there has been any one-to-one comparison between the shear
behavior of natural rock discontinuities and their replicas; ii) whether the efficacies of the existing criteria
in estimating the shear strength have been assessed and compared with reference to natural rock
discontinuities and iii) if it is possible to come up with a new shear strength criterion that would be more
efficient than the existing ones. In this keynote lecture, I would share my experience in exploring all the
stated issues from a variety of comprehensive experimental programs undertaken by my research team in
the laboratory. In the end, I would discuss the efficiency of our newly proposed shear strength criterion.

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Abstract No: 5/001

Dealing with saturated zone and ground water inflow in urban tunneling in rock with TBM
Snehal Phadatare1*, Ganesh Ingale1, Kshitiji Dhawale2
1
School of Civil Engineering, MIT world Peace University,
2
Tunnel Engineer, Tata Projects-CMRL
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Forecasting the barrier impact of lined tunneling under natural flow circumstances may be accomplished
via the use of mathematical approaches. When there is the possibility of hard rock, being present in the
water flow settling may occur. During recent decades, urban tunneling and subterranean building have
grown dramatically. Tunnel construction is a significant technical endeavour with high costs and geological
problems. With the evolution of tunnel construction and contemporary technology, tunnel hazards have
grown increasingly essential, since unfavorable geological conditions may threaten tunnel safety, surface
structures, lives, project cost, and time. This research analyses the influence of aquifer (water pocket)
on surface settling during urban TBM tunneling. Before, during, and after tunneling, the influence of the
aquifer on the surface is explored. The surface settlement study of an idealized tunnel incorporating water
pockets is performed using RocScience software RS-2 and confirmed using analytical equations from
several theories. Tunnel surface settlement findings match analytical equations.

Abstract No: 5/002

Site Response Study Using H/V Ratios in and around Silchar City, Assam, India
K. K. Mukherjee*, Piu Dhibar, Pankaj Kumar Das, M. S. Kumar
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Geophysical surveys employing noise survey and Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) have been carried out
in and around Silchar city, Assam covering an approximate area of 200 km2 for site response study to
generate a seismic micro-zonation map of Silchar City and its surroundings. The noise survey has been
conducted using a digital short-period seismograph. The site response is calculated as the H/V amplitude
spectra at each site following the hypothesis of Nakamura. These spectra are used in estimating site-
specific fundamental resonance frequencies and peak amplification. The stability of the H/V ratio is studied
with standard deviations. A total of 113 observation stations for seismic noise survey and 50 Vertical
Electric Sounding (VES) employing Schlumberger configuration have been carried out in the Silchar master
plan area. Spectral analysis of the recorded ambient noise has brought out a peak frequency range of
0.65 to 8.53 Hz and the peak amplification of the study area varies between 0.79 and 7.73. Moreover,
moderate peak frequency with high amplification at Srikona implies the occurrence of fluid (gas/oil) with
less volume, which is supported by the field evidence near Srikona and does suggest the presence of
less dense material near the surface. The sediment thickness varies from 4.8 to 175.28m. The maximum
thickness (>100m) of sediment is all along the Barak River, covering areas near Kanakpur, Rongpur, east
of NIT, and areas near Shyampur, where peak frequency shows low values and has been established
through geophysical studies. The localities around Ambikapur, Rangpur, north-west of Srikona, west &
north-west of Silchar, west of Bhoraikhai, and south-east corner of the study area falling under high soil
vulnerability index values of greater than 20 and hence fall in high hazard-prone areas.
The Vertical Electrical Soundings have been carried out for subsurface mapping and also to corroborate
the variation of amplification and peak frequency with the subsurface. Interpretation of sounding curves
revealed mainly Q, K, H, QH, HA, HK, KQ, and QQ types of curves indicating 3 to 4 layered subsurface
structures. The top layer with a thickness range of 0.1-5.5m has been interpreted as surface soil with a
resistivity range of 22Ω.m to very high. The second layer with a resistivity of 6-99 Ω.m and thickness of
0.5-38m may be inferred as clay silt/sandy silt/clay. The third layer with a resistivity between 11-541 Ω.m
having 0.1-76 m may be interpreted as sandy silt/sand/clay silt. The fourth layer with a resistivity range
of 2 – 94 Ω.m may be due to sticky clay/silty clay/clay silt/ sandy silt.
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Abstract No: 5/003

Micro-Earthquake investigation in and around Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India: An

approach to infer seismicity level

O. P. Singh*, Praveen Allipelli, S. K. Bhattacharya

Geological Survey of India
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
*

GOn request of Vellore district administration, Tamil Nadu, India, seismic monitoring has been carried
out by setting up of seismic network consisting of five number of seismographs stations at different
locations in Vellore & Tirupattur Districts, Tamil Nadu and Chittoor District, A. P. (Lat. 12.6-13.30N & Long.
78.4-79.10E) to know the cause of local shaking and acoustic sound observed near Tharaikadu village,
near Pernambut, Gudiyatham Taluk of Vellore District, Tamil Nadu between 22-24th December 2021 by
understanding the seismicity pattern, nature of faulting and sub-surface heterogeneity in the Vellore
District and its adjoining areas. During seismological monitoring from 04.01.2022 to 09.02.2022, 184
local events were recorded and located and the Preliminary Determination of Earthquake (PDE) database
was prepared. These 184 local earthquakes occurred between latitude 12.0-14.50N and longitude 77.3-
79.80E i.e. in and around Vellore, Tirupattur districts, Tamil Nadu; Chittoor, Rayachoty, Tirupati districts,
A. P. and Kolar district., Karnataka lies in seismic zone II & III of the seismic zonation map of India. The
earthquakes are of magnitude <3.0 except for 2 earthquakes of magnitude 3.0 and 3.1 with root mean
square value less than 0.50 sec., considered for epicentral map. Earthquakes have been located using
single, double, and multi-station methods. The majority of the earthquakes are located by a multi-station
method except for a few earthquakes which are located by single and double station methods. Most of the
earthquakes are lying between the depth range of 2.2-20.0 km and gradually decrease in the number of
earthquakes with depth and very few events are of depth more than 20 km.
A careful analysis of the preliminary located earthquakes has been considered to plot an epicentral
map that shows the present seismicity pattern within the area of study. The epicentral map shows the
prominent seismicity at and around Pernambut, Vellore Dist.; Kolar Gold Field (KGF), Chikkaballapur,
Karnataka and Madanapalle, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh. However, scattered seismicity is observed in the
entire area of investigation. The cluster analysis of these seismicity shows a mixed type of nature of
faulting and depth section which also indicates that the main seismo-genic layer is upper crustal within
20 km depth.
The cluster of earthquakes at Pernambut shows a seismo-genic structure having a normal with strike-
slip nature trending in a NE-SW direction which is analogous with a major lineament passing through
the cluster. It may be due to the activation of the part of the existing lineament lying in the High-grade
Gneissic granulite terrain of southern India. The b-value estimated as 0.96 (Least Square method) for
the entire study area by considering all 184 events is close to the normal value of 1.0, reflects the
normal condition of the study area and seismic energy is being released in form of micro-earthquakes of
magnitude < 3.0 indicating a lower level of seismicity. The results of the study attain significance given
the interesting outcome and may be a suitable guiding factor for future urban development as well as
seismic hazard assessment of the region.

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Abstract No: 5/004

Applications of GIS techniques in sustainable development of urban environment: An

overview
N. S. Patil1*, S. N. Patil1, A. K. Kadam1, B. D. Patil1, V. J. Patil2
1
School of Environmental and Earth Sciences, Kavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari North Maharashtra University,
Jalgaon, Maharashtra (India) 425001;
2
Dr Annasaheb GD Bendale Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Jilha Peth, Jilha Road, Jalgaon, Pincode 425001,
Maharashtra, India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

This study deals with the utilization of various GIS methods for achieving the goal of sustainable
development in urban sprawl. India is currently among the countries with the lowest growth in urbanization.
Urbanization is an indicator of the transition from traditional rural to modern industrial economies. It is a
gradual increase in population concentration in urban units. The population of India has increased two and
a half times in the last fifty years, but urban India has increased nearly five times. In 2011, 1210 million
Indians lived in nearly 6,900 towns and cities across the country, and this figure is expected to rise to over
2000 billion and 3500 million by 2021 and 2031, respectively. As a result, most urban settlements have
stock housing and water supply shortages, urban encroachment in fringe areas, insufficient sewerage
facilities, traffic congestion, pollution, poverty, and an increase in crime. Because of this, maintaining a
healthy urban environment is a challenging task for urban governance. Urban and town planners in India
are concerned about the high pace of urban population expansion due to the need for effective urban
planning. Therefore, there is a pressing need to adopt contemporary remote sensing technology. This
includes both aerial and satellite-based systems, which enable us to collect large amounts of physical
data quickly and repeatedly. GIS also enables us to analyze the data spatially, providing opportunities for
generating different options, which optimizes the entire planning process. The GIS techniques can play a
major role in the sustainable development of society.

Abstract No: 5/005

Integrated geo-environmental appraisal of Guwahati city to assess the causes and

remedies of urban flood.
Deepjyoti Gogoi*, Suma C. S., Th. N. B. Singha
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Guwahati, the largest city in North East India suffers seasonal urban floods for the past two decades
during every monsoon. The city upon rapid urbanization has altered its landscape, which affects rainwater
infiltration to a great extent, thereby enhancing flash floods every year. The irony of these situations is
that despite being located on the bank of the mighty Brahmaputra River, most of the inhabitants face
acute shortages of groundwater during winter. To understand the causative factors for the urban flood,
a geo-environmental hazard study was taken up in Kamrup Metro District, Assam. The city is located in
a unique geo-environmental setting characterized by hills in southern and eastern parts with valleys and
a prominent riverfront. In the north, the mighty Brahmaputra River is the most important surface water
source for the city. Geomorphologically it is represented by undulating topography with nineteen low-
lying inselberg and denudational hills represented by Precambrian gneissic rocks, and younger granite
and are interspersed with elongated valley fills of Recent Alluvium.
During the study, geological mapping, geomorphology, watershed analysis, lineament, and drainage
patterns were studied and analyzed for a better understanding of urban flood situations. High-resolution
DEM data, Landsat data, and Google images were processed in online GPS software and ArcGIS software

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to infer changes in drainage patterns due to urbanization and present runoff flow direction patterns.
Urban flood sub-basins have been classified based on elevation level where their surrounding areas have
a higher elevation than these sub-basins peripheral boundaries.
In urban flood-affected areas, water accumulates and cannot flow outside due to lower gradients than
the surrounding areas and resulting in water-logged areas within urban agglomerates. During surveys,
urban flood-prone zones of Guwahati city were studied in localities of Rajgarh & Chandmari Anilnagar
& Nabinnagar, Geetanagar/ Zoo Tiniali, Japorijog and PHED, Hengrabari where urban flood is common
after every heavy rainfall. Rainfall data for the last five years of four different stations in Guwahati city
were collected from the Water Resource Department, Govt. of Assam, and IMD, Guwahati was analyzed.
Rainfall ranges from 137 mm to 630 mm and it varies from station to station within Guwahati city during
peak monsoon time i.e., June to August within a single watershed area, which is one of the contributing
factors for urban floods. Geological mapping has been carried out to bring the different lithologies and
to understand the possible structural control on drainage patterns in the Guwahati area. Other than
natural factors, there are anthropogenic factors that aggravate the flood situation. For example, in
the Bamunimaidam area of Guwahati, a sluice gate was constructed for preventing runoff water from
Chandmari hills to protect the Railway colony which leads to flooding in valley fill areas of Chandmari and
Bamunimaidam. Initially, a diversion channel was constructed connecting the sluice gate for the diversion
of water coming from Chandmari hills towards Noonmati side but was not effective. Similarly, in NH-27,
flooding near Khanapara is quite common after every rainfall due to a reduction in flow cross-sectional
area of the natural drainage channel by unplanned temple construction.
In Bamunimaidam area of Guwahati, it is suggested to modify the gradient of the diversion channel,
to provide effective free flow of water and this can reduce waterlogging. In NH-27 near Khanapara, it
is suggested for widening the stream cross-sectional area along with modification of the road profile
gradients where water generally accumulates/topples, to provide a free flow of water and this can reduce
waterlogging. Also, if a proper road gradient of NH-27 is maintained, excess runoff water can free flow,
which will help to minimize waterlogging to a large extent. A similar approach shall be followed in the rest
of the urban flood-affected areas to tackle the menace of urban floods.

Abstract No: 5/006

Restoration of Railway Embankment – A Case Study

Somnath Banerjee, Aminul Islam, Sudip Kumar Koley*, Prodyot Kumar Ray
Technical Services Department, ITD Cementation India Ltd, Kolkata
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

One of the most important topics in the construction industry is the building of railway embankments.
Being such a delicate and significant structure, it is crucial to properly design the embankment and build it
while adhering to all statutory criteria and design guidelines. A railway embankment’s subsoil condition and
fill material, groundwater table, dynamic and static loads during operation, and embankment geometry
are some of its most crucial design considerations. This paper discusses the likely causes of the collapse
of a railway embankment in eastern India as well as the suggested rehabilitation scheme.
It was observed that an embankment collapsed in the aforementioned area during incessant rain. Along
with the side shifting of a cantilever retaining wall that was positioned at the bottom of the embankment,
the embankment next to the railroad track settled vertically. According to the available geotechnical
report, the sub-soil strata in half of the area adjacent to the embankment profile, where the embankment
height gradually decreases from maximum height, is stiff to hard clay with an undrained cohesion value
of around 50 kpa followed by dense sand, and the subsoil strata in the other half are soft clay with an
undrained strength of 15 kpa. As a result, in the rainy season due to the sudden increase in the water
table, the self-weight of the embankment increased and further caused the under-laying soft clay to get
squeezed away and settle. Due to this squeeze/settlement effect of the soft clay layer, the retaining wall
got disturbed along with the generation of an undulated embankment top profile.

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As a remedial measure, it is proposed to construct a contiguous bored pile wall at the toe of the embankment
to stabilize the slope, and additionally, compaction grouting is recommended beneath the embankment
to improve the soft clay. To carry out the analysis, certain commercial geotechnical software like Slide,
Wallap, and Plaxis 2D is used. The factor of safety of the embankment slope considering the above
restoration scheme is adequate under static and seismic conditions.

Abstract No: 5/007

Route Optimization for Emergency Vehicles – A Review

S P Rasagna*
PGET (NICMAR), L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

The increasing number of vehicles on urban road networks has caused serious traffic congestion
problems, affecting travel time, travel costs, fuel consumption, and air pollution. The most critical impact
of traffic congestion is the delay in providing emergency services to unexpected events. This might lead
to dangerous consensuses such as injuries, deaths, and economic losses in case of car accidents, building
fires, terrorist attacks, etc. Emergency response systems and emergency logistics for general activities
have been considered important components in smart cities. After unpredictable events, we need to make
sure that emergency vehicles can reach the destination area promptly, survivors and properties have
been moved to increase the capacity of emergency response and reduce the loss of life and property.
Reducing the response time of Emergency Vehicles (EVs) has an enormous impact on saving life and
property. According to studies, every single minute of delay in response time increases mortality by 1%
and incurs 7 billion dollars of extra healthcare expenses. To mitigate this issue, governments impose target
response times for Emergency Management Services (EMS). Routing for moving emergency vehicles
is critical to meet the requirements of an urban area during disasters/road accidents and the impact
of climatic change on human life. However, studies on routing optimization techniques for emergency
vehicles are still rare. The emergency vehicle needs to be arrived at the destination at a reasonable time
to serve the people in need. An efficient route must be provided for the emergency vehicles to work at
their best, i.e., saving people’s lives in time.
This paper aims to bring innovative information by critically reviewing the works carried out by various
researchers on the routing of emergency vehicles considering various factors. Algorithms like Dijkstra’s
algorithm, Petal algorithm, and so on., models like Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET)’s, Multi-objective
Rescue Routing(MORR) models, and simulation methods like dynamic traffic simulation, which are used
for routing of emergency vehicles were studied and discussed in this paper. Results conclude that, over
the Ant Colony algorithm and swarm optimization algorithm, the modified Ant colony algorithm proves to
be more accurate in providing a route for emergency vehicles. It was also found that the vehicle routing
problem has become a challenge that is yet to be addressed in a better way considering factors like traffic
delay, shortest path, travel time, traffic congestion, etc.

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Abstract No: 5/008

Cognizance of Green Building for Sustainable Construction in Smart Cities

…Decision to Build Green
P Anupama*
PGET, L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

In today’s age of urbanization, buildings are perhaps the single greatest stress on the environment,
accounting for the world’s freshwater withdrawals, one-quarter of its wood harvest, and two-fifths of
its material and energy flows. In such a scenario of shortages of clean water and other materials, and
the possibility of devastating climate change, the greening of buildings constitutes a collective vital. In
today’s era, green buildings are moving from inquisitiveness to inevitability, and are indispensable as the
environmental balance is very important for the survival and further development of human beings.
Green buildings are the practice of structures and processes that are environment-friendly and
resource-efficient throughout the life span of a building. Green building structures are energy efficient,
conserve resources, create healthier indoor environments, and offer durable and beautiful spaces that
use environmentally suitable materials. Green building incorporates integrated design concepts, solar
orientation, appropriate footprint sizing, glazing awareness, material durability, economic life-cycle
analysis, material reuse, and salvage, natural material content, locally available materials, and economic
sustainability.
This paper presents archetypal advantages of contemporary green buildings technology over conventional
construction technology, in turn– a) to maximize the use of efficient building materials and construction
practices; b) to maximize the use of bio-climatic architectural practices; c) to maximize the use of efficient
paraphernalia for lighting and air-conditioning; d) to maximize the use of renewable resources; e) to
maximize the reuse and recycling of renewable resources; f) to maximize the use of waste and water
management practices, and g) to provide contended and comfortable indoor working conditions.

Abstract No: 5/009

Urban Flooding Frequency Analysis – A Basis to Optimize Design Specification for

Hydraulic Structures
Yajjala Lakshmi Prasanna*
L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]
*

Flood frequency plays a vital role in providing estimates of the recurrence of floods which is used in
designing hydraulic structures such as dams, bridges, culverts, levees, highways, sewage disposal
plants, waterworks, and industrial buildings. To evaluate the optimum design specification for hydraulic
structures, and to prevent over-designing or under-designing, it is imperative to apply statistical tools to
create flood frequency estimates. These estimates are useful in providing a measurement parameter to
analyse the damage corresponding to specific flows during floods. Along with the hydraulic design, flood
frequency estimates are also useful in flood insurance and flood zoning activities. Accurate estimation
of flood frequency not only helps engineers in designing safe hydraulic structures but also in protection
against economic losses due to the maintenance of hydraulic structures.
Flood frequency analysis is a technique used by hydrologists to predict flow values corresponding to
specific return periods or probabilities along a river. The application of statistical frequency curves to
floods was first introduced by Gumbel. Using annual peak flow data that is available for several years,
flood frequency analysis is used to calculate statistical information such as mean, standard deviation, and

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skewness, which is further used to create frequency distribution graphs. The best frequency distribution
is chosen from the existing statistical distributions such as Gumbel, Normal, Log-normal, Exponential,
Weibull, Pearson, and Log-Pearson. After choosing the probability distribution that best fits the annual
maxima data, flood frequency curves are plotted, which are used to estimate the design flow values
corresponding to the specific return period.
This paper elucidates the flood frequency analysis method by Gumbel to predict the flood flow of various
return periods along the Brahmani River (17th largest basin having a catchment area of 51907.45 sq.
km) in Odisha, India.

Abstract No: 5/010

Safe and Sustainable Design of Overhead Service Reservoir – Intze Tank for Water Supply
Paidi Maneesha*
L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

A service reservoir is a container that is used to store liquids. Water is an essential requirement for all
living organisms and is used for drinking, irrigation, and industry, among other things. It is critical
for every individual and community to have access to potable water; as a result, it is necessary to store
water to supply water, which is then used for domestic reasons. The service reservoirs are classified
depending on their shape and location. There are three categories of service reservoirs based on their
location. Underground service reservoirs, above-ground service reservoirs, overhead service reservoirs
and elevated service reservoirs are all options. The shape of the subterranean and ground resting tanks is
frequently rectangular or circular, whereas the shapes of the overhead service reservoirs are determined
by aesthetics and design. Circular tanks, rectangular tanks, intel tanks, square tanks, and Conical or
funnel-shaped tanks are the five types available. Different types of overhead tanks are used to store
water for various purposes. For bigger storage capacities, a circular overhead service reservoir is used.
The research is being carried out to see if there is a difference in various parameters when the service
reservoir is increased. The modeling and analysis of the service reservoir were done with the Extended
Three-dimensional Analysis of Building Systems (ETABS) Application. A service reservoir is a container
that is used to store liquids. Water is an essential requirement for all living organisms and is used for
drinking, irrigation, and industry, among other things. It is critical for every individual and community
to have access to potable water; as a result, it is necessary to store water to supply water, which is
then used for domestic reasons. The service reservoirs are classified depending on their shape and
location. There are three categories of service reservoirs based on their location. Underground service
reservoirs, above-ground service reservoirs, overhead service reservoirs and elevated service reservoirs
are all options. The shapes of the subterranean and ground resting tanks are frequently rectangular or
circular, whereas the shapes of the overhead service reservoirs are determined by aesthetics and design.
Circular tanks, rectangular tanks, intze tanks, square tanks, and Conical or funnel-shaped tanks are the
five types available. Different types of overhead tanks are used to store water for various purposes. For
bigger storage capacities, a circular overhead service reservoir is used. The research is being carried out
to see if there is a difference in various parameters when the service reservoir is increased. The modelling
and analysis of the service reservoir were done with the Extended Three-dimensional Analysis of Building
Systems (ETABS) Application.
Water is an essential requirement for all living organisms and is used for human consumption, irrigation
works, manufacturing units, and many other purposes. It is critical for every civic and community to
have access to potable water; as a result, it is necessary to store water and supply water, which is then
used for domestic reasons. The service reservoirs are classified into a) underground service reservoirs,
b) aboveground service reservoirs, c) overhead service reservoirs, and d) elevated service reservoirs,
depending on their shape and location. Circular tanks, rectangular tanks, Intze tanks, square tanks, and
conical tanks are the five types available.

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The design and construction methods in reinforced concrete, on the whole, are influenced by the prevailing
construction practices, the physical property of materials, and the climatic conditions. Ahead of time,
the designer should decide the most suitable type of staging of water tanks and correct estimation of
loads, including, statically equilibrium of structure, particularly in regards to overturning of overhanging
members. The design should be based on the worst possible combination of loads, moments, and shears
arising from vertical loads and horizontal loads acting in any direction when the water tank is full as well
as when the water tank is empty.
This paper explains the safe and sustainable design of Intze Tank (named by a German Hydraulic Engineer),
with a capacity of 6 lacs liters with 12m staging, by using Working Stress Method as per the IS 456-2000
and design of elements of Intze Tank by STAAD Pro Software (Limit State Method), to supply drinkable
water in a village with a population around 3,500 for 2 days. The water tower built in accordance with the
Intze precept has a brick shaft on which the water tank sits. The bottom/base of the tank is fixed with a
hoop anchor, manufactured from iron or steel, so that only the vertical forces, not the horizontal forces
are transmitted to the tower.

Abstract No: 5/011

Sustainable Design of Reinforced Concrete Chimney for Smart Cities to Isolate

Pollutants to Higher Atmosphere
Mannava Yasaswini*
L&T Construction-Heavy Civil Infrastructure IC
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Chimneys are structures made of masonry, clay, or metal, which are built to greater heights as tall slender
structures. In the early days, they as household vents, and over the years; they are popularly known as
chimneys. Chimneys or stacks are used as a medium to transfer highly contaminated polluted gases to
the atmosphere at greater heights. Chimneys are of different heights according to their needs and the
demand of work. Over the years due to the development of largescale industries, a large number of tall
slender chimneys are required to be designed every year. The main function of a chimney is to take highly
poisonous gases, which are not acceptable at ground level were taken to greater heights with sufficient
velocities. Chimneys are more vulnerable to wind loads, which may cause severe problems in power
plants and major industries. However, if they are located in a higher seismic zone with lower wind speeds,
then, seismic loads may become analogous, if not more, than the wind loads.
During the past few years, chimneys have undergone considerable developments, not only in their
structural conception, modelling, and method of analysis but also in the materials used and the
construction methods. In the past few decades, the usage of reinforced concrete chimneys, in place of
steel chimneys and brick masonry chimneys, has become very popular due to their low economy and
durability. Reinforced concrete is exceedingly suitable for chimneys or stacks. Brick masonry chimneys are
very heavy demanding expensive foundations. In contrast to steel chimneys, the maintenance costs are
minimal in the case of concrete chimneys or stacks. The development of jump form and slip form methods
of constructing cylindrical chimney stacks has resulted in rapid construction in the case of concrete.
This paper explains the design of a 70m high reinforced concrete chimney considering self-weight; thermal
stresses/temperature variation; and wind loads for Visakhapatnam Wind Zone, Andhra Pradesh in India,
which comes under Very High Damage Risk Zone B with a Maximum Wind Speed of 47-50 m/s as per IS
875 (part 3): 1987 “Indian Standard code of practice for criteria for design loads (other than earthquake)
for buildings and structures”.

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Abstract No: 5/012

Reappraisal of Urban Agglomerations and Prevention of Flood Inundations with

Mitigations for Greater Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
K. Jayabalan*, K. Aravind, S.B. Vijay Kumar, Asrar Ahmed
Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Chennai is an important metropolitan city which is located in the southern part of the Indian peninsular.
The areal extension of the greater Chennai covers about 1189 sq km drained by three major rivers viz,
Kosasthalaiyar, Coovum, and Adyar towards the east, the Buckingham canal runs from north to south for a
distance of 418km (along the east coast) which connects all the major rivers and streams to drain the city
areas into the Bay of Bengal via Ennore, Coovum, Adyar, and Kovalam Creeks. Besides, Sembrambakkam,
Poondy, and Puzhal reservoirs supply drinking water to the city and also acts as flood control system during
heavy downpour. The drainage density map of CARTODEM reveals that the maximum drainages are located
along the Adyar river basin than in the Kosathalaiyar and Coovam basins. Chennai city is built on marine,
estuarine and fluvial deposits overlying the basement rocks (charnockite and its migmatised derivatives
of variegated gneiss with mafic and ultramafic enclaves traversed by acid and basic intrusive). The high-
grade metamorphic rocks were quarried for blue metals at several locations and mostly abandoned due
to EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment). In general, Chennai city is flat (except few scattered hillocks)
with an elevation ranging from 0 to 11.3m. Landsat imageries and satellite data reveal that there is a
drastic change in the LULC of the city after the booming of the software industries in Chennai. As a result,
vegetative covers decreased from 19.49 % to 11.19% within three decades, inadvertently the growth of
populations, settlements, and built-up areas considerably increased from 16.82% to 31.91%, and the
floating populations becomes multifold in lieu of the job opportunity in the city limit.
Due to climate resilience, the coastal city had experienced several major floods during the last three decades,
which causes substantial damages to the loss of lives, properties, industries, commercial establishments,
academic institutions, and transportation corridors, and heavy financial losses to private, public, and
Govt. sectors. Flood inundations become a frequent phenomenon during the northeast monsoon between
November and December. Though the geogenic causes of the torrential rain within a short duration led
to the submergence of the low-lying areas, the hectic anthropogenic activities equally play a pivotal role
in the city limit for flood inundations. Though the successive governments focused on the dredging of
rivers, desilting of major drains and maintenance of minor drains it is inadequate may be the scarcity of
funds as well as public apathy. This has posed a challenge to scientists, technocrats, industrialists, and
administrators in developing a comprehensive understanding of flood control and corrective measures.
To resolve the issues with the available natural resources in and around city, the present paper reappraised
the chief causative factors for flood inundations in the low lying areas during the torrential rain and
suggested few mitigative measures viz: Global warming and its impact on coastal city, clogging of
drains due to indiscriminate dumping of solid waste and construction debris, proper planning for rapid
urbanizations and drainage network, Optimum utilization of existing rivers and streams for flood control
and recessions, rejuvenation of the existing stormwater drainage network to regularize the inland water
generated upon heavy downpour in the city alone, delineation of the low lying areas using satellite
imageries and updated GIS software’s for preparedness, evacuations and rehabilitations, interlinking of
the abandoned stone quarries as stormwater storage tank, establishment of storage tanks in the upper
reaches/river catchment areas using reverse pumping technology to store surplus stormwater during the
deluge, demarcation of the areas under encroachment and obstruction to the natural stream courses for
regularizations, restoration of unscientific civil constructions and sand bar formation at the estuaries,
weather forecast and historical rainfall data for threshold analysis for improving the disaster risk reduction
and management, desirable discharge of water from the reservoir in an inappropriate time.
Preliminary appraisal has hitherto been made, and an in-depth analysis of flood control and corrective
measures for the greater Chennai will be furnished in the full paper which would undoubtedly help the
policymakers, planners, research scholars, and administrators for sustainable development not only for
the Chennai City but also in other urban coastal areas in India and elsewhere of the developing countries.

241
 Indian Society of Engineering Geology (ISEG)

Abstract No: 5/013

Geology of Bangalore City and the challenges during tunnelling

Fareeduddin*
Director (retd.), Geological Survey of India
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail: [email protected]

Tunnelling, using Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM), through a complex geological terrain in a densely
populated urban area poses several challenges if not deciphered during initial, pre-tunneling soil survey
investigations. TBMs achieve optimum progress in a largely uniform substratum but respond more
sensitively to deviations from ideal operational conditions. The critical conditions for TBM tunnelling
include heterogeneous unstable ground that is intensely dissected by discontinuities, erratic weathering
profiles, soft strata with short stand-up time, high water pressures ingress, high strength boulders, and
blocky rock fragments dislodged set in soft strata. Such challenges exert strain on the prediction of the
construction process, design solutions, timelines, and financial outlays. This paper evaluates a few of such
challenges faced during tunnelling in Bangalore city.
Bangalore city is underlain by the basement rocks of the Archean age that is widespread in Peninsular
India. This basement includes (i) polyphase granites and gneisses, (ii) tracts and xenolithic screens of
volcano-sedimentary rocks, (iii) dismembered fragments of ultramafic rocks (iv) dominantly calc-alkaline
high-K granitoid plutons, (v) veins and bands of quartzo-feldspathic gneisses (aplites and pegmatites),
(vi) prolific mafic intrusions of dolerite and gabbroic composition and (vii) stringers, lenses and veins of
mono-mineralic quartz. All these chemically and mineralogically heterogeneous components formed at
different geological times are intensely intermixed to form a complex but geo-technically fragile ensemble,
commonly referred to as a migmatite complex. The heterogeneous rock ensemble is further subjected
to multiple phases of deformation generating poly-phase folding, linear zones of ductile shearing, and
multiple zones of faulting largely manifested in the development of discontinuities such as foliations, joints,
fractures, DSZs, and faults. A prolonged weathering process of rock ensemble initiated along irregular
fractures has invariably led to further complexity in bringing rocks of contrasting weathering grades with a
wide range of strength in close juxtaposition to each other. Hence the ground along the tunnel alignments
varies from strong hard rock mass to weak low cohesion- or even cohesion-less granular residual soil.
The change from high-strength strata to low-strength strata is neither progressive nor transitional. The
groundwater along the tunnel alignment is found to be very shallow and shows significant variations
during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods. The tunneling conditions along the tunnel alignments
are (i) full-face rock (weathering grades 1-3) (ii) full-face soft strata that include highly and completely
weathered rocks (weathering grades G-4 and G5) and soil (G-6) and (iii) mixed ground representing
variable proportions of (i) and (ii).
Multiple geological challenges faced during tunneling are (i) unpredictable recurrences of un-weathered
rocks of highly variable competence deeply dissected by multiple sets of discontinuities; (ii) the presence
of high strength (>300 MPa), large-size rounded boulders of dolerite/gabbro dykes set in weak strata;
(iii) fault-generated, dislodged, angular gneissic rock fragments; (iv) mixed ground generated due to
erratic and unpredictable weathering profile and (v) soft grounds, characterized by multiple soils layers of
variable porosity, permeability, cohesion and strength that are susceptible for settlements and liquefaction
under the influence of fluid pressures.
This paper also critically evaluates the uncertainty in complex geological formations that often concerns
the ‘globally recommended rock mass parameters’ and warrants derivations of site-specific rock mass
data for accurate site analysis and for delineating site-specific design values in an engineering project.

242
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 EGCON-2022
Abstract Proceedings of the International Conference
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INDIAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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ISBN No 978-93-5737-702-7

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