BA V sem (NEP) Optional English notes , DSC 9: Literary Criticism, Veerashaiva

College Ballari .

Unit 1: Introduction to Criticism

Literary criticism
Literary criticism is the analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of
literature. It involves examining the formal elements of a text, such as plot, character,
style, and theme, as well as its historical and cultural context. Literary critics use various
theoretical frameworks to analyze literature, and their interpretations can help us
understand the text's meaning in new ways.

Definitions of Literary Criticism

**Literary criticism** involves interpreting, analyzing, and evaluating authors and their
literary creations. These works can include **novels, short stories, essays, plays, and
poetry**.
- Literary critics engage in critical analysis, often expressed in essays, articles, and
books.
Here are definitions of literary criticism from famous literary critics:

T.S. Eliot: "Literary criticism should be completed criticism as distinct from fragmentary
or sporadic appreciations." (Eliot emphasizes the importance of comprehensive
analysis over isolated praise.)
Northrop Frye: "The primary function of criticism is to bring the work of art into relation
with the whole body of human knowledge and experience." (Frye highlights the role of
criticism in connecting literature to broader contexts.)
Roland Barthes: "A text is not a product to be consumed, but a production to be worked
at." (Barthes' definition emphasizes the active role of the reader in constructing
meaning through criticism.)

. **Historical Origins**:
- **Plato**, in his work *Republic*, cautioned against the risky consequences of poetic
inspiration. His concerns about poetry's impact on society are considered an early
example of literary criticism.
- The term "literary criticism" can be broadly applied to any discussion related to
literature, but it is often used more specifically for **"practical criticism"**—the
interpretation of meaning and the assessment of quality.
**Functions of Literary Criticism**:
- **Evaluation**: Critics assess the quality of literary works, considering their artistic
merit, themes, and impact.
- **Interpretation**: They delve into the meaning of texts, exploring symbolism,
character development, and narrative techniques.

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 - **Historical Context**: Critics place works within their historical, cultural, and social
contexts.
- **Theoretical Discussion**: Literary criticism contributes to theoretical debates about
literature and aesthetics.
- **Shifts in Sensibility**: Criticism reflects changing perspectives over time, leading to
reevaluations of works.

Methods of Criticism
Literary criticism offers a variety of tools to analyze literature. Here are some of the major
methods:

Formalist Criticism: Focuses on the internal elements of a text, like plot,

characterization, symbolism, and imagery, to understand how these elements work
together to create meaning.

Reader-Response Criticism: Analyzes how a reader's background, experiences, and

expectations influence their interpretation of a text.
Historical-Biographical Criticism: Examines the text in relation to the author's life,
historical context, and social norms of the time period.

Marxist Criticism: Analyzes literature through a lens of social class and economic
power structures.
Feminist Criticism: Examines how gender roles, power dynamics, and patriarchal
structures are portrayed within a text.

**Logical Criticism**:
- This method involves raising objections about ideas, actions, or arguments that lack
coherence or make no sense.
- It focuses on identifying illogical assumptions, contradictions, or superficial language.
- Logical criticism assumes shared basic facts and common beliefs among people.
- Example: Analyzing whether a literary work's plot follows logical consistency.

**Aesthetic Criticism**:
- Aesthetic critics evaluate beauty, style, and sentiment in literary works.
- They go beyond simple judgments of "beautiful" or "ugly" and explore the deeper
meaning and interpretation.
- Criteria include cultural context, design interpretation, and strengths and weaknesses.
- Example: Assessing the aesthetic value of a poem or painting.

Show Your acquaintance with following critics:

Sir Philip Sidney

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Sir Philip Sidney is a major figure in the history of literary criticism. His influential work,
“An Apology for Poetry” (also known as “Defense of Poesy”), is considered a cornerstone
of Renaissance literary theory. Here’s a summary of Sidney’s contributions:

**Defense of Poetry:** Sidney penned this work as a rebuttal to attacks on poetry’s

value. He argues that poetry is the most excellent art form, surpassing history and
philosophy in its ability to instruct and delight.

**Elevation of Literature:** Sidney elevates literature’s status by calling poets

“makers,” akin to God’s creative power. He emphasizes the moral and ethical
dimensions of poetry, arguing it can inspire virtue and right conduct.

**Blend of Influences:** Sidney’s work bridges classical ideals with Renaissance

humanism. He incorporates Aristotelian principles while advocating for the poet’s
imaginative freedom.

**Pioneering Critic:** Sidney’s critical approach was innovative for its time. He wasn’t
just a theorist; he used examples from literature to support his arguments. This
emphasis on textual evidence paved the way for future literary critics.

2. John Dryden
John Dryden is considered the father of English literary criticism. Here’s a look at his
contributions:

**Foundational Critic:** Dryden’s critical essays, like “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy,”
established literary criticism as a systematic discipline in English.

**Reasoned Analysis:** He emphasized the use of reason and logic in evaluating

literature, alongside adherence to neoclassical ideals and established forms.

**Comparative Analysis:** Dryden introduced comparative analysis, examining

English literature against the backdrop of classical Greek and Roman works.

**Contextual Consideration:** He advocated for considering the social, cultural, and

historical context when analyzing a literary work.

3. Alexander Pope

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Alexander Pope was a prominent figure in the 18th-century literary movement known as
Neoclassicism. He was not only a renowned poet but also a significant contributor to
literary criticism through his work, “An Essay on Criticism.”

**Here’s a look at how Pope’s Essay on Criticism exemplifies Neoclassical principles in

literary criticism:**

**Emphasis on Reason and Order:** Neoclassicism valued reason, order, and

balance. Pope’s essay reflects this by advocating for clear rules and structures in both
writing and criticism.

**Importance of Nature and Art:** The Neoclassical ideal stressed the importance of
both imitating nature and adhering to artistic principles. Pope acknowledges the role
of natural talent but emphasizes the need for refinement through study and following
established forms.

**Focus on Universality:** Neoclassical writers aimed for universality in their themes.

Pope’s essay highlights the importance of understanding human nature and emotions
to create works that resonate with a broad audience.

**Wit and Clarity:** Neoclassical works were known for their wit and clarity of
expression. Pope embodies this in his essay’s use of clever couplets and a lucid style.
4. Samuel Johnson

Samuel Johnson was a literary giant of the 18th century, and his influence extended
beyond his own writing to the realm of literary criticism. Here's a glimpse into his
contributions:

Champion of Common Reader: Unlike some critics who emphasized complex

interpretations, Johnson valued literature's ability to connect with a general audience.
He believed literature should provide pleasure and moral instruction.
Focus on Universality: Similar to Alexander Pope, Johnson stressed the
importance of universal themes that resonate with readers across cultures and time
periods.
Moral Dimension: Johnson saw literature as a tool to teach morality and proper
conduct. He judged works based on their ability to elevate human character.
Emphasis on Clarity: Johnson championed clear and concise language in
literature. He disliked overly obscure or pretentious writing.

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 Shakespearean Expertise: Johnson's critical edition of Shakespeare's plays
remains a landmark achievement, demonstrating his meticulous attention to detail and
insightful analysis.

Through his criticism, Johnson helped shape literary tastes in the 18th century and left a
lasting legacy on the field.

5. William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth, a pillar of Romanticism, was not just a celebrated poet but also a
key figure in literary criticism. Here's a look at his critical contributions:

Challenging Poetic Norms: Wordsworth, along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge,

penned the "Lyrical Ballads" with a groundbreaking preface that challenged the rigid
poetic conventions of the 18th century.
Advocacy for Ordinary Language: He advocated for using everyday language,
emotions, and experiences as the foundation of poetry, a stark contrast to the artifice
and formality favored earlier.
Power of Imagination: Wordsworth championed the role of imagination in poetry,
believing it could elevate the ordinary and reveal profound truths about nature and
human experience.
Focus on Nature: Nature served as a central theme in Wordsworth's poetry and
criticism. He saw it as a source of inspiration, solace, and spiritual connection.

Wordsworth's critical views helped usher in the Romantic era in English literature, with its
emphasis on emotion, imagination, and the natural world.

6. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (S.T. Coleridge)

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (S.T. Coleridge) was a pivotal figure in English Romanticism and
literary criticism. Here's a breakdown of his key contributions:

Imagination Coleridge is best known for his theories on imagination, distinguishing

between "fancy" (mere mental reproduction) and "imagination" (creative power that
shapes and unifies).
Organic Unity He emphasized the concept of "organic unity," where all elements in
a literary work seamlessly interweave to create a cohesive whole.
Suspension of Disbelief Coleridge introduced the concept of "willing suspension
of disbelief," where the reader actively engages with the fictional world of the text.
Focus on Process He was interested in the process of literary creation, delving into
the psychology of the poet and the interplay between imagination and reason.

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 Shakespearean Criticism Coleridge's insightful analysis of Shakespeare's plays,
focusing on character development and the power of language, remains influential.

Coleridge's theories helped shape Romantic literary criticism and continue to be studied
and debated today.

7. Percy Bysshe Shelley(PB Shelly )

Percy Bysshe Shelley, a leading Romantic poet, also left his mark on literary criticism.
Here's a look at his contributions:

Defense of Poetry: In his essay "A Defence of Poetry," Shelley champions the
power of poetry to uplift the human spirit and inspire social change.
Poetry as Visionary Art: Shelley viewed poetry as a visionary art form, with poets
acting as "unacknowledged legislators" who shape society's imagination and ideals.
Emphasis on Beauty: For Shelley, beauty was a key element of poetry, with the
power to awaken the human spirit and connect us to something greater than
ourselves.These ideas, along with his emphasis on imagination and the social role of
the poet, helped shape Romantic literary theory.
8. Matthew Arnold

Matthew Arnold, a prominent Victorian poet and critic, significantly impacted the field of
literary criticism. Here's a summary of his key contributions:

Disinterested Critic: Arnold championed the concept of the "disinterested critic,"

advocating for objectivity and a focus on the work's inherent value rather than personal
biases or trends.
Culture and Anarchy: His influential work, "Culture and Anarchy," critiques the
social and cultural decline he observed in Victorian England. He emphasizes culture's
role in fostering individual growth and social harmony.
Touchstones Method: Arnold introduced the "touchstones method," where
established works of great merit serve as benchmarks for evaluating new literature.
Importance of Poetry: He believed poetry, with its ability to elevate emotions and
ideas, was vital in a society increasingly focused on materialism and science.

Arnold's emphasis on critical objectivity, cultural values, and the centrality of poetry in
literary evaluation continues to influence critical discourse.

9. D.H. Lawrence

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D.H. Lawrence was a prolific novelist, poet, and essayist, but his influence extends to
literary criticism as well. Here's a glimpse into his critical perspective:

Focus on Instinct and Vitality: Lawrence critiqued literature he saw as lacking in

passion and instinctual energy. He championed works that explored the raw, vital
aspects of human experience.
Nonconformist Approach: Unlike some critics who dissect a work's mechanics,
Lawrence emphasized the overall emotional impact. He valued literature that
resonated on an intuitive level.
Breaking Gender Norms: Lawrence challenged societal norms around gender
roles and sexuality in his literature and criticism. He advocated for a more holistic
understanding of human relationships.
Importance of the Novel: Lawrence saw the novel as a unique art form capable of
capturing the complexities of human life. He believed it could revitalize society by
fostering a deeper connection with ourselves and the natural world.

While his unorthodox views sparked controversy, Lawrence's emphasis on emotional

response and his call for literature that engages with humanity's core continues to
influence critical discourse.

10. Virginia Woolf

Virginia Woolf was a renowned modernist novelist who also made significant contributions
to literary criticism. Here's a look at her unique approach:

Focus on the Inner Life: Woolf's criticism delved into the internal experiences and
consciousness of characters, emphasizing the subjective nature of human perception.
Fluidity of Time: She challenged linear time structures in traditional criticism,
exploring how characters experience time subjectively and how past, present, and
future can converge in literature.
Importance of Style: Woolf believed an author's style could be as revealing as the
content itself. She analyzed how stylistic choices shape a narrative and convey
meaning.
Champion of Women Writers: Woolf critiqued the marginalization of women
writers and championed the development of a distinctive "woman's sentence" free
from patriarchal constraints.
Accessible Criticism: Unlike some academic critics, Woolf aimed to make her
criticism engaging and accessible to a wider audience.

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Woolf's emphasis on subjective experience, experimentation with form, and advocacy for
women writers continue to influence feminist criticism and reader-response theory.

11. T S Eliot

T.S. Eliot was a major force in both modernist poetry and literary criticism. Here's a look
at his enduring influence:

The Objective Correlative: Eliot proposed the concept of the "objective

correlative," which suggests that the poet should use a set of objects, situations, or
events to evoke an emotion in the reader rather than directly stating it.
Impersonality of Poetry: He emphasized the "impersonality of poetry," arguing that
the focus should be on the poem itself and not the poet's biography.
Tradition and the Individual Talent: Eliot's essay "Tradition and the Individual
Talent" argues that a poet inherits and refines tradition, creating something new
through engagement with the past.
Reevaluation of Metaphysical Poets: Eliot's critical work helped revive interest
in the Metaphysical poets of the 17th century, whom he admired for their wit and
complex imagery.
Impact on New Criticism: Eliot's focus on close reading and textual analysis
significantly influenced the New Criticism movement, which dominated mid-20th-
century literary studies.

Despite later critiques of his views on tradition and impersonality, Eliot's contributions
remain central to understanding modernist literature and continue to shape literary
criticism.

12. F.R. Leavis

F.R. Leavis, a towering figure in 20th-century British literary criticism, championed a close
reading approach that emphasized moral seriousness in literature. Here's a breakdown
of his key ideas:

Close Reading: Leavis valued meticulous analysis of a text's language, structure,

and imagery to uncover its deeper meaning and how these elements contribute to the
overall effect.
Moral Scrutiny: He believed literature should engage with complex moral issues
and challenge readers to confront them. He judged works based on their honesty in
portraying human experience.

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 The Great Tradition: Leavis identified a "Great Tradition" of English literature,
including novelists like Jane Austen, George Eliot, and Henry James, who he felt
achieved this moral depth.
Importance of the Novel: Leavis saw the novel as the most significant literary form
for exploring moral complexities and the human condition.
Impact on Literary Education: Leavis's ideas had a profound impact on English
literary education, emphasizing critical analysis and close reading of texts.

While his views on the "Great Tradition" and moral criticism have been challenged,
Leavis's focus on close reading remains a cornerstone of literary analysis.

I.A. Richards

I.A. Richards, a prominent figure in 20th-century literary criticism, made significant

contributions to the field, particularly through his emphasis on close reading and the
concept of practical criticism. Here's a breakdown of his key ideas:

Close Reading: Richards advocated for a close and attentive reading of the text,
focusing on the language itself and how it shapes meaning.
Practical Criticism: He developed the concept of "practical criticism," where readers
analyze poems without biographical or historical context, emphasizing the importance
of the text's internal structure and how it generates meaning for the individual reader.
The Meaning of Meaning: Richards distinguished between a word's literal
meaning (denotation) and the range of associations it evokes (connotation),
highlighting the subjective nature of interpretation.
The Stock Response: He identified "stock responses," which are pre-conceived
emotional reactions to certain words or situations, urging readers to be aware of these
ingrained responses to approach the text with more nuance.
Influence on New Criticism: Richards' ideas laid the foundation for the New
Criticism movement, which dominated mid-20th-century literary studies.

Richards' focus on close reading and the act of reading itself continues to influence literary
criticism, even as later movements have placed more emphasis on historical and cultural
contexts.

Unit 2: Classical Criticism

Classical criticism refers to the theories of literature developed in ancient Greece and
Rome, particularly by Aristotle, Plato, and Horace. Here are some of its key features:

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 Focus on form and structure: Classical critics believed that well-written literature
followed specific rules and structures. They paid close attention to elements like plot,
character development, and use of language.
Emphasis on mimesis: The Greek word "mimesis" means imitation. Classical
critics believed that literature should imitate reality, but in a way that elevated or
idealized it.
Importance of reason and logic: These critics valued clarity, order, and logic in
literature. They believed that literature should be not just entertaining but also
instructive and morally uplifting.
Universality of themes: Classical critics focused on themes that were considered
universally human, such as love, loss, courage, and justice.
The concept of catharsis: Aristotle, in particular, emphasized the concept of
catharsis, the purging of emotions (especially pity and fear) that a well-written tragedy
could evoke in the audience.

Classical criticism laid the groundwork for Western literary theory and continues to
influence how we read and analyze literature today.

I Aristotle’s Concept of Tragedy

Tragedy, as conceived by the ancient Greek philosopher **Aristotle**, holds a central

place in the realm of literature and dramatic arts. His influential treatise, *Poetics*,
provides a comprehensive exploration of tragedy, its elements, and its impact on the
audience. Let us delve into Aristotle's concept of tragedy:

1. **Definition of Tragedy**:

- Aristotle defines tragedy as an **imitation of an action** that is serious, complex, and

possesses a certain magnitude.

- It is expressed through **embellished language** and aims to evoke emotions of **pity

and fear** in the audience.

- The ultimate purpose of tragedy is to achieve **catharsis**—a purgation or cleansing

of these emotions.

2. **Key Characteristics of Tragedy**:

- **Plot**: Aristotle emphasizes the importance of a well-structured plot. It should have

a proper beginning, middle, and end. The actions should be interconnected, leading
naturally from one event to another.

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 - **Character**: Tragic characters should be morally, psychologically, and socially
serious. Their downfall results from a **tragic flaw** (hamartia) or error in judgment.

- **Thought (Dianoia)**: Tragedy explores profound ideas and themes. It engages the
intellect of the audience.

- **Diction (Lexis)**: The language of tragedy should be elevated, poetic, and refined. It
includes both dialogue and choral songs.

- **Spectacle (Opsis)**: While spectacle is essential, Aristotle places less emphasis on

it compared to other elements.

- **Music (Melos)**: Music and rhythm enhance the emotional impact of tragedy.

3. **Imitation and Reality**:

- Aristotle distinguishes imitation from mere copying. The poet doesn't replicate external
reality but **recreates** it, providing meaning and depth.

- Tragedy represents **universal truths** and gives form to eternal realities.

4. **Catharsis**:

- Aristotle's concept of catharsis is central to tragedy. It involves arousing intense

emotions (pity and fear) in the audience and then purging or cleansing those emotions.

- Tragedy allows viewers to experience these emotions vicariously, leading to emotional

release and psychological renewal.

5. **Comparison with Epic**:

- Aristotle prefers tragedy over epic poetry. Tragedy relies on **performance** rather
than mere narration.

- The impact of tragedy lies in its staging, acting, and emotional engagement.

6. **Standard of a Good Tragedy**:

- Aristotle identifies six factors that determine the quality of a tragedy:

- **Plot**: Well-arranged incidents with coherence and unity.

- **Character**: Morally significant protagonists.

- **Thought**: Profound exploration of ideas.

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 - **Diction**: Elevated language.

- **Spectacle**: Effective visual and auditory elements.

- **Catharsis**: Emotional purgation.

Aristotle's concept of tragedy transcends time and continues to shape our understanding
of dramatic art. Through his insightful analysis, he provides a framework for creating
powerful and enduring tragedies that resonate with audiences across cultures and ages.

II Longinus’ Concept of Sublime

The concept of the **sublime**, as expounded by the ancient Greek critic **Longinus**
(also known as Pseudo-Longinus), transcends mere aesthetics. His treatise *On the
Sublime* (Greek: *Perì Hýpsous*; Latin: *De sublimitate*) remains a classic work on
literary criticism, exploring the effects of powerful writing and its impact on the audience.
Let us delve into Longinus’ understanding of the sublime:

1. **Definition of the Sublime**:

- Longinus defines the sublime as **”excellence in language”**—a quality that elevates

ordinary expression to extraordinary heights.

- It is not merely eloquence but the **expression of a great spirit** that resonates with
readers.

- The sublime has the power to provoke **”ecstasy”** in its audience—a profound
emotional experience.

2. **Characteristics of the Sublime**:

- **Loftiness and Excellence**: Sublimity arises from a **great and lofty soul**. It is not
confined to distinct composition but extends to the essence of the writer.

- **Distinctiveness**: The sublime should be **distinct and excellent** in its form,

language, and composition.

- **Emotional Impact**: It moves readers, evoking both **pleasure and persuasion**.

The sublime engages the intellect and emotions simultaneously.

3. **Comparison with the Beautiful**:

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 - Longinus distinguishes between the **beautiful** and the **sublime**.

- The beautiful appeals to our senses and emotions, while the sublime transcends the
ordinary and touches the **spiritual and intellectual** realms.

4. **Examples of the Sublime**:

- Longinus cites examples from earlier literature to illustrate the sublime:

- **Homer’s Epic Poetry**: The grandeur of the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* embodies
the sublime.

- **Sophocles’ Tragedies**: The tragic intensity and moral dilemmas evoke sublime
emotions.

- **Demosthenes’ Oratory**: His eloquence and forceful rhetoric exemplify the

sublime.

5. **Impact and Legacy**:

- Longinus’ treatise influenced subsequent generations of writers, critics, and

philosophers.

- His emphasis on the **power of language** and the **spirit behind it** resonates in
discussions of aesthetics and rhetoric.

Longinus’ concept of the sublime transcends mere literary analysis. It invites us to

explore the profound impact of language, the elevation of the soul, and the ecstasy that
great writing can evoke. The sublime remains an enduring theme in the study of
aesthetics and the human experience¹²³.

Unit 3: Romantic Criticism

Romantic criticism emerged as a counterpoint to the structured rationality of classical
criticism. Here's a breakdown of its core tenets:

Emphasis on Imagination and Emotion: Romantics valued imagination as a

supreme creative power, prioritizing emotional response over rigid rules. They
believed literature should evoke strong feelings and inspire the reader's imagination.
Focus on Individualism: In contrast to classical ideals, Romanticism celebrated
the unique perspective and experiences of the individual. This shift is reflected in the
exploration of personal emotions, nature, and the inner world.

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 Celebration of Nature: Nature was a central theme in Romantic criticism, seen as
a source of inspiration, beauty, and spiritual connection. Romantics believed nature
could elevate the soul and spark creativity.
Embrace of Emotion: Romanticism championed the exploration of a full range of
human emotions, both positive and negative. Passion, melancholy, awe, and wonder
were seen as valuable experiences to be explored in literature.
Ordinary Language and Everyday Life: Unlike classical forms that emphasized
grandeur and formality, Romantics advocated for using the language of common
people and depicting everyday experiences in literature.
Romantic critics like William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge
challenged the established literary norms, paving the way for a more expressive and
emotionally resonant form of literature. Their ideas continue to influence critical
approaches that focus on reader response and the subjective experience of literature.

I Coleridge’s Theory of Imagination

The Romantic era witnessed a profound exploration of the human mind, emotions, and
creativity. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, a central figure in this movement, contributed
significantly to the understanding of imagination. His theories, as expounded in his critical
works and poetry, continue to resonate with scholars and readers alike. Let us delve into
Coleridge's concept of imagination:

1. **Primary Imagination**:

- Coleridge specifies **primary imagination** as the **"living power and prime agent of
all human perception"** (*Biographia Literaria*).

- It is an essential requirement for perception, connecting our minds to the external

world.

- Primary imagination operates spontaneously, without conscious effort. It allows us to

understand events and phenomena as they are or seem to be.

- This imagination forms interconnections and relationships between various elements

in our environment.

2. **Secondary Imagination**:

- Coleridge introduces the term **secondary imagination** to highlight the human

capacity to go beyond primary imagination.

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 - While primary imagination merely observes and replicates what has been seen,
secondary imagination actively **shapes and modifies** these impressions.

- Secondary imagination breaks down observed phenomena to create new meanings,

ideas, and artistic expressions.

- It is the realm of creativity, ingenuity, and originality.

3. **Difference between Imagination and Fancy**:

- Coleridge distinguishes between **imagination** and **fancy**:

- **Imagination**: Associated with creativity, shaping, and unification. It transcends

mere representation.

- **Fancy**: Dependent on and inferior to imagination. It is **"associative"**—making

connections based on existing elements.

4. **Imagination in Coleridge's Poems**:

- Coleridge's poetry exemplifies his theories:

- **"Kubla Khan"**: A dreamlike, imaginative landscape inspired by an opium-induced

vision.

- **"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner"**: Merges supernatural elements, symbolism,

and moral themes.

- **"Dejection: An Ode"**: Explores the poet's emotional state and the power of
imagination.

5. **Metaphysical Unity and Imagination**:

- Coleridge's **"esemplastic" power** unifies diverse elements into a whole.

- Imagination reveals hidden metaphysical unity behind multiplicity.

6. **Legacy and Influence**:

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 - Coleridge's theory of imagination influenced subsequent generations of poets, writers,
and thinkers.

- His emphasis on the **spiritual dimension** of creativity remains relevant today.

Coleridge's theory of imagination transcends mere aesthetics. It invites us to explore the

interplay of perception, creativity, and the eternal unity that underlies our experiences and
expressions²³⁴⁵.

II William Wordsworth's 'Preface to the Lyrical Ballads

William Wordsworth, a central figure in the Romantic movement, penned the influential
**'Preface to the Lyrical Ballads'** as an introduction to the second edition of the poetry
collection *Lyrical Ballads* (1800). This preface, later expanded in the third edition (1802),
serves as a manifesto for the Romantic poets and a significant work in the history of
English literature. Let us explore the key aspects of Wordsworth's preface:

1. **Context and Purpose**:

- Wordsworth, along with his friend Samuel Taylor Coleridge, sought to revolutionize
poetry.

- The first edition of *Lyrical Ballads* was an experiment, testing poems that used **"the
real language of men in a state of vivid sensation"**.

- The experiment's success surprised Wordsworth, leading him to furnish this preface.

2. **Experimental Poetry**:

- Wordsworth initially considered his poems an experiment, suggesting his lack of

confidence in public reception.

- The poems in *Lyrical Ballads* aimed to break away from the artificial language and
themes of Neoclassical poetry.

- Wordsworth's disclaimer—that his reasons for this new genre cannot be fully
articulated in a preface—implies complex motivations.

3. **The Role of Imagination**:

- Wordsworth acknowledges Coleridge's contribution to the collection, including "Rime

of the Ancient Mariner."

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 - He explains that he doesn't want to reason anyone into liking these poems; their
motives are too intricate.

- Wordsworth's disclaimer implies dissatisfaction with contemporary poetry trends.

4. **Freedom of Poetic Expression**:

- Wordsworth asserts that authors have the right to use certain ideas and techniques
while excluding others.

- Different ages expect different things from poetry, and poets should adapt accordingly.

- He cites great poets from different eras, emphasizing their distinct styles.

5. **The New Genre**:

- Wordsworth's preface reveals a collective dissatisfaction among poets of his era.

- The desire to create a new type of poetry—one that connects with human
experience—unites Wordsworth and his contemporaries.

6. **Legacy and Influence**:

- *Lyrical Ballads* marked a turning point in English poetry, emphasizing simplicity,

natural language, and emotional authenticity.

- Wordsworth's theories continue to inspire poets and critics, shaping the Romantic
movement and beyond.

Wordsworth's 'Preface to the Lyrical Ballads' remains a testament to the power of

imagination, the rejection of artificial conventions, and the quest for genuine expression.
It invites readers to explore poetry that speaks to the human heart and soul.

Unit 4: Modern criticism

Modern criticism, encompassing a range of schools of thought that emerged in the early
20th century, marked a departure from traditional literary analysis. Here are some central
tenets of modern criticism:

• Focus on the Text Itself: Modern critics shifted the emphasis from the
author's biography or historical context to a close reading of the text itself. They

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 believed the meaning resided within the language, structure, and symbolism of the
literary work.
• New Critical Techniques: New Criticism, a prominent school of modern
criticism, employed techniques like close reading, formal analysis, and paying
attention to ambiguity and irony to uncover the work's multiple layers of meaning.
• Emphasis on Form: Modern critics closely examined how literary elements
like plot, character development, imagery, and figurative language worked together
to create meaning and effect.
• Symbolic Interpretation: Symbols became a central focus in modern criticism.
Critics analyzed how seemingly ordinary objects or situations could hold deeper
meanings and contribute to the overall themes of the work.
• Rejection of Moral Judgments: Unlike classical critics who judged literature
based on moral values, modern critics aimed for a more objective analysis,
focusing on how the work functioned as a self-contained system.

Modern criticism's emphasis on close reading and textual analysis provided valuable tools
for literary interpretation. However, later movements criticized its decontextualization of
literature and its neglect of the author's intention and the social, historical, and cultural
influences on a work's meaning.

I Walter Pater’s Essay on Style*

Walter Horatio Pater, a prominent Victorian essayist and critic, left an indelible mark on
the world of aesthetics and literary theory. His essay **"Style"**, part of the collection
*Appreciations, with an Essay on Style*, delves into the intricacies of artistic expression,
the role of form, and the essence of beauty. Let us explore the key aspects of Pater's
essay:

1. **The Quest for Style**:

- Pater's essay begins with a reflection on the elusive concept of **style**.

- He acknowledges that style is not merely a matter of external form but an expression
of the **inner spirit** of the artist.

2. **The Unity of Form and Content**:

- Pater contends that style is the **visible manifestation** of an artist's soul.

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 - It is the **harmonious fusion** of form and content, where the two become inseparable.

- Style transcends mere ornamentation; it embodies the **essence** of the work.

3. **The Influence of Greek Art**:

- Pater draws inspiration from ancient Greek art, particularly the **Parthenon**.

- The Parthenon exemplifies the **perfect union** of form and spirit, where every detail
contributes to the overall effect.

4. **The Artist as Creator**:

- Pater celebrates the artist as a **creator**, shaping reality through the lens of their
unique vision.

- Style allows the artist to **transmute** the ordinary into the extraordinary.

5. **The Pursuit of Beauty**:

- Pater's essay emphasizes the pursuit of **beauty** as the ultimate goal of art.

- Beauty lies not in imitation but in the **individual interpretation** of reality.

6. **Legacy and Influence**:

- Pater's essay influenced subsequent generations of writers, artists, and critics.

- His emphasis on the **integrity of style** and the **spiritual dimension** of art remains
relevant.

II Why the Novel Matters by D. H. Lawrence

D. H. Lawrence, the prolific English novelist, poet, and essayist, penned the thought-
provoking essay **"Why the Novel Matters"** as part of his exploration into the essence
of literature and its impact on human consciousness. In this essay, Lawrence delves into
the significance of the novel as a unique form of artistic expression. Let us explore the
key insights from Lawrence's perspective:

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1. **The Novel as a Bright Book of Life**:

- Lawrence begins by asserting that the novel is the **"one bright book of life"**.

- Unlike other literary forms, the novel captures the essence of human existence,
reflecting the complexities, emotions, and experiences of ordinary people.

2. **Beyond Mere Tremulations**:

- Lawrence dismisses the notion that books are mere **"tremulations on the ether"**—
ephemeral vibrations.

- Instead, he contends that the novel has the power to make the entire person—mind,
body, and soul—**"alive tremble"**.

- The novel transcends poetry, philosophy, and science, resonating with the totality of
human consciousness.

3. **The Paradox of Infinity and the Self**:

- Lawrence contrasts the pursuit of **infinity** in philosophy with the tangible reality of
the self.

- While philosophers seek the infinite, the novel reveals that paradise lies within the
**"palm of your hand"** and at the **"end of your nose"**.

- The novel celebrates the immediacy of life, rejecting the allure of afterlife paradises.

4. **The Intimacy of the Novel**:

- Lawrence emphasizes that the novel allows readers to experience life through their
senses.

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 - The novel is not an abstract concept; it is **"paradise"** found in the **"palm"** of our
hands.

- It engages the reader's touch, smell, taste, and emotions, making it an intimate and
immediate form of art.

5. **The Novelist's Role**:

- Lawrence believes that novelists hold a unique position in the creative world.

- They are the **"unacknowledged legislators"** who shape human understanding and
consciousness.

- Through their novels, they reveal the richness of life and the profound connections
between individuals.

6. **Legacy and Relevance**:

- Lawrence's essay invites us to appreciate the novel as a powerful medium for

exploring the human condition.

- His celebration of immediacy, intimacy, and the tangible world continues to resonate
with readers and writers.

Unit– 5 Modern Criticism

I Metaphysical Poets by T. S. Eliot

T.S. Eliot’s essay, “An Essay on Metaphysical Poetry,” published in 1921, was a critical
turning point that reinvigorated interest in the metaphysical poets of the 17 th century, a
group that had been somewhat neglected for the preceding two centuries. Eliot argued
that the metaphysical poets, including John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell,
and John Dryden, used a unique style that combined intellectual wit, philosophical
inquiry, passionate emotions, and sensual imagery.

Here are some of the key features of metaphysical poetry that Eliot highlights:

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 • **Wit:** Metaphysical poets employ wit, a clever use of language that often
involves paradox, conceit (an extended metaphor that compares seemingly
dissimilar things), and unexpected imagery.

• **Logical Reasoning:** Metaphysical poems often explore philosophical and

theological concepts through logical reasoning and careful argument.

• **Union of Thought and Feeling:** These poems don’t separate intellectual

thought from emotion. They weave reasoning and passion together to create
a complex and unified experience for the reader.

• **Sensual Imagery:** Metaphysical poets use vivid imagery that appeals to the
senses, even when conveying abstract ideas.

Eliot’s appreciation for the metaphysical poets helped spark a renewed interest in their
work and influenced the development of modernist poetry in the 20 th century.

The term **"Metaphysical Poets"** refers to a group of 17th-century English poets who,
despite their diverse styles and themes, share certain distinctive characteristics. T. S.
Eliot, in his influential essay titled **"The Metaphysical Poets"** (1921), sought to define
and appreciate the unique qualities of these poets. Let us explore Eliot's insights into the
Metaphysical Poets:

1. **Origins and Definition**:

- The term "Metaphysical" was first used by Samuel Johnson to describe a group of
poets who wrote during the reign of James I and Charles I.

- These poets, including John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell, and Henry
Vaughan, were characterized by their intellectual and philosophical approach to poetry.

2. **Fusion of Thought and Feeling**:

- Eliot argues that the Metaphysical Poets achieved a remarkable fusion of **"thought"**
and **"feeling"** in their works.

- Unlike later poets who separated these elements, the Metaphysicals combined
intellectual exploration with emotional intensity.

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3. **Complexity and Wit**:

- Eliot praises the Metaphysical Poets for their **intellectual complexity** and **wit**.

- Their poems often feature intricate conceits, paradoxes, and wordplay.

- John Donne, for instance, employed elaborate metaphors and explored profound
themes of love, religion, and mortality.

4. **Unification of Opposites**:

- The Metaphysical Poets sought to reconcile seemingly contradictory elements.

- They blended the physical and the spiritual, the sensual and the divine.

- Their poems reflect a tension between earthly desires and spiritual aspirations.

5. **Influence on Later Poetry**:

- Eliot contends that the Metaphysical Poets influenced subsequent generations of

poets.

- Their fusion of thought and feeling set a precedent for later writers, including the
Romantic poets.

6. **Legacy and Appreciation**:

- Eliot's essay revived interest in the Metaphysical Poets, emphasizing their

**intellectual vigor** and **emotional depth**.

- He encourages readers to explore their works beyond surface meanings.

II Four Kinds of Meanings by I. A. Richards*

I. A. Richards, a prominent literary critic and semantic theorist, introduced the concept of
**four kinds of meanings** in his work. These meanings go beyond mere denotation and
explore the intricate layers of language and communication. Let us delve into each of
these meanings:

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1. ****Sense** (or **Referential Meaning**)**:

- **Sense** refers to the **literal** or **dictionary definition** of a word or phrase.

- It represents the basic, factual meaning conveyed by language.

- For example, in the sentence "The sun rises in the east," the sense of "sun" is its
astronomical meaning.

2. **Tone** (or **Connotative Meaning**):

- **Tone** encompasses the **emotional** or **associative** connotations of words.

- It goes beyond the factual sense and includes the feelings, attitudes, or moods evoked
by language.

- For instance, the word "home" may evoke warmth, comfort, or nostalgia.

3. **Feeling** (or **Emotive Meaning**):

- **Feeling** pertains to the **subjective** response of the reader or listener.

- It reflects the emotional impact of language on an individual.

- Different people may experience varying feelings based on the same words or
phrases.

4. **Intention** (or **Pragmatic Meaning**):

- **Intention** focuses on the **purpose** or **communicative function** of language.

- It considers the speaker's or writer's intention in using specific words or expressions.

- Context plays a crucial role in determining intention.

, Richards' four kinds of meanings emphasize that language is multifaceted, extending

beyond mere definitions. Words carry emotional weight, evoke personal responses, and
serve specific purposes. Understanding these layers enriches our engagement with
language and literature¹²³.

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