ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

3. Digestion and secretion - Digestion is the mechanical and

OUTLINE: chemical breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules that
can be absorbed. Secretion is the addition of liquids, enzymes, and
I. Functions of the digestive system mucus to the ingested food.
II. Anatomy of the digestive system
4. Absorption - the movement of molecules out of the digestive tract
III. Layers of the digestive tract wall and into the blood or lymphatic system.
a. Digestive tract histology
5. Elimination - Elimination is the removal of undigested material,
IV. Peritoneum such as fiber from food, plus other waste products from the body as
a. Peritoneum and Mesenteries feces.
V. Oral Cavity
a. Teeth DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
b. Palate, Hard Palate and Soft Palate
c. Salivary Glands

VI. Pharynx

VII. Esophagus
a. Swallowing

VIII. Stomach
a. Regions of the stomach
b. Histology of the stomach
c. Epithelial cells in the stomach
d. Secretion of the stomach
e. Regulation of stomach secretion
f. Movement in stomach

IX. Small Intestine

a. Anatomy of small intestine
b. Movement in small intestine
c. Segmental contraction in the small intestine

X. Liver
a. Liver ducts
b. Bile and pancreatic secretion
c. Functions of the liver

XI. Pancreas ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

a. Pancreatic secretions
b. Control of pancreatic secretions • The digestive system consists of the digestive tract, plus specific
associated organs.
XII. Large Intestine
a. Functions of the large intestine
• The digestive tract is also referred to as the GIT (gastrointestinal
XIII.Digestive Process tract)
XIV. Digestion
a. Carbohydrate Digestion • The tract is one long tube from the mouth to the anus.
b. Lipid Digestion
c. Protein Digestion ● The digestive tract consists of the:
- oral cavity (mouth)
XV. Water and Minerals
- pharynx
a. Fluid Volumes in the digestive tract
- Esophagus
- stomach
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - small intestines
- large intestines
• The digestive system is a complex set of organs, glands, and ducts - anus
that work together to transform food into nutrients for cells.
● The digestive system includes some associated organs,
• Food is taken into the digestive system, where it is broken down not directly in the digestive tract, that have ducts that lead
into smaller and smaller particles. into the tract.

• Enzymes break the particles down into small molecules, which are ● These associated organs are the:
absorbed into the blood and transported all over the body. - salivary glands
- liver
1. Ingestion and mastication – ingestion is the consumption of - gallbladder
solid or liquid food. Mastication is chewing. - Pancreas

2. Propulsion and mixing - Propulsion is the movement of food LAYERS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT WALL
from one end of the digestive tract to the other. Mixing is the
movement of food back and forth in the digestive tract to mix it with • The layers of the tract wall are also termed tunics.
enzymes and facilitate absorption.
• a. Swallowing 1. Mucosa:
• b. Peristalsis ● innermost layer
• c. Mass movements ● secretes mucus
2. Submucosa: ORAL CAVITY
● above mucosa
● contains blood vessels, nerves, small glands • Lips - muscular structures, formed by the orbicularis oris muscle
and covered by skin.
3. Muscularis:
● above submucosa • Cheeks - lateral walls of the oral cavity, within the cheeks are the
● longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscles buccinator muscles which flatten the cheeks against the teeth.

4. Serosa/adventitia: • Tongue - large, muscular organ that occupies most of the oral
● outermost layer cavity.
● If peritoneum is present called serosa
● If no peritoneum then called adventitia • The tongue moves food in the mouth and, in cooperation with the
lips and cheeks, holds the food in place during mastication.
DIGESTIVE TRACT HISTOLOGY

TEETH
PERITONEUM

• Visceral peritoneum - or serosa, is the serous membrane that

covers the organs.

• Parietal peritoneum - is the serous membrane that lines the wall

of the abdominal cavity

● Mesenteries:
- connective tissue sheets that hold organs in place in the
abdominal cavity

● Lesser omentum:
- mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to liver
and diaphragm

● Greater omentum:
• 32 teeth in normal adult
- mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach to
transverse colon and posterior body wall
• Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom

PERITONEUM AND MESENTERIES

• 20 primary (deciduous) teeth

• Each tooth has crown, cusp, neck, root

• Center of tooth is pulp cavity filled with a material called pulp,

which consists of blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
• Teeth are held in place within pockets in the bone, called alveoli

• Dental caries (cavities) are breakdown of enamel by acids from

bacteria

• The bulk of the tooth is formed by a cellular tissue called dentin

• In the crown of the tooth, the denLn is covered by an extremely

hard, acellular enamel
 PALATE, HARD PALATE AND SOFT PALATE
PHARYNX

• Throat - Connects the mouth to the esophagus

• It has three parts:
● Nasopharynx
● oropharynx
● Laryngopharynx

ESOPHAGUS

• Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach

• Transports food to the stomach

• Joins stomach at cardiac opening

• Palate: roof of oral cavity • Heartburn:

● occurs when gastric juices regurgitate into esophagus
• Hard palate: anterior part made of bone
● caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating or drinking in
• Soft palate: posterior part consists of skeletal muscle and excess
connective tissue SWALLOWING
• Voluntary phase - bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth and
SALIVARY GLANDS pushed into oropharynx

• Produce saliva which is a mixture of serous (watery) and mucous • Pharyngeal phase - swallowing reflex initiated when bolus
fluids stimulates receptors in oropharynx

• Keeps the oral cavity moist • Esophageal phase - moves food from pharynx to stomach

• Needed for normal speech • Peristalsis - wave-like contractions moves food through digestive
tract
• Dissolves food particles so they can be tasted
Events During the Three Phases of Swallowing
• Protects against bacteria and neutralizes pH

• Begins the process of digestion

● Parotid - serous glands anterior to each ear.

● Submandibular - produce more serous than mucous

secretions, found along the inferior border of the mandible.

● Sublingual - produce primarily mucous and lie below the

mucous membrane in the floor of the oral cavity

• Serous porLon of saliva contains enzymes

● Amylase - Digestive enzyme that breaks down

carbohydrates

● Lysozyme - Enzymes that are active against bacteria

• Mucous portion contains mucin for lubrication

 PERISTALSIS • Pyloric sphincter:
● thick, ring of smooth muscle around pyloric opening which
regulates movement of food into the small intestine

STOMACH
• Located in abdomen

• Storage tank for food

HISTOLOGY OF THE STOMACH

• Can hold up to 2 liters of food

• The mucosa forms tube-like gastric pits which are the openings
for the gastric glands.
• Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
• The epithelial cells of the stomach can be divided into five groups:
• Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial
(1) surface mucous cells, (2) mucous neck cells, (3) parietal cells, (4)
cells on stomach wall from acidic pH (3)
endocrine cells, and (5) chief cells.

REGIONS OF THE STOMACH

• All but the surface mucous cells are found within the gastric glands

EPITHELIAL CELLS IN THE STOMACH

• Surface mucous cells - produce mucus that coats and protects

the stomach

• mucous neck cells - produce mucus

• parietal cells - produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor

• endocrine cells – produce hormones and paracrine molecules

• chief cells - produce pepsinogen, a precursor of the

protein-digesting enzyme pepsin

SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH

• The esophagus opens into the cardiac part.
• Hydrochloric acid
• The fundus is to the left of, and superior to, the cardiac part. - Produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomach.
- Kills microorganisms, activates pepsin.
• The body is largest part of the stomach.
• Pepsin
• The body turns to the right, creating a greater curvature and a - breaks covalent bonds of proteins to form smaller peptide
lesser curvature. chains

• The body narrows inferiorly to form the funnel -shaped pyloric part • Mucus
of the stomach - A thick layer, which lubricates the mucosa of the stomach
- Protects mucosa from acidic chyme and pepsin
• Muscularis has 3 layers - outer longitudinal, middle circular, and
inner oblique to produce churning action • Intrinsic factor
- Binds with vitamin B12 making it more readily absorbed by
• Rugae - large folds that allow stomach to stretch small intestine
- Vitamin B12 is important in DNA synthesis and red blood
• Chyme - paste-like substance that forms when food begins to be cell production
broken down
REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETIONS
• Pyloric opening:
● opening between stomach and small intestine ● Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, and histamine
increase stomach secretions
 INTESTINAL PHASE OF STOMACH CONTROL
1. Cephalic phase:
• Stomach secretions are initiated by sight, smell, taste, or food
thought

• Hydrochloric acid, pepsin, mucus, and intrinsic factor, gastrin and

histamine are released in the stomach

CEPHALIC PHASE OF STOMACH CONTROL

MOVEMENT IN STOMACH

• Mixing waves:
● weak contraction
● thoroughly mix food to form chyme

• Peristaltic waves:
● stronger contraction
● force chyme toward and through pyloric sphincter
2. Gastric phase:
• Food in stomach, partially digested proteins and disten=on of • Hormonal and neural mechanisms regulate stomach secretions
stomach promote increase of secretion and movement

• Peptides, produced by the action of pepsin on proteins, stimulate • Stomach empties every 4 hours after regular meal, and 6 to 8
the secretion of gastrin. hours after high fatty meal

• Gastrin is carried through the blood back to the stomach

stimulating more secretion.

GASTRIC PHASE OF STOMACH CONTROL

3. Intestinal phase:
• Inhibits secretion and movement in stomach

• Entrance of chyme into duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes SMALL INTESTINE

and secretions of hormones
• Measures 6 meters in length
• The hormones secretin and cholecystokinin are released into the • Major absorptive organ of the gastrointestinal tract
blood by the duodenum and they inhibit secretion and movement in • Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through
the stomach. • Contains enzymes to further breakdown food
• Contains secretions for protection against the acidity of chyme
 ANATOMY OF SMALL INTESTINE

• Duodenum:
• first part
• 25 cm long
• contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells,
endocrine cells
• contains microvilli and many folds
• contains bile and pancreatic ducts

• The epithelial cells are located within tubular glands of the mucosa,
called intestinal glands or crypts of Lieberkühn, at the base of the
villi.

• Granular and endocrine cells are located in the bottom of the

glands.
• The submucosa of the duodenum contains mucous glands, called
duodenal glands, which open into the base of the intestinal glands

• Secretions of mucus, ions, and water lubricate and protect the

intestinal wall from the acidic chyme and digestive enzymes.

• The epithelial cells in the small intestine have enzymes bound to

their free surfaces.

• Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proteins into

amino acids for absorption.

• Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown

disaccharides into monosaccharides for absorption.

MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

• Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary mechanical events

that occur in the small intestine.

• Peristaltic contractions along the length of the intestine cause the

• The mucosa of the small intestine is simple columnar
chyme to move along the small intestine.
epithelium with four major cell types.

• Segmental contractions are propagated for only short distances

1. Absorptive cells, which have microvilli, produce
and mix intestinal contents.
digestive enzymes, and absorb digested food

• The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of the ileum and the large
2. Goblet cells, which produce a protective mucus
intestine remains mildly contracted most of the time.
3. Granular cells, which may help protect the intestinal
• Peristaltic contractions reaching the ileocecal sphincter from the
epithelium from bacteria; and
small intestine cause the sphincter to relax and allow chyme to move
from the small intestine into the cecum.
4. Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones.

• The ileocecal valve prevents movement from the large intestine

• Jejunum:
back into the ileum.
• second part
• 2.5 meters long
SEGMENTAL CONTRACTIONS IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
• Primary site of nutrient absorption

• Ileum:
• third part
• 3.5 meters long
 LIVER LIVER DUCTS

• Weighs about 3 lbs.

• Located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen under the
diaphragm • Hepatic duct:
• Consists of right, left, caudate, and quadrate lobes ● transports bile out of liver

• Porta: • Common hepatic duct:

● gate where blood vessels, ducts, nerves enter and exit ● formed from left and right hepatic duct
● Receives blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein • Cystic duct:
● joins common hepatic duct
● drains gallbladder

• Common bile duct:

● formed from common hepatic duct and cystic duct

BILE AND PANCREATIC SECRETIONS

• Lobules:
● divisions of liver with portal triads at corners FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

• Portal triad: • Digestive and excretory functions

● contain branches of hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, • Stores and processes nutrients
hepatic duct • Detoxifies harmful chemicals
• Synthesizes new molecules
• Central vein: • Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day
● center of each lobule • Bile:
● where mixed blood flows to form hepatic vein ● dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and breaks down fats

• Hepatic cords: PANCREAS

● between center margins of each lobule
● separated by hepatic sinusoids • Located posterior to stomach in inferior part of leg upper quadrant

• Hepatic sinusoids: • Head near midline of body

● contain phagocytic cells that remove foreign particles from
blood • Tail extends to leg and touches spleen

• Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets that produce insulin and

glucagon

• Exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes that travel through

ducts to duodenum
 PANCREATIC SECRETIONS • Function is to absorb water from indigestible food and create
compact feces
• The major protein-digesting enzymes are:
1. Trypsin • Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase • Cecum:
● joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
• Pancreatic amylase continues the polysaccharide digestion that ● has appendix attached
began in the oral cavity.
• The pancreatic enzyme lipase is a lipid-digesting enzyme. • Appendix:
• The pancreatic nuclease enzymes degrade DNA and RNA to their ● 9 cm structure that is often removed
component nucleotides.
• Colon:
DUODENUM AND PANCREAS ● 1.5 meters long
● contains ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
regions
COLON

Rectum:
• straight tube that begins at sigmoid colon and ends at anal canal

• Anal canal:
CONTROL OF PANCREATIC SECRETIONS
• last 2 to 3 cm of digestive tract

• Food takes 18 to 24 hours to pass through large intestine

• Feces are product of water, indigestible food, and microbes

• Microbes synthesize vitamin K

FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

• Feces formation is due to absorption of water and salts, secretion

of mucus, and action of microorganisms.

• The colon stores the feces until defecation.

• Every 8 to 12 hours strong contractions, called mass movements

propel the colon contents toward the anus.

• Movement of feces into the rectum distends the rectal wall and
stimulates the defecation reflex.

LARGE INTESTINE
DIGESTIVE PROCESS

1. Digestion:
● Chemical and mechanical breakdown of food

2. Absorption:
● Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejunum,
although some occurs in the stomach and ileum

3. Transport:
● moves food through digestive tract, includes swallowing
and peristalsis
 DIGESTION TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS ACROSS THE INTESTINAL
EPITHELIUM

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION
LIPOPROTEINS
• Polysaccharides split into disaccharides by salivary and pancreatic
amylases • Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to allow transport in the
lymph and blood.
• Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by
disaccharidases on the surface of intestinal epithelium • Lipoproteins are molecules that are part water soluble and part lipid
soluble.
• Glucose is absorbed by cotransport with Na+ into the intestinal
epithelium • Since lymph and blood contain water and lipids are not water
soluble, lipoproteins are necessary for transport.
• Glucose is carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver and enters
most cells by facilitated diffusion • Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, low-density lipoproteins (LDL),
and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).
TRANSPORT OF GLUCOSE ACROSS THE INTESTINAL
EPITHELIUM

LIPID DIGESTION

• Lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and

monoglycerides.
PROTEIN DIGESTION
• Bile salts surround fatty acids and monoglycerides to form micelles.
• Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the stomach.
• Micelles attach to the plasma membranes of intestinal epithelial
cells, and the fatty acids and monoglycerides pass by simple • The pancreas secretes the protein digesting enzymes trypsin,
diffusion into the intestinal epithelial cells. chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase into the small intestine in an
inactive state.
• Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the fatty acids and
monoglycerides are converted to triglycerides. • In the small intestines these enzymes are activated.

• Proteins coat the triglycerides to form chylomicrons, which move • In the small intestine, other enzymes termed peptidases,
out of the intestinal epithelial cells by exocytosis. bound to the microvilli of the intestinal epithelium further
break down small peptides into tripeptides.
• The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the intestinal villi and are • Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or individual amino
carried through the lymphatic system to the blood. acids occurs through the intestinal epithelial cells by
various cotransport mechanisms.
 TRANSPORT OF AMINO ACIDS ACROSS THE INTESTINAL
EPITHELIUM

WATER AND MINERALS

• Water can move across the intestinal wall in either direction

• The movement depends on osmotic pressures

• 99% of water entering intestine is absorbed

• Minerals are actively transported across wall of small intestine

FLUID VOLUMES IN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT