INTERNSHIP REPORT

A report submitted
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DAYALBAGH EDUCATION INSTITUTE
(DEEMED UNIVERSITY)
2023-2024
Submitted by

Ikhlas Khursheed Wani 2301337

Tawfeeq Khursheed 2301338
Wasiq Imtiyaz 2301339

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is indeed a great pleasure and privilege to present this report on training at

RandB,Awantipora,J&K,.

We are extremely grateful to my university, which made my training possible at

RandB,Awantipora,J&K.

We would like to express my gratitude to ‘Er. Rouf’ J.E. RandB,Awantipora,J&K,Solan for his
invaluable suggestions, motivation, guidance and support throughout the training .His
methodology to start from simple ant then deepen through made me to bring out this project
report without anxiety.

Thanks to all other RandB,Awantipora officials, operators and all other members of
RandB,Awantipora, yet uncounted for their help in completing the project and see the light of
success.

We also wish to express my gratitude to my teachers for their constant support and guidance.

We also wish to express my indebtedness to my parents as well all family member whose
blessings and support always helped me to face the challenges ahead.

We are very thankful to friends, colleagues and all other persons who rendered their assistance
directly or indirectly to complete this project work successfully.

Students Name

Ikhlas Khursheed wani

Tawfeeq Khursheed

Wasiq Imtiyaz

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 CONTENTS

Sr. No. Title PAGE NO.

1 PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT 1

INTRODUCTION
2 MATERIAL USED 2
3 PLANT AND MACHINERY 9
4 BRICKWORK 12
5 SITE LOCATION AND 15
LAYOUT
6 FRAME WORK 17
7 REINFORCEMENT 19
8 RETAINING WALL 21
9 INTRODUCTION TO 26
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
10 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 28
CONSTRUCTION STEPS
11 SLAB CULVERT 32
12 CONCLUSION 35

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 1. INTRODUCTION

RandB,Awantipora,J&K deals with all construction, planning and execution work for the
government. PWD mainly deals with the construction of roads, bridges, culverts and buildings.

Organization of PWD Department

1. Chief Engineer
2. Superintending Engineer
3. Executive Engineer
4. Assistant Engineer
5. Junior Engineer

Chief Engineer is the administrative head of department and is directly responsible for the
government. He prepares the budget estimates annually relating to the works under his control
and administers the grants and keeps a close watch over the expenditure.

The whole area and work under the Chief Engineer is divided into number of circles or region
which is the administrative units of departments. Each circle is headed by a Superintending
Engineer who is the administrative and professional head of the circle. He is to see that the rules
regulations and instructions relating to the execution of the work and maintenance of accounts
are strictly followed.

Each circle is divided into no. of divisions which are the executive units of the department each
division is under an Executive Engineer who is responsible for the execution and management
of all works in the division. He has to inspect work frequently and has to ensure that the work is
being done strictly as per design and specifications.

Each division is divided into a number of sub divisions under charge of a sub division officer
who is of the rank of Assistant Engineer. Assistant Engineer is directly incharge of the works
falling under their charge and have to execute supervise and manage the works and have to
maintain and quality and progress of the work.

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 2. MATERIALS USED

Concrete is widely used in domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and educational

construction.
Communities around the world rely on concrete as a safe, strong and simple building material. It
is used in all types of construction; from domestic work to multi-storey office blocks and
shopping complexes. Despite the common usage of concrete, few people are aware of the
considerations involved in designing strong, durable, high quality concrete.
There are mainly three materials used primarily-
• Cement
• Sand
• Aggregate

2.1 CEMENT:
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other
materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term caementicium
to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt
lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt
lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cement, and
cement.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or
nonhydraulic.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, a chemical
reaction between the anhydrous cement powder and water. Thus, they can harden underwater or
when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction results in hydrates that are not
very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water. Non-hydraulic cements do not harden
underwater; for example, slaked limes harden by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.
The most important uses of cement are as an ingredient in the production of mortar in
masonry, and of concrete, a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building
material.

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TYPES OF CEMENT:-

• Portland cement
Portland cement is by far the most common type of cement in general use around the world.
This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other
materials (such as clay) to 1450 °C in a kiln, in a process known as calcinations, whereby a
molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or
quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix.
The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum
into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of cement
(often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most
nonspecialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete.
Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water.
As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened,
can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.
• Portland fly ash cement
It contains up to 35% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is maintained.
Because fly ash addition allows lower concrete water content, early strength can also be
maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative
to ordinary Portland cement.
• Portland pozzolana cement
It includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolana, but also includes cements made from
other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are available.

• Portland silica fume cement

Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and cements containing 5– 20%
silica fume are occasionally produced. However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland
cement at the concrete mixer

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Advantages of using Portland pozzolana cement over OPC
Pozzolana combines with lime and alkali in cement when water is added and forms
compounds which contribute to strength, impermeability and sulphate resistance. It also
contributes to workability, reduced bleeding and controls destructive expansion from
alkaliaggregate reaction. It reduces heat of hydration thereby controlling temperature
differentials, which causes thermal strain and resultant cracking n mass concrete structures like
dams. The color of PPC comes from the color of the pozzolanic material used. PPC containing
fly ash as a pozzolana will invariably be slightly different colour than the OPC. One thing
should be kept in mind that is the quality of cement depends upon the raw materials used and
the quality control measures adopted during its manufacture, and not on the shade of the
cement. The cement gets its colour from the nature and colour of raw materials used, which will
be different from factory to factory, and may even differ in the different batches of cement
produced in a factory. Further, the colour of the finished concrete is affected also by the colour
of the aggregates, and to a lesser extent by the colour of the cement. Preference for any cement
on the basis of colour alone is technically misplaced.

2.2 SAND:
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and
mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock
sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings
and nontropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite,
which has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like
coral and shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs
have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean.

2.3 AGGREGATES:
Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that, along
with water and Portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete
mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings
of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates,
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which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct
categories-fines and coarse. Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone
with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch (9.5-mm) sieve. Coarse aggregates are any
particles greater than 0.19 inch (4.75 mm), but generally range between
3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5 mm to 37.5 mm) in diameter. Gravels constitute the majority of coarse
aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of the remainder.
Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed
aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size gravel. Recycled
concrete is a viable source of aggregate and has been satisfactorily used in granular subbases,
soil cement, and in new concrete. Aggregate processing consists of crushing, screening, and
washing the aggregate to obtain proper cleanliness and gradation. If necessary, a benefaction
process such as jigging or heavy media separation can be used to upgrade the quality.
Once processed, the aggregates are handled and stored in a way that minimizes segregation and
degradation and prevents contamination.
Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture
proportions, and economy. Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process.
Although some variation in aggregate properties is expected, characteristics that are considered
when selecting aggregate include:
• grading
• durability
• particle shape and surface texture
• abrasion and skid resistance
• unit weights and voids
• absorption and surface moisture
Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. Grading limits
and maximum aggregate size are specified because grading and size affect the amount of
aggregate used as well as cement and water requirements, workability

2.4 Shape and size

Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete
more than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles
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require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate.
Consequently, the cement content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio.
Generally, flat and elongated particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 percent by weight
of the total aggregate. Unit-weight measures the volume that graded aggregate and the voids
between them will occupy in concrete. The void content between particles affects the amount of
cement paste required for the mix. Angular aggregate increase the void content.
Larger sizes of well-graded aggregate and improved grading decrease the void content.
Absorption and surface moisture of aggregate are measured when selecting aggregate because
the internal structure of aggregate is made up of solid material and voids that may or may not
contain water. The amount of water in the concrete mixture must be adjusted to include the
moisture conditions of the aggregate. Abrasion and skid resistance of an aggregate are essential
when the aggregate is to be used in concrete constantly subject to abrasion as in heavy-duty
floors or pavements.
Different minerals in the aggregate wear and polish at different rates.
Harder aggregate can be selected in highly abrasive conditions to minimize wear.

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PAVEMENT MATERIAL

Pavement Material Asphalt and concrete are the most common paving materials
found in the developed landscape. However, there are other strong, durable
pavements that can add variety to the built landscape and help reduce pavement's
imperviousness. The following is a review of selected paving materials:

 Asphalt: Bituminous concrete or asphalt is composed of aggregates bound

together with asphalt cement. The aggregate is heated and mixed with hot
(275º f) asphalt then taken to the construction site where it is placed, as a
wearing surface, over a base course. The asphalt is laid by hand and paving
machine, then rolled to force the mixture to firmly set. It is then allowed to
cool, typical asphalt pavement has a life expectancy of 20 years before it
needs resurfacing. Asphalt pavement is composed of the following two
layers, the wearing course and the base course. The Wearing Course
transfers and distributes traffic loads to the base course. The wearing
course is actually composed of two layers, a 1-1/4" to 1-1/2" surface layer
and a 3" bonding layer. The bonding course penetrates voids in the sub
base and binds the wearing course to the sub base aggregate.

 Stone: Stone is a durable paving surface that is available in either natural or

synthetic form. Natural paving stone is graded based on its' hardness,
porosity and abrasion resistance. It is available either in cut or uncut form
in various degrees of smoothness. Examples of uncut or rubble stone, are
broken quarry rock and river stone available in varying degrees of
smoothness. Crushed stone of various sizes and hardness is used as sub-
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 base for other surface materials, surface pavement or ground cover. When
mixed with asphalt or concrete, crushed stone or aggregate is used in the
wearing and base course of roads, drives, parking lots and sidewalks.
Larger stones are mixed with asphalt or concrete when a rougher or more
porous surface is desired.
 Earth Materials: Earth materials used for paving include gravel, soil,
granular products, and turf. The volume of earth materials is determined by
its state in the earth moving process. For example a cubic yard of gravel as
it lies in its natural, undisturbed state usually swells to 1.25 cubic yards
after it has been disturbed by excavation. The same quantity of gravel
decreases in volume to about .90 cubic yards after it has been compacted
by machinery on site.

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 3. PLANT AND MACHINERY

INTRODUCTION:-It is a very useful part of any project .The aim of machinery is to save time,
to achieve accuracy. It is beneficial for economy. There are different type of machinery which
are used in construction cement concrete road:-

1. NOMINAL MIXERS: - Mixing of concrete in a by taking the help of volume batcher for
proper ratio.

2. EXCAVATOR: - A large machine for digging and moving earth.

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3. BACK HOE: - A large machine for digging and moving earth that consists of a large bucket
on the end of an arm attached to a vehicle.

4. ROAD ROLLER: - To compact the Earth & Soling.

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5. GENERATOR:-To generate electricity.

6. TROLLEY:-To carry material from one place to another.

7. TRACTOR: - To transport material from one place to another on site. It even carry potable
water tank for curing of structures.

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 4. BRICKWORK

Brickwork is masonry done with bricks and mortar and is generally used to build partition walls.
In our site, all the external walls and internal walls were made of bricks. English bond was used
and a ratio of 1:4 (1 cement: 4 coarse sand) and 1:6 were used depending upon whether the wall
is 4.5 inches (inner wall) or 9 inches (outer wall). The reinforcement shall be 2 nos. M.S. round
bars or as indicated. The diameter of bars was 8mm. The first layer of reinforcement was used at
second course and then at every fourth course of brick work. The bars were properly anchored at
their ends where the portions and or where these walls join with other walls. The in laid steel
reinforcement was completely embedded in mortar. Bricks can be of two types. These are:

1) Traditional Bricks-The dimension if traditional bricks vary from 21 cm to 25cm in

length,10 to 13 cm in width and 7.5 cm in height in different parts of country .The commonly
adopted normal size of traditional brick is 23 * 11.5*7.5 cm with a view to achieve uniformity in
size of bricks all over country.

2) Modular Bricks– Indian standard institution has established a standard size of bricks such
a brick is known as a modular brick. The normal size of brick is taken as 20*10*10 cm whereas
its actual dimensions are 19*9*9 cm masonry with modular bricks workout to be cheaper there is
saving in the consumption of bricks, mortar and labor as compared with masonry with traditional
bricks.

Strength of brick masonry:

The permissible compressive stress in brick masonry depends upon the following factors:

1. Type and strength of brick.

2. Mix of motor.

3. Size and shape of masonry construction.

The strength of brick masonry depends upon the strength of bricks used in the masonry
construction. The strength of bricks depends upon the nature of soil used for making and the

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method adopted for molding and burning of bricks .since the nature of soil varies from region to
region ,the average strength of bricks varies from as low as 30kg/sq. cm to 150 kg /sq. cm the
basic compressive stress are different crushing strength.

There are many checks that can be applied to see the quality of bricks used on the site. Normally
the bricks are tested for Compressive strength, water absorption, dimensional tolerances and
efflorescence. However at small construction sites the quality of bricks can be assessed based on
following, which is prevalent in many sites.

• Visual check – Bricks should be well burnt and of uniform size and color.

• Striking of two bricks together should produce a metallic ringing sound.

• It should have surface so hard that can’t be scratched by the fingernails.

• A good brick should not break if dropped in standing position from one meter above ground level.

• A good brick shouldn’t absorb moisture of more than 15-20% by weight, when soaked in water For
example; a good brick of 2 kg shouldn’t weigh more than 2.3 to 2.4 kg if immersed in water for 24
hours.

Precautions to be taken in brick masonry work

• Bricks should be soaked in water for adequate period so that the water penetrates to its full thickness.
Normally 6 to 8 hours of wetting is sufficient.

• A systematic bond must be maintained throughout the brickwork. Vertical joints shouldn’t be
continuous but staggered.

• The joint thickness shouldn’t exceed 1 cm. It should be thoroughly filled with the cement mortar 1:4 to
1:6 (Cement: Sand by volume)

• All bricks should be placed on their bed with frogs on top (depression on top of the brick for providing
bond with mortar).

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• Thread, plumb bob and spirit level should be used for alignment, verticality and horizontality of
construction.

• Joints should be raked and properly finished with trowel or float, to provide good bond.

• A maximum of one meter wall height should be constructed in a day.

• Brickwork should be properly cured for at least 10 days

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 5. SITE LOCATION AND LAYOUT

Quarters of JKSPDC (PDD)

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Advantages of this site:-

1. Land

2. Store

3. Health unit

4. Car parking stand

5. Canteen

6. Connectivity of the yard

7. Ease of transportation Facilities

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 6. FORMWORK

Formwork is a mould or die used to support and shape the concrete until it attains
sufficient to carry its own weight. The formwork holds the concrete until it hardens to required
shape and size.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FORMWORK

1) Formwork constitutes 30% of the cost and 60% of the time in concrete construction.

2) Quality of concrete finish and soundness of concrete depends very much on the formwork system

3) Desired shape of concrete is not possible if formwork not done properly.

4) Formwork should be properly designed, fabricated and erected to receive concrete.

5) Accidents happen because of the faulty formwork and scaffolding or staging.

SAFETY IN USING FORMWORK:-

1) Components are light in weight for manual handling.

2) Loose or hanging components are minimal.

3) Appropriate use of tools.

4) Minimum operations are involved in each reuse.

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Formwork on retaining wall

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 7. REINFORCEMENT

Steel reinforcements are used, generally, in the form of bars of circular cross section in concrete
structure. They are like a skeleton in human body. Plain concrete without steel or any other
reinforcement is strong in compression but weak in tension. Steel is one of the best forms of
reinforcements, to take care of those stresses and to strengthen concrete to bear all kinds of loads

Mild steel bars conforming to IS: 432 (Part I) and Cold-worked steel high strength deformed bars
conforming to IS: 1786 (grade Fe 415 and grade Fe 500, where 415 and 500 indicate yield
stresses 415 N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2 respectively) are commonly used. Grade Fe 415 is being
used most commonly nowadays. This has limited the use of plain mild steel bars because of
higher yield stress and bond strength resulting in saving of steel quantity. Some companies have
brought thermo mechanically treated (TMT) and corrosion resistant steel (CRS) bars with added
features.

Bars range in diameter from 6 to 50 mm. Cold-worked steel high strength deformed bars start from
8 mm diameter. For general house constructions, bars of diameter 6 to 20 mm are used

Transverse reinforcements are very important. They not only take care of structural requirements
but also help main reinforcements to remain in desired position. They play a very significant role
while abrupt changes or reversal of stresses like earthquake etc. They should be closely spaced as
per the drawing and properly tied to the main/longitudinal reinforcement

Terms used in Reinforcement

Bar-bending-schedule: Bar-bending-schedule is the schedule of reinforcement bars prepared in

advance before cutting and bending of rebars. This schedule contains all details of size, shape and
dimension of rebars to be cut.

Lap length: Lap length is the length overlap of bars tied to extend the reinforcement length. Lap
length about 50 times the diameter of the bar is considered safe. Laps of neighboring bar lengths
should be staggered and should not be provided at one level/line. At one cross section, a
maximum of 50% bars should be lapped. In case, required lap length is not available at junction

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because of space and other constraints, bars can be joined with couplers or welded (with correct
choice of method of welding).

Anchorage Length: This is the additional length of steel of one structure required to be inserted in
other at the junction. For example, main bars of beam in column at beam column junction,
column bars in footing etc. The length requirement is similar to the lap length mentioned in
previous question or as per the design instructions

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 8. RETAINING WALL

Retaining walls may be defined as a wall built to resist the pressure of liquid, earth filling, sand,
or other granular material filled behind it after it is built. It is commonly required in construction
of hill roads, masonry dams, abutments and wings walls of bridges and so on. Depending upon
the site conditions, type of material to be retained and the height of the wall to be constructed,
retaining wall may be built in dry Stone masonry, stone masonry, brick masonry, plain cement
concrete and reinforced cement concrete.

Types of Retaining Walls:

1) GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS: These walls use their own weight and any captured
soil/fill weight to resist the lateral soil pressure.
2) PILED RETAINING WALLS: These walls use the embedded depth of vertical posts and
the strength of the posts to resist lateral soil forces.
3) CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS: These walls cantilever vertically from the
concrete footing and typically resist overturning by the mass of the soil/material on the heel of
the footing.

Dry Stone Retaining Walls:

This is the simplest form of retaining wall. The stability of such walls depends upon the
arrangement of stones in the wall and the friction between the individual stones. The stones used
in the wall should be of large size and roughly hammer-dressed so as to ensure maximum
bedding area. The wall should have a minimum top width of 60 cm. and the front face should
have a batter varying from 1 in 4 to 1 in 3. The batter of I in 4 is adopted for walls lesser than 4.5
m in height. In principle, the height of dry stone masonry wall should be restricted to 6 m. For
walls above 4.5 m in height, the upper 4.5 m of the walls is usually built of dry rubble stone
masonry and the portion below this height is built with mortar.
The stones used in the wall construction are laid at right angle to the face baller. A proper bond is
maintained and the front and the rear faces of the wall are nicely bonded with the hearting. The
filling immediately behind the wall should consist of stone chips gravel or similar granular

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material and not earth. 75 to 100 mm. square weep-holes should be provided in the wall at 2m c/c
vertically and horizontally to drain off the water from the filling behind.
Dry Stone Pitching or Revetment:
It is generally provided to protect the slopping face of an earthen cutting or embankment from
erosion. Stones used, should be perfectly sound and roughly cut to fit in the shape of the pitching.
In case of channels and dams, pitching should be carried at least 90 cm. above the high flood
level and to ensure its stability, the toe should be prevented from slipping by suitable
construction. The slopes of embankment should not be steeper than 1:1, a slope of 1½: 1 being
usually adopted. The thickness of pitching varies from 30 cm. to 75 cm. Selected stones are
tightly hand packed and all the interstices are filled up with smaller pieces of stone and wedged
up tight. Every stone in pitching is laid flat and no projecting stones are allowed.
Breast walls:
They are stone walls provided to protect the slopes of cutting in natural ground from the action of
weather. The section of wall to be adopted depends upon the height of wall, the nature of the
backing and the slope of cutting. The front and back batters of the wall vary from 1 in 4to 1 in 2
(1in horizontal: 4 or 2 vertical), with the minimum top width of 60 cm.

Brick Masonry, Stone Masonry or Plain Concrete Retaining Walls:

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These walls are also provided to support earth, loose stone, coal etc. The wall acts as one mass to
resist the thrust from the backing and is much stronger than dry stone masonry wall. The stability
of the wall depends entirely upon its dead weight. They are designed on the assumption that
masonry or concrete is not subjected to any tensile stresses. In order that the walls may be stable
they have to be very thick in section and as such they are seldom constructed for heights beyond
6 m. The top width of masonry walls and concrete walls should not be less than 60 cm. and 45
cm. respectively. The bottom width of the walls varies with the height.
It is necessary to have proper drainage of the retaining wall from consideration of structural
safety and stability.
The backing material is drained by providing 50 to 75 mm. square weep holes at every 2 m. c/c
vertically and horizontally.
The lowest weep hole is keep 300 mm. above the ground level. In order to prevent blockage of
the weep holes, a 450 mm. thick layer of stone chips, gravel or similar granular material should
be placed behind the wall right from footing upto its top (covering the full area of the back of
wall) simultaneously with the filling of backing material.

Design of Retaining Walls:

The thrust from the backing which tends to overturn the wall or causes it to slide is the deciding
factor in the selection of the section and type of the wall. There are many conditions upon which
thrust exerted by the backing depends, such as cohesion of the soil, dryness of the backing

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material, the manner in which the material is filled against the wall and so on. There are various
theories by the help of which the value of thrust under different conditions can be worked out.
Having known the thrust, the section of the wall is so designed that the self-weight is sufficient to
resist the tendency of the thrust to slide the wall and the bottom width of the wall is such that the
resultant force (resultant of the weight of wall and pressure of filling behind) lies within the
middle third of the base. This condition is necessary to prevent the tendency of thrust to overturn
the wall and to ensure that there is no tension at the wall base. It is equally essential to ascertain
that the maximum stress at the toe of the wall does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the
soil.

Skin reinforcement:

Side facing reinforcement also called skin reinforcement is provided in a beam when the depth of
the beam exceeds 750mm, or when there exists torsion in the beam, this reinforcement is
provided for beams having depths greater than 450mm. It states that secondary reinforcement
should be provided for beams exceeding 750mm deep at a distance measured 2/3 depth from the
tension face. Experimental works revealed that at or close to mid-depth of deep beams, the
maximum width of cracks arising from flexure may be about two to three times larger than the
width of the same crack at the level of surface where the crack originally forms.

The presence of crack is undesirable from aesthetic point of view. Moreover, it poses potential
corrosion problems to reinforcement of deep beams. To safeguard against these crack formation,
skin reinforcement is designed on the sides of deep beams to limit the formation of flexural crack
widths. Though the principal function of skin reinforcement is to control crack width, it may be
employed for providing bending resistance of the section.

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Retaining Wall

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 9. Introduction to Flexible Pavement

A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places, which has been
paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a
horse, cart, or motor vehicle. Roads consist of one, or sometimes two, roadways
(carriageways) each with one or more lanes and also any associated sidewalks
(British English: pavement) and road verges. Roads that are available for use by the
public may be referred to as public roads or highways. Everyone is aware about the
benefits and advantages of a good constructed road. Roads play very crucial role in
modern society providing services and goods for modern people. Today a vast
majority of road are constructed using Asphalt. Now question arises in your mind is
“What is Asphalt”? Asphalt is the sticky dark brown viscous liquid present in some
natural deposits like crude petroleum. It is the name given to technically or natural
mixture used in road construction for road surfacing and compaction. We see many
roads daily and when we talk about the road construction, all are equally
constructed but there is a difference arising in the finishing of the road or the
surface material used for finishing. Asphalt, also known as bitumen concrete in
engineering language is used to give flexible surface to roads. Asphalt road offers
many benefits such as smooth and flexible surface including cost efficiency,
improved safety and comfort, durability, recyclability and reduction in noise
pollution. Sometimes Asphalt or bitumen are confused with tar. Although they are
same in color, they have distinct chemical properties. Tar was early used in road
Asphalt, but now has been replaced by refined bitumen or Asphalt. Today Asphalt
is more commonly produced as a byproduct of the refining process in the petroleum
industry. Road construction is not as easy as it seems to be, it includes various steps
and it starts with its designing and structure including the traffic volume
consideration. Then base layer is done by bulldozers and levelers and after base
surface coating has to be done. For giving road a smooth surface with flexibility,
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Asphalt concrete is used. Asphalt requires an aggregate sub base material layer, and
then a base layer to be put into first place. Asphalt road construction is formulated
to support the heavy traffic load and climatic conditions.

It is 100% recyclable and saving non-renewable natural resources. With the

advancement of technology, Asphalt technology gives assurance about the good
drainage system and with skid resistance it can be used where safety is necessary
such as outside the schools. The largest use of Asphalt is for making asphalt
concrete for road surfaces. It is widely used in airports around the world due to the
sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly, it is widely used for runways
dedicated to aircraft landing and taking off. Asphalt is normally stored and
transported at 120° C - 150° C or 300° F temperature.

10. Flexible Pavement Construction Steps

1. Preparation of Sub-base:

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As base material of Road; stone ballast, 10-15 cm layer are used. The layer is about
5-6 inches thick; the roller is applied till the layer is about 4 inches thick.

The binding material (sand in this case) is used to fill up the voids which are
allowed to rest for about 10-12 hours.

The excess of sand is removed by using compressor or hand methods.

2. Preparation of Base:

A layer of Stone Ballast is laid over pre-existing layer of about 4 inches which is
then compressed to 3 inches thick.

The binding material (sand in this case) is used to fill up the voids which are
allowed to rest for about 10-12 hours.

3. Application of Tack Coat:

It is desirable to lay AC layer over a bituminous base or binder course. A tack coat
of bitumen is applied at 6.0 to 7.5 kg per 10 sqm. , this quantity may be increased to
7.5 to 10 kg for non-bituminous base.

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4. Application of Seal Coat:

The mix of bitumen and fine aggregate is used for the application of seal coat.

This coat does not allow water to penetrate into the bottom layers and therefore
making the road waterproof. The physical properties of bitumen helps sealing the
pavement and making it waterproof.

5. Rolling:

Rolling is done after the layering of each layer to compress them into a desirable
thickness.

A mix after it is placed on the base course is thoroughly compacted by rolling at a

speed not more than 5km per hour.

The initial or break down rolling is done by 8 to 12 tonnes roller and the
intermediate rolling is done with a fixed wheel pneumatic roller of 15 to 30 tonnes

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having a tyre pressure of 7kg per [Link]. the wheels of the roller are kept damp with
water.

The number of passes required depends on the thickness of the layer. In warm
weather rolling on the next day, helps to increase the density if the initial rolling
was not adequate. The final rolling or finishing is done by 8 to 10 tonne tandem
roller.

5. Quality control of bituminous concrete construction:

The routine checks are carried out at site to ensure the quality of the resulting
pavement mixture and the pavement surface.

Periodical checks are made for

 Aggregate grading.
 Grade of bitumen.

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  Temperature of bituminous aggregate.
 Temperature of paving mix during mixing and compaction.
 Temperature of pavement during rolling.

At least one sample for every 100 tonnes of the mix discharged by the hot mix plant
is collected and tested for above requirements. Marshall tests are also conducted.
For every 100 sqm of the compacted surface, one test of the field density is
conducted to check whether it is at least 95% of the density obtained in the
laboratory. The variation in the thickness allowed is 6mm per 4.5m length of
construction.

6. Finished surface:

The AC surface should be checked by a 3.0 m straight edge. The longitudinal

undulations should not exceed 8.0 mm and the number of undulations higher than
6.0 mm should not exceed 10 in a length of 300 m. The cross-traffic profile should
not have undulations exceeding 4.0mm.

7. Open to traffic:

Road is open to traffic as soon as bitumen gets cooled to its surrounding

temperature.

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 11. SLAB CULVERT

Culvert is a structure constructed over running water or physical obstruction. The main purpose
of constructing culvert structure is to provide passage over the obstruction.

Slab culvert, a type of culvert, could be three-sided or simply a deck slab. It is embedded in the
soil on both sides. The slab provides a bridge over the distance. Slab culverts can replace box
culverts if no artificial flooring is necessary.

Slab/Bridge-culvert: Slab culverts do not have bottom slabs, therefore, the natural flow of water
is maintained and natural bottom substrate remains intact. The safety of high-velocity vehicles is
not affected by slab culvert as it doesn't have any sharp corner.

While constructing the slab culvert, a series of slabs are laid to form the bridge-like structure.
After that, a pavement surface is placed on top to serve the purpose as the road.

The standard span length ranges from 8’ to 48'. ASTM C 1504 design code is followed to design
the slab culvert.

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 ON SITE PICTURES

Slab Culvert under construction

Reinforcement of slab culvert

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 12. CONCLUSION

The main aim of studies within this project was to investigate how a structure is constructed. We
get knowledge about the techniques of building construction as well as saw the challenges which
a civil engineer have to face during construction i.e. labour problems, cost management,
environmental challenges etc.

The things which we got to learn practically are very different from that of the theory. In fact
there are several things which we got to learn in field would never have been learnt theoretically

The nation is developing and the future aspects of construction are very wide keeping that in mind
we need to contribute ourselves with full dedication towards the progress of our country

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