CHAPTER

15 Probability

Mutually Exclusive Events m

(i) Odds in favour of the event = and
A set of events is said to be mutually exclusive if occurrence of n
one of them precludes the occurrence of any of the remaining n
events. (ii) Odds against the event = .
m
Thus, E1, E2, ..., En are mutually exclusive if and only if Ei ∩ Ej
= f for i ≠ j. Some Important Results on Probability
1. P ( A) = 1 – P(A).
Independent Events 2. If A and B are any two events, then P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) –
Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one P(A ∩ B).
does not depend on the occurrence of the other.
3. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = f and hence
For example, when a coin is tossed twice, the event of occurrence P(A ∩ B) = 0.
of head in the first throw and the event of occurrence of head in \ P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B).
the second throw are independent events.
4. If A, B, C are any three events, then P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) +
Complement of An Event P(B) + P(C) – P(A ∩ B) – P(B ∩ C) – P(C ∩ A) + P(A ∩ B
∩ C).
The complement of an event E, denoted by E or E′ or Ec, is the set
of all sample points of the space other than the sample points in E. 5. If A, B, C are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = f, B ∩ C = f,
C ∩ A = f, A ∩ B ∩ C = f and hence P(A ∩ B) = 0, P(B ∩ C) = 0,
For example, when a die is thrown, sample space
P(C ∩ A) = 0, P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 0.
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. \ P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C).
If E = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then E = {5, 6}. 6. P ( A ∩ B ) = 1 – P(A ∪ B).
Note that E ∪ E = S.
7. P ( A ∪ B ) = 1 – P(A ∩ B).
Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Events 8. P(A) = P(A ∩ B) + P( A ∩ B ) .
A set of events E1, E2, ..., En of a sample space S form a mutually
exclusive and exhaustive system of events, if 9. P(B) = P(B ∩ A) + P( B ∩ A) .
(i) Ei ∩ Ej = f for i ≠ j and 10. If A1, A2, ..., An are independent events, then P(A1 ∩ A2 ∩
(ii) E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En = S ... ∩ An) = P(A1) ⋅ P(A2) ... P(An).
Notes: 11. If A1, A2, ..., An are mutually exclusive events, then
(i) O ≤ P(E) ≤ 1, i.e. the probability of occurrence of an event P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + ... + P(An).
is a number lying between 0 and 1. 12. If A1, A2, ..., An are exhaustive events, then P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪
(ii) P(f) = 0, i.e. probability of occurrence of an impossible ... ∪ An) = 1.
event is 0. 13. If A1, A2, ..., An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events,
(iii) P(S) = 1, i.e. probability of occurrence of a sure event is 1. then
P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + ... + P(An) = 1.
ODDs in Favour of an Event and ODDs Against An
14. If A1, A2, ..., An are n events, then
Event
(i) P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An) ≤ P(A1) + P(A2) + ... + P(An).
If the number of ways in which an event can occur be m and the
number of ways in which it does does not occur be n, then (ii) P(A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ An) ≥ 1 – P( A1 ) − P( A2 ) ... − P( An ) .
Conditional Probability (i) Probability of happening none of them =
P( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ... ∩ An ) = P( A1 ) ⋅ P( A2 ) ⋅ P( A3 )...P( An )
P B ( A) = Probability of occurrence of A, given that B has already = (1 – p1)(1 – p2)(1 – p3) ... (1 – pn).
happened. (ii) Probability of happening at least one of them
P ( A ∩ B ) n( A ∩ B ) = P(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ... ∪ An) = 1 – P( A1 ) P( A2 ) P( A3 ) ... P ( An )
= =
P( B) n( B ) = 1 – (1 – p1)(1 – p2)(1 – p3) ... (1 – pn)

1. Multiplication theorems on probability Law of Total Probability

(i) If A and B are two events associated with a random  A  A  A
P(A) = P(E1) · P   + P( E2 )· P   + ... + P( En )· P  
( )
experiment, then P(A ∩ B) = P(A) ⋅ P B , If P(A) ≠ 0
A
 E1   E2   En 
( )
or P(A ∩ B) = P(B) ⋅ P B , if P(B) ≠ 0
A Baye’s rule as P(Ei /A) = n
P( Ei )· P( A / Ei )
.
(ii) Multiplication theorems for independent events: ∑ P ( Ek ) P ( A / Ek )
k =1
If A and B are independent events associated with a
random experiment, then P(A ∩ B) = P(A) ⋅ P(B) i.e. Binomial Distribution
the probability of simultaneous occurrence of two The mean, the variance and the standard deviation of binomial
independent events is equal to the product of their distribution are np, npq, npq .
probabilities. By multiplication theorem, we have
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) ⋅ P(B/A). Since A and B are independent Random Variable
events, therefore The expectation (mean) of the random variable X is defined as
n
P(B/A) = P(B). Hence, P(A ∩ B) = P(A) ⋅ P(B).
E(X) = ∑px
i i and the variance of X is defined as
2. Probability of at least one of the n independent events: i =1

If p1, p2, p3, ... pn be the probabilities of happening of n n n

var(X) = ∑ pi ( xi − E ( X )) = ∑ pi xi − ( E ( X )) .
2 2 2

independent events A1, A2, A3, ...  An respectively, then =i 1 =i 1

30 JEE (XII) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

13 Three Dimensional Geometry

1. Vector Representation of a Point : Position vector of point The line will be perpendicular if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0,
P ( x, y, z ) is xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ . a1 b1 c1
parallel if = = .
a2 b2 c2
2. Distance Formula
  7. Projection of a Line Segment on a Line : If P(x1, y1, z1) and
 x1  x2    y1  y2    z1  z2  , AB  OB  OA
2 2 2
Q(x2, y2, z2) then the projection of PQ on
3. Distance of P from Coordinate Axes a line having direction cosines , m, n is
  x2  x1   m  y2  y1   n  z2  z1  .
 PA  y  z , PB  z  x , PC  x  y
2 2 2 2 2 2

8. Equation of a Plane : General form : ax + by + cz + d = 0,

mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1 where a, b, c are not all zero, a, b, c, d ∈ R.
4. Section Formula
= : x = ,y = ,z
m+n m+n m+n
(i) Normal form : x + my + nz = p
x x y  y2 z z (ii) Plane through the point (x1, y1, z1) :
Mid Point :     
x 1 2 ,y 1 ,z  1 2
2 2 2
a (x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0.
5. Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios
x y z
(i) Direction cosines : Let a, b, g be angles which a (iii) Intercept Form:   1.
directed line makes with the positive directions of a b c
      
the axes of x, y and z respectively, then cos a, cosb, (iv) Vector form:  r  a   n  0 or r  n  a  n
cos g are called the direction cosines of the line. The (v) Any plane parallel to the given plane
direction cosines are usually denoted by (, m, n).

ax + by + cz + d = 0 is ax + by + cz + l = 0.
Thus  = cos a, m = cos b, n = cos g.
Distance between ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and
(ii) If , m, n be the direction cosines of a line, then
d1  d 2
2 + m2 + n2 = 1. ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is  .
(iii) Direction ratios: Let a, b, c be proportional to the a  b2  c2
2

direction cosines , m, n then a, b, c are called the (vi) Equation of a plane passing through a given point
   
direction ratios. and parallel to the given vectors: r  a  b  c
(iv) If , m, n be the direction cosines and a, b, c be the (parametric form) where l & m are scalars.
direction ratios of a vector, then      
or r . (b  c )  a . (b  c ) (non parametric form)
a b c 9. A Plane and a Point
 ,m   ,n  
a b c
2 2 2
a b c
2 2 2
a  b2  c2
2
(i) Distance of the point (x′, y′, z′) from the plane
(v) If the coordinates P and Q are (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) ax '+ by '+ cz '+ d
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by .
then the direction ratios of line PQ are, a = x2 – x1, a 2 + b2 + c2
b = y2 – y1 & c = z2 – z1 and the direction cosines of 
(ii) Length of the perpendicular from a point  a  to plane
x x y y z z  
line PQ are   2 1 , m  2 1 and n  2 1 .   a n  d
PQ PQ PQ r . n = d is given by p   .
n
6. Angle between Two Line Segments (iii) Foot (x′, y′, z′) of perpendicular drawn from the point
(x1, y1, z1) to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2 x ' x1 y ' y1 z ' z1  ax  by  cz  d 

cos   . by     1 2 1 2 12 .
a  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
2
1 a b c a b c
 (iv) To find image of a point w.r.t. a plane: Let P(x1, y1, z1)   
(iii) Vector equation: r  a  b .
is a given point and ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given plane.
Let (x′, y′, z′) is the image point then (iv) Reduction of cartesion form of equation of a line to
vector form and vice versa
x ' x1 y ' y1 z ' z1

 ax  by  cz  d  .
   2 1 2 1 2 12 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a b c a b c ⇒
a
=
b
=
c

⇔ r= ( x iˆ + y ˆj + z kˆ )
1 1 1

aa ' bb ' cc '

10. Angle between Two Planes: cos   +λ ( aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ )
a 2 +b 2 +c 2 a '2 +b' 2 +c ' 2
2. Angle between a Plane and a Line
Planes are perpendicular if aa′ + bb′ + cc′ = 0 and planes
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
a b c (i) If q is the angle between line  
are parallel if = = . l m n
a' b' c'
    and the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, Then
The angle q between the planes r · n1 = d1 and r . n2 = d2 is
   
n n al  bm  cn
given by, cos    1 2 . sin    .
n1  n2  a 2  b2  c 2 l 2  m2  n2 
     
Planes are perpendicular if n1 . n2 = 0 & planes are parallel
  (ii) Vector form: If q is the angle between a line
if n1 = λn2 (l is a non zero scalar.)
    b.n 
11. Angle Bisectors  
r  a  b  = r . n = d then sin       .
(i) 
The equations of the planes bisecting the angle b n
 
between two given planes

a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 are (iii) C  ondition for perpendicularity l  m  n , b  n  0 .
a b c
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 a x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2  
 2 . (iv) Condition for parallel al + bm + cn = 0, b . n = 0 .
a1  b1  c1
2 2 2
a22  b22  c22
3. Condition for a Line to Lie in a Plane
(ii) Bisector of acute/obtuse angle: First make both the x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
constant terms positive. Then (i) C
 artesian form:   would lie in
a plane l m n
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 > 0 ⇒ origin lies on obtuse angle
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 < 0 ⇒ origin lies in acute angle ax + by + cz + d = 0, if ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 &
al + bm + cn = 0.
12. Family of Planes 
 
(i) Any plane through the intersection of (ii) Vector form: r  a  b would line in the plane
   
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 & a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is r .n = d=
if b .n 0=& a. n d .
a1x +b1y + c1z + d1 + l (a2x + b2y + c2z + d2) = 0 4. Skew Lines
(ii) The equation of plane passing through the intersection (i) The straight lines which are not parallel and non-
      
of the planes r . n1  d1 & r  n2  d 2 is r   n1  n2  coplanar i.e. non-intersecting are called skew lines. If
= d1 + ld2 where l is arbitrary scalar  '   '   ' 
 
13. Area of Triangle : From two vector AB and AC . Then l m n  0. Then lines are skew.
1   l' m' n'
area is given by AB × AC .
2      
(ii) Vector Form: For lines r  a1  b1 and r  a2  b2
14. Volume of a Tetrahedron: Volume of a tetrahedron  
with vertices A (x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2), C(x3, y3, z3) and to be skew b1  b2   a2  a1   0 .
 
     
x1 y1 z1 1 (iii) Shortest distance between line r  a1  b & r  a2  b
  
x
1 2 y2 z2 1        a2  a1   b
D (x4, y4, z4) is given by V = . r  a1  b & r  a2  b is d = .
6 x3 y3 z3 1 |b |
x4 y4 z4 1
5. Sphere: General equation of a sphere is
A Line
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0.
1. Equation of a Line
(i) A straight line is intersection of two planes. (–u, –v, –w) is the centre and u 2  v 2  w2  d is the
It is represented by two planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 radius of the sphere.
and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0. 6. Volume of tetrahedron = 1/3 × height × Area of base
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 1
(ii) Symmetric form:    r. = [Area of parallelepiped]
a b c 6

28 JEE (XII) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

13 Vector Algebra

Important Definitions Algebra of vectors


™ Representation of Vectors: A vector a is represented by the Addition of Vectors
 
directed line segment AB. The magnitude of the vector a is Triangle Law
 
equal to AB , and the direction of the vector a is along the C
line from A to B.
™ Scalar Quantity: A quantity that has only magnitude and is 
not related to any direction is called a scalar quantity. c 
b
™ Vector Quantity: A quantity that has magnitude and also a
direction in space is called a vector quantity.
A  B
™ Null Vector or Zero Vector: If the initial and terminal points a
of a vector coincide, then it is called a zero vector. It is denoted      
 Result: a  b c or AB  BC  AC
by 0 or O. Its magnitude is zero and direction indeterminate.
™ Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is of unit length Converse of triangle law is also true.

along my vector a is called a unit vector in the direction of Parallelogram Law

a and is denoted by â B C
™ Equal Vector: Two non-zero vectors are said to be equal
 
vectors if their magnitude is equal and directions are the same. b c
™ Collinear Vector: Two or more non-zero vectors are said to
be collinear vectors if they are parallel to the same line.
O  A
™ Like and Unlike Vector: Collinear vectors having the same a
direction are known as like vectors, while those having      
Result: a  b c or OA  OB  OC
opposite directions are known as, unlike vectors.
™ Coplanar Vector: Two or more non-zero vectors are said to Properties of vector addition:
be coplanar vectors if these are parallel to the same plane.    
(i) a  b b a (commutative)
™ Localised Vector and Free Vector: A vector drawn parallel      
(ii) (a  b )  c a  (b  c ) (associative)
to a given vector through a specified point as the initial point,     
is known as a localised vector. If the initial point of a vector (iii) a  0  a  0  a
is not specified, it is said to be a free vector.     
(iv) a  (  a )  0  (  a )  a
™ Position Vector: Let O be the origin and A be a point such    

  (v) | a  b |  | a |  | b |

that OA  a , then we say that the position vector of A is a.    
(vi) | a  b |  | | a |  | b | |
Negative of a Vector
  Multiplication of Vector by Scalars
™ Let AB be a vector directed from A to B. then − AB is a 

vector which would be directed from B to A. If a and b are vectors & m, n are scalars, then
  
Coinitial Vectors (i) m a   a  m ma
Two vectors are said to be coinitial vectors if both the vectors   
na  n ma  mn a
™
(ii) m
have the same initial points.
  
Co-terminal Vectors (iii)  m  n  a ma  na

  

™ Two vectors are said to be Co-terminal vectors if both the  
(iv) m a  b  ma  mb
vectors have the same terminating point.

24 JEE (XII) Module-4 PW

 Subtraction of Vectors    
 ™ | a b|| a| |b|

In the given diagram a and b are represented by OA and AB.    
™ | a b|| a| |b|
We extend the line AB in opposite direction upto C, where
AB = AC. The line segment AC will represent the vector b .
 Scalar Product or Dot Product
 
By joining the points O and C, the vector represented by OC is
™ a  b | a |  | b | cos , where 0    
    
a   b  . i.e., denotes the vector a  b .
 ™ If a a1 i  a2 j  a3 k and b b1 i  b2 j  b3 k then
B 
a.b  a1b1  a2 b2  a3b3
      
 +b ™ If a and b are the non-zero vectors, then a  b  0  a  b
a   
 b a.b  
a ™ cos q =   where q is the acute angle made by a with b
O A | a || b |
 
   b.a
 –b
a

–b ™ Projection of b along a = 


|a|
C  
™ Component of a vector r in the direction of a and
Note:  
       r.a     (r.a )  
(i) a  a  a  a   0 perpendicular to a are    a and r    2  a
(ii)
   
a b  b a respectively.  | a |2   | a | 
Hence subtraction of vectors does not obey the ™ i
. i j
. j k. k 1 and 
. j j
i . i j.
k k
.i i. k 0
commutative law.
 
(iii) a  b  c    a  b   c Vector Product
 
i.e. subtaction of vectors does not obey the associative ™ The product of vectors a and b and is denoted by
   
law.  a  b (| a | | b | sin )n
   
Important Properties and Formulae ™ a  b b  a
       
™ If r1 =x1i + y1 j + z1 k and r2  x2 i  y2 j  z2 k then ™ If a  b or if a is parallel to b , then sin θ = 0 and so a  b  0
          
™ Distributive laws: a  (b  c )  a  b  a  c and
r1 + r 2 = ( x1 + x2 )i + ( y1 + y2 ) j + ( z1 + z2 )k and r1  r 2       
 x 1 x2 , y
1 y2 , z
1 z2 . (b  c)  a  b  a  c  a
     
™ a and b are parallel or collinear if a  m b and only if for ™ If a a1  j  a2 j  a3 k and b b1 i  b2 j  b3 k then
 
some non-zero scalar m. (i) a b (a2 b3  a3b2 )i  (a3b1  a1b3 ) j  (a1b2  a2 b1 )k

 = a  
™ a
=  or a | a | aˆ i j k
|a|  
      (ii) a  b a1 a2 a3
r xa  yb for some
™ r , a , b are coplanar if and only if 
b1 b2 b3
scalars x and y. 
  
™ If the position vectors of the points A and B be a and b ™ If two vectors a and b are parallel, then q = 0 or p i.e. sin q
then, the position vectors of the points dividing the line AB = 0 in both cases.
   
mb  na ™ Two vectors a and b are parallel if their corresponding
in the ratio m : n internally and externally are and
  mn components are proportional.
mb  na
, respectively. 1  
mn ™ Area of the triangle  ABC | AB  AC |
  2
If r  xi y j  zk then | r |  x2  y 2  z 2 
™
iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0, iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, ˆj  kˆ  iˆ, kˆ  iˆ  ˆj
      
™ Given vectors x1 a  y1 b  z1 c, x2 a  y2 b  z2 c, ™ Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b is

     
x3 a  y3 b  z3 c, where a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors,  
a b
nˆ    
x1 y1 z1 | a b |
will be coplanar if and only if x2 y2 z2  0  
  a b
x3 y3 z3 ™ If q is the angle between a and b , then sin q =  
| a ||b |

P
W Vector Algebra 25
    
Scalar Triple Product ™ a  (b  c) is a vector in the plane of vectors b and c .

 
™ If a a1  i  a2 j  a3 k, b b1 i  b2 j  b3 k and ™ The vector triple product is not commutative i.e.,
     
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c
    a1 a2 a3
    
c c1 i  c2 j  c3 k , then (a  b)  c  [a b c] = b1 b2 b3 .     a .c a .d
™ Lagrange’s identity: ( a  b).(c  d )     
c1 c2 c3 b .c b.d
            
™ [a b c] [b c a ] [c b a ] but [a b c]  [a c b] etc.  (a . c)(b . d )  (a . d )(b . c)
            
™ If any two of the vectors a, b, c are equal, then [ a b c ] 0. ™ ( a  b )  (c   d ) [a b d ]c  [a b c ]d
™ The position of dot and cross in a scalar triple product can be      
       [c d a ]b  [c d b ] a
interchanged. Hence, (a  b)  c  a  (b  c)
™ The value of a scalar triple product is zero if two of its vectors
Distance between Lines
are parallel. (i) If two parallel lines are given by
         
™ a, b, c are coplanar if and only if [ a b c ]  0. r1  a1  Kb and r2  a2  Kb , then distance (d) between
™ Volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminous edges are
them is given by
      
formed by a, b, c  [a b c]. b × (a2 − a1 )
d= 
™ Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminous edges |b |
      
   1  AB.( p  q ) (b  a ).( p  q )
a, b, c  [a b c] . Shortest  Distance     
6 | pq| | pq|
™ Volume of prism on a triangular base with three coterminous  
The two lines directed along p and q will intersect only if
   1 
edges a, b, c  [a b c] . shortest distance = 0.
2
™ In particular iˆ.( ˆj  kˆ ) 
Reciprocal System of Vectors
1   
ˆ ™ If a, b, c be any three non-coplanar vectors so that
ˆ ˆ
[i j k ]  1    
  [a b c]  0 then the three vectors a ', b ', c ' defined by the
™ [ K a b c ]  K [a b c ]      
         bc  ca  ab
™ [( a  b ) c d ]  [ a c d ]  [b c d ] 
equations a'     , b'     , c'    are called
             [a b c] [a b c] [a b c]
™ [a  b b  c c   a ] 0 and [a  b b  c c   a ] 2 [a b c ]   
the reciprocal system of vectors to the given vectors a, b, c.
     
a .a a .b a .c ™ Properties of Reciprocal system of vectors:
2                  
™ [ a b c ] b . a b . b b . c  [a  b b  c c  a ] (i) a . a ' b . b ' c .c ' 1
         
c .a c .b c .c (ii) [a b c] [a ' b ' c ']  1
     
(iii)  i ' i, j ' j , k' k
Vector Triple Product       
      (iv) If {a ', b ', c '} is reciprocal system of {a, b, c} and r is
™ If a, b, c be any three vectors, then ( a  b)  c and
   any vector, then
a  (b  c) are known as vector triple product.       
                  r  (r. a )a ' (r. b)b ' (r. c)c '
™ a  (b  c) (a . c) b  (a . b) c and (a  b)   c (a . c) b  (b . c) a       
r  (r. a ')a  (r. b ')b  (r. c ')c

26 JEE (XII) Module-4 PW

 CHAPTER

11 Differential Equations

Order of a Differential Equation dy ∫ Pdx

+ Pye ∫ = Qe ∫
Pdx Pdx
\ e
The order of highest order derivative appearing in a differential dx
equation is called the order of the differential equation.
y. e ∫ Pdx
⇒= ∫ Q. e∫
Pdx
dx + C
Degree of a Differential Equation
The degree of an algebraic differential equation is the degree of the
Bernoulli’s Equation
derivative (or differential) of the highest order in the equation, after dy
An equation of the form Qy n ,
+ Py =
the equation is freed from radicals and fractions in its derivatives. dx
Putting     y– n + 1 = v
Variable Separable Differentiable Equations
dv
dy ⇒        + (1 − n) P · y = (1 − n)Q.
A differential equation of the form f (x) + g(y) =0 dx
dx
Following exact differentials must be remembered:
Equations Reducible to Variable
(i) xdy + ydx = d(xy)
Separable form
xdy − ydx  y
dy (ii) =d 
= f (ax + by + c) can be reduced to varible separable form by x 2
x
dx
substitution ydx − xdy x
(iii) =d 
ax + by + c = t. The reduced variable separable form is: y2  y
dt
= dx. xdy + ydx
bf (t ) + a (iv) = d ( nxy )
xy
Homogeneous Differential Equation
dx + dy
dy f ( x, y ) (v) = d (n( x + y ))
= where f(x, y) and g(x, y) are both homogeneous x+ y
dx g ( x, y )
function of same degree in x and y. xdy − ydx  y
(vi) = d  n 
xy  x
dy dv
Substitute y = vx and so = v+x
dx dx ydx − xdy  x
(vii) = d  n 
Equations Reducible to the Homogeneous form xy  y
Consider a differential equation of the form:
xdy − ydx  y
dy a x + b1 y + c1 a b (viii) = d  tan −1 
= 1 , where 1 ≠ 1 x2 + y 2  x
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2 a2 b2
Put        x=X+h ydx − xdy  x
(ix) 2 2
= d  tan −1 
          y=Y+k x +y  y
Such that, a1h + b1 k + c1 = 0 and a2h + b2 k + c2 = 0 xdx + ydy
(x) = d  n x 2 + y 2 
Linear Equation x2 + y 2  
dy  1  xdy + ydx
An equation of the form + Py = Q (xi) d  −  =2 2
dx  xy  x y
Multiply both sides of the equation by e ∫ .
Pdx
  ex  ye x dx − e x dy Procedure for Finding the Orthogonal Trajectory
(xii) d  =
 y  y2 (i) Let f (x, y, c) = 0 be the equation, where c is an arbitrary
parameter.
 ey  xe y dy − e y dx
(xiii) d  = (ii) Differentiate the given equation w.r.t. x and then eliminate c.
 x  x2
dy dx
Orthogonal Trajectory (iii) Replace by − in the equation obtained in (ii).
dx dy
Any curve which cuts every member of a given family of curves
at right angle is called an orthogonal trajectory of the family. For (iv) Solve the differential equation in (iii).
example, each straight line y = mx passing through the origin, is
an orthogonal trajectory of the family of the circles x2 + y2 = a2.

P Differential Equations 23
W
 CHAPTER

10 Application of Integrals

1. The area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the x-axis and the b b

ordinates x = a and x = b is given by,

y
A= ∫
a
f ( x) dx − ∫ g ( x)dx
a
b
= ∫ [ f ( x) − g ( x)] dx
(x) a
=f
y 5. Average value of a function y = f (x) w.r.t. x over an interval
a ≤ x ≤ b is defined as:
b
1
b − a ∫a
yav = f ( x)dx.

x 6. Curve Tracing:
O x=a x=b The following outline procedure is to be applied in Sketching
the graph of a function y = f (x) which in turn will be extremely
b b
useful to quickly and correctly evaluate the area under the
A= ∫a
f ( x)dx = ∫ y dx
a
curves.
2. 
If the area is below the x-axis, then A is negative. The (a) Symmetry: The symmetry of the curve is judged as
b follows:
convention is to consider the magnitude only i.e. A = ∫ y dx (i) If all the powers of y in the equation are even then
in this case. a the curve is symmetrical about the axis of x.
3. The area bounded by the curve x = f (y), y-axis and abscissa y = c, (ii)  If all the powers of x are even, the curve is
y = d is given by, symmetrical about the axis of y.
y (iii) If powers of x and y both are even, the curve is
symmetrical about the axis of x as well as y.
y=d
x (iv) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged on
dy
x = f(y) interchanging x and y, then the curve is symmetrical
about y = x.
y=c (v) If on interchanging the signs of x and y both the
x equation of the curve is unaltered then there is
d d symmetry in opposite quadrants.
Area = ∫ xdy = ∫ f ( y)dy (b) Find dy/dx and equate it to zero to find the points on the
c c curve where you have horizontal tangents.
4. Area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) between the
(c) Find the points where the curve crosses the x-axis and
ordinates x = a and x = b is given by,
y also the y-axis.
(d) Examine if possible the intervals when f (x) is increasing
or decreasing. Examine what happens to ‘y’ when x → ∞
or – ∞.
7. Useful Results:
y = f(x)
(a) Whole area of the ellipse, x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1 is p ab.
y = g(x)
(b) Area enclosed between the parabolas y2 = 4ax and
x2 = 4by is 16ab/3.
x=a x=b
x (c) Area included between the parabola y2 = 4 ax and the
O
line y = mx is 8 a2/3 m3.
 CHAPTER

9 Definite Integration

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: 2a a

If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by

7. ∫
0
f ( x)dx= ∫ ( f ( x) + f (2a − x)) dx
0
x
 a
g ( x) = ∫ f (t )dt
=  ∫0
a≤x≤b 2 f ( x)dx, f (2a − x) =f ( x)
a
 0, f (2a − x) =
− f ( x)
is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and g’(x) 
= f(x).
8. If f(x) is a periodic function with period T, then
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2: nT T

b ∫ f ( x)dx n ∫ f ( x) dx, n ∈ Z ,
=
If f is continuous on [a, b], then ∫ f ( x)dx
a
= F(b) – F(a) 0
a + nT
0
T

∫ f=
( x)dx n ∫ f ( x)dx, n ∈ Z , a ∈ R
where F is any antiderivative of f, that is, a function such a 0
that F’ = f.
nT T
b
Note: If ∫ f ( x)dx= 0 ⇒ then the equation f (x) = 0 has atleast ∫
mT
(n − m) ∫ f ( x)dx, m, n ∈ Z ,
f ( x)dx =
0
a
a + nT a
one root lying in (a, b) provided f is a continuous function
∫ f (=
x)dx ∫ f ( x)dx, n ∈ Z , a ∈ R
in (a, b). nT 0
b
b + nT b
 ∫ f ( x)dx = algebraic area under the curve f(x) from a to b
a
∫ f ( x)=
dx ∫ f ( x)dx, n ∈ Z , a, b ∈ R
a + nT a

Properties of Definite Integral 9. If y(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ f(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then

b b b b b

1. ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f (t )dt ∫ Ψ ( x)dx ≤ ∫ f ( x)dx ≤ ∫ φ( x)dx

a a a
a a
b a
Leibnitz Theorem
2. ∫ f ( x) dx = −∫ f ( x)dx
a b h( x)
b c b
If F(x) = ∫ f (t )dt ,
3. ∫=
a
f ( x) dx ∫ f ( x)dx + ∫ f ( x)dx
a c
g ( x)

 a dF ( x)
then = h′(x) f(h(x)) – g′(x) f (g(x))
dx  ∫0
2 f ( x) dx, f (− x) =f ( x)
a a
4.
∫− a f ( x)=
dx ∫ ( f ( x) + f (− x))= dx
0  0, f (− x) =
− f ( x)

b b
Walli’s Formula
5. ∫ f ( x) dx
= ∫ f (a + b − x))dx π/ 2 π/ 2
(n − 1)(n − 3)....(1 or 2)
∫ sin x dx
1. = ∫ cos x dx
n n
a a
= K
0 0
n(n − 2).....(1 or 2)
a a

6. ∫ f ( x=
0
) dx ∫ f (a − x)dx
0
 π /2
where     K = 
if n is even
1 if n is odd
 π/ 2 Estimation of Definite Integral
2. ∫ sin
n
x. cos m x dx
1. If f (x) is continuous in [a, b] and it’s range in this interval is
0
b

=
    
[(n − 1)(n − 3)(n − 5)....1 or 2][(m − 1)(m − 3)....1 or 2]
K
[m, M], them m (b – a) ≤ ∫ f ( x)dx ≤ M (b − a)
a
(m + n)(m + n − 2)(m + n − 4)....1 or 2 b b
2. If f (x) ≤ f(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b then ∫ f ( x)dx ≤∫ φ( x)dx
π
 if both m and n are even (m, n ∈ N ) a a
where K =  2 b b
3. ∫ f ( x)dx ≤ ∫ f ( x) dx.
1 otherwise
a a
b

Definite Integral as Limit of a Sum 4. If f (x) ≥ 0 on the interval [a, b], then ∫ f ( x)dx ≥ 0.
a
b

∫ f ( x) dx = nlim
→∞
h[ f (a ) + f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) + ... + f (a + n − 1h)] 5. f (x) and g(x) are two continuous function on [a, b] then
a
b b b
n −1 1 ∫ f ( x) g ( x) dx ≤ ∫ f 2 ( x)dx ∫ g 2 ( x)dx
⇒  lim h∑ f (a + rh) =
∫ f ( x)dx where b – a = nh a a a
h →∞
r =0 0
n −1 1
Some Standard Results
If a = 0 and b = 1 then, lim h∑ f (rh) = ∫ f ( x)dx; where nh = 1 π/ 2 π/ 2
n →∞
r =0 π
∫ ∫0 log cos x dx
0
1. log sin x dx =
− log 2 =
 1  n −1 r
1
0
2
OR lim   ∑ f   = ∫ f ( x)dx. b
n →∞ n
  r =1 n 0 | x|
2. ∫
a
x
dx= b − a .

20 JEE (XII) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

8 Indefinite Integration

1. If f & g are functions of x such that g′(x) = f (x) then,

dx 1 x
∫ f ( x)dx
d
= g ( x) + c ⇔ {g ( x) + c= } f ( x) , where c is
(xiv) ∫= 2
a +x a
tan −1 + c
2
a
dx dx 1 x
called the constant of integration. (xv) ∫ =
2
x x −a 2 a
sec −1 + c
a
2. Standard Formula:
dx
( ax + b )
n +1

(i) ∫ (ax=
+ b) dxn
+ c, n ≠ −1 (xvi) ∫ x + a2
2
= ln x + x 2 + a 2 + c
a (n + 1)
dx 1 dx
(ii) ∫ ax =
+b a
ln | ax + b | +c (xvii) ∫x −a 2 2
= ln x + x 2 − a 2 + c

1 ax + b dx 1 a+x
(iii) ∫ e ax=
+b
dx e +c (xviii) ∫= 2 2
ln +c
a ( a − x ) 2a a − x

px + q 1 a px + q dx 1 x−a
(iv) ∫a = dx
p ln a
+ c; a > 0 ∫ x 2 − a 2 2a ln x + a + c
(xix) =

1
a2
(v) ∫ sin(ax + b)dx =− a cos(ax + b) + c (xx) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx
=
x 2 x
a − x 2 + sin −1 + c
2 2 a
1
(vi) ∫ cos(ax + b=
)dx
a
sin(ax + b) + c
x 2 + a 2 dx
x 2 a2
x + a 2 + ln
x + x2 + a2
1
(xxi) ∫ =
2 2 a
+c
(vii) ∫ tan(ax=
+ b)dx
a
ln sec |(ax + b)| +c
x 2 a2 x + x2 − a2
1 (xxii) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx
= x − a 2 − ln +c
(viii) ∫ cot (ax =
+ b)dx ln |sin(ax + b)| + c 2 2 a
a
3. Integration by substitutions:
1
(ix) ∫ sec (ax + b If we substitute f(x) = t, then f ′(x) dx = dt
2
= )dx tan(ax + b) + c
a 4. Integration by part:
1
(x) ∫ cosec ( ax + b) dx =
2
− cot(ax + b) + c ∫ ( f ( x) g ( x)dx = f ( x) ) ∫ ( g ( x))dx
a
d 
(xi) ∫ sec x dx = ln |(sec x + tan x)| + c − ∫  ( f ( x)) ∫ ( g ( x))dx dx
 dx 
π x 5. Integration of type:
Or ln tan  +  + c
4 2 dx dx
∫ 2
ax + bx + c
,∫
2
ax + bx + c
, ∫ ax 2 + bx + c bx
(xii) ∫ cosec x =
dx ln |(cosec x − cot x)| + c
b
x Make the substitution x + t
=
Or ln tan + c 2a
2 6. Integration of type:
Or −ln |(cosec x + cot x)| + c px + q px + q
∫ ax 2
+ bx + c ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
dx, dx,
dx x
(xiii) ∫ = sin −1 + c
2
a −x 2 a ∫ ( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx
 b Some Standard Substitution
Make the substitution x + = t, then split the integral as
2a f ′( x)
sum of two integrals one containing the linear term and the 1. ∫ f ( x)
n
f ' ( x ) dx Or ∫ [ f ( x) ] n
dx put f(x) = t & proceed.
other containing constant term.
7. Integration of trigonometric functions: dx dx
dx
2. ∫ ax 2
+ bx + c
,∫
2
ax + bx + c
, ∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx
dx
(i) ∫ Or, ∫ Or,
a + b sin 2 x a + b cos 2 x Express ax2 + bx + c in the form of perfect square & then
dx apply the standard results.
∫ a sin 2 x + b sin x cos x + c cos2 x , put tan x = t ( px + q )dx ( px + q )
dx dx
3. ∫ ax 2
+ bx + c
,∫
ax 2 + bx + c
dx
(ii) ∫ a + b sin x Or, ∫ a + b cos x Or
Express px + q = A (differential coefficient of denominator)
dx x + B.
∫ a + b sin x + c cos x , put tan 2 = t.

∫ e [ f ( x) + f ′( x)]dx =e . f ( x) + c
x x
4.
a.cos x + b.sin x + c
(iii) ∫ l.cos x + m.sin x + n dx.Express 5. ∫ [ f ( x) + xf ′( x)]dx =
xf ( x) + c
d
N r ≡ A( D r ) + B
( D r ) + c & proceed. dx
dx 6. ∫ x( x n
+ 1)
, n ∈ N , take xn common & put 1 + x–n = t.
8. Integration of type:
x2 ± 1 dx
∫x 4
+ Kx 2 + 1
dx where K is any constant. 7. ∫ 2 n
( n −1)
, n ∈ N , take xn common & put 1 + x–n = tn.
x ( x + 1) n

1
Divide Nr & Dr by x2 & put x  = t
x dx
9. Integration of type:
8. ∫x n
(1 x n )1/ n
, take xn common and put 1 + x–n = t.

dx dx
∫ ( ax + b ) Or ∫ ; x−α

px + q ( ax 2
+ bx + c ) px + q 9. ∫ β− x
dx Or ∫ ( x − α )(β − x ) ; put x = a cos2 q + b sin2 q
put px + q = t2.
10. Integration of type: x−α
∫ dx Or ∫ ( x − α )( x − β ) ; put x = a sec2 q – b tan2 q
dx 1 x −β
∫ , put ax + b =;
( ax + b ) 2
px + qx + r t
dx
dx 1 ∫ ; put x – a = t2 or x – b = t2.
 ∫ put x = ( x − α )( x − β )
( ax 2
+ b) 2
px + q t

18 JEE (XII) Module-3 PW

 CHAPTER

7 Applications of Derivatives

∆y Tangent from an External Point

The average rate of change = .
∆t Given a point P(a, b) which does not lie on the curve y = f (x), then
the equation of possible tangents to the curve passing through (a,
When Limit Dt → 0 is applied, the rate of change becomes b) can be found by solving for the point of contact Q.
instantaneous and we get the rate of change of y w.r.t. time at an
instant. f ( h) − b
f ′ (h) =
h−a
∆y dy
i.e., ∆lim = .
t →0 ∆t dt Q(h, f(h))

 dy 
 = tan θ = slope of tangent at P. P(a, b)
 dx  P
y = f (x)
Equation of Tangent and Normal f ( h) − b
And equation of tangent is y – b = ( x − a)
Tangent at (x1, y1) is given by (y – y1) = f ′(x1) (x – x1); when, f  ′(x1) h−a
is real.
Length of Tangent, Normal, Subtangent,
1
And normal at (x1, y1) is (y – y1) = – (x – x1), when f ′(x1) Subnormal at P(h,k)
is nonzero  real. f ′( x1 )
1
Note: 1. PT = |k| 1+ = Length of Tangent
m2
1. If tangent is parallel to x-axis, q = 0° ⇒ tan q = 0
2. PN = |k| 1 + m 2 = Length of Normal
 dy 
∴  0
=
 dx ( x1 , y1 ) k
3. TM = = Length of subtangent
m
2. If tangent is perpendicular to x-axis (or parallel to y-axis) then
q = 90° ⇒ tan q → ∞ or cot q = 0 4. MN = |km| = Length of subnormal.
y  dk 
 dy  m= 
∴  =
∞  dh 
 dx ( x1 , y1 )

Equation of tangent and normal in parametric form (h,k)P
Let the equation of the curve be expressed in the parameteric form x
x = g(t) and y = f(t) where t is the parameter. T N
The equation of the tangent at a point P(t), m

y=
− φ(t )
φ′(t )
[ x − g (t )]
Angle Between the Curves
and
g ′(t ) Angle between two intersecting curves is defined as the acute angle
between their tangents (or normals) at the point of intersection of
− g ′(t ) two curves.
y − φ(t )
the equation of normal is = [ x − g (t )]
φ′(t ) m − m2
tan q = 1
1 + m1m2
If q = p/2, then the two curves are said to cut each other orthogonally Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem (LMVT)
and the condition for this to happen is: If a function f defined on [a, b] is
m1 × m2 = –1 ⇒ f ′(x0) × g′(x0) = –1 1. continuous on [a, b] is
Shortest Distance between two Curves 2. derivable on (a, b)
Shortest distance between two non-intersecting differentiable 3. f(a) = f(b),
curves is always along their common normal. (Wherever defined) then there exists at least one real numbers between a and b
(a < c < b) such
Errors and Approximations
f (b) − f (a )
1. Errors: Let y = f(x) that = f ′(c) .
∆y dy b−a
From definition of derivative, ∆lim
t → 0 ∆t
=
dx Special Points
∆y dy  dy  1. Critical points: The points of domain for which f '(x) is
= approximately or ∆y =  . Dx approximately
∆x dx  dx  equal to zero or doesn’t exist are called critical points.
Definition: 2. Stationary points: The stationary points are the points of
(i) Dx is known as absolute error in x. domain where f '(x) = 0.
∆x Note: Every stationary point is a critical point but vice-versa is
(ii) is known as relative error in x. not true.
x
∆x Significance of the Sign of 2nd order Derivative
(iii) × 100% is known as percentage error in x.
x and Point of Inflection
2. Approximations: From definition of derivative, If f ″(x) > 0 ∀ x ∈ (a, b) then graph of f (x) is concave upward in
As Derivative of f(x) at (x = a) = f ′(a) (a, b). Similarly if f  ″(x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ (a, b) then graph of f (x) is
f (a + δx) − f (a ) concave downward in (a, b).
or f ′(a ) = δlim
x →0 δx
Useful Formulae of Mensuration to Remember
f (a + δx) − f (a )
or → f ′(a ) (approximately) 1. Volume of a cuboid = lbh.
δx
2. Surface area of cuboid = 2(lb + bh + hl).
f(a + Dx) – f(a) → Dx f ′(a)  (approximately).
3. Volume of cube = a3.
Properties of Monotonic Functions 4. Surface area of cube = 6a2.
1. If f(x) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b], then 1
5. Volume of a cone = πr 2 h.
f –1 exists and it is also a strictly increasing function. 3
2. If f(x) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b] such 6. Curved surface area of cone = prl (l = slant height).
that it is continuous, then f –1 is continuous on [f(a), f(b)]. 7. Curved surface area of a cylinder = 2prh.
3. If f(x) and g(x) both are monotonically (or strictly) 8. Total surface area of a cylinder = 2prh + 2pr2.
increasing (or decreasing) functions on [a, b], then gof(x) is a 4 3
monotonically (or strictly) increasing (in either case) function 9. Volume of a sphere = πr .
3
on [a, b].
4. If one of the two functions f(x) and g(x) is strictly (or 10. Surface area of a sphere = 4pr2.
monotonically) increasing and other a strictly (monotonically) 1 2
11. Area of a circular sector = r θ, when q is in radians.
decreasing, then gof(x) is strictly (monotonically) decreasing 2
(in either case) on [a, b]. 12. Volume of a prism = (area of the base) × (height).
1
5. If f(x) is increasing function then is decreasing function 13. Lateral surface area of a prism = (perimeter of the base) ×
f ( x) (height).
for f(x) ≠ 0.
6. If a function is invertible it has to be either increasing or 14. Total surface area of a prism = (lateral surface area) + 2 (area
decreasing. of the base).
(Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangle.)
Rolle’s Theorem
1
If a function f defined on [a, b] is 15. Volume of a pyramid = (area of the base) × (height).
1. Continuous on [a, b] 3
2. derivable on (a, b) and 1
16. Curved surface area of a pyramid = (perimeter of the base)
3. f (a) = f (b). × (slant height). 2
Then there exists atleast one c (a < c < b) such that f  ′(c) = 0. (Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid are triangles).

16 JEE (XII) Module-2 PW

 CHAPTER

Continuity and Differentiability,

6 Methods of Differentiation

Properties of Continuous Functions Note:

Here we present two extremely useful properties of continuous (i) All polynomial, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
logarithmic and exponential function are continuous and
functions;
differentiable in their domains, except at end points.
Let y = f (x) be a continuous function ∀ x ∈ [a, b], then following
(ii) If f (x) and g(x) are derivable at x = a then the functions
results hold true. f (x) + g(x), f (x) – g(x), f (x). g(x) will also be derivable at
(i) f is bounded between a and b. This simply means that we x = a and if g(a) ≠ 0 then the function f (x)/g(x) will also be
can find real numbers m1 and m2 such m1 ≤ f(x) ≤ m2 ∀ x derivable at x = a.
∈[a, b]. In short, for a function ‘f’:
(ii) Every value between f (a) and f (b) will be assumed by the Differentiable      ⇒ Continuous;

function atleast once. This property is called intermediate Not Differentiable      ⇒ Not Continuous

value theorem of continuous function. But Not Continuous ⇒ Not Differentiable


In particular if f(a) · f(b) < 0, then f(x) will become zero Continuous    ⇒ May or may not be Differentiable

atleast once in (a, b). It also means that if f(a) and f(b) have
opposite signs then the equation f(x) = 0 will have atleast Derivability Over an Interval
one real root in (a, b). (a) f(x) is said to be derivable over an open interval (a, b) if
it is derivable at each and every point of the open interval
Types of Discontinuities (a, b).
(b) f(x) is said to be derivable over the closed interval [a, b] if:
Type-1 : (Removable type of discontinuities)
(i) f(x) is derivable in (a, b) and
(a) Missing point discontinuity: Where lim f ( x ) exists
x→a (ii) for the points a and b, f ′(a+) & f ′(b–) exist.
finitely but f(a) is not defined. Note:
(b) Isolated point discontinuity : Where lim f ( x ) exists & (i) If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not differentiable
x→a
at x = a, then the product function F(x) = f(x).g(x) can still
f(a) also exists but; lim f ( x ) ≠ f ( a ) .
x→a be differentiable at x = a.
Type-2 : (Non-Removable type of discontinuities) (ii) If f(x) & g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the
product function; F(x) = f(x).g(x) can still be differentiable
(a) Finite type discontinuity : In such type of discontinuity
at x = a.
left hand limit and right hand limit at a point exists but are
not equal. (iii) If f(x) & g(x) both are non-derivable at x = a then the sum
function F(x) = f(x) + g(x) may be a differentiable function.
(b) Infinite type discontinuity : In such type of discontinuity
atleast one of the limit viz. LHL and RHL is tending to (iv) If f(x) is derivable at x = a ⇒ f ′(x) is continuous at x = a.
infinity. Differentiation of Some Elementary Functions
(c) Oscillatory type discontinuity : Limits oscillate between d n d x
two finite quantities. 1. ( x ) = nx n −1 2. (a ) = a x ln a
dx dx
Derivability of Function at a Point d 1 d 1
3. (ln | x |) = 4. (log a x) =
If f  ′(a+) = f  ′(a–) = finite quantity, then f(x) is said to be derivable dx x dx x ln a
or differentiable at x = a. In such case f  ′(a+) = f  ′(a–) = f  ′(a) and d d
5. (sin x) = cos x 6. (cos x) = − sin x
it is called derivative or differential coefficient of f(x) at x = a. dx dx
 d d Differentiation Using Substitution
7. (sec x) = sec x tan x 8. (cosec x) = –cosec x cot x
dx dx Following substitutions are normally used to simplify these
expression.
d d
9. (tan x) = sec 2 x 10. (cot x) = −cosec 2 x π π
dx dx 1. x 2 + a 2 by substituting x = a tan q, where − <θ<
2 2
Basic Theorems π π
2. a 2 − x 2 by substituting x = a sin q, where − ≤ θ ≤
d 2 2
1. ( f ± g )( x) = f ′( x) ± g ′( x)
dx π
3. x 2 − a 2 by substituting x = a sec q, where q ∈ [0, p], θ ≠
d d 2
2. (k f ( x)) = k f ( x) x+a
dx dx 4. by substituting x = a cos q, where q ∈ [0, p].
a−x
d
3. )) f ( x) g ′( x) + g ( x) f ′( x)
( f ( x) ⋅ g ( x= Parametric Differentiation
dx
dy dy / d θ
d  f ( x)  g ( x) f ′( x) − f ( x) g ′( x) If y = f (q) and x = g(q) where q is a parameter, then = .
4.  = dx dx / d θ
dx  g ( x)  g 2 ( x)
d Derivative of one Function with Respect to Another
5. ( f ( g ( x)) ) = f ′( g ( x)) g ′( x) dy dy / dx f ′( x)
dx Let y = f (x); z = g(x) then
= = .
dz dz / dx g ′( x)
Derivative of inverse Trigonometric Functions
f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
d sin −1 x 1 d cos −1 x 1
= , =− , for − 1 < x < 1. ™ If F(x) = l ( x) m( x) n( x) , where f, g, h, l, m, n, u, v, w
dx 1− x 2 dx 1 − x2
u ( x) v( x) w( x)
d tan −1 x 1 d cot −1 x 1
= 2
, =
− ( x ∈ R) are differentiable functions of x then
dx 1+ x dx 1 + x2
f ′( x) g ′( x) h′( x) f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
d sec −1 x 1 d cosec −1 x =F ′( x) l ( x) m( x) n( x) + l ′( x) m′( x) n′( x)
= ,
dx x x2 − 1 dx u ( x) v( x) w( x) u ( x) v( x) w( x)
1 f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
=− , for x ∈ (−∞, − 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
x x2 − 1 + l ( x ) m( x ) n( x )
u ′( x) v′( x) w′( x)

14 JEE (XII) Module-2 PW

 CHAPTER

5 Limits of Functions

Limit (e) Power rule: If m and n are integers, then

Limit of a function f(x) is said to exist as x → a when,
lim [ f ( x )]
m/ n
= l m / n , provided l is a real number.
m/ n

x→a
lim f (a=
− h) + h) M some finite value M.
lim f (a=
x→a− x→a+
(Left hand limit) (Right hand limit)
(f) lim
=
x→a
f ( g ( x ) ) f=
lim g ( x ) ( x→a )
f ( m ) ; provided f(x) is

Indeterminate Forms continuous at x = m.

0 ∞ Limits Using Expansion

, , (∞) – (∞)
0 ∞
x xlna x 2 ln 2 a x3ln3 a
∞×0 , (1)∞ , (0)0 , (∞)0 (i) a = 1 + + + + …, a > 0
1! 2! 3!

Standard Limits x x x 2 x3 x 4
(ii) e =+
1 + + + +… , for −1 < x ≤ 1
sinx tanx tan −1 x sin −1 x 1! 2! 3! 4!
lim
= lim = lim= lim
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x 2 x3 x 4
x
e −1 ln (1 + x ) (iii) ln (1 + x ) =x − + − +…. , for −1 < x ≤ 1
= lim= lim = 1, 2 3 4
x →0 x x →0 x
x x3 x5 x 7  π π
1/ x  1 ax −1 (iv) sinx= x − + − +…, x ∈  − , 
lim(1 + x) = lim 1 +  = e, lim = log e a, a > 0, 3! 5! 7!  2 2
x →0 x →∞ x x →0 x

xn − an x 2 x 4 x6  π π
lim = na n −1. (v) cosx = 1 − 2! + 4! − 6! +…, x ∈  − 2 , 2 
x→a x − a  

Note x3 2 x5  π π
(vi) tanx= x + + +…, x ∈  − , 
3 15  2 2
log a x <<< a x <<< x !
a >1 a >1 x∈N

−1 12 3 12 ⋅ 32 5 12 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 52 7
(vii) sin x= x + x + x + x +…
Fundamental Theorems on Limits 3! 5! 7!

Let lim f ( x) = l and lim g ( x) = m . If l and m exists finitely then: x3 x5 x 7

x→a x→a (viii) tan −1 x= x − + − +…
3 5 7
(a) Sum rule: lim [ f ( x ) + g ( x )] =
l+m
x→a
n n ( n –1)
(xi) For x < 1, n ∈ R, (1 + x) =1 + nx +
(b) Difference rule: lim [ f ( x ) – g ( x )]= l − m 1.2
x→a
n ( n –1)( n – 2 ) 3
(c) Product rule: lim [ f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x )] =
l.m x2 +
x +…∞
x→a 1.2.3
f ( x) l 1
(d) Quotient rule: lim = , provided m ≠ 0 1/ x
(xii) (1 + x ) = e x
ln (1+ x ) x 11 2 21 3 
x→a g ( x) m = e 1 − + x − x + ... + ∞ 
 2 24 48 
Limits of form 1∞, 0°, ∞°.
Also for (1)∞ type of problems we can use following rules.
1/ x
(a) lim (1 + x ) = e,
x →0

(b) lim [ f ( x )] g ( x ) , where f ( x ) → 1; g ( x ) → ∞ as x → a then

x→a

g( x) lim { f ( x ) −1} g ( x )
lim [ f ( x )] = e x→a
x→a

Sandwich Theorem or Squeeze Play Theorem

If f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) ∀ x and lim f ( x )= l = lim h ( x ) , then lim g ( x ) = l

x→a x→a x→a

12 JEE (XII) Module-2 PW

 CHAPTER

4 Determinants

Definition | A | = D = a11C11 + a12C12 + a13C13.

1. The determinant consisting two rows and two columns is n

a1 b1 3. In general, if | A | = D, then | A | = ∑a ij Cij and

D = a b , its value is given by: i =1
2 2 |(adj A)| = Dn – 1, where A is a matrix of order n × n.
D = a1b2 – a2b2
Properties of Determinants
2. A determinant which consists of three rows and three columns
1. The value of the determinant remains unchanged, if rows are
is called a third-order-determinant.
changed into columns and columns are changed into rows.
a11 a12 a13 e.g., |A′| = |A|
Let D = a21 a22 a23 , then its value is 2. If A = [aij]n×n, n > 1 and B be the matrix obtained from A by
a31 a32 a33 interchanging two of its rows or columns, then
D = a11a22a33 + a12a23a31+ a21a32a13 – a13a22a31 – a23a32a11
det (B) = – det (A)
– a12a21a33 3. If two rows (or columns) of a square matrix A are proportional,
then | A | = 0.
Minors and Cofactors
4. | B | = k | A |, where B is the matrix obtained from A, by
a11 a12 a13 multiplying one row (or column) of A by k.
If D = a21 a22 a23 , then the minor Mij of the element aij is the 5. | kA | = kn | A |, where A is a matrix of order n × n.
a31 a32 a33 6. If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is
the sum of two or more terms, then the determinant can be
determinant obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column, expressed as the sum of two or more determinant, e.g.,
a22 a23
i.e. M11 = minor of a11 = a1 + a2 b c a1 b c a2 b c
a32 a33
p1 + p2 q r = p1 q r + p2 q r
The cofactor of the element aij is Cij = (– 1)i + j Mij.
u1 + u2 v w u1 v w u2 v w
Properties of Minors and Cofactors 7. If the same multiple of the elements of any row (or column) of
1. The sum of the products of elements of any row (or column) a determinant are added to the corresponding elements of any
of a determinant with the cofactors of the corresponding other row (or column), then the value of the new determinant
elements of any other row (or column) is zero, remains unchanged, e.g.,
a11 a12 a13
a11 a12 a13 a11 + ka31 a12 + ka32 a13 + ka33
i.e., if D = 21 a22 a23 , then
a
a21 a22 a23 = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
a11C31 + a12C32 + a13C33 = 0 and so on.

8. If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is zero,
2. The sum of the product of elements of any row (or column)
then its value is zero.
of a determinant with the cofactors of the corresponding
elements of the same row (or column) is D, 9. If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical,
then its value is zero.
a11 a12 a13
10. If r rows (or r columns) become identical, when a is substi-
i.e., if A = 21 a22 a23 , then
a tuted for x, then (x – a)r–1 is a factor of given determinant.
a31 a32 a33
Important Results on Determinants Cramer’s Rule: [Simultaneous Equations Involving
1. | AB | = | A | | B |, where A and B are square matrices of the Three Unknowns]
same order. Let a1x + b1y + c1z = d1...(i)
n
2. | A | = |A | .n
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2...(ii)
3. If A, B and C are square matrices of the same order such that a3x + b3y + c3z = d3...(iii)
ith columns (or rows) of A is the sum of ith columns (or rows)
of B and C and all other columns (or rows) of A, B and C are D1 D2 D3
= x = ,y = ,Z
identical, then | A | = | B | + | C |. D D D
4. | In | = 1, where In is identity matrix of order n.
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1
5. | On | = 0, where On is a zero matrix of order n.
= D a= 2 b2 c2 ; D1 d 2 b2 c2 ; D2 a2 d 2 c2
6. If D(x) has a third order determinant having polynomials as its
elements. a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3
(a) If D(a) has two rows (or columns) proportional, then (x – a1 b1 d1
a) is a factor of D(x). & D 3 = a2 b2 d2
(b) If D(a) has three rows (or columns) proportional, then a3 b3 d3
2
(x – a) is a factor of D(x). Note:
7. A square matrix A is non-singular, if | A | ≠ 0 and singular, if | A |
1. If D ≠ 0 and atleast one of D1, D2, D3 ≠ 0, then the given
= 0.
system of equations are consistent and have unique non trivial
8. Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is zero
solution.
and of even order is a non-zero perfect square.
9. In general, | B + C | ≠ | B | + | C |. 2. If D ≠ 0 & D1 = D2 = D3 = 0, then the given system of equations
are consistent and have trivial solution only
10. Determinant of a diagonal matrix = Product of its diagonal
elements. 3. If D = D1 = D2 = D3 = 0, then the given system of equations
1 are consistent and have infinite solution.
11. If A is a non-singular matrix, then | A–1 | = = | A |–1.
| A| Applications of Determinants in Geometry
12. Determinant of a orthogonal matrix = 1 or – 1.
Let the three points in a plane be A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and
13. Determinant of a hermitian matrix is purely real. C(x3, y3), then
14. If A and B are non-zero matrices and AB = O, then it implies
| A | = 0 or |B| = 0. x1 y1 1
1
1. Area of DABC = x y2 1
System of Equation 2
2

x3 y3 1
Simultaneous linear equations
1
= [x (y – y ) + x2 (y3 – y1) + x3 (y1 – y2)]
Consistent Inconsistent 2 1 2 3
(at least one solution) (no solution) x1 y1 1
2. If the given points are collinear, then x2 y2 1 = 0.
Exactly one solution Infinite solutions x3 y3 1

Unique solutions 3. Let two points are A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and P(x, y) be a point
Trivial Non trivial on the line joining points A and B, then the equation of line is
Trivial solution x y 1
Non trivial solution
All variable given by 1 y1 1 = 0.
x
zero is the at least one x2 y2 1
only solution non zero
of this system variable satisfy
the system

10 JEE (XII) Module-1 PW

 CHAPTER

3 Matrices

Special Type of Matrices 11. Equal Matrices: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal,
1. Row Matrix (Row vector): A = [a11, a12, ... a1n] i.e., row if both having same order and corresponding elements of the
matrix has exactly one row. matrices are equal.
 a11  12. Principal Diagonal of a Matrix: In a square matrix, the
a  diagonal from the first element of the first row to the last
Column Matrix (Column vector): A =   i.e., column element of the last row is called the principal diagonal of a
21
2.
  
  matrix.
 am1 
matrix has exactly one column. 1 2 3 
 
3. Zero or Null Matrix: (A = Om×n), an m × n matrix whose all e.g. If A = 7 6 5  , the principal diagonal of A is 1, 6, 2.
entries are zero. 1 1 2 

4. Horizontal Matrix: A matrix of order m × n is a horizontal
matrix if n > m. 13. Singular Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be singular
5. Vertical Matrix: A matrix of order m × n is a vertical matrix matrix, if determinant of A denoted by det (A) or | A | is zero,
if m > n. i.e. | A | = 0, otherwise it is a non-singular matrix.
6. Square Matrix: (Order n) if number of rows = number of Equality of Matrices
column, then matrix is a square matrix. Let A = [aij] & B = [bij] are equal if,
1. Both have the same order.
Key Note
2. aij = bij for each pair of i & j.
 The pair of elements aij and aji are called Conjugate
Elements. Algebra of Matrices
 The elements a11, a22, a33, ... amm are called Diagonal Addition: A + B = [aij + bij] where A & B are of the same order.
Elements. the line along which the diagonal elements 1. Addition of matrices is commutative: A + B = B + A.
lie is called “Principal or Leading diagonal.” The 2. Matrix addition is associative: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
quantity Saii = trace of the matrix written as, tr (A).
Multiplication of a Matrix By a Scalar
7. Unit/Identity Matrix: A square matrix, in which every non-
a b c   ka kb kc 
diagonal element is zero and every diagonal element is 1, is  b c a  , then kA =  kb kc ka 
called unit matrix or an identity matrix, If A =    
 c a b   kc ka kb 
0, when i ≠ j
i.e. aij = 
 1, when i = j Multiplication of Matrices (Row by Column)
Let A be a matrix of order m × n and B be a matrix of order
8. Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]n×n is
p × q then the matrix multiplication AB is possible if and only if
called a upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i > j.
n = p.
9. Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]n×n is
called a lower triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i < j. Let Am × n = [aij] and Bn × p = [bij], then order of AB is m × p and
10. Submatrix: A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix n

by deleting any number of rows or columns or both is called ( AB)ij = ∑ air brj
r =1
a submatrix of the given matrix.
Characteristic Equation 5. If A and B are square matrices of same order and AB = BA
then
Let A be a square matrix. Then the polynomial | A – xI |
(A + B)n = nC0An + nC1An–1B + nC2An–2B2 + ... + nCnBn.
is called as characteristic polynomial of A & the equation
| A – xI | = 0 is called characteristic equation of A. Transpose of a Matrix (Changing Rows & Columns)
Properties of Matrix Multiplication Let A be any matrix of order m × n. Then AT or A′ = [aij] for 1 ≤ i
1. If A and B are two matrices such that ≤ n & 1 ≤ j ≤ m of order n × m.
(i) AB = BA then A and B are said to commute
Properties of Transpose
(ii) AB = –BA then A and B are said to anticommute
If AT & BT denote the transpose of A and B
2. Matrix Multiplication is Associative: If A, B &
C are conformable for the product AB & BC, then 1. (A + B)T = AT + BT ; note that A & B have the same order.
(AB)C = A(BC). 2. (A B)T = BT AT (Reversal law) A & B are conformable for matrix
A( B + C ) = AB + AC  product AB
3. Distributivity: , provided A, B and C
( A + B)C =AC + BC  3. (AT)T = A
are conformable for respective products.
4. (kA)T = kAT, where is a scalar.

Positive Integral Powers of a Square Matrix General: (A1 · A2, ... An)T = ATn . ... AT2 · AT1 (reversal law for
1. AmAn = Am + n transpose)
2. (Am)n = Amn = (An)m Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix
3. Im = I m, n ∈ N
1. Symmetric matrix: For symmetric matrix A = AT.
Orthogonal Matrix Note: Maximum number of distinct entries in any symmetric
A square matrix is said to be orthogonal matrix if AAT = I. n(n + 1)
matrix of order n is .
2
Key Note
2. Skew symmetric matrix: Square matrix A = [aij] is said to
 The determinant value of orthogonal matrix is either be skew symmetric if aij = –aji ∀ i & j. Hence if A is skew
1 or –1. symmetric, then aii = –aii ⇒ aii = 0 ∀ i.
Hence orthogonal matrix is always invertible.
Thus the diagonal elements of a skew square matrix are all
 AAT = I = A­TA. Hence A–1 = AT.
zero, but not the converse.
For a skew symmetric matrix A = –AT.
Some Square Matrices
3. Properties of symmetric & skew symmetric matrix:
1. Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix is idempotent provided
A2 = A. For idempotent matrix note the following: (a) Let A be any square matrix then, A + AT is a symmetric
matrix and A – AT is a skew symmetric matrix.
(a) An = A ∀ n ≥ 2, n ∈ N.
(b) The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix
(b) determinant value of idempotent matrix is either 0 or 1.
and the sum of two skew symmetric matrix is a skew
(c) If idempotent matrix is invertible then its inverse will be
symmetric matrix.
identity matrix i.e. I.
(c) If A & B are symmetric matrices then,
2. Periodic Matrix: A square matrix which satisfies the relation
AK+1 =   A, for some positive integer K, is a periodic matrix. (i) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix.
The period of the matrix is the least value of K for which this (ii) AB – BA is a skew symmetric matrix.
holds true.
4. Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum or
Note that period of an idempotent matrix is 1. difference of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
3. Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix is said to be nilpotent
matrix of order m, m ∈ N, if Am = O, Am–1 ≠ O. 1 1
    A = ( A + AT ) + ( A − AT )
Note that a nilpotent matrix will not be invertible. 2
 2

symmetric skew symmetric
4. Involutary Matrix: If A2 = I, the matrix is said to be an
involutary matrix. 1 T 1
and     A = ( A + A) − ( AT − A)
Note that A = A–1 for an involutary matrix. 2 2
P Matrices 7
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Adjoint of a Square Matrix Key Note
 a11 a12 a13 
   If A be an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible and
Let A = [aij] =  a21 a22 a23  be a square matrix and let the (AT)–1 = (A–1)T.
a a32 a33 
 31  If A is invertible,
matrix formed by the cofactors of [aij] in determinant |A| is (a) (A–1)–1 = A
 C11 C12 C13   C11 C21 C31  (b) (Ak)–1 = (A–1)k = A–k ; k ∈ N
   
 C21 C22 C23  . Then (adj A) =  C12 C22 C32  .
C C33  C C23 C33 
 31 C32  13 System of Equation and Criteria for Consistency
Gauss - Jordan Method
Key Note Example:
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
If A be a square matrix of order n, then
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
1. A(adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) . A a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
2. | adj A | = |A|n–1  a1 x + b1 y + c1 z   d1   a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
3. adj(adj A) = |A|n–2 A   d  ⇒ a b c2   y = d 
⇒  a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =  2  2 2  2
2
4. | adj(adj A) | = |A|(n–1)  a3 x + b3 y + c3 z   d3   a3 b3 c3   z   d3 
5. adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) ⇒      AX = B ⇒ A AX = A–1B
–1

6. adj (KA) = Kn–1 (adj A), where K is a scalar Adj A

⇒      X = A–1 B = ·B
| A|

Inverse of a Matrix (Reciprocal Matrix) Key Note

A square matrix A (non singular) said to be invertible, if there
exists a matrix B such that, AB = I = BA.  If |A| ≠ 0, system is consistent having unique solution.
B is called the inverse (reciprocal) of A and is denoted by A–1.  If |A| ≠ 0 and (adj A) · B ≠ O (Null matrix), system is
Thus consistent having unique non-trivial solution.
   A–1 = B ⇔ AB = I = BA  If |A| ≠ 0 and (adj A) · B = O (Null matrix), system is
consistent having trivial solution.
We have, A · (adj A) = |A| In
 If |A| = 0, then
     A · A(adj A) = A–1 In |A|
–1
Matrix Method Fails
  In (adj A) = A–1 |A| In
(adj A)
\         A–1 = If (adj A) · B = O (null matrix) If (adj A) · B ≠ O
| A|
Note: The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix Consistent Inconsistent
A to be invertible is that |A| ≠ 0. (infinite solutions) (no solutions)
Theorem: If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order,
then (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.

8 JEE (XII) Module-1 PW

 CHAPTER

2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Principal Values and Domains of Inverse (ii) y = cos–1 (cos x), x ∈ R, y ∈ [0, p], periodic with period 2p.
Trigonometric/circular Functions y

Function Domain Range

y=
π π

2
(i) y = sin–1 x –1≤x≤1 ≤y≤

x
−

2
x+

y=

y=
2
2 2

–x
y=

–x
(ii) y = cos–1 x –1≤x≤1 0≤y≤p x
0
– – /2 – – /2 /2 /2
π π
(iii) y = tan–1 x x∈R − <y<  nπ 
2 2 (iii) y = tan–1 (tan x), x ∈ R –  ,n∈I
2
π π y
(iv) y = cosec–1 x x ≤ –1 or x ≥ 1 − ≤y≤ ;y≠0
2 2 
2


x
π
x+

y=

x–
(v) y = sec–1 x x ≤ –1 or x ≥ 1 0 ≤ y ≤ p; y ≠ y=

y=
2
2 –2 3 –  O   3 x
– –
2 2 2 2
(vi) y = cot–1 x x∈R 0<y<p

–
Properties of Inverse circular Functions
2

(iv) y = cot–1 (cot x), x ∈ R – {np}, n ∈ I, y ∈ (0, p), periodic

P-1: with period p.
(i) y = sin (sin–1 x) = x, x ∈ [–1, 1], y ∈ [–1, 1], y is aperiodic.
(ii) y = cos (cos–1 x) = x, x ∈ [–1, 1], y ∈ [–1, 1], y is aperiodic.
(iii) y = tan (tan–1 x) = x, x ∈ R, y ∈ R, y is aperiodic.
(iv) y = cot (cot–1 x) = x, x ∈ R, y ∈ R, y is aperiodic.
(v) y = cosec (cosec–1 x) = x, | x | ≥ 1, | y | ≥ 1, y is aperiodic.
(vi) y = sec (sec–1 x) = x, | x | ≥ 1 ; | y | ≥ 1, y is aperiodic.
P-2:
 π π (v) y = cosec–1 (cosec x), x ∈ R – {np}, n ∈ I, y ∈
(i) y = sin–1 (sin x), x ∈ R, y ∈  − ,  . Periodic with period
 2 2  π   π
2p.  − 2 , 0  ∪  0, 2  y,y is periodic with period 2p.
y
   


2
y=

2
x

2

x
y=

x
+

2
y=

y= 
x–
–(

x–
2

3
– 2
3



–
–
y=

y=
+

y=

2
x

45° 2 45° 2
x)

–2 –   
– 32 2 
O x 3 – O 2 x
2 – 2
2

– 2 
–
2
 (vi) y = sec–1 (sec x), y is periodic with period 2p  –1 x − y
 π  π π   tan 1 + xy , xy > −1
x ∈ R – (2n − 1)  , n ∈ I , y ∈  0,  ∪  , π 

 2  2 2   −1  x − y 
 π + tan  ,
–1 –1   1 + xy 
y (ii) tan x − tan y =

 where x > 0, y > 0 and xy < −1
   x− y 
–

y=
x
−π + tan −1  ,
2x –
   1 + xy 
y= 2 
 where x < 0, y < 0 and xy > 1
x
  
(iii) sin­–1 x + sin–1 y = sin–1 ( x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 ) ,
–2 3 – O 3 2
– –
2 2 2 2

 where x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 & (x2 + y2) < 1

P-3: π
Note that: x2 + y2 < 1 ⇒ 0 < sin–1 x + sin–1 y <

1 2
(i) cosec–1 x = sin–1 ; x ≤ – 1, x ≥ 1
x (iv) sin–1 x + sin–1 y = p – sin–1 ( x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 ) ,
1
(ii) sec–1 x = cos–1 ; x ≤ – 1, x ≥ 1  where x > 0, y > 0 and x2 + y2 > 1.
x
π
 1 Note that: x2 + y2 > 1 ⇒ < sin–1 x + sin–1 y < p.
tan −1 ; x > 0 2
−1

 x
(iii) cot x = 
1 (v) sin–1 x – sin–1 y = sin–1 [ x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 ]
π + tan −1 ; x < 0
 x where x > 0, y > 0.
P-4: (vi) cos −1 x + cos=
−1
(
y cos −1 xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 ; x, y ≥ 0 )
(i) sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x, – 1 ≤ x ≤1 −1 −1
(vii) cos x − cos y =
(ii) tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x, x ∈ R
(iii) cos–1 (–x) = p – cos–1 x, – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 ( )
 cos −1 xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 , x > 0, y > 0 and x
< y

 
(iv) cot–1 (–x) = p – cot–1 x, x ∈ R  ( )
− cos −1 xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 , x > 0, y > 0 and x > y 

(v) sec–1 (–x) = p – sec–1 x, x ≤ –1 or x ≥ 1
 x + y + z − xyz 
(vi) cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x, x ≤ –1 or x ≥ 1 (viii) tan–1 x + tan–1 y + tan–1 z = tan–1  
1 − xy − yz − zx 
P-5: if x > 0, y > 0, z > 0 & xy + yz + zx < 1.
π Note that: In the above results x & y are taken positive. In
(i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x = ; –1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2 case if these are given as negative, we first apply P-4 and
π then use above results.
(ii) tan–1 x + cot–1 x = ; x∈R
2 Simplified Inverse Trigonometric Functions
π  2 tan −1 x if | x| ≤ 1
(iii) cosec–1 x + sec–1 x = ; |x|≥1
2  2x   −1
(a) y = f(x) = sin–1  =  π − 2 tan x
2 
if x >1
P-6:  1 + x   −(π + 2 tan −1 x) if x < −1

 –1 x + y
 tan 1 − xy ,
y
 /2
 where x > 0, y > 0 and xy < 1 1

 –1 x + y
D
(i) tan –1 x + tan –1 y =
π + tan ,
 1 − xy x
–1 0 1
 where x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1 D
 1
 π , where x > 0, y > 0 and xy = 1
 2 –/2

4 JEE (XII) Module-1 PW

 (e) y = f(x) = cos–1 (4x3 – 3x)
 1 − x2   2 tan −1 x if x ≥ 0
(b) y = f(x) = cos–1  2 =  1
1 + x
−1
  −2 tan x if x < 0 −1
3 cos x − 2π if −1 ≤ x ≤ −
2

1 1
y
  −1
=  2π − 3 cos x if − ≤x≤
2 2
/2 
D 1
3 cos −1 x 1
if ≤ x ≤1
 2
y
–1 0 1
x 

 2 tan −1 x if | x| < 1
2x  −1
D D
(c) y = f(x) = tan–1 = π + 2 tan x if x < −1
1 − x2  /2
 −(π − 2 tan −1 x) if x >1

y
/2
–1 –1/2 +1/2
1 x
1 – 3/2 3/2
x
–1 1 1
 −1
1
1
 −(π + 2 sin x) −1 ≤ x ≤ −
 2

( )
–/2 −1  1 1
(f) sin= 2x 1 − x2 −1
 2 sin x − ≤x≤
(d) y = f(x) = sin–1 (3x – 4x3) 2 2

 1  −1 1
 π − 2 sin x ≤ x ≤1
−1
 −(π + 3 sin x) if −1 ≤ x ≤ −
2  2

 −1 1 1
= 3 sin x if − ≤x≤
y
2 2 /2

 π − 3 sin −1 x 1
if ≤ x ≤1
 2 – 1
–1 2
y x
1 1
/2
2

D D –/2

– 3/2 – 1/2 + 1/2

x
–1 3/2 1

– /2

P Inverse Trigonometric Functions 5

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