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URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO BANGALORE
Dr. N.A. Adinarayanappa
Associate Professor and Chairperson, Department of Sociology, Government First Grade College, Sulibele
Bangalore Rural District
INTRODUCTION:
In recent decades, urban-centres in less-industrialized countries in general and India in particular have experienced
unprecedented growth, and mega cities with populations of 10 million or more people have emerged in many countries. In
India alone there are four such cities, with three others expected to join the ranks in the next 20 years. Globally, many
rapidly growing cities are being overwhelmed by environmental problems, particularly air pollution. Deterioration of air
quality is a problem that is directly experienced by a majority of the 300 million urban Indians, who constitute 30% of
India’s population.
Mega cities of India are no exception to the global pattern of deteriorating urban air quality. Indian cities are among
the most polluted in the world, with concentrations of a number of air pollutants being well above level as recommended
by the World Health Organization. Given the magnitude of pollution it is yet to be recognized as public health issue.
Scientific understanding of health risks from pollution in Indian cities is poor. There is a paucity of scientific studies on the
health effects of pollution. The few that have been done show much cause for alarm, and it is apparent to scientists and lay
people alike that the residents of India’s mega cities face significant risks to their health from exposure to pollutants.
OBJECTIVES:
To study the magnitude of environmental pollution in India
To elucidate the reasons for environmental hazards
To understand the level of pollution in Bangalore city
METHODOLOGY:
Primary data - Interview Schedule, Case study and observation method.
Secondary data - Library and reference material, News Papers, Journals etc.
Data analysis and interpretation – Based on tables on different variables.
DISCUSSION:
An attempt has been made here to review particulate air pollution in Indian cities. The focus is on particulate air
pollution because it has become increasingly clear that thoracic particulate matter (PM) is the major cause of human
mortality and morbidity from air pollution. Particulate pollution in Indian cities is very high and hence, it is likely that per-
capita mortality from urban air pollution in India is at least as high as that in the US. In addition to particulate air pollution,
other primary pollutants are also a cause for concern in India. The primary pollutants are (CO, nitrogen oxides, and
hydrocarbons).
The main categories of urban air pollution sources in India are vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, and fuel
use for domestic purposes such as cooking, and a potentially large miscellaneous category, which includes burning of
household wastes, emissions from small businesses and cremation grounds. Natural sources of PM are also significant,
depending on location and season. While particulates from natural sources are not conventional pollutants, their
contributions are typically taken into account in inventories of total suspended particulates (TSP), since natural sources can
be both a major contributor to pollution and a source of uncertainty. However, natural dust particles are coarse and do not
contribute significantly to PM fractions that actually get deposited in human lungs. In Delhi, for example, dust-laden winds
from the western desert during the dry season increase the TSP levels, although they have a much smaller impact on particles
<10 m in diameter.
Rapid urbanization in India has led to an increase in transportation demand that public transport systems have been
unable to meet adequately. Consequently, the use of personal vehicles has increased dramatically, between 1986 and 1991,
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the total number of vehicles in India increased roughly threefold, from about 9 million to 25 million, and it was estimated
that the number of vehicles would reach well above 40 million by the year 2000 (Government of India, 1993). Nationwide,
about 70% of the vehicles are gasoline-fueled personal vehicles, two or three-wheeled vehicles that have two-stroke engines.
Other gasoline-fueled vehicles, mostly cars and motorcycles with four-stroke engines, make up 14% of the fleet, and diesel-
fueled trucks and buses make up 8% of the total.
The number of two and three-wheeled vehicles, which also represents the largest fraction of all vehicles, has been
growing at the rate of 20% annually and, between 1987 and 1993, increased threefold, from 7 million to 20 million. The
number of two-wheelers is expected to keep rising, with a projected 36 million by 2000. Passenger cars and diesel-fueled
vehicles though fewer in numbers, will double in the same time period. In the mid-1980s, the introduction of cars by Maruti,
a public-sector company jointly launched by the Indian government and Suzuki of Japan, gave impetus to car purchasing
by members of India’s upper classes. The government’s liberalization program, launched in the early 1990s, has encouraged
car production by multinationals in India; there has been an even more dramatic rise in the number of passenger cars in the
country. Recent figures showed that, between the late 1980s and 1997, the annual sales of automobiles increased >10-fold,
from 40,000 to 400,000.
The principal pollutants emitted by vehicles are carbon monoxide (CO), NOx, particulate matter (PM 10), volatile
organic compounds, and semi-volatile poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Sulphur oxides are emitted in various quantities
depending on the sulphur content of the fuel. Exhaust gases from gasoline-fueled vehicles also contain Lead (Pb) additives,
which continue to be used although there has been a recent move toward unleaded gasoline in the major cities.
The conditions for significant Ozone pollution, the presence of volatile organic compounds, NOx sources, abundant
sunlight, and meteorological conditions such as winter inversion layers, exist in many Indian cities, particularly in Delhi
and Calcutta; yet the magnitude of the Ozone problem is almost entirely unknown. To our knowledge there have been no
measurements of Ozone in any of the major Indian cities.
There are several reasons to expect larger emission factors for vehicles in India than their equivalents in
industrialized countries. A majority of vehicles in India are not equipped with pollution control equipment, and only recently
has the government mandated installation of catalytic converters on cars sold in the major metropolitan areas, In addition,
maintenance of vehicles is poor, and there is very little monitoring and enforcement of emission standards.
After gaining independence in 1947, India embarked on a path of rapid industrialization in all the major
manufacturing sectors like iron and steel, heavy manufacturing, industrial and petrochemicals, and agricultural and paper
products. Today, despite its label as ‘less-industrialized country’, India is heavily industrialized, with a thriving
manufacturing sector that until recently was largely indigenous. The CPCB has catalogued over 1500 large-scale industrial
units in 17 industrial categories, accounting for about 60% of India’s industrial output. Small-scale industries are an
important part of the Indian economy and account for the remaining 40% of the industrial output. At present, India has over
three million small factories.
Industries contributing to air pollution include textile mills, chemical and pharmaceutical engineering units, and
foundries. While regulations have limited the growth of large industrial plants in the capital territory of Delhi, this has not
affected the growth of number of small-scale units. Small-scale manufacturing units in Delhi include everything from
metalworking to food processing. Industries emit a wide variety of process-specific pollutants like gaseous, organic and
inorganic compounds, complex vapors that undergo phase transformation after emission into the atmosphere, and PM with
process-specific composition (e.g. heavy metals and PAHs).
In developing countries, the poorest strata are often excluded from the benefits of emerging prosperity and may also
face a disproportionate share of health risks related to economic growth. Urban slums may be located near major roads,
factories, or dumpsites, for instance, exposing residents to higher levels of air pollution or to the risks of industrial accidents.
The chief victims of the accident at Bhopal, India, for example, were not just workers but slum dwellers who had settled
near the factory.
Bangalore city has become increasingly the most polluted city in India. Air pollution is increasingly at an alarming
rate and it is solely due to constant smoke emanating from vehicles plying on the road. Quality of air has deteriorated beyond
permissible limits. According to the report published by World Health Organization, United Nations environment
programme, air pollution is the most serious threat to the life of people living in urban areas.
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Health disorders caused by air pollutants depend upon and determined by the intensity, duration of exposure. The
pollutants directly affect the respiratory digestive nerves and cardiovascular systems. It causes severe headache, dizziness,
nausea, mental retardation and neurological disorders. Lead content in the air causes bone marrow; obstruct liver, heart and
kidney functions. So much so, there is increasing evidence which suggest a link between increasing air pollution and increase
in the incidents heart attack. All types of vehicles are seen on Bangalore city roads and they have been classified as follows:
Two-wheelers like scooter, mopeds and motor-cycles, followed by three-wheelers that is, auto-rickshaw, four-wheelers like
cars, buses and lorries and a host of other trucks. Of these vehicles, two-wheelers are a menace, because of their high density
and defective engine design. Among many busy roads in Bangalore city, the road from Ananda Rao circle to Mahathama
Gandhi circle, from there to Trinity circle and from Anand Rao circle via K.R. Circle leading to Corporation circle are the
busiest roads. The movement of two-wheelers is very high. One of the reasons for high density of vehicles is lack of
dependable efficient and sufficient public transport system. More than 60% of the population depend upon their own
vehicles that too two-wheelers.
Since air horns exceed the permissible decibel limit, they are banned by government policy. ‘Particularly in the last
five years, there has been increase in awareness about noise levels and, therefore, none of the BMTC buses use air horns.
Once in three months, the BMTC buses are checked in the depots and the horn is one of the things that is checked,’ says the
KSPCB official.
The department also finds it difficult to book cases against noisy vehicles due to the lack of parameters to judge
them. Major contributors to noise pollution include buses, lorries, vehicles with shrill horns and auto-rickshaws, some of
which ply without (or with altered) sound mufflers in the silencers, apparently for better speed and mileage. While
Bangaloreans with their ‘swalpa adjust maadi’ attitude have simply learnt to put up with such noise, visitors feel the autos
are noisy and irritating.
The modified silencers, which are locally made and go by the reference ‘dolly silencers’, are easily available in City
Market area. Ram Murthy a shop owner here says, these modifiers have turned out to be very economical. However, they
have contributed greatly to the noise levels in the City. Bangalore is believed to be experiencing six times more noise than
permitted levels and authorities are contemplating mandatory noise emission tests. Meanwhile, the Transport Department
is gearing up to tackle increasing noise pollution. The RTO checks the vehicles for modified silencers during their permit
renewals. The drivers use the normal silencers at that time and change it later. The noise on the roads hampers the process
to check any extra noise. The only option is to educate the drivers and I think such programmes will change the mindset of
the offenders.
Noise is not a very visible form of pollution. Increasingly, we are being assaulted by higher and higher decibel
levels, leading to a concomitant rise in stress levels.
The pulverizer makes too loud a racket for this young customer.
When did you last experience something called peaceful silence? When you could hear only the insects chirruping
or the gentle rustle of leaves? Well, leaves (what’s left of them) and insects (what’s left of them) are still around, but what
has overwhelmed their gentle presence is man-made - noise. Try and watch a movie on TV with sparkling dialogues, and
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nine times out of ten, you will miss the crucial bits, thanks to the passing roar of a truck in second gear or the irritating
whine of an auto-rickshaw running on adulterated fuel. As for that blender making all that racket in the kitchen, it is in
strong competition with that ghetto blaster your kid has put on, though his room is closed.
Silence is golden. It has also become a thing of the past for the urban dweller. As cities grow in size and population,
it is becoming increasingly difficult for quiet to prevail. Bangalore, being a large growing city, has over 20 lakh vehicles.
Traffic is a major factor in creating unwanted noise. It’s not just the noise of the internal combustion engine that is part of
the traffic noise, those who control them also add their bit by leaning on the horns every 10 seconds, something unheard of
in other countries.
And how many of you have cursed auto-rickshaws whose silencers have been removed, multiplying the decibel
level, forcing you to contemplate homicide? Not only are these vehicles badly designed in every way, their drivers often
remove the noise mufflers in the belief that it improves pick-up.
Traffic noise adds to stress levels, which is detrimental to everyone’s health
Apart from this kind of noise pollution, there are others like that from loud speakers, generators, construction site
equipment, bore-well rigs, and so on. All these and more have a deleterious effect on the City dweller’s health. Noise
pollution adds to stress levels and in the long run, has been proved to damage our hearing faculties. The louder the noise
one is exposed to over a continued period of time, the faster it leads to hearing loss.
Says Dr. G. Mohan, ENT surgeon, Mallya Hospital: ‘The levels of noise in the City have definitely gone up. The
vehicular noise doesn’t so much cause damage to hearing but increases stress levels and causes irritability. But prolonged
exposure to certain kinds of industrial noise can cause damage to the inner ear and eventually to the nerve cells located
there.’ Unlike other forms of pollution that assault the eyes and the nose, noise pollution is invisible. With the fast-paced
city life, urban dwellers have no time to pause and think about the knocking their other senses are taking, thanks to noise.
Bangaloreans are suffering the effects of noise through increasing volume of traffic. Moreover, the quality of traffic is
steadily deteriorating. In a day and age when everything is instant, patience has become obsolete among drivers. Says Nitya
Mohan, a resident of Ulsoor: ‘There is no longer decorum on the roads. People are just in too much of a hurry and have lost
any sensitivity towards fellow citizens.
There are laws against noise pollution, and Bangalore has a Pollution Control Board that is very much functional.
B. Ramaiah, Senior Environment officer of the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board blames industries for the increasing
level of noise in the City. ‘The increasing number of offices and industries has added to the noise levels in the City. Offices
use captive generators that create a lot of noise,’ he adds.
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Adding to the decibel level are the loudspeakers, either advertising products or haranguing the public
The World Health Organization’s guidelines recommend a night-time average level suitable for undisturbed sleep
from 35 to 30 decibels (dB), including a peak night-time maximum of 45 dB. In most large cities the average night-time
noise levels exceed 45 to 50 dB. The Indian Environment Protection Act prescribes a certain maximum level of sound that
is allowed under the law. ‘In industrial areas, the maximum allowed limit is 75dB in the day and about 70dB at night.
Similarly, in residential areas the (permitted) limit is about 65dB in the day and 60dB at night, and in areas which qualify
as silent zones, like areas surrounding hospitals, the prescribed upper limit is about 55dB in the day and 45dB at night,’ says
Mr. Ramaiah.
In cases of bore well drilling at night-time, use of loud speakers or any noise created intentionally by a third party,
every citizen is protected under the Environmental Protection Act and has a right to seek help. ‘Every citizen is protected
against noise and has the right to seek help against anybody who is creating noise that is disturbing and illegal. The local
police station must immediately be informed and action will be taken,’ he adds. According to research, noise intensities
above 55 dB are enough to cause annoyance and aggressive behaviour. Also, noise above 75 dB can lead to increased stress
levels, increased heart rates and potential hearing loss.
Most buses, auto-rickshaws, and motorcycles grossly exceeded the noise level, with one of the buses touching as
much as 100 dB. On M.G. Road, the levels were as much at 82.5 dB. With society becoming noisier than ever, it is up to
each one of us to do our bit in taking pre-emptive measures. Otherwise, we will soon turn into a society of noisy yet deaf
people. The time to start is now. Is there anyone listening?
FINDINGS:
A number of diseases have been associated with inhalation exposure to airborne PM: respiratory disorders whose
effects range from minor symptoms such as coughs and dyspnea to severe ones such as acute respiratory infections (ARI),
asthma, and pneumonia, chronic obstructive lung diseases such as bronchitis, cardiovascular disease, tuberculosis, lung
cancer, and blindness. In addition, peri-natal effects such as stillbirths and low birth weights are also associated with air
pollution. However, the health end point that is most clearly defined is death, and many epidemiological studies in developed
countries focus on obtaining relationships between mortality rates and ambient levels of pollution.
As for other parts of the causal paradigm, very few epidemiological studies have been conducted on the health risks
of exposure to PM in Indian cities. Exposure to indoor pollutants can cause or aggravate ARIs, including upper respiratory
infections such as colds and sore throats, and lower respiratory infections such as pneumonia. Acute lower respiratory
infections are one of the primary causes of child mortality in developing countries leading to deaths in children under age
5. ARIs can also increase mortality from measles, malaria, and other diseases. Other factors that can worsen ARIs include
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low birth weight, poor nutrition, inadequate housing and poor hygiene conditions, overcrowding, and reduced access to
health care.
Indoor air pollution causes lung cancer, stillbirths, low birth weight, heart ailments, and chronic respiratory diseases,
including asthma. Data suggest that over 60 percent of the diseases associated with respiratory infections are linked to
exposure to air pollution. Outdoor pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, ozone, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and volatile
organic compounds come mainly from motor vehicle exhaust, power plant emissions, open burning of solid waste, and
construction and related activities.
Contaminated water and inadequate sanitation cause a range of diseases, many of which are life-threatening. The
most deadly are diarrheal diseases, 80 percent to 90 percent of which result from environmental factors. In 2001, diarrheal
infections caused nearly 2 million deaths in children under age 5, primarily due to dehydration; many more children suffer
from non-fatal diarrhea that leaves them underweight, physically stunted, vulnerable to disease and drained of energy. Poor
sanitation conditions and inadequate personal, household and community hygiene are responsible for most of diarrheal
infections.
Despite significant investments in improving water supplies and sanitation over the last 20 years, about 18 percent
of the World’s population still lacks access to safe drinking water, and nearly 40 percent have no access to sanitation.
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