MOTIVATION THEORY

2.1 Topic Objectives

 By the end of this topic you should be able to:

1. Define motivation.
2. Examine and apply Abraham Maslows Theory of motivation in educational
institutions.
3. Analyze the Two Factor Theory in motivation.
4. Explain how MCgregors Theory X and Y is used in educational institutions.

2.2 Introduction: Definition of the word motivation

It is an inner state that activates or moves individuals towards the satisfaction of a

specific need.

2.3 Abraham Maslow’s Theory or the Needs Hierarchy Theory

Abraham Maslow was a social scientist who did studies on human motivation and came
up with a theory. He explained that a human being is motivated by 5main needs arranged
in hierarchy from the lowest to the highest. The needs are:
 Physiological-food, shelter, clothing,
 Safety/Security
 Social affiliation
 Self-esteem
 Self-motivation
Majority of the people are actually motivated to satisfy the primary needs after which they
progress upwards to the secondary or higher order needs. The lower order or primary
needs are the most fundamental.

Once a need is fulfilled, it ceases to be a source of motivation and the higher one becomes a
motivation. One can fulfill two or three needs at the same time.

Physiological needs

These are the most basic needs in the hierarchy. They are the basic biological functions
of human organism. They include need for food, water and shelter. Some psychologists
have also included sex as one of the psychological needs. However, this is still a
controversial issue among the psychologists.

The Safety or Security Needs

These needs occupy the second level. They include emotional and physical needs. Security
needs relate to the desire for a peaceful smoothly run and stable environment. Workers
want assurance that their security needs will be met. Security ensures that workers‟ needs
will be met now and in the future. These basic or lower order needs are usually fairly
satisfied in work environments and therefore they rarely dominate.. However they should
not be ignored and an administrator should strive to see to it that they are satisfied.
Example job security.

1. The Social Affiliation Needs or Love Needs

These involve relationships with other people and status within a group. Since workers
spend most of their hours when they are awake in their working environment, most of
them need to be loved. As an administrator you need to recognize and facilitate the
formation of informal groups. For example, a principal needs to facilitate the formation
of welfare groups among the teachers and non-teaching needs.
These needs become dominant after physiological and safety needs are minimally
gratified. Since man is a social being, he needs to belong and feel accepted within various
groups. He strives for meaningful reactions with others. If the opportunity for an
association is denied or reduced, the individual will take vigorous action against the
obstacles to social interactions.

2. Self-esteem Needs

These are needs for self-confidence. A worker needs to feel happy with himself/herself.
One should feel, competent, appreciated, etc when one belongs to a group, he does not
just want to be an ordinary member of a group, and he wants to be recognized for a
specific achievement.

Satisfaction of this self-esteem needs produce feelings of self-confidence, prestige power

and control. Lack of satisfaction of these needs produce feelings of inferiority, weakness
and helplessness.

3. Self-Actualization

These appear when self-esteem needs are adequately satisfied. These are needs to
maximize ones potentiality and abilities, whatever they may be. Self-actualization is the
desire to become what one is capable of becoming. It is achieving the highest a person
can ever achieve.

Application of Maslow’s Hierarchy Needs Theory in Administration

According to Maslow, a person will be concerned with self actualization needs if only his
physiological, security, love and self-esteem needs are well satisfied . This theory shows
that individuals are wanting creatures with needs.
School administrators should ascertain that the basic needs are met first. He/She should
make sure that there exists a work climate in which teachers and other educationists can
satisfy their needs. The administrator should also give permission to teachers to attend to
personal problems, for example getting money from the bank or attending to family
matters.

A school administrator should make sure that students and staff are free from physical
danger when in the school compound. For example, fencing g of the school compound, or
employing of watchmen.

 S/He can advise the staff to get insurance covers or introduce them to one. He can
also facilitate the establishment of staff unions and retirement programmes where
possible.
 S/He can ensure the Job security of the staff.
 S/He should acknowledge that man is a social being and thus, he can facilitate the
formation of games and socialization clubs. Help in holding of end of year parties
for both students and teachers. The principal or the administrator can introduce
counseling services to both students and staff.
 S/He should allow informal groups to exist on.
 The administrator should in form teachers of any vacancies for promotions and
training.
 S/He should encourage staff to achieve good academic qualifications.
 S/He should recognize and reward any work that has been well done.
 S/He should give equal opportunities to all members of staff and students to
maximum their potentials.

2.4 The Two Factor Theory

This was introduced by Fredrick Herzberg. It is sometimes referred to as Herzberg‟s two

factor theory. It is based on the assumption that dissatisfaction leads to avoidance of work
and satisfaction leads to attraction of work. Herzberg conducted a study on some
engineers and accountants on job satisfaction and dissatisfaction and made the following
conclusion.

Factors which are associated with the job itself (intrinsic job content or psychological
factor factors) lead to job satisfaction. These factors include achievement, recognition,
work itself, responsibility and advancement.

Factors which are associated with the environment surrounding the job (extrinsic job
context, physical environment, or maintenance factor) do not lead job satisfaction. These
factors are company policy, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and supervision.

Herzberg came up with the conclusion that there are two factors which lead to job
satisfaction or dissatisfaction , mainly the intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

An administrator should ensure that teachers, are provided with direct, clear and regular
feedback on their performance in general to ensure they are psychologically contented.
The teachers should also be provided with an enabling environment. In order to motivate
them to learn new and different procedures on the job, personal growth through
promotion and further training is required. Herzberg borrowed heavily from Maslow‟s
theory.

2.5 McGregors Theory X and Y

This was introduced by Douglas McGregor. He wrote a book in 1960 known as „The
Human Enterprise” He borrowed heavily from Maslow‟s concepts of motivation. His
approach was from the managerial point of view. He explained that managers fall into
two categories based on how they think on the nature of human beings. It is the
philosophical understanding of the human nature that determines how a manger behaves
towards the workers. There are two assumptions on this issue namely;
 a) Theory X
b) Theory Y

As explained above. These factors can also be referred to as;

a) Maintained factors (extrinsic factors) which include supervision, job security,

attitudes and policies of administrators, working environment, status, salary and
fringe benefits. This leads to job dissatisfaction.
b) Motivating factors or (intrinsic factor) which include achievement, advancement
reorganization, responsibility, professional growth, work itself. These lead to job
satisfaction.

Note that salaries appear in both factors. This is because salaries can be a motivator but
only for a short while and then they become dissatisfying.

Herzberg‟s theory is closed related to Maslow‟s theory. His findings have implications
on educational management. The administrator‟s role is in the area of maintenance of
extrinsic factors. He can motivate the teacher through improved chances in the nature of
the job or job enrichment. Teachers should also be given maximum control over task
performance and their jobs should be designed in order to enable them experience a
feeling of accomplishment of assigned tasks.

Theory X Assumption

a) The average human being is generally lazy and has an inherent dislike of work.
b) Because of disliking work, he must be coerced, controlled directed or threatened
with punishment in order for him to put forth adequate effort towards the
achievement of organization objectives.
c) The average human being prefers to be directed and avoids responsibility.
d) The average human only wants to fulfill his physiological and safety needs.
 e) Most people have little capacity for creativity and they therefore, can‟t be trusted
to solve organizational problems.
f) Man is inherently self centered and resistant to organizational need.
g) Man is by nature resistant to change. Thus, theory X emphasizes on strict
employee control and the application of extrinsic rewards.

Theory Y Assumptions

Theory Y employs a human and supportive approach to management. It assumes that

a) The expenditure of physician and mental energy in work is as natural as play is, in
satisfying a worker. Therefore, he does not need to be forced.
b) The capacity for creativity, imagination, ingenuity is widely inherent in the
working population. Therefore, many workers are capable of solving
organizational problems.
c) People will exercise self-control and direction towards achievement of
organizational goals if they are committed to them.
d) External control and threats are not the only means of bringing about workers
efforts towards achievement of organizational goals.
e) People can be self directed and creative at work if they are properly motivated.
f) The average human being learns to accept and seek responsibility under
motivating working conditions. Avoidance of work and responsibility is learnt
and not inherent in human behaviour.
g) Commitment to objectives is a function associated with achievement.
h) Motivation occurs at social, self-esteem, self-actualization levels and not only at
physiological and safety needs.

According to this theory a manager‟s role is that of providing an enabling environment for
the release of potentials which employees are endowed with. The theories are applied in
both management and leadership styles as well as in discipline.
Characteristics of Schools employing Theory Y assumptions

a) The principal or administrators considers staff as mature people.

b) He allows staff members to participate in decision making activities and delegates
duties.
c) He accepts and supports staff members‟ ideas.
d) The administrator facilitates the flow of information to members of staff which is
useful them.
e) Staff members are given a lot of freedom, self-control and self-direction.
f) There is recognition of staff members for work well done.
g) Workers or members of staff are highly motivated and committed to the
achievement of the organizational objectives.

Advantages of Theory X

a) Employees don‟t absent themselves from work unnecessarily.

b) There are no delays in decision making.

Disadvantages of Theory X

a) There is a possibility of making wrong decisions since the administrator does not
consult
b) Inter performance relationships in the school are minimal.
c) There is low output and morale.
d) There are many conflicts between the administrator and members of staff.
e) There is no job satisfaction among members of staff.
f) Employees always need to be directed
Advantages of Theory Y

a) The workers‟ morale is high.

 b) Organizational objectives are easily achieved since members of staff are
committed to their achievement.
c) Employees will willingly accept directives from the administration.
d) There are good interpersonal relationships in the organization.

Disadvantage of Theory Y

a) There is delay in decision making since there is a lot of consultation

b) Members of staff may view the administrator as week and soft and may take
advantage of this by becoming irresponsible

2.6 Revision Question


1. Illustrate how you would motivate workers to improve performance in your
institution.

HINTS

 Meet the employees‟ needs at the various levels as outlined by Abraham

Maslow.
 Ensure both intrinsic and extrinsic factors are motivating to workers.
 Apply theory Y in management.(answers should be well illustrated with specific
examples).
LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
3.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you should be able to:

1. Define leadership and outline the difference between leadership and management
2. Describe leadership theories
3. Evaluate styles of leadership

3.2 Definition of Leadership

 David Schwartz describes leadership as the art of inspiring subordinates to
perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically.
 Van Fleet describes leadership as an influence process directed at shaping
the behavior of others.
 Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives
enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and
motivates it towards goals achievement.
 Leadership could also be defined as the process through which person one
influences the behavior of others to do things willingly towards goal achievement.

3.3 Leadership versus management

 Management implies more formalities as compared to leadership
 A manager usually directs others because of formal authority and power
 A manager is by essence required to perform the four functions of management:
planning, organizing, directing and controlling.
 A leader can exist in both formal and informal groups
 Leadership focuses on human interactions while management is more concerned
with procedures and results i.e. the process and setting things to be done.
 Leadership binds a group together and motivates it towards agreed goals.
 Unlike the manger, a leader does not rely on any formal authority, because while a
manager can force people to comply by using formal authority, a leaders has no
such power - he influences his/her subordinates behavior to do things willingly
 Effective leadership gives direction to the efforts of workers. Leadership guides
organizational efforts towards achievement of organizational goals.

3.4 LEADERSHIP THEORIES

 Leadership theories attempts to explain and predict what makes a leader and why
some leaders are more effective than others.
 Three types of theories have been developed:
Trait Theory/Leadership traits

3.4.1 Trait theory/leadership traits

 A trait is a physical characteristic/personality that can be used to
distinguish leaders.
 Around early 20th century, several attempts were made at explaining leadership.
 The prevailing belief then was that leaders were born not made.
 Certain people were believed to posses in-born traits that made them
successful leaders.
 However, later researchers began to accept that leader‟s traits are not
completely in born, but can also be acquired through learning and experiences.
 This new thinking on leadership stimulated a lot of research which aimed
at determining common traits possessed by leaders
 In 1998, Ralph Stogdill reviewed 124 empirical studies on a leader attributes
covering 27 recurring characteristics.
From his review of literature, he concluded that leaders exhibited the following
characteristics: (i.e. categories of leadership traits)

Capacity: This included specific traits such as intelligence, alertness, originality and
judgment.
Achievement: Must be a scholar with knowledge or athletic. Has accomplished in a
certain area.
Responsibility: self confidence, desire to excel, persistence, initiative,
aggressiveness, dependability.
Participation: Sociability, cooperation, adaptability, humor.
Status: - Socio-economic position, popularity.
 Stodgill‟s review also concluded that in many instances the profile of a
successful leader varied with the situation –different groups of workers and
different group activities required different types of leaders.
Therefore, a trait approach to leadership is the evaluation and selections of a leader based
on their physical, mental and psychological characteristics.

3.4.2 Situational Approach to Leadership.

It is the opposite of the trait theory.

 The propagators of this theory argue that what matters in a leader in how he/she
handles a situation regardless of his/her physical, social or psychological
attributes. Argues that appropriate management actions depend on the situation
prevailing at the time
This theory came up in 1950‟s and stresses on the fact that you can not limit the concept
of leadership on personality.
 The key author of this theory was CAMPELL. He did a lot of research in
identifying the variables associated with situations. Therefore, situational
approach theory emphasis that the forces in the environment of an organization
may affect the performance of a leader. The situational determinants are:-
(i) The structure of an organization. This refers to the size of an organization.
The bigger the size the harder the situation.
(ii) Organization Climate: is there openness between the leader and subordinates?
(iii) Subordinate Characteristics: What is the characteristic of the people being
led? Are they tolerant, responsible, knowledgeable etc?
(iv) Role characteristics: Role refers to the job description of the leader and how
much power he has.
3.4.3 Contingency approach
 Contingency approaches to leadership suggest that situational factors must be
considered
 One kind of behavior may work in one setting but not in another
 The goal of contingency approaches is to identify the situational variables that
managers need to consider in assessing how different forms of leadership will be
received.
There are three popular contingency theories of leadership:
(i) The LPC model: Fieldler‟s Contingency Theory
(ii) The Path Goal Model
(iii) The Participation Model: Vroom-Yetton Theory
The LPC model: Fiedler’s Contingency Theory.
 Fred Fielder was one of the leading advocates of the contingency
(situational) theories.
 He developed a model called the “Least Preferred Co-Worker” (LPC)
 Fiedler‟s Contingency Model argues that performance or effectiveness is
dependant upon the interaction of leadership style and the amount of control
that the supervisor has over the situation.
 According to him leaders become leaders not only because of their personality
but also because of the various situational factors that they face.
 He came up with three critical dimensions of leadership situations that
affect leader‟s style.
(i) Position power: amount of power attached to the leader‟s position
(the degree to which a position enables a leader to get enough
members to comply with his directions).
(ii) Task structure: the degree to which the task assignments are clear to
both the leader and the subordinates (how much each person knows his
roles).
(iii) Leader member relations: refers to the degree of confidence, trust and
respect followers have for the leader. (The extent to which members like
and trust a leader and are willing to follow him).
From these situations Fiedler identified two basic leader orientations:
(i) Task oriented: Whereby a leader gains satisfaction from seeing tasks
performed (concerned with the accomplishment of the task).
(ii) Relationship oriented: people oriented style where the leader aims at
achieving good interpersonal relations.
 These two orientations are measured by the “least Preferred Co-Worker” (LPC)
scale.
 The LPC approach calculates the degree to which leaders favorably perceive
worst co-workers and it relates to leadership style.
 On the LPC scale, an individual is asked to think of the person with whom he or
she has worked with, who was least preferred as a co-worker and to describe
this person on several bipolar scales (gloomy-cheerful, tense-relaxed, trust-
worthy, untrustworthy).
 If the description of the Least Preferred Co-worker is favorable, then this
suggests a relationship-oriented leader; an unfavorable description on the other
hand, suggests a task-oriented leader.
 When Fielder combined LPC scores with situation favorableness, he found out
that the relationship –oriented Leaders were more effective in facilitating
group performance when the situation was moderately favorable or moderately
unfavorable.
 On the other hand, the task –oriented leader was more effective in securing
group performance when the situation is either highly favorable.
 Fielder concluded that “Leadership Performance” depends both on
the organization and situation.
 The LPC model sees appropriate leadership behavior as a function of
the favorableness of the situation as defined by the three situations.

3.4.4 The Path Goal Theory

 This leadership approaches its roots in the expectancy theory.
 The modern development of this theory is usually attributed to Martin Evans
and Robert House who wrote separate papers on the subject.
  It proposes that the leader is a key individual in bringing about
improved subordinate motivation, satisfaction and performance.
 The model suggests that four leadership styles can be used.
(i) Directive Leadership: the subordinates are not active participants since
the leader provides them with specific guidance, work plans including
rules and regulations
(ii) Supportive Leadership: the leader shows concern for the well being and
personal needs of the subordinates. He/she is approachable ad friendly.
(iii) Achievement –oriented leadership: the leader sets challenging goals and
exhibits the confidence that the subordinates will achieve high standards
since they are endowed with the requisite potentials
(iv) Participative Leadership: The leader consults with the subordinates and
embodies their suggestions in decision making.
 The Path –Goal Theory stresses that effective leadership is a function of
the interaction between the leader behavior and situational or contingency
variables of subordinate characteristics (abilities, skills, ambitions etc.) and
environmental factors (nature of work, extent to which jobs are structured
and the authority system with the organization).
 The Model suggests that the purpose of leadership in organization is
to clarify for subordinates the paths to desired goals.
 The important key in this theory is the way the leader affects the “paths”
between subordinates behavior and goals.
 In a sense, the leader is the Coach who charts out realistic paths for the
team
The leader can affect the paths by:
(i) Recognizing and stimulating subordinates needs for rewards over
which the leader has some control
(ii) Rewarding goal achievement
(iii) Supporting subordinates‟ efforts to achieve the goals.
(iv) Helping reduce frustrating barriers to achieving goals
(v) Increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction for subordinates.
  Basically, the leader attempts to help the subordinates find the best
paths to challenging goals, and to remove stressful barriers along the
way.
 The theory argues that people are satisfied with their work and will work
hard if they believe that their work will lead to things that are highly
valued.
 The theory emphasizes that the managerial behavior should be motivating
or satisfying to the extent that it increases goal attainment by subordinates
and clarifies the paths to these goals.

3.4.5 The Vroom-Yetton Theory; Participation Theory

 Another situational –leadership theory is offered by Vroom and Yetton.
 Their theory attempts to identify the appropriate leadership style for
a given set of circumstances or situations
 It addresses the question of how much subordinates should be allowed
to participate in decision-making
 The Model includes five different degrees of participation
Key: A stands for autocratic; C stands for Consultative; G stands for Group
AI. – The leader makes decision alone with no input form subordinate
A II – The leader obtains the information from subordinates but still makes the decision
alone. He/she may or may not inform them the need for seeking information
CI – The leader shares the situation or problem with selected individuals; getting their
ideas and suggestions but still makes the decision alone; while keeping them
actively involved.
C II – The leader meets with subordinates as a group to discuss the situation; information
is freely shared although the manager still makes the decision.
G II – the leader and subordinates meet as a group and freely share information and
the entire group makes the decision. The leader acts as a chairperson. The
situation that has the entire group support is arrived at and implemented.
3.5 LEADERSHIP STYLES

Definition
 Leadership style can be defined as the consistent pattern of behavior a person
uses in an attempt to influence the behavior and actions of others.
 A particular behavior applied by a leader to motivate his or her subordinates
to achieve the objectives of the organization.
There are three styles of leadership
(i) Autocratic style
(ii) Democratic style
(iii) Laissez Faire: Free Reign

3.5.1 Autocratic leadership style

Also known as authoritative or coercive style

 It is a one man decision does not believe in delegation
 All authority and decision making is centered in the leader
 He makes all decisions, exercises total control by use of rewards, believers that
payment is just a reward for working and the only reward that will motivate
employee.
 Leader demand/unquestionable obedience from the members- orders are issued to
be carried out with no questions, no explanations given “I have said,” “I have
decided.”
 There is use of force and dictatorship – he doesn‟t care about
interpersonal relationships
 The leader has little trust and faith in members
Group Members
 Staff takes no responsibility
- Members have no say in matters that affect their welfare.
- People merely doing what they told they are negative, and indifferent.
 Production is good when leader is present but poor when the leader is absent
 Advantages
 Decisions are implemental very fast.
- Decision making process is fast with the leader at the centre of all activities
 There is high probability of work being finished on time
 Task situations and relationships are clearly defined
 There is immediate feedback. Employees receive direct and immediate
assistance towards achieving their goals. (Immediate feedback)
 Work can be well done due to the fear of the leader e.g. school setting,
teachers and students
Disadvantages
 Employee‟s knowledge, skills and experience are not fully applied to their work
 Suppresses initiative – people have to be told to undertake tasks
 Staff cannot develop their maximum potential
 In the absence of the leader, work may not be finished because every decision is
upon him
 Decision making is one way.
 Breeds problems – e.g. strikes may occur due to the pressures the leader is
exerting on the subordinate/workers
 Lack of efficiency – thus, people will not like their jobs (children may have
phobias for school).
 Workers needs are not taken into consideration, - therefore leading to resentment
and dissatisfaction.

3.5.2 Democratic style

Also known as participative or consultative leadership. This type of leadership

decentralizes power and authority.
 This style of leadership seeks to obtain cooperation of workers in achieving
organizational goals by allowing them to participate in decision making.
 However, it does not relieve the leader of his decision making responsibilities
or of his power over subordinates – it requires that he recognizes subordinates
as capable of contributing positively to decision making.
  Criticism or praise is given objectively
 Decisions are arrived at after consultations with employees
Advantages
 It can improve workers morale by involving them in planning and
decision making.
 It increases the workers job satisfaction by broadening their responsibility
and making their work interesting.
 Leads to decreased dependence on the leader and better acceptance of
decisions since they have made the decisions, they tend to own them
 It uses workers specialist knowledge and skills in achieving objectives
 There is consideration of everyone‟s point of view thus, satisfaction of
the members
 There is atmosphere of freedom in performing duties
 People obey and participate because they are part of the decision making.
Disadvantages
 Decision making process is a slow process because time it taken
consulting workers. “Group think”
 Time consuming
 Lack of close supervision may make the workers complacent
 Diluted decisions due to compromising
 Minor groups‟ views and needs may not be taken into consideration – e.g.
“The voice of reason in popular decisions”.
 Based on popular election – thus a good leader may not be elected due to the
fact that he is not popular

3.5.3 Laissez faire – free reign

 Means “let the people do what they desire”.

 It is a free reign style of leadership – leader gives complete freedom to
the people
 Tends to avoid power and authority
 There are very few regulations
 Leader Characteristic
 He seems to have no confidence in his leadership ability
 Doesn‟t set goals for the group – depends largely on the group to
establish goals and means for achieving them
 Doesn‟t exercise any initiative, the leader is a symbolic figure
Group members
 Decisions are made by whoever in the group is willing to do it
 Productivity is generally poor because of lack of guidance

 Morale and teamwork is generally low.

3.6 Revision Questions


1. Discuss qualities of a good leader

MAJOR CONCEPTS OF AUTHORITY AND POWER

4.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

1. Define the term authority and power
2. Define and analyze types of authority
3. Examine types of power

4.2 Authority

 Refers to the right conferred on administrator of an organization to make

 decision in the course of discharging his duties and responsibilities, to adapt his
or her decisions and if necessary to enforce them.
 Authority can be seen as the right to command respect and enforce obedience
 On the other hand power is the ability to get others to do what one want them
to do despite their resistance.
 Power is the capacity to use force. It has to do with the ability to influence the
subordinates to behave in a certain desired manner .this clearly indicates that
authority has to do with legitimacy and influencing others without coercing them
while power has to do with use of force in order to make others behave in a
certain desired way.

4.3 Types of authority

(i) Legal authority ( formal)

(ii) situational authority
(iii) acceptance theory of authority
(iv) informal ( charismatic) authority
(v) traditional authority
 1) Legal authority

This type of authority has the source in the constitution. The concept of a particular office
assumes the legal authority bestowed on the office. For example, the legal commands of
the head teacher are obeyed because the rules in the T.S.C state that he or she is
competent and authorized by law to issue the social commands. The education act of
1968 gives a particular legal authority to all education officers to perform legal duties in
their profession.
Legal authority is divided into 3 categories.
i) line authority
iii) staff authority
iii) functional authority

2) Line authority

Stems from the policy workers. That is those who we commissioned to come up with
educational policies, for example the Permanent secretary, Ministry of education line
authority allows such leaders to make decisions that may be followed by other
employees of the university or organization.

3) Staff authority

This stem from the officers who implement these policies made by the line officers. These
officers include head teachers, teachers among others.
4) Functional authority

This is delegated authority which is bestowed to individuals for special purposes. For
example a head teacher may delegate tasks to an individual or individuals who are
competent in the school. functional authority is dangerous because whoever is given the
authority or the responsibility to carry out a certain task cannot take full responsibility in
the sense that at the end of the day he/she is accountable to the head teacher.
 5) Situational authority

Sometimes a given situation dictates who will have authority. For example when a head
teacher and his are not in and a student falls in, the teacher in school at that particular
time assumes authority and acts accordingly. The problem in this case arises when the
head teacher refuses to accept the decision taken by the teacher.

6) Acceptance theory of authority

Another way of looking at authority is to see the source as residing with the
subordinates. Although an administrator has legal authority, the subordinates have legal
authority too. Legal authority exists when subordinates obey commands of the superior.
Most subordinates are willing to accept authority of superiors within certain limits that
demakate what has been called the zone of acceptance. Even if subordinates do not like
what they are ordered to do they follow directions up to a certain point . Subordinate
may refuse orders outside his zone of acceptance regardless of the sanctions taken against
him.
Leaders should avoid driving their subordinates to such limits. Because the
repercussions are known to be devastating. It is important for leaders to remember that a
limit group of subordinates can cause a lot of harm if unfairly treated . therefore,
administrators should treat their subordinates well and respect them. The usefulness of
this authority is limited by the fact that those who have it , also have power to coerce and
for thus reason the subordinates may fear and thus\, accept what they are asked to do in
order to avoid any disciplinary action taken upon them.

7) Informal authority (charismatic Authority)

In an organization this is the authority that comes informally from personal qualities or
charisma of an individual. Authority stands from appealing personal characteristics.
Their authority as leader is legitimized through the over whelming devotion to them by
their followers. Charismatic authority in most cases is authoritarian as well as
democratic. Emphasis in informal authority is on people and their relationships whereas
in formal or legal authority emphasis is on position and function. Informal authority is
personal while formal authority is institutional.
8) Traditional authority

This is the authority that emanates from traditional beliefs. Obedience is owed to the
traditionally sectioned position of authority and the person who occupies it inherits the
authority established by past customer. For example, in a school students may accept the
authority and positions of teachers or head teachers because those that were ahead of
them accepted and respected this positions.

4.4 Power

Definition
Max Weber, a German Sociologist defines power as:
The probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry
out his own will despite resistance.
In our earlier discussion we defined power as the ability to get others to do what one want
them to do despite their resistance; power thus refers to a relationship between people in
which one has the ability to coerce others to do something which they would otherwise
not do. Thus power has something to do with forcing others to comply.

Types of power
Two social psychologists John French and Bertan Raven identified five categories of
power namely;
(i) Coercive
(ii) Reward power
(iii) Referent power
(iv) Expert power
(v) Legitimate power
 1) Coercive power

 This refers to the ability to win submission by imposing sufficiently unpleasant or

painful consequences.
 This type of power is based on fear.
 The holder of this power has the ability to punish the other person.
 Such a person is able to exercise coercive power by relying on his physical
strength, verbal facility or the ability to grant or withhold emotional support from
others for example head teachers and other educational administrators have
coercive power since they can dismiss, transfer or demote their subordinates.
 The advantage of coercive power is that it makes people follow rules, directives
or policies of an organization since they fear punishment.
 Much of organization behavior such as prompt attendance, and strict adherence to
rules is mainly attributed to coercive than reward power. Educational administrators
should know when to apply each of them.

2) Reward power (compensatory or remunerative power)

 This is the ability to influence submission by altering something achieved by the

sub-ordinates. It is derived from a person‟s ability to reward another individual.
 Rewards include pay raises, promotions, valued job assignments, feed back,
new equipment and recognition.
 Reward power is negative when those possessing the rewards misuse them by
making the subordinates beg for them when perhaps it is a right for them to have
the rewards.
 Therefore, educational administrators should know that a reward power is only
effective if the subordinates value the rewards. For example, a school principal
who provides his or her staff members with an end of year party when the said
employees think that they need better working conditions; hence not effective
 Reward power often leads to increased job performance since the employees see a
strong performance reward contingency.
3) Referent power

 The word referent comes from the word revere which means to regard
with respectful and effectuate awe.
 This is the ability to win respect by the manner in which one behaves
and carries out his or her duties.
 This power is wielded by a person when he or she has personal qualities,
characteristics or reputation, which others want to be identified with. For
example; pupils respect teachers that behave well likewise teachers
respect head teachers that seem to have self-integrity and a sense of duty.
4) Expert power

This is similar to authority.

 This refers to the legal power that an individual possesses by virtue of his
her position in an organization. A head teacher has legitimate power to
assign duties to the teachers.
 This type power depends on the position that a person holds.
 Legitimate power can be derived from three sources. These include;
- Cultural – for example cultural values, on age sex, education and other factors
which provide certain people with legitimate power
- The accepted social structure for example the one possessed by the ruling class.
- People who are either elected or represent powerful personalities or groups. For
example, chairmen of boards of governors or university councils.

4.5 Sources of power

a) The authority or rights to make certain decisions or give certain orders often
serves as a real source of power, for example power to hire and dismiss
employees, allocate funds and assign duties, administering rewards and
punishments.
 b) Information and communication. Those who have access
to information and have ability to communicate effectively
can often wield considerable power in an organization.
c) The ability to perform in other words to do what people
in the organization and outside it expect and respect.
People usually admire excellent performance and will
allow themselves to be influenced by those whose
performance they admire. For example, a teacher who
teaches excellently.
d) Personal traits can also be a source of personal power. For
example, traits that are possessed by charismatic leaders.
e) Control over valued resources

4.6 Revision Questions


1. Explain the difference between power and authority
2. Giving clear examples, examine types of authority